Eliza Patricia Dushku (; born December 30, 1980) is an American actress. She is best known for starring as Faith in the supernatural drama series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1998–2003) and its spin-off series Angel (2000–2003). She also had lead roles in the Fox supernatural drama series Tru Calling (2003–2005) and the Fox science fiction series Dollhouse (2009–2010), for which she was a producer.

Dushku had starring roles in various films, including True Lies (1994), Bye Bye Love (1995), Bring It On (2000), Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back (2001), The New Guy (2002), Wrong Turn (2003), On Broadway (2007), The Scribbler (2014), Jane Wants a Boyfriend (2015), and Eloise (2016). She has also done voice work for numerous video games and animated films.

Early life
Dushku was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the only daughter and youngest of the four children of school teacher and administrator Philip Richard George Dushku and Judy Dushku ( Rasmussen), a political science professor. Dushku's father was Boston-born, of Albanian heritage, with his parents coming from the city of Korçë, and her mother, from Idaho, is of Danish, English, Irish and German descent.
 Her parents were divorced before she was born.

Dushku's mother was a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and Dushku and her three brothers were raised as Mormons. She attended Beaver Country Day School in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, and graduated from Watertown High School.

Career

Acting

1992–1997: Beginnings and breakthrough
Dushku came to the attention of casting agents when she was ten years old. She was chosen in a five-month search for the lead role of Alice in the 1992 romantic drama film That Night. In 1993, Dushku landed a role as Pearl, alongside Robert De Niro and Leonardo DiCaprio, in the drama film This Boy's Life. The following year, she played the teenage daughter of Arnold Schwarzenegger and Jamie Lee Curtis in the action spy film True Lies.

She had roles as Piper Reeves in the short film Fishing with George (1994), as Cat in the television film Journey (1995), as Paul Reiser's daughter in the romantic comedy film Bye Bye Love (1995), and as Cindy Johnson in the comedy drama film Race the Sun (1996).

1998–2002: Buffy the Vampire Slayer and recognition
Dushku planned to attend Suffolk University in Boston, where her mother taught, but her agent asked her to submit a videotape audition for a television show starring another of his clients, Sarah Michelle Gellar. After reading the script, Dushku rushed to a local Claire's to purchase dark makeup and other appropriate accessories for the part of Faith on Buffy the Vampire Slayer. When she began her work on the series, Dushku was still a minor, and had to receive emancipation to work the production's long hours. She later recalled with amusement that the judge who handled her emancipation case, who was an avid fan of the show, jokingly said that she would sign the emancipation order if she could get a signed photo from Dushku. Though initially planned as a three-episode role, the character became so popular that she stayed on for the whole third season and returned for a two-part appearance in season four and for the last five episodes of the series. She also appeared in the spin-off series Angel.

As an unwelcome effect of her portrayal as Faith, Dushku was inundated with fan mail from prisoners. She said:

I've been getting fan mail from maximum security penitentiaries and death row. What are the authorities thinking of in playing a show with young teenage girls to Death Row inmates? They write everything – disgusting things that you don't even want to know about. And they send me pictures – "Oh, here's a picture of me before I was incarcerated!" – and there's some guy sat on the sofa with a bottle of beer and a mustache, and a big gut. It's so creepy. Way more creepy than Buffy.

In 2000, Dushku starred in the hit cheerleader comedy Bring It On. She followed that up with Soul Survivors, which reunited her with her Race the Sun co-star Casey Affleck. In 2001, she appeared in The New Guy with DJ Qualls and in City by the Sea with Robert De Niro and James Franco. The latter film garnered attention from a wider adult audience and several good reviews. The same year, Kevin Smith invited Dushku to be a part of Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back.

2003–2008: Tru Calling and subsequent roles
In 2003, Dushku starred in the horror film Wrong Turn and The Kiss, an independent comedy-drama. Starting that same year, she starred in a new Fox supernatural drama, Tru Calling, where she played the main character, medical student Tru Davies. After having a grant withdrawn, Tru is forced to take a job at a local morgue, where she discovers her power to "re-live" the previous day over again if one of the deceased asks for her help to change what has happened. Dushku turned down a role in a spin-off of Buffy the Vampire Slayer about Faith.

She has had many roles as a "bad girl" in movies. In an interview with Maxim in May 2001, Dushku says of her roles, "It's easy to play a bad girl: You just do everything you've been told not to do, and you don't have to deal with the consequences, because it's only acting."

