A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in criminal law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions. A constable is commonly the rank of an officer within the police. Other people may be granted powers of a constable without holding this title.

Etymology

Historically, the title comes from the Latin comes stabuli (attendant to the stables, literally count of the stable) and originated from the Roman Empire; originally, the constable was the officer responsible for keeping the horses of a lord or monarch.

The title was imported to the monarchies of medieval Europe, and in many countries developed into a high military rank and great officer of State (e.g. the Constable of France, in French Connétable de France, who was the commander-in-chief of all royal armed forces (second to the king) until prime minister Cardinal Richelieu abolished the charge in 1627).

Most constables in modern jurisdictions are law enforcement officers. In the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth of Nations and some Continental European countries, a constable is the lowest rank of police officer (it is also, when preceded by the term sworn, used to describe any police officer with arrest and other powers), while in the United States a constable is generally an elected peace officer with lesser jurisdiction than a sheriff; however, in the Channel Islands a constable is an elected office-holder at the parish level.

Historically, a constable could also refer to a castellan, the officer charged with the defence of a castle. Even today, there is a Constable of the Tower of London.

An equivalent position is that of marshal, which derives from Old High German marah (horse) and schalh (servant), and originally meant "stable keeper", which has a similar etymology.

Usage by country and region

Australia

In Australia, as in the United Kingdom, constable is the lowest rank in most police services. It is often categorised into the following (from lowest to highest): probationary constable; constable; constable first class; senior constable; leading senior constable. These variations depend on the individual state/territory police force in question.

Senior constable generally refers to a police officer of the rank above constable, and is denoted by way of two chevrons/stripes.

The New South Wales Police Force has three grades of senior constable, namely senior constable (two chevrons), incremental senior constable (two chevrons and a horizontal bar), and leading senior constable (two chevrons and two horizontal bars). A senior constable is senior to a constable but junior to an incremental senior constable. Promotion to senior constable can occur after a minimum of five years' service (one year as a probationary constable in addition to four years as constable) and then upon passing probity checks and an exam. Incremental senior constable is attained after ten years of service automatically. One is appointed to the rank of leading senior constable on a qualification basis, but must have a minimum of seven years' service amongst other criteria in order to be eligible. Leading senior constable is a specialist position of which there are limited allocated numbers within any section/unit or local area command. If an officer is transferred to another duty type or station, the officer is then relieved of the position of leading senior constable: it is primarily a position for field training officers who oversee the training and development of inexperienced probationary constables or constables.

Within Victoria Police, a senior constable is the rank above a constable, while above a senior constable is a leading senior constable. When first introduced into Victoria Police, the leading senior constable was a classification not a rank, somewhat like "detective"; leading senior constables were appointed specifically to assist in the training and mentoring of more junior members. The last round of wage negotiations, however, saw leading senior constable become a rank in its own right, one that a lot of members will pass through on their way from constable to sergeant, though this is not strictly necessary and it is permissible to be promoted to sergeant direct from senior constable. The general form of address for both senior constable and leading senior constable is "senior", and this is acceptable even in courts.

Canada

In Canada, as in the United Kingdom, constable is the lowest rank in most law enforcement services, including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. In Newfoundland the provincial police are the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary, whereby all officers are addressed by the term "constable".

In addition, the chief officers of some municipal police services in Canada, notably Vancouver Police Department, carry the title of chief constable.

In Canadian French, constable is translated to agent, except in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police where it is translated as gendarme.

Appointments can further be separated into:
 Special constables
 RCMP special constables are appointed for specific skills, for example aboriginal language skills. They are peace officers under the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Act.
 Outside of the RCMP, special constables are not police officers but are appointed to serve certain law enforcement functions, for example SPCA agents or court/jail officers.
 Auxiliary constables, or reserve constables, are volunteers with a policing agency. They generally have peace officer status only when engaged in specific authorized tasks.
 Provincial civil constables (in Nova Scotia) deal with matters of a civil nature.

Denmark

Within the Danish Defence, constables are the lowest rank group. The ranks of ,  and  are used for professional enlisted soldiers, sailors and airmen. However,  is only used within the army, as both the navy and air force use a specialist rank instead.

Finland
In the Finnish Police, the lowest rank of police officer is called nuorempi konstaapeli, translated into English as (junior) constable.

The next rank is vanhempi konstaapeli or senior constable.

The next highest rank (equivalent to a police sergeant in the English-speaking world) is ylikonstaapeli (yli- "leading"), literally "over-constable".

Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Police Force have two ranks for constables:

 Senior constable—lead officer in a beat patrol; SPCs wear a single chevron on their shoulder above their unique identification (UI) number.
 Constable—officer in a beat patrol; PCs wear no insignia other than the unique identification (UI) number.

Senior constable is not a rank: it is merely a designation for officers who have served for 18 years.

India

Police constable (abbreviated PC) is the lowest police rank in India, followed by head constable. General law and order being a state subject in India, each state government recruits police constables. A police constable has no shoulder insignia, while a head constable has one or more stripes or chevrons, depending on the state. In Kerala Police, a Civil Police Officer (abbreviated CPO) rank exists, similar to the Police Constable rank: Kerala State Government has changed the nomenclature of Police Constable rank to Civil Police Officer; similarly, Head Constable rank is known as Senior Civil Police Officer. Since each state has its own police force, the uniforms and insignia of the police vary, though the rank structure is the same. The Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF), under the Ministry of Home Affairs of Government of India, also maintain the same ranks as state police even though their jurisdiction varies considerably, the constables recruited to CAPF having to do duty all over India. Nearly all the police constables wear khaki-coloured uniforms which indicate that they are police personnel.

Generally there are three types of constables in India, depending upon the unit/wing/branch/section they are attached to. Civil police constables are attached to a police station, traffic police constables for control of road traffic, whereas armed police constables are attached to armed police units. The types of constables are based on nature of duties. The Indian police constables do a wide range of duties like patrol, beat system, crime detection, escort of prisoners and VIPs, guarding vital offices and installations, vehicle traffic control on roads, riot control, assisting civil administration during disasters, epidemics and elections as well as other tasks. Generally a police constable does his duty in his jurisdiction area, but can be assigned anywhere by his superiors depending on the situation or need. The duty hours of Indian police constables are erratic, many times without weekly off or leave.

Police recruitment is based on a written test, plus physical and medical tests. After appointment all police constables have to undergo compulsory training; the duration of training may vary from nine months to one year depending on state. The training and duty of police is physically and mentally strenuous in India.

All senior officers are Indian Police Service officers appointed through civil services exam.

Norway
In the Norwegian Police Service the rank  was until 2003 the lowest rank in the police, the next ranks being "politioverkonstabel", "politibetjent", "politiførstebetjent", "politioverbetjent" and "politistasjonssjef", "lensmann" or "sysselmannsoverbetjent" (all officially translated as chief superintendent). In 2003, the ranks "politikonstabel", "politioverkonstabel" and "politibetjent" were renamed "politibetjent 1", "politibetjent 2" and "politibetjent 3", where "politibetjent 1" is the entry-level rank for a policeman and most junior rank of the police service. All ranks higher than chief superintendent are commissioned ranks, known simply as "higher ranks", and traditionally required a law degree.

The Norwegian Police Service has an integrated prosecution service in which the police lawyers, who all hold higher ranks, require the law degree "candidatus/candidata juris" or "Master of Laws" (master i rettsvitenskap), awarded after five or six years of law studies. Following reforms of the police, a law degree is no longer required by law for all higher ranks, although only lawyers can act as prosecutors and supervise criminal investigations, for which reason it is still common for those holding higher ranks to be lawyers. The entry-level rank for a lawyer, junior police prosecutor, outranks the most senior rank for a policeman, chief superintendent, as the former is the most junior of the "higher ranks" whereas the latter is the most senior of the "lower ranks".

The fire brigades (all municipal) still use "konstabel" as in "brannkonstabel" (fire-constable).

In 2016 the Royal Norwegian Navy started using "konstabel" to describe the enlisted ranks in the navy. Other ranks (OR) 2 to 4+ all use the term "konstabel":

 OR 2 Visekonstabel
 OR 3 Ledende Visekonstabel
 OR 4 Konstabel
 OR 4+ Ledende Konstabel

Pakistan
In Pakistan, constable and head constable are, respectively, the lowest and second-lowest ranks in the police force. The police constables in Pakistan do a wide range of duties like patrol, crime detection, escort of prisoners and VIPs, vehicle traffic control on roads, riot control, assisting civil administration during disasters, epidemic, elections and other tasks.

Singapore
In Singapore, a police constable (abbreviated to PC) is the lowest rank in the Singapore Police Force.

The rank of special constable exists, but is centralised under the Volunteer Special Constabulary in Singapore.

Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Police have the rank of "police constable", with four classes.