Dushku starred in the Off-Broadway play Dog Sees God in December 2005. The play was based on the Peanuts comic strip, with Dushku playing a character symbolizing Lucy Van Pelt. She quit in February 2006 along with other members of the cast amid rumors of abuse by the producer, which were later dismissed.

She played the lead character on Nurses, a hospital comedy-drama for Fox. This was the second Fox pilot in which she was cast, but not broadcast.

She appeared in the Simple Plan music video "I'm Just a Kid" as the band's love interest, as well as Nickelback's video for "Rockstar".

On October 1, 2005, she announced at Wizard World Boston that shooting had begun for Nobel Son in which she would star with Alan Rickman, Danny DeVito, and Bill Pullman. The movie was released at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival. Another project released in 2007 was On Broadway, an independent movie filmed in Boston. The movie received positive reviews, with a few of them highlighting Dushku's performance.

Dushku has had roles in five video games. She voiced the role of Yumi Sawamura in the English-language version of Yakuza for the PlayStation 2, which was published and developed by Sega, and released in September 2006. Dushku also stars as Shaundi, one of the lead characters in Saints Row 2, which was developed by Volition, Inc. and published by THQ. It was released in North America on October 14, 2008, for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. She was the voice talent for the role of Rubi Malone, the main character in the game WET. She appeared at Spike TV's 2008 Video Game Awards in December 2008. Danielle Nicolet took over the role of Shaundi in Saints Row: The Third. She also voiced Megan McQueen in Champion Mode of the 2011 video game Fight Night Champion.

Variety announced on August 2, 2006, that Dushku would co-star with Macaulay Culkin in Sex and Breakfast, a dark comedy written and directed by Miles Brandman. A reviewer described Dushku as "charming" and giving the character "an edge". The movie was released in Los Angeles on November 30, 2007, and on DVD on January 22, 2008. She starred in Open Graves, a 2008 horror-thriller about a satanic game co-starring Mike Vogel. She played the main character in The Thacker Case and The Alphabet Killer, both thrillers based on real-life events, one of them directed by Rob Schmidt, with whom she had worked on Wrong Turn. Both movies were released in 2008. The Alphabet Killer contains Dushku's first topless scene. The film earned mixed reviews, but reviewers praised Dushku's performance, commenting "Eliza Dushku commands the screen but cannot reconcile the script's conflicted and increasingly idiotic agendas." She appeared in Bottle Shock, a drama about Napa valley wine. The film was directed by Randall Miller, who helmed Nobel Son.

2009–present: Dollhouse and other work
On August 26, 2007, Dushku signed a development deal with Fox Broadcasting Company and 20th Century Fox. Under the pact, the network and the studio would develop projects tailor-made for the actress as well as approach her with existing pitches and scripts.

Subsequently, it was announced on October 31 that Dushku had lured Joss Whedon, of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, back to TV, to create a television series called Dollhouse. Dushku produced the show and played the main character, 'Echo'. It aired on Fox during the 2008–09 TV season. In an interview, Dushku talked about how Dollhouse and her reconnection with Whedon came about:

I invited Joss Whedon to lunch after I did the business deal with Fox. We'd had a cool relationship in the past and I so wanted to do something else, and I wanted to get back into a television show. I had him on the brain for sure but I hadn't called him yet, but I sort of took a leap of faith and set things up with Fox and then called Joss. We went to a four-hour lunch where I just sort of used my womanly wiles. No, we've become such good friends, kind of like brother and sister and kind of like he was my watcher, my handler from when I first moved out to L.A. when I was 17 and I was a little bit of a wild child. He's watched me and helped me and taught me over the years. I told him how bad I wanted and needed him back and he accepted and here we are.

Dushku described Whedon as "my favorite genius ... favorite friend ... big brother ... and the only person out here I've ever wholeheartedly trusted, because he's never let me down." Dollhouse was renewed for a second season. The producers cited their confidence in the strength of Whedon's fan base and high DVR numbers as their reasons for keeping the show. Fox cancelled Dollhouse on November 11, 2009. The show officially wrapped filming on the second and final season on December 16, 2009.

Dushku was the voice actor for contract killer "Rubi Malone" in the action video game Wet.