United Kingdom

There are two main definitions of a constable in the United Kingdom:
The lowest rank of a police force.
A legal term for an officer with the powers of a police officer.
The latter usage is mainly in formal contexts, including legislation such as the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. By this definition all police officers are constables, even those that do not hold the actual rank of constable. The head of most police forces is a chief constable, volunteer officers of any rank are known as special constables, and some police forces have the word "Constabulary" in their name.

United States

In the United States, use of the term constable is inconsistent, and use may even vary within a state. A constable may be an official responsible for service of process, such as summonses and subpoenas for people to appear in court in criminal and/or civil matters; on the other hand, they can be fully empowered law enforcement officers. Constables may also have additional specialized duties unique to the office. In some states, a constable may be appointed by the governor or a judge or magistrate of the court which he or she serves; in others the constable is an elected or appointed position at the state or local level of local government. Their jurisdiction can vary from statewide to county/parish and local township boundaries based on the state's laws.

The office developed from its British counterpart during the colonial period. Prior to the modernization of law enforcement which took place in the mid-19th century, local law enforcement was performed by constables and watchmen. Constables were appointed or elected at the local level for specific terms and, like their UK counterparts the parish constable, were not paid and did not wear a uniform. However, they were often paid a fee by the courts for each writ served and warrant executed. Following the example of the British Metropolitan Police established in 1829, the states gradually enacted laws to permit municipalities to establish police departments. This differed from the UK in that the old system was not uniformly abolished in every state. Often the enacting legislation of the state conferred a police officer with the powers of a constable, the most important of these powers being the common law power of arrest. Police and constables exist concurrently in many jurisdictions. Perhaps because of this, the title "constable" is not used for police of any rank. The lowest rank in a police organization would be officer, deputy, patrolman, trooper and, historically, private, depending on the particular organization.

In many states, constables do not conduct patrols or preventive policing activities. In such states the office is relatively obscure to its citizens.

A constable may be assisted by deputy constables as sworn officers or constable's officers as civil staff, usually as process servers. In some states, villages or towns, an office with similar duties is marshal.

Historical usage

Medieval Armenia and Georgia
The titles of sparapet and spaspet, derived from the ancient Iranian spahbod, were used to designate the supreme commander of the armed forces in the medieval kingdoms of Armenia and Georgia, respectively.

Byzantine Empire
The position of constable originated from the Roman Empire; by the 5th century AD the Count of the Stable () was responsible for the keeping of horses at the imperial court. The West European term "constable" itself was adopted, via the Normans, as konostaulos in the Komnenian and Palaiologan periods, when it became a high military office of dignity.

Late Roman administrative titles were used by Charlemagne in developing his empire; the position of Constable, along with the similar office of Marshal, spread throughout the emerging states of Western Europe during this period. In most medieval nations, the constable was the highest-ranking officer of the army, and was responsible for the overseeing of martial law.

China
Village-level Chinese officialsknown as tingzhang during the Qin and Han dynasties, lizheng, during the Sui and Tang, baozheng during the Song, and dibao and shoubao during the Qingare sometimes translated constable for their functions of reporting crimes and administering local justice, although they also served as tax agents and notaries.

France

The Constable of France (Connétable de France), under the French monarchy, was the First Officer of the Crown of France and was originally responsible for commanding the army. His symbol of office was a longsword held by a hand issuing out of a cloud, a reference to the constable's duty of carrying the king's sword during a coronation ceremony. Some constables were prominent military commanders in the medieval period, such as Bertrand du Guesclin who served from 1370 to 1380.

United Kingdom

The office of the constable was introduced in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066 and was responsible for the keeping and maintenance of the king's armaments and those of the villages as a measure of protecting individual settlements throughout the country. Some authorities place the origins of constables in England earlier, attributing the creation of the office to during the reign of King Alfred (871 A.D.).

The office of Lord High Constable, one of the Great Officers of State, was established in the kingdoms of England and Scotland during the reigns of King Stephen (1135–1154) and King David (1124–1154) respectively, and was responsible for the command of the army. However, the term was also used at the local level within the feudal system, describing an officer appointed to keep order. One of the first descriptions of one of the legal duties of a constable, that of the collation of evidence, comes from Bracton, a jurist writing between 1220 and 1250:
In whatever way they come and on whatever day, it is the duty of the constable to enroll everything in order, for he has record as to the things he sees; but he cannot judge, because there is no judgment at the Tower, since there the third element of a judicial proceeding is lacking, namely a judge and jurisdiction. He has record as to matters of fact, not matters of judgment and law. In Bracton's time, anyone seeing a "misdeed" was empowered to make an arrest. The role of the constable in Bracton's description was as the "eyes and ears" of the court, finding evidence and recording facts on which judges could make a ruling. By extension, the constable was also the "strong arm" of the court (i.e., of the common law), marking the basic role of the constable that continues into the present day.

In 1285, King Edward I of England passed the Statute of Winchester, with provisions which "constituted two constables in every hundred to prevent defaults in towns and [on] highways". Records of their narrower area successors, parish constables, appear in the early 17th century in the records of Buckinghamshire; traditionally they were elected by the parishioners, but from 1617 onwards were typically appointed by justices of the peace (magistrates) in each county.

The system of policing by unpaid parish constables continued in England until the 19th century; in the London metropolitan area it started to be ended with the creation of the Metropolitan Police by the Metropolitan Police Act 1829, and was completely ended by the Metropolitan Police Act 1839. Outside London, the mandatory introduction of county police forces by the County and Borough Police Act 1856, after nearly 20 years of the permissive County Police Act 1839, finally ended parish constables. After 1856, all areas of England and Wales were covered by a police force. The lowest rank of the police forces and constabularies is "constable", and most outside London are headed by a chief constable.

The unique office of 'Parks Constable' was first created when the Liverpool Corporation Act 1921 (Section 221) allowed for their appointment; prior to that a body of constables, whom were attested as special constables, had policed the parks. Specific legislation for the Royal Parks of London continued the unique office of 'Parks Constable'. However, the Royal Parks Constabulary was disbanded in 2001. The Kew Constabulary are sworn in under the same legislation and remain as the holders of the office of Parks Constable. Whilst some local authorities have parks constabularies, their officers are attested as constables, not parks constables.

Other European nations
The position of hereditary constable persists in some current or former monarchies of Europe. The position of Lord High Constable of Scotland is hereditary in the family of the Earl of Erroll. There is also a hereditary constable of Navarre in Spain; this position is currently held by the Duke of Alba.

Historically, many other hereditary constables existed as officers of state in former monarchies. Examples are the Constable of Castile (Condestable de Castilla) and the Constable of Portugal (Condestável do Reino).

See also
 Marshal
 Policing in the United Kingdom
 Policing in the United States
 Sheriff
 Individuals with powers of arrest
 Police
 Chief of police
 Highway patrol
 Constable of Chester

Notes

References

External links

Patrick Colquhoun, A Treatise on the Functions and Duties of a Constable. London: W. Bulmer and Co., 1803.
François Hotman, "Of the Constable and Peers of France," Franco-Gallia: Or, An Account of the Ancient Free State of France, and Most Other Parts of Europe, Before the Loss of Their Liberties.[1574], 2nd ed. 1721 English translation from the original Latin. Project Gutenberg e-text # 17894.

Provincial civil constables in Canada, CMPSNS.com

Law enforcement occupations
Law enforcement occupations in the United Kingdom
Law enforcement titles
Legal professions
Police ranks
Police ranks of Sri Lanka
Police ranks in the United Kingdom
Sheriffs
Constables

Constable


Robert Wayne McCollum Jr. (January 29, 1925 – September 13, 2010) was an American virologist and epidemiologist who made pioneering studies into the nature and spread of polio, hepatitis and mononucleosis while at the Yale School of Medicine, after which he served for nearly a decade as Dean of the Dartmouth Medical School.

Early life and education
McCollum was born on January 29, 1925, in Waco, Texas, and earned his undergraduate degree there in 1945 from Baylor University. He received his medical training at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, graduating in 1948. He did internships at NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital in pathology and at Vanderbilt University Hospital in internal medicine and completed a residency in internal medicine at Yale – New Haven Hospital and began his career as a research assistant in preventive medicine at Yale University.

Medical research
Working together with Dr. Dorothy M. Horstmann, McCollum isolated poliovirus in blood samples taken from those afflicted with the disease and from their family members, verifying that the virus was present in the bloodstream before it entered the spinal cord and caused paralysis. This discovery set the stage for the development of the polio vaccine.

McCollum was a captain in the United States Army Medical Corps during the Korean War studying hemorrhagic fever at a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital, serving from 1952 to 1954.

Attending the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, McCollum earned a doctorate in public health in 1958. Back at Yale, McCollum and Dr. Saul Krugman performed studies at Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York City, involving ethically dubious human experimentation on mentally disabled children. They found that a form of hepatitis was spread through blood transfusions and that transmission of serum hepatitis (now known as hepatitis B) could be blocked using gamma globulin. New York State Senator Seymour R. Thaler had raised ethical issues in the 1960s and had been an outspoken critic of how the Willowbrook studies were conducted and how mentally handicapped children had been used, but in 1971 stated that he was satisfied that the hepatitis research had been performed properly. McCollum found increased hepatitis risk in using the blood of paid donors. Other research isolated Epstein-Barr virus as one of the causes of infectious mononucleosis. McCollum was appointed Chairman of Epidemiology and Public Health in 1969.