In 2010, Dushku provided her voice for Noah's Ark: The New Beginning and appeared in the film Locked In. She also guest-starred in an episode of CBS' comedy The Big Bang Theory
which aired on November 4, 2010.
In 2011, Dushku featured alongside Jayson Floyd in "One Shot", a short action clip on YouTube directed by and starring Freddie Wong, released on May 13, 2011.

Dushku had a lead role in the online animated "motion comic" series Torchwood: Web of Lies, based on the BBC series Torchwood: Miracle Day. In June 2012, Dushku starred with Katie Cassidy, Gina Gershon and Michelle Trachtenberg in The Scribbler, directed by John Suits and produced by Gabriel Cowan.

In 2013, she was cast as Patricia Holm in a pilot film for a proposed TV revival series of The Saint, but the series was not commissioned. In July 2017 the pilot was released on digital HD/VOD.

From 2013 to 2015, Dushku voiced the role of She-Hulk in the Disney XD animated series Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.. In 2016, she was cast in a recurring role in the fourth season of the Cinemax TV series Banshee. In 2017, she had a recurring guest role in the last three episodes of the first season of the CBS drama series Bull with the option of becoming a series regular in season two.

Production work
In August 2011, Dushku visited Albania with a crew from the Travel Channel and Lonely Planet to film Dear Albania, a documentary promoting tourism in her father's family's country of origin.

Dushku has been CEO of her own production company, Boston Diva Productions, with her brother Nate as a partner.  She secured exclusive rights to make an authorized film based on the life of photographer Robert Mapplethorpe.  At one time provisionally entitled The Perfect Moment, the film was in development over more than a decade. Eventually she enlisted the help of Ondi Timoner and Mapplethorpe, with Matt Smith as the title character, was brought to the screen in 2018.

In 2017, her production company, in association with IM Global Television, was reported to be developing Glen Cook's The Black Company series of books for a television series, with Dushku potentially starring as The Lady.

Personal life
Dushku was raised a Mormon, and still has a Mormon-themed tattoo. She describes herself as having taken a different path from the LDS Church, and is grateful for having grown up in it.

Dushku lived for more than 15 years in Los Angeles, though spending substantial time back in Watertown and Boston in the period before her stepfather died.  She lived for several years in the Laurel Canyon area.

In 2009, she posed nude for the May issue of Allure magazine.

Having originally intended to attend college in Boston, before her big break on Buffy altered those plans, she announced in March 2014 at the Emerald City Comicon that she would be attending college later that year. On June 22, 2014, The Boston Globe reported that Dushku had left Los Angeles, moved back to Watertown near Boston, and was planning to attend college. As of 2016, she was a student at Suffolk University, studying sociology. In 2019, Boston Magazine reported that she was studying holistic psychology at Lesley University. She graduated in 2020.

She is politically active and campaigned for Bernie Sanders in the U.S. presidential election of 2016.

Relationships
Dushku began dating former Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers basketball player Rick Fox in October 2009, and in August 2010 the couple confirmed that they were living together. It was announced on June 24, 2014, that the pair had split.

In June 2017, she became engaged to businessman Peter Palandjian and they wed on August 18, 2018. In August 2019, Dushku gave birth to the couple's son, Philip Bourne. In February 2021, Dushku announced via Instagram that she was pregnant with her second child. In August 2021, Dushku gave birth to the couple's second son, Bodan.

Activism
Dushku serves on the board of directors of the THRIVE-Gulu organization (The Trauma Healing and Reflection Center in Gulu), an organization dedicated to helping the survivors of war (including former child soldiers) in Northern Uganda, which her mother and stepfather co-founded. She raised US$30,000 for the land for the center's building, and has performed other fundraising activities, as well as helping out in the center itself.

As a role model to campus leaders for her activism, Dushku was invited by the Millennium Campus Network (MCN) as a national keynote speaker and honored as a Global Generation Award winner alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry at MCN events in 2011.

Over several years, Dushku raised funds for Camp Hale, which had been attended by her father and brothers, including some specific campaigning to sustain a new concept of a girls' session at the camp, which was launched in 2012, and which she joined in person.

Albanian citizenship
Dushku visited her father's family and their home city in Albania in 2006 after receiving an invitation from Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha. She also visited Kosovo, and got an Albanian Eagle tattoo on the back of her neck. While on her second visit to Albania in 2011, she applied for Albanian citizenship and obtained the Albanian passport and ID Card. Dushku became an honorary citizen of Tirana, and was given the honorary title of Tirana Ambassador of Culture and Tourism in the World by Tirana mayor Lulzim Basha. Additionally, she was given honorary citizen status in her father's home town of Korçë. She and her brother Nate produced a film about a joint visit to Albania, Dear Albania.

Sexual molestation and harassment allegations
In January 2018, Dushku made public an account of having been molested by stunt coordinator Joel Kramer when she was 12 and working on True Lies. She wrote that soon after, an adult friend of Dushku confronted Kramer on set, and that the same day, Dushku was injured during a stunt and several of her ribs were broken, while Kramer was responsible for her safety. Kramer has denied the accusation of sexual misconduct.

In January 2019, CBS made a $9.5 million settlement with Dushku after she was fired from a recurring role on Bull, after informing producers of series lead Michael Weatherly's alleged inappropriate behavior on the set. According to documents from the official mediation, Weatherly was recorded on video making comments about spanking Dushku over his knee, soliciting a threesome, alluding to sexual assault in his "rape van," and other inappropriate jokes. After Dushku spoke with producers, Weatherly texted CBS Television Studios' president David Stapf saying he wanted to talk about Dushku's sense of humor, though Stapf pushed back saying "Ms. Dushku made the show better." Days later, showrunner Glenn Caron terminated Dushku's expected role on the show, despite opposition from studio executives. The settlement amount was calculated to compensate Dushku for her loss of earnings from her planned promotion to series regular, with "well-developed plans" set to make her a regular cast member following her three-episode guest appearance. In December 2018, when the settlement was reported, Weatherly publicly apologized for the comments. Dushku responded that Weatherly broke the terms of their settlement by speaking to the press and characterized his apology as "more deflection, denial, and spin." In November 2021, Dushku testified in front of the House Judiciary Committee about her sexual harassment accusations during her time on Bull.

In February 2021, Dushku shared a message of support for Charisma Carpenter, in reference to allegations of abuse against Buffy creator Joss Whedon.

Health
Dushku has said that she has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). She announced in December 2011 that she switched to a vegan diet after watching the documentary Forks Over Knives. In December 2014, she said she was no longer a vegetarian. On March 7, 2017, Dushku attended a Youth Summit on Opioid Awareness, where she revealed that she was a recovering alcoholic and drug addict, having begun drinking and abusing drugs at the age of 14. She said her addictions were at one point so serious that her brother forbade her from being left alone with her niece, his daughter Sofia, and that she was eight-and-a-half years sober.

Filmography

Film

Television

Notes

Video games

Music videos

Awards and nominations

Honors
Dushku was ranked by Maxim magazine as 6th on the "Hot 100 Women of 2009" list.
Dushku was named Ambassador for the 2012 Consumer Electronics Show Entertainment Matters program in October 2011.

References

External links

1980 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Boston
Actresses from Los Angeles
American child actresses
American film actresses
American people of Albanian descent
American people of Danish descent
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American television actresses
American video game actresses
American voice actresses
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
Marvel Comics people
People with acquired Albanian citizenship
Former Latter Day Saints
George Washington University alumni
Massachusetts Democrats
People from Watertown, Massachusetts
American women chief executives
Watertown High School (Massachusetts) alumni
Beaver Country Day School alumni
Activists from Boston
Activists from Los Angeles
People with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
American actors with disabilities

Eliza Dushku


Zaraapelta is an extinct genus of herbivorous ankylosaurid thyreophoran dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. The type species is Zaraapelta nomadis, named and described by Arbour et al in 2014. Zaraapelta is known from a single skull from the Barun Goyot Formation. It was found to be closest to Tarchia in the phylogenetic analysis within its description.

Discovery and naming
In 2000, Robert Gabbard, member of a team headed by Philip John Currie, found an ankylosaur skull in the Gobi Desert near Hermiin Tsav at the Baruungoyot. In 2014, Victoria Megan Arbour named and described the find as the species Zaraapelta nomadis, but at first it remained an invalid nomen ex dissertatione. Later that year, however, it was validly named as the type species Zaraapelta nomadis by Arbour, Currie and, posthumously, the female Mongolian paleontologist Demchig Badamgarav. The generic name is derived from Mongolian , "hedgehog", in reference to the prickly appearance of ankylosaurs, and the Greek , , "small shield", a common component of ankylosaurian names in view of their body armour. The specific name  is the genitive of the Latin , "nomad" and refers to the Nomadic Expeditions travel agency that has organised many palaeontological expeditions to Mongolia.