McCollum was named dean of the Dartmouth Medical School and Professor of Community and Family Medicine in 1982, where funding for research, new endowed faculty positions and Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center in Lebanon, New Hampshire were developed during his tenure. He stepped down as dean in 1990, but continued to teach until 1995.

McCollum died at age 85 on September 13, 2010, at his home in Etna, New Hampshire due to heart failure. He was survived by his wife, the former Audrey Talmage, as well as by a daughter, Cynthia, a son, Douglas and two grandchildren, Justin and Zachary.

References

1925 births
2010 deaths
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
American virologists
Baylor University alumni
Geisel School of Medicine faculty
American public health doctors
Johns Hopkins University alumni
People from Hanover, New Hampshire
People from Waco, Texas
Yale School of Medicine faculty
United States Army Medical Corps officers
Military personnel from Texas

Robert W. McCollum


San Basilio is the main Roman Catholic church, or chiesa madre (mother church), of the town of Regalbuto, province of Enna, region of Sicily, Italy. It is located in the central plaza.

History
A church at the site was present by the 16th-century, but the present church was rebuilt in the 18th-century, completed in 1764. The rich Baroque facade of the church clashes with the more sober and neoclassical square bell-tower to the right. The church facade recalls the style of Rosario Gagliardi.

Unusual for churches in Sicily, the interior consists of a single nave with lateral chapels flanked by broad pilasters. The chapels have elaborate polychrome marble altars. The interior has an elegantly decorated and gilded stucco decoration. The apse has wooden choir stalls and is backed by a tall organ.

References

Churches in the province of Enna
18th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Regalbuto

Chiesa Madre San Basilio, Regalbuto


Hardman & Co., otherwise John Hardman Trading Co., Ltd., founded 1838, began manufacturing stained glass in 1844 and became one of the world's leading manufacturers of stained glass and ecclesiastical fittings. The business closed in 2008.

History

John Hardman senior, (1766–1844), of Handsworth, then in Staffordshire, England (and now part of Birmingham), was the head of a family business designing and manufacturing metalwork. He was described as the "opulent button maker and medallist".
In the 1830s Augustus Welby Pugin was commissioned by the Roman Catholic Bishop, Thomas Walsh, to design a suitable church to house the remains of St Chad, which had been rescued from destruction at Lichfield Cathedral during the Reformation. When the building was consecrated in 1841 as Saint Chad's Cathedral, it was the first Roman Catholic cathedral to be built in England since the Reformation. For the recently converted Catholic, Pugin, this was a commission of great importance.

Pugin first had contact with the John Hardmans during the construction of St Chad's Chapel, the forerunner to the cathedral scheme. John Hardman junior, (1812–67), left the family business in 1838 and set up on his own to manufacture ecclesiastical metalwork. Pugin employed Hardman's to provide metalwork for St Chad's Cathedral. Hardman was an enthusiastic donor, giving the rood screen to the cathedral and being recognised for his provision to various charities by the gift of the Hardman Chantry in which John Hardman senior was interred in 1844, and which remained the family burial place.

From 1845, at the urging of Pugin, John Hardman entered the burgeoning industry of stained glass manufacture. He was joined by his nephew, John Hardman Powell (1827–95) who married Pugin's daughter Anne in 1850, and claimed to be Pugin's only pupil. Powell became the chief designer from about 1849, prior to Pugin's death in 1852. The company took part in the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, exhibiting the great chandelier designed for Alton Towers.

Hardman and Powell collaborated with A. W. Pugin's son, E. W. Pugin, firstly in the design of the funeral arrangements of John Talbot, 16th Earl of Shrewsbury in November 1852. The collaboration between the Hardman firm and the Pugins was to continue after E. W. Pugin's death in 1875 with the later firm, Pugin & Pugin. This collaboration lasted for three generations and was a major influence on Catholic church architecture and decoration in particular and the Gothic Revival in general.

Under the management of J.H. Powell the metalwork design department split from the stained glass department in 1883 and traded under the name Hardman, Powell and Co. Powell died in 1895, passing the leadership of the firm to John Bernard Hardman, the grandson of John Hardman Snr, who headed the company until 1903 and took the firm to the Exposition Universelle, Paris. The firm continued producing stained glass in the 21st century under directorship of Donald Taunton and Patrick A. Feeny until the 1970s, and had premises at 26 Frederick Street in the Jewellery Quarter, Birmingham, Newhall Hill and Lightwoods House. A large proportion of the Hardman archive, particularly their Medieval Room, was damaged and destroyed in a fire at the Newhall Hill studio in 1970; some of the earliest and most damaged cartoons are now held in temperature controlled storage at Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery. Hardman acquired the stained glass manufacturer Goddard & Gibbs in 2006, but two years later, in 2008, the business closed.

Design

Gothic Revival

Through the influence of A.W.Pugin, John Ruskin, and the Oxford Movement, it was considered during the mid-19th century that the only appropriate style in which a church should be built was Gothic.  This fashion was combined with a general renewal within the church and a growth of Roman Catholicism.  The result was that many designers in different fields tried to imitate the Medieval style in their work.  This was particularly the case in the stained glass industry.

Pugin, who supplied the first designs for Hardmans, was thoroughly absorbed in the Medieval and was a designer of the highest order.  He produced designs of every description- churches, windows, furniture, vestments, vessels, tiles, jewellery and, for the interiors of the Houses of Parliament, Gothic thrones, Gothic hat-stands and Gothic ashtrays.  With his busy regime, he increasingly relied upon his talented son-in-law, Powell, to provide the designs for stained glass.

The firm had many subcontractors and designers who are not well-known but produced exceptional work under the Hardman name. For example, the Pippet family of Solihull, William John Wainwright and R.J. Hopkins.

John Hardman Powell
Powell's stained glass recreates the elegance, the refinement, the brevity that is seen in some of the finest examples of glass, sculpture and illumination of the 13th and 14th centuries.  He utilised the flowing, curving lines, the flourish of drapery, the calligraphic brushstrokes and pure colour.  However, Powell's work was not, like many stained glass designers, merely imitative.  His designs are original innovations in the Gothic style.  The quality of Hardman's church windows, particularly in the 1850s and 1860s, was superb.

Major commissions

The most famous building that the Hardmans made glass for was the new Houses of Parliament in London, for which Pugin was the interior designer.  Pugin employed the Scottish firm of Ballantine and Allen to manufacture the windows that he designed for the House of Lords, but all the rest were made by Hardmans, who have maintained their relationship with that building, repairing and replacing glass damaged or destroyed during World War II.

Apart from the windows created for Pugin's churches in England and Ireland, two of Hardman's major commissions were to come from Australia.  In the 1860s the architect Edmund Blacket commissioned Hardmans to supply 27 windows, including a 6-light West window and a 7-light East window for St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney.  They were installed for the consecration in 1868.

In the 1880s William Wardell selected the same firm to provide windows for St. Mary's R.C. Cathedral in the same city.  This building, of which the nave was not completed until the 1930s, is very much larger than St Andrew's and has three large rose windows and an enormous East window, the tracery of which was based directly on that of Lincoln Cathedral, c.1280.  The design of this huge window, depicting the Coronation of the Blessed Virgin Mary is one of the pinnacles of achievement in Gothic Revival stained glass.

Buildings with glass by Hardmans

England
 St. Nicholas' Church, Newbury, Berkshire
 Sandhurst Royal Memorial Chapel, Sandhurst, Berkshire
 St. Michael and All Angels' Church, Sandhurst, Berkshire
 St. Paul's Church, Wokingham, Berkshire
 St Pauls' Church, Clifton, Bristol
 St. Mary's Church, St Neots, Cambridgeshire
 Our Lady and St. Wilfrid's Church, Warwick Bridge, Cumbria
 St. Hieritha's Church, Chittlehampton, Devon
 Wynard's Chapel, Exeter, Devon
 Holy Trinity Church, Ilfracombe, Devon
 Gloucester Cathedral, Gloucester, Gloucestershire
 St. Peter's Church, Gloucester, Gloucestershire
 Tewkesbury Abbey, Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire
 St. Michael the Archangel's Church, Felton, Herefordshire
 St. Margaret's Church, Halstead, Kent
 St. Catherine's Church, Kingsdown, Kent
 Our Lady and St. Hubert's Catholic Church, Great Harwood, Lancashire
 St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Algakirk, Lincolnshire
 St. Nicholas' Church, Lincoln, Lincolnshire
 Our Ladye Star of the Sea Church, Greenwich, London
 St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church, Woolwich, London
 St. James' Church, Heywood, Greater Manchester
 St. Margaret's Church, Clenchwarton, Norfolk
 All Saints' Church, Dickleburgh, Norfolk
 St. Andrew's Church, Framingham Pigot, Norfolk
 St. John the Baptist Cathedral, Norwich, Norfolk
 Holy Cross Church, Byfield, Northamptonshire
 All Saints' Church, Dunsden Green, Oxfordshire
 St. Lawrence's Church, North Hinksey, Oxfordshire
 St. Michael and St. James' Church, Haunton, Staffordshire
 Cranleigh School Chapel, Cranleigh, Surrey
 St Nicolas Church, Cranleigh, Surrey
 [[St Mary Magdalen's Church,

Brighton|St. Mary Magdalen's Church]], Brighton, East Sussex
 Arundel Cathedral, Arundel, West Sussex
 Arundel Castle, Arundel, West Sussex
 St. Joseph's Roman Catholic Church, Avon Dassett, Warwickshire
 St. Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham, Warwickshire
 St. Augustine's Church, Edgbaston, Warwickshire
 St. Mary Magdalene's Church, Great Alne, Warwickshire
 St. Cyprian's Church, Hay Mills, Warwickshire
 All Saints' Church, Ladbroke, Warwickshire
 St. Laurence's Church, Northfield, Warwickshire
 St. Mary's Church, Selly Oak, Warwickshire
 Worcester Cathedral, Worcester, Worcestershire
 St. Agatha's Church, Gilling West, North Yorkshire
 St. Mary and St. Romuald's Church, Yarm, North Yorkshire
 Church of St. Nicholas, High Bradfield, South Yorkshire
 All Souls' Church, Halifax, West Yorkshire
 Meanwood Towers, Meanwood, West Yorkshire

Northern Ireland
 St. Patrick and St. Colman's Cathedral, Newry, County Armagh

Scotland
 St. Patrick's Church, Anderston, Lanarkshire

Australia
 Sacred Heart Convent Chapel, Ballarat, Victoria
 St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney, New South Wales
 St. Edward's Catholic Church, Canowindra, New South Wales
 St. Francis Xavier's Cathedral, Geraldton, Western Australia
 St. Mary's Cathedral, Sydney, New South Wales
 St. Patrick's Cathedral, Ballarat, Victoria
 St. Stanislaus' College Bathurst, Bathurst, New South Wales.

United States of America
 St. Peter Chanel Catholic Church, Roswell, Georgia
 Grace and St. Peter's Church, Baltimore, Maryland

See also

 Mary Juliana Hardman

Other early 19th-century firms
 Thomas Willement
 William Warrington
 Charles Edmund Clutterbuck
 William Wailes
 Augustus Welby Pugin

Context
 Stained glass
 British and Irish stained glass (1811–1918)
 Victorian era
 Gothic Revival
 Poor Man's Bible

References
Notes

Bibliography
 John Hardman Trading Co.,Ltd.,
Roderick O'Donnell, The Pugins and the Catholic Midlands, Gracewing, Archdiocese of Birmingham Historical Commission, 2002
 Elizabeth Morris, Stained and Decorative Glass, Doubleday,
 Sarah Brown,  Stained Glass : an Illustrated History, Bracken Books,
 Simon Jenkins, England's Thousand Best Churches, Allen Lane, the Penguin Press,
 John Harvey, English Cathedrals, Batsford, 1961, ISBN unknown
 Robert Eberhard, Church Stained Glass Windows,
 Cliff and Monica Robinson, Buckinghamshire Stained Glass,
 Mathé Shepheard, The Stained Glass of John Hardman and Company under the leadership of John Hardman Powell from 1867 to 1895,
 Bill Covington, 'J.A Pippet and Hardman, Powell & Company', True Principles, vol. 2 No. 3, 2001
 Michael J. Fisher, "Hardman of Birmingham; Goldsmith and Glasspainter", Landmark Publishing. 2008,
 Michael J. Fisher, "Guarding the Pugin Flame - John Hardman Powell 1827-1895", Spire Books 2017

External links

British stained glass artists and manufacturers
Glassmaking companies of England
Companies established in 1838
Defunct companies based in Birmingham, West Midlands
Manufacturing companies based in Birmingham, West Midlands
1838 establishments in England

Hardman & Co.


The Government Cable Office in Seward, Alaska, United States, is a historic building that served as a telegraph office that connected Seward with communications in the rest of the United States.

The cable office was constructed in 1905 by the U.S. Army Signal Corps as part of the Washington–Alaska Military Cable and Telegraph System (WAMCATS). Telegraph service from the lower states first connected to Valdez, Alaska. In summer 1905, submarine cable was extended from Valdez to Seward.

The first message over the line was to A. C. Frost, president of the Alaska Central Railway, who was in Chicago: "This first message transmitted over Alaska Cable connects Seward from this day to the great city of Chicago." Among initial regular users of the telegraph line was the local newspaper, the Seward Daily Gateway. In August 1905, owner Frank Ballaine began featuring the previous day's news from the Coterminous United States in his paper. Before the telegraph line, outside news arrived via steam ship days or weeks later.

The office was operated by Army personnel. The front room of the building was open to the public who could send and receive messages. The central part of the ground floor served as the operator's station, while workers lived on the second floor. Service continued until an earthquake severed the line in 1934. By that time, radio communication had been established by the Navy and the telegraph line was not replaced. The government retained ownership until 1961. Since then, the building has served as a private residence and rented apartments.

The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska

References

1905 establishments in Alaska
Communications in Alaska
Government buildings completed in 1905
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Alaska
Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska
Office buildings in Alaska
Pre-statehood history of Alaska
Buildings and structures in Seward, Alaska
Telecommunications buildings on the National Register of Historic Places

Government Cable Office


Imagine: John Lennon is a soundtrack album of popular music compiled for the 1988 documentary film Imagine: John Lennon from songs written or co-written by John Lennon. Originally released that year as a double album, it now remains available on one CD.

Bridging his two musical phases together, as a member of the Beatles and a solo artist (similar to George Harrison's earlier The Best of George Harrison), Imagine: John Lennon is a career-spanning collection of Lennon's many musical highlights.  In addition there are a couple of heretofore unreleased recordings: an acoustic demo of "Real Love" taped in 1979 (an alternative recording of which would be finished by The Beatles for 1996's Anthology 2) and a rehearsal take of "Imagine" in mid-1971 before the final take was captured. It also features for the first time a clean-intro version of "A Day in the Life", that would appear later on the CD release of The Beatles' 1967–1970 compilation.

Imagine: John Lennon, with its wealth of stock Lennon footage and self-narration, proved to be a well-received film and its soundtrack sold well in the United States, reaching No. 31 and going gold.  In the United Kingdom, the album peaked at No. 64.

The project arrived at a timely juncture and was successful in thwarting the then-released The Lives of John Lennon by Albert Goldman, a controversial and reputation-tarnishing book which many dismissed as fiction, including Ono and Lennon's close friends, as well as the surviving Beatles.

Track listing
All songs by John Lennon, except where noted.

Tracks 2–10 produced by George Martin.
Track 11 produced by Lennon and Yoko Ono.
Tracks 12–14, 17 & 21 produced by Lennon, Ono and Phil Spector.
Track 15 produced by Ono.
Track 16 produced by Lennon.
Tracks 18–20 produced by Lennon, Ono and Jack Douglas.

"Real Love" – 2:48
 October 1979 demo recording; another demo of this song would eventually be re-recorded by the Beatles in 1995
"Twist and Shout" (Medley/Russell) – 2:33
 Originally appeared on The Beatles' 1963 debut album Please Please Me
"Help!" (Lennon/Paul McCartney) – 2:18
 Originally appeared on The Beatles' 1965 album Help!
"In My Life" (Lennon–McCartney) – 2:25
 Originally appeared on The Beatles' 1965 album Rubber Soul
"Strawberry Fields Forever" (Lennon–McCartney) – 4:07
 Originally appeared as a single in 1967 by The Beatles and later released on their 1967 album Magical Mystery Tour
"A Day in the Life" (Lennon–McCartney) – 5:06
 Originally appeared on The Beatles' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
"Revolution" (Lennon–McCartney) – 3:24
 Originally appeared as the single B-Side of "Hey Jude" in 1968 by The Beatles
"The Ballad of John and Yoko" (Lennon–McCartney) – 2:58
 Originally appeared as a single in 1969 by The Beatles
"Julia" (Lennon–McCartney) – 2:54
 Originally appeared on The Beatles' 1968 album The Beatles
"Don't Let Me Down" (Lennon–McCartney) – 3:34
 Originally appeared as the single B-Side of "Get Back" in 1969 by The Beatles
"Give Peace a Chance" – 4:53
 Originally released as a single in 1969. It was also originally credited to Lennon–McCartney, but the credit was revised in the 1990s to cite only John Lennon as its composer
"How?" – 3:41
 Originally appeared on the 1971 album Imagine
"Imagine (Rehearsal)" – 1:25
 A 1 minute demonstration of the song to the session musicians
"God" – 4:09
 Originally appeared on the 1970 album John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band
"Mother" – 4:45
 This 1972 live performance of "Mother" originally appeared on the 1986 album Live In New York City
"Stand by Me" (Ben E. King, Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) – 3:28
 Originally appeared on the 1975 album Rock 'n' Roll
"Jealous Guy" – 4:14
 Originally appeared on the 1971 album Imagine
"Woman" – 3:33
"Beautiful Boy (Darling Boy)" – 4:05
"(Just Like) Starting Over" – 3:59
 Tracks 18–20 originally appeared on the 1980 album Double Fantasy
"Imagine" – 3:02
 Originally appeared on the 1971 album Imagine