The holotype, MPC D-100/1388, was found in a layer of the Barun Goyot Formation, dating from the mid to late Campanian, about seventy-five million years old. It consists of a skull lacking the snout tip. No elements of the lower jaws were discovered. The specimen probably represents a subadult individual.

Description
The preserved skull has, lacking the praemaxillae, about a length of forty centimetres, indicating that Zaraapelta was a medium-sized ankylosaurian. Zaraapelta differs from all other Ankylosauria in the possession of a squamosal horn with a very smooth bone texture along the upper cutting edge, abruptly changing into a rough surface at the inner and the outer side; and in the presence of an intricate pattern of a large number of osteoderms behind the eye socket.

Beside these autapomorphies, Zaraapelta differs from its close relative Saichania in having a large number of osteoderms in front of the eye socket; by a notch in the rim above the eye socket, causing the two supraorbital osteoderms there to have separate peaks; by the lack of distinct , head armour tiles, behind the rear of the middle supraorbital; by less protruding osteoderms on the rear edge of the skull roof; and by the rear of the skull and the occipital condyle being visible in top view. Zaraapelta differs from the relative Tarchia in having a less sideways protruding  on the prefrontal; in the presence of a(n ossified) scroll-shaped turbinate bone in the nasal cavity, at the underside of the frontal bone; by the lack of distinct , head armour tiles, behind the rear of the middle supraorbital; and by the fusion of the quadrate with the paroccipital process. The main difference with Tarchia resided in the unique squamosal horn shape. However, Tarchia itself has also a unique squamosal horn configuration in that an accessory osteoderm is present in front of it. It might thus in principle be possible that Zaraapelta simply represents an old Tarchia individual in which this osteoderm has shifted on top of the squamosal horn, creating the strange double-layered structure. This possibility was rejected by the authors however, because from other ankylosaurian species no comparably large ontogenetic changes of the squamosal horn shape are known.

The squamosal horn, on the top rear corner of the skull, is robust and pyramid-shaped. There is a sharp cutting edge on top of the horn, bordered by smooth strips; these abruptly change into deeper rugose areas, so that rims are present on both sides. The quadratojugal cheeks horn is large with a concave rear edge. The cheek area between these large horns, behind the eye socket, is filled by flat osteoderms, separated by deep grooves, creating a delicate "dried mud" pattern. The eye socket itself is surrounded by a narrow bone ring. On its rear edge six osteoderms are present, those above rectangular in shape, the lower ones gradually becoming smaller and more triangular. Behind these are seven smaller tiles, roughly square-shaped, in an irregular pattern. The rear of this configuration is formed by a large triangular osteoderm. Just below the squamosal horn and above the cheek horn a row of small bumps is present.

Phylogeny
Zaraapelta was placed in the Ankylosauridae. A cladistic analysis recovered it as the sister species of Tarchia.

Paleobiology
Arbour pointed out that Saichania, Tarchia and Zaraapelta shared the same habitat. She assumed that this relative ankylosaurian abundance in species had been caused by their being the main herbivores in the area, enough crop thus being available to feed three populations, although their relative niches were unclear. The differences in head ornamentation would then have served species recognition. She saw no indications of sexual dimorphism. However, she also assumed that sexual selection
had been a factor in the evolution of the typical Zaraapelta head ornamentation.

See also
 Timeline of ankylosaur research

References

Ankylosaurids
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Maastrichtian life
Fossils of Mongolia
Barun Goyot Formation
Fossil taxa described in 2014
Taxa named by Philip J. Currie
Ornithischian genera

Zaraapelta


Hydrogen telluride, also known as hydrotelluric acid, tellane, or tellurium hydride, is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is H2Te. It contains hydrogen and telluride ions.

Properties
Hydrogen telluride is a toxic reactive gas. It easily decomposes to hydrogen and tellurium. It also burns in air to make tellurium dioxide and water. It has a very bad smell of decayed garlic. It is almost as acidic as phosphoric acid. It reacts with some metals and metal oxides to make tellurides.

Preparation
It is made by adding a strong acid to a telluride, such as sodium telluride.

Uses
Hydrogen telluride does not have many uses because it is very toxic and unstable.