Other songs in the film
"Be-Bop-A-Lula"
Medley: "Rip It Up"/"Ready Teddy"
 Both originally appeared on the 1975 album Rock 'n' Roll
"Some Other Guy"
 At the time of the film was released it was officially unavailable, and appeared later on The Beatles' 1994 album Live at the BBC
"Love Me Do"
 Originally appeared in 1962 as The Beatles' first single
"From Me to You"
 Originally appeared in 1963 as The Beatles' third single
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
 Originally appeared on The Beatles' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
"Oh Yoko!"
"How Do You Sleep?"
 Both originally appeared on the 1971 album Imagine
"Everybody Had a Hard Year"
 An early and officially unreleased version of the song that later was part of The Beatles' song I've Got a Feeling
"I've Got a Feeling"
"Across the Universe"
 Both originally appeared on The Beatles' 1970 album Let It Be
"Come Together"
 This 1972 live performance of "Come Together" originally appeared on the 1986 album Live In New York City
"Hold On"
 Originally appeared on the 1970 album John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band
"All You Need Is Love"
 Originally appeared as a single in 1967 by The Beatles and later released on their 1967 album Magical Mystery Tour

Certifications

References

Soundtracks published posthumously
Albums produced by Jack Douglas (record producer)
John Lennon compilation albums
1988 compilation albums
1988 soundtrack albums
Documentary film soundtracks
Capitol Records compilation albums
Parlophone soundtracks
Capitol Records soundtracks
Parlophone compilation albums
Rock compilation albums
Rock soundtracks
EMI Records soundtracks
EMI Records compilation albums
Compilation albums published posthumously
Albums recorded at Apple Studios
Albums produced by Phil Spector
Albums produced by John Lennon
Albums produced by Yoko Ono
Albums produced by George Martin

Imagine: John Lennon (soundtrack)


José Videla Castillo (1792 - June 1832) was an Argentine military officer who fought in his country's war of independence and later in the Argentine Civil Wars on the Unitarian side.

Biography

José Videla del Castillo was born in Mendoza, Argentina in 1792.
He joined the Army of the Andes and participated in the battles of Battle of Chacabuco, Cancha Rayada and Maipú.
He was a captain in the Peruvian campaign to Peru, fought in the Battle of Cerro de Pasco and was decorated for the defense of the city of Lima.
He spent a few months as a prisoner of the Royalist party, then fought in the Battle of Ayacucho.

Castillo participated in the war against Brazil in the regiment of José María Paz, fighting in the Battle of Ituzaingó.
He later joined the invasion by Paz of Córdoba Province in 1829, and fought at San Roque, La Tablada and Oncativo.

After this last battle, Paz sent Castillo to his home province of Mendoza to overthrow the government of Juan Rege Corvalán, a Federalist ally of Facundo Quiroga. In early April 1830 he entered Mendoza, where he held a "town meeting" consisting exclusively of Unitarians that elected Tomás Godoy Cruz as acting governor.
After elections to form a new legislature, he had himself elected governor on 30 April 1830.
He remained in charge of the military, but he let Tomás Godoy Cruz take all political and administrative decisions as his minister.
He spent most of the time in the barracks outside the city.

In mid-January 1831 Castillo received the news that General Quiroga was coming to attack him from San Luis Province.
Quiroga was supposed to have been permanently defeated at Oncativo.
He left hurriedly to deal with the threat, but his troops were destroyed by Quiroga in the Battle of Rodeo de Chacón on 28 March 1831.
Castillo managed to flee to join forces with Paz, who was facing Federalist attack by Estanislao López.

After Paz was captured, the army led by Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid retreated to Tucumán Province. They faced Quiroga again in the Battle of La Ciudadela, where he was the head of the Unitarian infantry. After the defeat, he went into exile in Bolivia.
He dedicated himself to the production of coffee, sugar and pepper in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, but a fire destroyed his property, causing him severe depression.
He died in Sucre in June 1832.

References
Citations

Sources

1792 births
1832 deaths
Argentine Army officers

José Videla Castillo


Heinrich Schütz (; 6 November 1672) was a German early Baroque composer and organist, generally regarded as the most important German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach, as well as one of the most important composers of the 17th century. He is credited with bringing the Italian style to Germany and continuing its evolution from the Renaissance into the Early Baroque. Most of his surviving music was written for the Lutheran church, primarily for the Electoral Chapel in Dresden. He wrote what is traditionally considered the first German opera, Dafne, performed at Torgau in 1627, the music of which has since been lost, along with nearly all of his ceremonial and theatrical scores. Schütz was a prolific composer, with more than 500 surviving works.

He is commemorated as a musician in the Calendar of Saints of some North American Lutheran churches on 28 July with Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel.

Early life

Schütz was born in Köstritz, the eldest son of Christoph Schütz and Euphrosyne Bieger.

In 1590 the family moved to Weißenfels, where his father managed the inn "Zum güldenen Ring". His father eventually served as burgomaster in Weißenfels, and in 1615 purchased another inn known as both "Zur güldenen Sackpfeife" and "Zum güldenen Esel", which he renamed "Zum Schützen".

While Schütz was living with his parents, his musical talents were discovered by Landgrave Moritz von Hessen-Kassel in 1598 during an overnight stay in Christoph Schütz's inn. Upon hearing young Heinrich sing, the landgrave requested that his parents allow the boy to be sent to his noble court for further education and instruction. His parents initially resisted the offer, but after much correspondence they took Heinrich to the landgrave's seat at Kassel in August 1599.

After being a choirboy, Schütz studied law at Marburg before going to Venice from 1609 to 1612 to study music with Giovanni Gabrieli. Gabrieli is the only person Schütz ever called his teacher. He inherited a ring from Gabrieli shortly before the latter's death. He was subsequently organist at Kassel from 1613 to 1615.

Dresden (1615–1672)
After a prolonged negotiation between the landgrave and the elector, Schütz moved to Dresden in 1615 to work as court composer to the Elector of Saxony. In 1619 Schütz married Magdalena Wildeck (born 1601). She bore two daughters before her death in 1625: Anna Justina in 1621 and Euphrosyne in 1623.

In Dresden Schütz sowed the seeds of what is now the Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden, but left there on several occasions; in 1628 he went to Venice again, where he may have met Claudio Monteverdi. In 1633 he was invited to Copenhagen to compose the music for wedding festivities there, returning to Dresden in 1635. He again conducted an extended visit to Denmark in 1641, due to the devastation of the Electoral court. The Thirty Years' War ended in 1648, and he again became more active in Dresden. In 1655, the year his daughter Euphrosyne died, he accepted an ex officio post as Kapellmeister at Wolfenbüttel.

Schütz's Dresden compositions during the Thirty Years' War were, by necessity of the times, smaller-scale than the often massive earlier works; this period produced much of his most charming music. After the war, Schütz again wrote larger-scale compositions culminating in the 1660s, when he composed the greatest Passionmusic before Bach.

Schütz moved back to Weißenfels, in a retirement he had to beg for, to live with his sister (the house is now a museum of his life), but the Electoral Court often called him back to Dresden. He died in Dresden of a stroke in 1672 at age 87. He was buried in the old Dresden Frauenkirche, but his tomb was destroyed in 1727 when the church was torn down to build the new Dresden Frauenkirche. (His longtime house on the same square has been reconstructed in the same style and is an apartment building with hotel rooms and a restaurant.)

His pupils included Heinrich Albert, Christoph Bernhard, Anton Colander, Constantin Christian Dedekind, Carlo Farina, Johann Wilhelm Furchheim, Johann Kaspar Horn, Caspar Kittel, Christoph Kittel, Johann Klemm, Adam Krieger, Johann Jakob Loewe (or Löwe), Johann Nauwach, David Pohle, Philipp Stolle, Johann Theile, Clemens Thieme, Johann Vierdanck, Matthias Weckmann, Friedrich Werner, and Friedrich von Westhoff. ()

Style
Schütz's compositions show the influence of Gabrieli (most notably in Schütz's use of polychoral and concertato styles) and Monteverdi. The influence of the Netherlandish composers of the 16th century is also prominent in his work. His best-known works are sacred, ranging from solo voice with instrumental accompaniment to a cappella choral music. Representative works include his Psalmen Davids (Psalms of David, Opus 2), Cantiones sacrae (Opus 4), three books of Symphoniae sacrae, Die sieben Worte Jesu Christi am Kreuz (The seven words of Jesus Christ on the Cross), three Passion settings, and the Christmas Story. Schütz's music, while in the most progressive styles early in his career, eventually grew simple and almost austere, culminating in his late Passion settings. Practical considerations were certainly responsible for part of this change: the Thirty Years' War devastated Germany's musical infrastructure, and it was no longer practical or even possible to put on the gigantic works in the Venetian style of his earlier period.

Schütz's composition "Es steh Gott auf" (SWV 356) is in many respects comparable to Monteverdi. His funeral music "Musikalische Exequien" (1636) for his noble friend Heinrich Posthumus of Reuss is considered a masterpiece, and is known today as the first German Requiem. Schütz was equally fluent in Latin and Germanic styles.

Schütz was one of the last composers to write in a modal style. His harmonies often result from the contrapuntal alignment of voices rather than from any sense of "harmonic motion"; contrastingly, much of his music shows a strong tonal pull when approaching cadences. His music includes a great deal of imitation, but structured in such a way that the successive voices do not necessarily enter after the same number of beats or at predictable intervallic distances. This contrasts sharply with the manner of his contemporary Johann Hermann Schein and Samuel Scheidt, whose counterpoint usually flows in regularly spaced entries. Schütz's writing often includes intense dissonances caused by the contrapuntal motion of voices moving in correct individual linear motion but resulting in startling harmonies. Above all, his music displays extreme sensitivity to the accents and meaning of the text, which is often conveyed using special technical figures drawn from musica poetica, themselves drawn from or created in analogy to the verbal figures of classical rhetoric. As noted above, Schütz's style became simpler in his later works, which make less frequent use of the kind of distantly related chords and licences found in such pieces as "Was hast du verwirket" (SWV 307) from Kleine geistliche Konzerte II.

Beyond the early book of madrigals, almost no secular music by Schütz has survived, save for a few domestic songs (arien) and occasional commemorative items (such as Wie wenn der Adler sich aus seiner Klippe schwingt (SWV 434), and no purely instrumental music at all (unless one counts the short instrumental movement, "sinfonia", that encloses the dialogue of Die sieben Worte), even though he had a reputation as one of Germany's finest organists.

Schütz was of great importance in bringing new musical ideas to Germany from Italy, and thus had a large influence on the German music which was to follow. The style of the North German organ school derives largely from Schütz (as well as from the Dutchman Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck); a century later this music culminated in the work of J.S. Bach. After Bach, the most important composers Schütz influenced were Anton Webern and Brahms, who studied his work.

Works

The following are major published works; most of these contain multiple pieces of music; single published works are also listed in the complete work list, including major works such as the Seven Last Words, and the Passions (according to Matthew, Luke, and John). Over 500 individual pieces by Schütz survive.

 Il primo libro de madrigali (first book of madrigals) (opus 1, Venice, 1611)
 Psalmen Davids (Book 1) (opus 2, Dresden, 1619)
 Historia der ... Aufferstehung ... (The Resurrection) (opus 3, Dresden, 1623)
 Cantiones sacrae (opus 4, Freiberg, 1625)
 Becker Psalter (opus 5, Freiberg, 1628, revised 1661)
 Symphoniae sacrae (Book 1) (opus 6, Venice, 1629)
 Musikalische Exequien (opus 7, Dresden, 1636)
 Kleine geistliche Konzerte (Book 1) (opus 8, Leipzig, 1636)
 Kleine geistliche Konzerte (Book 2) (opus 9, Leipzig, 1639)
 Symphoniae sacrae (Book 2) (opus 10, Dresden, 1647)
 Geistliche Chor-Music (opus 11, Dresden, 1648)
 Symphoniae sacrae (Book 3) (opus 12, Dresden, 1650)
 Zwölf geistliche Gesänge (opus 13, Dresden, 1657)
 Historia der ... Geburt ... Jesu Christi (Christmas Story; Dresden, 1664)
 Lukas-Passion (The Passion According to St. Luke) (Dresden, 1665)
 Johannes-Passion (The Passion According to St. John) (Dresden, 1666)
 Matthäus-Passion (The Passion According to St. Matthew) (Dresden, 1666)
 Königs und Propheten 119er Psalm ... (Psalm 119, Psalm 100, and German Magnificat: "Swan Song") (opus ultimum, Dresden, 1671)

Citations

General sources
 Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era.  New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1947.
 Wolfram Steude, "Zum gegenwärtigen Stand der Schütz-Ikonographie," in Schütz-Jahrbuch 1985/86. Kassel, Bärenreiter, 1986, .
 Basil Smallman, Heinrich Schütz, The Master Musicians, 2000.
 Tamsin (née T.D.) Jones, Passions in Perspective: An Analytical Discussion of the Three Passions of Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672) Against Their Historical and Stylistic Backgrounds (PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 2000)
 Heinrich Schütz: Geistliche Chor-Music, Op. 11. Edited by Andrew Thomas Kuster. Ann Arbor, MI, 2005. .

Further reading
 Hoffer, Brandi (2012). "Sacred German Music in the Thirty Years' War", Musical Offerings, Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 1.
 Moser, Hans Joachim (1936, 2nd edition English translation by Carl F. Pfatteicher, 1959) Heinrich Schütz: His Life and Work 739 pp. Concordia, St. Louis, Original Bärenreiter, Kassel

External links

 Germany Fed. Rep. 1972 stamp devoted to Heinrich Schütz

1585 births
1672 deaths
17th-century classical composers
17th-century German people
Classical composers of church music
German Baroque composers
German classical organists
German male classical composers
German opera composers
Madrigal composers
Male opera composers
German male organists
Musicians from Dresden
People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar
People from Greiz (district)
Pupils of Giovanni Gabrieli
17th-century male musicians
Male classical organists

Heinrich Schütz


Vitamin K is a vitamin which is soluble in fat. It is probably best known for its role in the coagulation (clotting) of blood. However, it also serves other important functions in the body.

Vitamin K was discovered by a Danish chemist named Henrik Dam. He won the 1943 Nobel Prize in  Physiology or Medicine for discovering its key role in the coagulation of blood. Since that time, Vitamin K's role in other physiologic functions has become known. One of the most important is its role in controlling where calcium goes in the body.

Without Vitamin K, there would be a loss of blood when a person bleeds, which can lead to unconsciousness or even death. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.

References

Fat-soluble vitamins

Vitamin K


The Kam people (Kam: , ), officially known in China as Dong people (), are a Kam–Sui people and one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They live mostly in eastern Guizhou, western Hunan and northern Guangxi. Small pockets of Kam speakers are found in Tuyên Quang Province in Vietnam.

They are famed for their native-bred Kam Sweet Rice (), carpentry skills and unique architecture, in particular a form of covered bridge known as the "wind and rain bridge" (). The Kam people call themselves Kam, Geml, Jeml or Gaeml.

History
The Kam are thought to be the modern-day descendants of the ancient Rau peoples who occupied much of southern China. Kam legends generally maintain that the ancestors of the Kam migrated from the east. According to the migration legends of the Southern Kam people, their ancestors came from Guangzhou, Guangdong and Wuzhou, Guangxi. The Northern Kam maintain that their ancestors fled Zhejiang and Fujian because of locust swarms. Some scholars (mainly Chinese) also believe that the Kam were a branch of the Bai Yue from the first century CE. The Bai Yue inhabited the Yangze River basin after the collapse of the Yue Kingdom around the first century CE which led to the establishment of many small chiefdoms.

The first explicit mention of the Kam (or Dong) people come from Ming dynasty sources. Many Kam rebellions took place during the Ming and Qing dynasties, but none were successful in the long run. The Qing developed extensive irrigation systems in the area and rice harvests increased significantly but this mostly benefited the local landlords. The Kam were further exploited after the first Opium War of 1840–1842 by western forces, capitalists, landlords, usurers and Qing officials.

As a consequence of these events, many Kam helped or joined the Chinese Communists soon after its founding in 1921. They supplied food and resources to the Red Army as it passed through Guangxi during the Long March. Some Kam also allied with the People's Liberation Army through establishing guerilla units against the forces of Chiang Kai-Shek. After 1949, infrastructure was quickly developed in Kam areas. Schools, roads, small factories and more were built. Many Kam also became government officials.

Although the Kam and Han Chinese peoples generally get along well today, the history of Guizhou is marked by innumerable tensions and conflicts between the Han Chinese and non-Han minority groups. Today, many Kam are assimilating into mainstream Chinese society as rural Kam move into urban areas, resulting in intermarriage with the Han Chinese and the loss of the Kam language. However, various attempts to preserve Kam culture and language have been very successful, and improving living conditions in rural Guizhou may entice local Kam villagers to stay rather than move to major urban areas.