Related pages
Aluminium telluride
Sodium tellurite

Sources

Tellurium compounds
Acids

Hydrogen telluride


The Kyrenia Ship is the wreck of a 4th-century BC ancient Greek merchant ship. It was discovered by Greek-Cypriot diving instructor Andreas Cariolou in November 1965 during a storm. Having lost the exact position, Cariolou carried out more than 200 dives until he re-discovered the wreck in 1967 close to Kyrenia (Keryneia) in Cyprus. Michael Katzev, a graduate student at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, directed a scientific excavation from 1967 to 1969. Katzev later became a co-founder of the American Institute of Nautical Archaeology. The find was extensively covered in a documentary by the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation titled "With Captain, Sailors Three: The Ancient Ship of Kyrenia". The ship itself was very well preserved with more than half its hull timbers in good condition. After it was raised from the seabed, it found a new home at the Ancient Shipwreck Museum in Kyrenia Castle, where it remains on exhibit.

Career
The ship sailed in the Mediterranean during the lifetime of Alexander the Great and his successors. It sank in open water off the ancient harbour of Kyrenia    some time after 294 BC, when it was rather old.

The ship was in use by merchants for more than 20 years. Archaeologists studied the ship's remains in detail and found much new information about ancient construction techniques, the re-use of materials in antiquity, and evidence of extensive repairs and modifications during the Kyrenia Ship's working life. Planking was replaced and repaired in the bow. A break in the ship's keel had been mended, and the outside of the ship was protected with wooden and lead sheathing to keep the aging timbers water-tight and extend the ship's working life.   Closer analysis of the rabbets in the hull's frame suggest that the mast step had been moved up to three, and possibly four times. This movement happens to be in close proximity with a space to collect bilge water. Because of this, archaeologists surmise that the movement of the mast step was to make way for a larger bilge sump, capable of lifting water out and overboard These extreme measures to deal with water infiltration corroborate the frailty of the ship and may have contributed to its sinking. The hull's excellent preservation, along with its extensive repairs, demonstrate its long sailing life and adds greatly to our knowledge of shipbuilding in antiquity.

Discovery

The shipwreck of Kyrenia was discovered in November 1965 by the Kyrenian Greek Cypriot diving instructor and Municipal Councillor  Andreas Cariolou while collecting sponges at a sea depth of 33 metres, approximately a nautical mile Northeast of the harbour of Kyrenia on the North coast of the Republic of Cyprus, during a stormy day. With the storm at the surface, the anchor of his vessel started to drag on the muddy seabed.  Cariolou noticed the cloud of the drag and followed the anchor's slow travel when he suddenly noticed the shipwreck. Happily bewildered he had to quickly recover and follow the drag of his anchor as his vessel was dangerously approaching the rocky coast. Understanding the importance of his find and the risk of illegal excavations, he remained discreet about it informing only the director of the Department of Antiquities Dr Vassos Karageorghis and the President of the Republic of Cyprus. In late 1967, the Department of Antiquities of the Republic of Cyprus, invited a number of Underwater Archaeologists to study the possibilities of excavating at such a  particularly difficult and costly sea depth. Amongst them was nautical archaeologist Michael Katzev of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology who had been surveying for shipwrecks off the coast of Cyprus. In that year, Andreas Cariolou took the team headed by Michael Katzev to the site.

Michael Katzev directed the archaeological expeditions from 1967 to 1969. In 1967, a general inspection was undertaken which included a team of scientists from Oxford University (Dr Edward Hall, Dr Jeremy Green), using a "proton" magnetometer metal detector and probes. Green spent a month on the site to find metal parts and the approximate position of the entire ship and its cargo over an area measuring approximately . During the summers of 1968 and 1969, the shipwreck was excavated and a team of more than 50 underwater archaeologists, students and technicians employing stereophotography and other developed other techniques to record the position of each object before they were brought to the surface. Then the ship's wooden  hull which was well preserved on the seabed was recorded, photographed, labelled, dismantled and carefully lifted to the surface.