Language
The Kam language (autonym: ) is a Tai–Kadai (Chinese: Zhuang–Dong) language. Ethnologue distinguishes three Kam varieties as separate but closely related languages: Northern Dong [doc], Southern Dong [kmc], and Cao Miao [cov]. Sui, Maonan and Mulao are the languages most closely related to Kam. Historically, Northern Kam has been influenced by Chinese much more than has Southern Kam.

The Kam language has no traditional script of its own. The Kam people sometimes use Chinese characters to represent the sounds of Kam words. A Latin alphabet was developed in 1958, but it is not much in use due to a lack of printed material and trained teachers.

Distribution

County-level distribution of the Kam

(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >1% of county population.)

Culture

The Kam people are internationally renowned for their polyphonic choir singing, called Kgal Laox in the Kam language (), which can be literally translated as Kam Grand Choir or Grand song in English. The Kam Grand Choir has been listed by UNESCO as a world-class intangible cultural heritage since 2009. Kam choral songs include nature songs, narratives, and children's songs.

One-part songs (as opposed to polyphonic, or many-part, songs) can be sung by one or many people. They include:
Duo Ye songs
Love songs – accompanied by the pipa or niutuiqin
Drinking songs
Bride's songs
Mourning songs
Pipa songs

Operas are highly popular among the Kam and are performed by local troupes. Two famous Kam playwrights are Wu Wencai (1798–1845), author of Mei Liangyu, and Zhang Honggan (1779–1839).

Kam oral literature contains a rich array of legends and folk tales. Many of these popular tales are about the leaders of past uprisings (Geary 2003:218). Celebrated leaders include:
Xing Ni – An ancient figure, whose legend dates possibly from the Tang dynasty (618–907).
Wu Mian – Leader of a 1378 rebellion during the Ming dynasty due to drought and famine.
Lin Kuan – Led a 1397 rebellion but was later executed. Popular among the Northern Kam and is commemorated by an ancient tree.
Wu Jinyin – Wu revolted in the 1740 to resist grain taxes, but was killed in 1741.

Popular folk tales are listed below. They can be found in The Kam People of China by D. Norman Geary.
The two orphan brothers
The unfriendly eldest brother
Ding Lang and the dragon princess
Zhu Lang and Niang Mei
Shan Lang and E Mei
Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai
Suo Lao
Mei Dao
The frog and the swallow (rice agriculture tale)
The dog (rice agriculture tale)
The singing tree (origin of singing tale)
Liang Niangni (origin of singing tale)
Lou Niang (drum tower tale)

Society
Kam clans are known as dou and are further divided into ji, gong, and households (known as "kitchens"), respectively from largest to smallest in size. Village elders were traditionally the village leaders, although the government replaced these elders with village heads from 1911 to 1949. Kam society was also traditionally matriarchal, as can be evidenced by the cult of the goddess Sa Sui (Geary 2003:88). Before the advent of the Han Chinese, the Kam had no surnames, instead distinguishing each other by their fathers' names.

Kam common law is known as kuan and is practiced at four levels.
Single village
Several villages
Single township / entire local rural area
Multiple townships / large portion of the Kam population

Courtship and marriage
Traditional courtship consists of three phases:
Early meeting phase where men and women sing songs and recite poems to one another.
Deepening love phase where the courtship is one-to-one and the songs are more spontaneous.
Exchanging a token phase where a man gives a woman a gift, with the woman expected to make excuses to test her suitor. The token is usually a minor gift without much monetary value. However, it is highly important symbolically, as it is the equivalent of an engagement ring in Western cultures.

Weddings last three days and are first held at the bride's family's home. The bride is later sent to the groom's home, where an afternoon reception and all-night feast then ensue. The next day there is a "blocking the horse" ceremony where the hosts block the guests while singing songs. The bride typically resides at her parents' house for a few months or even years. Silver jewellery is passed onto the bride by her mother.

Birth
The birth of a child is complemented by the following events:
The "stepping-over-the-threshold person," the first person to enter the home where the child was born, will influence the child's future personality and success.
Several fir trees are planted at the birth which are gifted at age 18 for marriage and new home.
Neighbors are invited and bring food and gifts.
Announcing the birth to the mother's family.
Visit from the female relatives on the third day or so; gifts are brought.
Homage expressed to the land god for the birth of a male child (practiced by the Northern Kam).
Building a "bridge" – Three wooden planks are lined up side by side to express goodwill to passing people.
Wrapping the hands – The child's hands are wrapped to help prevent him or her from stealing things later on in life.
First haircut at the age of one month.
First eating of fermented rice at the age of about one month.
First eating of meat dipped in wine at six months old – considered a major milestone.

Funerals
Like those of the Miao people, Kam funerals are highly elaborate. People who died from unnatural causes (e.g., accidents) are cremated, while those who died from natural causes are buried. Burial consists of the following phases:
Receiving the breath – listening for last words and the person's the last breath.
Drinking clear tea – Three spoonfuls of "clear tea" and a small pieces of silver are placed into the recently deceased person's mouth.
Buying water for washing the corpse.
"Washing" the corpse – The corpse is covered with wet money paper.
Putting on the graveclothes – Old clothes are taken off.
Arranging the "dream bed" – The suona is played during the vigil.
Starting on the road – A red cock is killed, and the corpse is removed from the dream bed and placed into a coffin. White headcloths are worn by the mourners (also practiced by the Han Chinese).
Digging the "well" (grave).
Holding the memorial ceremony – Presents are distributed.
Going up the mountain – Coffins are usually placed high up on a mountainside.
Placing the coffin into the "well" – A chicken is killed and prayers are said. The chicken is then lowered into the grave and pulled back out again for later consumption.
Holding the funeral receptions – Lunch and dinner are held.
Returning to the mountain – The sons return to the grave to build a grave-mound. The dead person is called to "go back home" to live at the altar to the family's ancestors.
"Transferring the sons" (if the dead is female) – This is a ceremony in which the duties of filial piety are transferred from the deceased mother to her eldest brother or the eldest brother's representative.

Environment
An average-size Kam village has 200–300 homes, although the smallest ones have only 10–20 and the largest ones have more than 1,000. Kam villages typically have:

Ganlan-style wooden houses (stilt houses)
Ancient and sacred trees
Covered ("wind-and-rain") bridges
Wayside pavilions with wooden or stone benches
Bullfighting arenas, which are fields
Wells surrounded by stone rims and usually dug near trees
Fish-ponds, traditionally communally owned
Racks for drying grain and granaries
Village entrances – to protect against intruders, and also are where "blocking the way" ceremonies are held
Drum towers – usually found only in southern Kam areas today. Drum towers may be village towers or extended-family towers (Geary 2003:47).
Altars to Sa Sui, the main deity of the Kam pantheon

Popular scenic spots in Kam-speaking territories are the Jiudong region, Liudong region, Chengyang village, Pingdeng region, and Yuping region.

Agriculture and economy
The Kam people cultivate dozens of varieties of glutinous rice (known locally as "Kam" or "good" rice). The Han Chinese cultivate non-glutinous rice, which is called "Han (Chinese) rice" by the Kam. Supplementary foods inclusive maize, millet, vegetables, plums, peaches, pears, mushrooms, mandarin oranges, pomelos, and watermelons. Cotton is cultivated for textile production. Generally the Kam occupy lower-lying land than the Miao and are thus wealthier.

Animals frequently raised by the Kam people include:

Water buffalo: 1–3 per household
Pigs: 1–3 per household
Chickens: 2–20 per household. Hens raised by the Kam generally lay around 100 eggs per year.
Ducks: 2–4 per household (about half of all households). Ducks tend to destroy rice seedlings and are thus less preferable than chickens.
Geese: 2–4 per household (about one-tenth of all households). They are recent introductions from the Han Chinese.
Fish: raised in fish-ponds and sometimes hunted

The "four pillars" of Kam cuisine are glutinous rice, sour (pickled) food, hot pepper, and rice wine. Other popular local dishes and condiments include barbecued fish, intestines sauce, purple blood pork, chicken-blood sauce, oil tea, gongguo (glutinous rice snack sweetened with liana) and bianmi (another glutinous rice snack). The giant salamander is a rare local specialty. Two hot meals (breakfast and dinner) and one cold meal (lunch) are served every day.

The Kam-speaking area is famous for its fir wood. Fir from the Kam area was used to build the ships of 15th-century explorer Zheng He and the Great Hall of the People. Major economic activities include carpentry and the manufacture of silverwork and wickerwork. Baskets and other wickerwork are usually made by men. Baskets can be made from five types of plant materials, namely glutinous rice straw, cogongrass, Guangxi grass, bamboo, and rattan.

In recent years, tourism has become a major source of income for the Kam people.

Festivals
Below is a list of traditional Kam festivals.

Two new year festivals:
Kam New Year
Chinese New Year

One-day work-related festivals, where chicken, fish, and glutinous rice are eaten.
Sowing seeds
Planting cotton
Washing water buffaloes
Eating new rice

There are four harvest festivals which last 1–3 days.
Mid-Autumn Festival
Pumpkin Day
Lusheng Day
Cultivating new land

Singing festivals:
Commemoration of lovers killed by lightning
Gaoba Singing Festival

Remembrance festivals:
Girls' Day
King Lin's Day – commemorates Lin Kuan, a northern-Kam hero of the 14th century
A Dianlong Day
Jiaxu Day
Best Weather Day – Jiang Yingfang, the "Robin Hood" of the Kam people who led a rebellion in the 19th century, is celebrated on this day.

Miscellaneous festivals:
Tidying the graves (Qingming Festival or "tomb sweeping")
Sweet rice cakes festival
Fireworks Day
Dragon Boat Festival
Zongba Festival (Zongba is a type of dumpling made from glutinous rice, similar to zongzi.)
Bull intestines eating festival

Bullfighting is also historically popular among the Kam people.

Religion
The Kam people are traditionally polytheistic with many elements of animism. Totems include turtles, snakes, and dragons, and worshiped ancestors include the mythical figures of Song Sang, Song En, Zhang Liang, and Zhang Mei. However, the Kam have been influenced by Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism through historical contacts with the Han. This influence is mainly seen in regards to ancestor worship, funeral rites, and certain festivals like the Spring and Dragon Boat Festivals. The Kam also use rice grains, bamboo roots, snails, and chicken bone, eyes, blood, and eggs for divination. Today, Taoism, Buddhism, and to a lesser extent Christianity are practiced by the Kam.

Spirits and deities
Some deities and sacred natural phenomena are also listed below.

Sa Ma Qing Sui, or Sa Sui, is the most important deity in Kam mythology. Sa Sui is a female deity who may have originally been a land goddess.
Village entrance goddess
Bridge goddess
Land gods and goddesses
Three family prosperity gods
A love deity actually consisting of five male gods
Banishing-evil god
Spirit of the sky and earth
Sun and moon worship (derived from Chinese religion)
Thunder and lightning
Mountains
Rivers and streams
Wells
Two fire spirits: one good and one evil
Large stones and boulders
"Wind-and-water trees" (i.e., trees with magic qualities) and ancient evergreen trees
Water buffalo spirits
Rice seedling spirits
Fruit tree spirits

Snakes are highly revered and are often thought to have been the progenitors of the ancient Baiyue peoples, which included the Kam. The legendary founders of the Kam people, Zhang Liang and Zhang Mei, are often called upon to help with illnesses and disasters.

Taboos and superstitions
Traditional Kam religion uses many taboos, omens, and fetishes. The fetishes are usually plant parts such as tree branches, reeds, leaves, and roots. Some of the taboos and superstitions are listed below.

Not marrying in the Chinese Year of the Tiger, since they must wait around nine years before giving birth to their first infants.
Pregnant women cannot participate in marriage ceremonies or arrangements, visit sick acquaintances, or sacrifice to gods.
Women cannot give birth in their mothers' home. There are many other childbirth-related taboos and superstitions.
Children cannot have haircuts before the age of one month old. The locks of hair from the first haircut must be stored and not be disposed of.
Coffins cannot have any metal objects inside them, since departed souls fear metal objects, especially copper.
Corpses should not be placed inside coffins during rainy weather.
Names are not to be called out when a corpse is being carried to its grave.
Chopsticks should not be tapped on bowls, as this is reminiscent of beggars' behavior.
The meat of crows or dead wild animals with unknown causes of death bring bad luck and should not be eaten.
Unmarried men should not eat pig feet, since pigs have split hooves.
New houses should not be built if a neighbor has recently died.
Pregnant women should not watch new houses being built.
Wood struck by lightning cannot be used for building houses.
Main entrances of two houses should not directly face each other as this will cause severe quarreling.
It is best to move into new houses at night when the village is already asleep.
Nothing should be bought on the first day of the Chinese New Year, as this might cause materials to diminish for the new year. On this day, floors should not be swept, rubbish should not be thrown out, friends should not be visited, arguments should be avoided, and knives should not be used to cut food.
The lusheng should not be played between the sowing and transplanting of rice seedlings, since it could attract plagues of insects.
Meeting a pregnant woman while hunting is considered bad luck.
While hunting, the names of animals should not be shouted so that the mountain god is not aroused to protect them.
Fish swimming upstream are protected by the gods, and catching one will result in bad luck.
Leaving home on the 7th, 17th, or 27th day of the month is unlucky. (This custom is also practiced by the Chinese.)
A recently deceased person will rise up if a cat jumps over them. Therefore, all domesticated animals must be kept away from them.

Magic and shamanism
Rituals involving supernatural elements include dragon dances, spring buffalo dances, and fire prevention ceremonies where ash is placed in boats and sent downstream.

Sorcery can be performed in private. There are many purposes of sorcery, such as repelling evil spirits, recovering the soul of a disturbed child, exacting revenge on enemies, and inducing love. Voodoo dolls, borrowed from the Chinese, are made so that pins can be stuck onto them, with the person's name and birth date written on them. The doll is then buried underground after being inserted into a clay pot. White cocks can be used for revenge sorcery.

Shamanism is practiced by the Kam and bears many parallels with Miao (Hmong) shamanism. One major duty of shamans is to recover the souls of sick people.

Notable Dongs

 Su Yu () (1907–1984), the first four-star general of the People's Liberation Army
 Wu Hongfei () (1975–), singer for the Chinese rock band Happy Avenue ()
 Sen Fluke () (1945–), Pastor for the Golden Singers ()
 Li Ting () (1987–), gold medalist in the 10 meter synchronized platform diving at the 2004 Summer Olympics at Athens, Greece

Gallery

Notes

References
D. Norman Geary, Ruth B. Geary, Ou Chaoquan, Long Yaohong, Jiang Daren, Wang Jiying (2003). The Kam People of China: Turning Nineteen. (London / New York, RoutledgeCurzon 2003). . (The two main authors are affiliated with the linguistic organization SIL International.)
Long, Yaohong and Zheng, Guoqiao (1998). Language in Guizhou Province, China. Dallas: SIL International and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics 126. . (Translated from Chinese by D. Norman Geary.)
 Ōu Hēngyuán 欧亨元 (2004). Cic deenx Gaeml Gax / Dòng-Hàn cídiǎn 侗汉词典 (Kam–Chinese dictionary. Běijīng 北京, Mínzú chūbǎnshè 民族出版社). .
 The Kam (Dong) ethnic minority, www.china.org.cn

External links

 The Kam (Dong) ethnic minority (government website in English)
 Zhèng Guóqiáo 郑国乔: Dòngyǔ jiǎngzuò 侗语讲座 (Lectures on the Kam language; in Chinese; pages are not correctly displayed in Mozilla)
 National Geographic article about the Kam of Dimen, Liping County, Guizhou, by Amy Tan (2008)
 Photo of Kam lusheng (mouth organ) parade
 Kam Bible ()
 Photos of Kam villages (website in Japanese)
  (Steven Frost's photos of Zhaoxing)
 Sinicization: at the crossing of three China regions, an ethnic minority becoming increasingly more Chinese: the Kam People, officially called Dong People (in French)/ Sinisation: à la limite de trois provinces de Chine, une minorité de plus en plus chinoise: les locuteurs kam, officiellement appelés Dong, Jean Berlie, 359 pages, Guy Trédaniel editor, Paris, France, published in 1998.
 Sinicization of the Kam (Dong People), a China minority (in French)/ Sinisation d'une minorité de Chine, les Kam (Dong), Jean Berlie, 95 pages, s.n. editor, published in 1994.

Audio
NPR story about Kam folk songs, featuring Amy Tan, April 2008

Ethnic groups officially recognized by China
Ethnic groups in Vietnam
Ethnic groups in Laos

Kam people


Alexander Charles Frederick Wyatt (born 23 July 1990) is an English former professional cricketer. He is a right-handed batsman and right-arm bowler who played for Leicestershire County Cricket Club between 2009 and 2015.

Wyatt made his first-class cricket debut for Leicestershire against Loughborough UCCE in 2009. Playing against the West Indians in his second first-class match, he dismissed Ramnaresh Sarwan. Wyatt made a big impression in his appearances for Leicestershire during the 2009 season, particularly in the Twenty 20 Cup game against Durham. Wyatt took 3-14 from four overs, including a maiden, and took the wickets of then current England player Paul Collingwood and former Australia ODI batsman Michael di Venuto.

Wyatt suffered problems with his back in 2010, limiting his appearances to a couple of games in the CB40 competition.

At the end of the 2015 season, Wyatt was one of a number of players whose contracts were not renewed by Leicestershire.

References

1990 births
Living people
English cricketers
Leicestershire cricketers
Shropshire cricketers
People from Roehampton
Sportspeople from the London Borough of Wandsworth
Cricketers from Greater London
English cricketers of the 21st century

Alex Wyatt