Archaeological evidence

The objects in Kyrenia Castle are the original ones that it carried during its last voyage about 2,300 years ago. From them, we learned about the life of the captain and three sailors who manned the ship. The ship carried  381 amphoras or transport jars containing a cargo of wine, olive oil, and almonds--most amphoras aboard the Kyrenia Ship came from Rhodes (x340), with some  from Knidos (x4), Samos (x1), Kos (x2), Palestine (x1), Egypt (Phoenician style, x1), Cyprus (x1) and possibly Kourion (x1). Some of the amphora stamps suggest that the ship sank between 294 and 291 BC, which is also supported by the seven bronze coins found on the shipwreck site. Five of these coins were minted in the name of Alexander the Great and date between ca. 334 BC and 301 BC. One coin is of unknown mint, and the other is a well-known type of Ptolemy I, produced only on Cyprus. This coin dates to post 294 BC. The ship's trade route included Rhodes, Cyprus, and the Levant, with Egypt as its possible final destination.

In addition a cargo of wine, oil, and almonds (over 9,000 in number), the Kyrenia Ship carried millstones and iron billets. Twenty-nine millstones, laden in three rows over the keel as cargo also served as ballast. At the stone quarry, probably on the island of Kos, masons carved letters of identification on their sides.

The sailors fished during the voyage and this is revealed by more than 300 lead net weights found in the bow. Meals were probably prepared ashore, using large casserole pots and a bronze cauldron. Aboard the ship were also four drinking cups (kantharoi), four oil containers (gutti), four wine measures (olpai), as well as bowls and saucers, and wooden spoons. This cabin pottery from the Kyrenia shipwreck suggests that the ship was sailed by a crew of four. The cabin pottery is also indicates that the vessel's homeport was Rhodes, a conclusion further supported by the scientific analyses undertaken on these ceramics. Archaeologists also found javelins on the shipwreck site, which were most likely used for the protection of the crew during the ship's last voyage.

The Kyrenia Ship interestingly may have had an earlier life with a Levantine crew, however. In the ship's bilges eight small pieces of pottery were found which include a fragment of a common type of Levantine jar, as well as seven fragments came from four to five drinking cups, known as Achaemenid cups, typical of the fifth and fourth centuries BC. Examples of these type of jars and drinking cups have been found along the modern-day Israeli coast.

The ship carried a single square sail and more than 100 lead rigging rings from its so-called brail sail were found on the shipwreck site. The wooden hull, built mostly of pine (Pinus brutia), was preserved for a length of almost  across. The ship was built using the "shell first" ancient method, the opposite of today's method. Contrary to the contemporary wood boat building method where a complete skeleton of frames of the entire vessel must first be constructed, in this case, the planking from the keel and up was joined first, using a mortice-and-tenon construction, and then the frames were laid in,  secured with an ingenious assembly of wood pegs pierced by copper nails passing through both frames and planks. The ship was intended for long service and underwent four major repairs in her life. In the last repair, a skin of lead sheathing of  thickness was applied to her body to hopefully keep the old ship comparatively safe from woodworm and probably help water tightness.

Preservation and conservation of the ship's artefacts and wooden hull was undertaken in 1970 and 1971, and from 1971 to 1973 the original timbers were reassembled on permanent scaffolding, still on exhibit today, along with its cargoes and goods of crew in Kyrenia Castle.

At the time of its sinking, the Kyrenia Ship carried only one anchor. The anchor remains found on the Kyrenia shipwreck show the remains come from single one-armed wooden hook anchor with a  lead-filled wooden stock. The original anchor had a central wooden shaft called the shank, made from a crooked grown oak timber, which terminated in a hook or arm This arm was set perpendicular to lead-filled stock—this configuration ensured that it would fall down and dig itself into the seabed. Only the heavy lead inserts of the stock, which provided the necessary weight to sink the anchor, the iron concretion of the anchor's fluke tip, and small wood fragments were found on the Kyrenia shipwreck.

This anchor type relied solely on its ability to grip the seabed. The earliest mention of a hook anchor is from a Greek poem dating to the mid-seventeenth century BC. The Greeks attributed the invention of the hook anchor to several semi-legendary figures, including King Midas of Phrygia, but the real inventor is unknown.

Sailing reconstructions

Kyrenia II
In 1985, the President and founder of the Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition (HIPNT) Harry Tzalas in close cooperation with Michael Katzev and ancient ship re-constructor Richard Steffy with a number of Greek experts on traditional boat building and underwater archaeology, completed a full-size, sailing reconstruction of the ship, known as Kyrenia II. The ship was constructed following an exact procedure as the one followed by the ancient boatbuilder of the ancient ship of Kyrenia. This was achieved at the Manolis Psaros boatyard in Piraeus Greece . Kyrenia II is often used as a floating ambassador of Cypriot culture, and has visited many parts of the world. In 1986, it visited New York City; in 1988, Japan; and in 1989, West Germany.

Kyrenia III
Following the 1988 visit to Japan, the Japanese National Television Organization  N.H.K under the project management of executive producer Yasuji Hamagami constructed the second full size replica of the ship of Kyrenia. The ship was named "KYRENIA-3" and is normally exhibited at the Nautical museum  of Fukuoka or Hakata.

Kyrenia Liberty
In 2002, a third reconstruction of the Kyrenia Ship was built and named Kyrenia Liberty. It was constructed with respect for the original design but with modern techniques. The ship was ready for the 2004 Olympic Games and set sail for Athens, Greece with a symbolic cargo of copper to be used in the Olympic bronze medals. This cargo was symbolic since the name Cyprus is associated with the Latin word for "copper".

Symbolic meaning of the Kyrenia ships
The Kyrenia ship features on three of the Cypriot euro coins: the 10, 20, and 50 cents.

See also
Shipwreck
Ma'agan Michael Ship
Uluburun shipwreck

References

Further reading
 Briggs, Lisa, Stella Demesticha, Susan Katzev, Helena Wylde Swiny, Oliver E. Craig, Léa Drieu. 2021. There's more to a vessel than meets the eye: Organic residue analysis of 'wine' containers from shipwrecks and settlements of ancient Cyprus (4th–1st century bce). Archaeometry, vol. 64, issue 3, pages 779-797. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12747
 Harpster, Matthew. 2015. Protecting Maritime Heritage in Disputed Territory: The Kyrenia Shipwreck Collection Restoration Program. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 156–165. https://doi.org/10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.3.2.0156.
 Renson, Virginie, and Michael D. Glascock. 2021. Lead Isotopes to Identify Underwater Ceramic Contamination: The Example of the Kyrenia Shipwreck (Cyprus). Minerals, vol. 11, no. 6: 625. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11060625
 Schwab, Roland, Michael Brauns, Walter Fasnacht, Susan Womer Katzev, Nicole Lockhoff, Helena Wylde Swiny, 2022, From Cyprus, or to Cyprus? A pilot study with osmium isotopy and siderophile trace elements to reconstruct the origin of corroded iron billets from the Kyrenia shipwreck. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, Volume 42, 103365. ISSN 2352-409X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103365.
 Steffy, Richard J., 1985, "The Kyrenia Ship: An Interim Report on its Hull Construction." American Journal of Archaeology 38.1 (January): 71-101. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/504772
 Steffy, Richard J., 1993, "Ancient Ship Repair", in Harry Tzalas (ed.), Tropis V: 5th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Nauplia, 26, 27, 28 	August 1993: Proceedings, 395-408. Athens.

External links
 A (Greek-)Cypriot page about the Kyrenia ship
 The Central Bank of Cyprus - regarding the design of Cypriot euro coins
 Institute of Nautical Archaeology: No. 3/4 Fall/Winter 2002 for a tribute to Michael Katzev

 Skarlatos, Dimitrios. iMARECULTURE project 3D data acquisition of Kyrenia II. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCHLiPwVE7M

Ancient Greek technology
Ancient shipwrecks
Archaeological discoveries in Cyprus
Archaeological sites in Cyprus
Ancient Cyprus
Merchant ships of Greece
Museums in Northern Cyprus
Replica ships
Ships of the Hellenistic period
Ships preserved in museums
Shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea
Transport in Cyprus
4th-century BC artifacts
1965 archaeological discoveries

Kyrenia ship


The aquatic genet (Genetta piscivora), also known as the fishing genet, is a genet that has only been recorded in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Since it is only known from about 30 specimens in zoological collections, it had been listed as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List since 1996, as it is considered one of Africa's rarest carnivores. In 2015, it has been reassessed as Near Threatened.

When Allen described the aquatic genet as a new genus and species in 1919, he named it Osbornictis piscivora. It was reassessed in 2004, and based on molecular evidence is now considered a Genetta species.

Characteristics
The aquatic genet's long and dense fur is dark chestnut red without spots or bands. The head is pale fuscous brown with white spots on the sides of the muzzle, and above and below the eyes, which are framed with a narrow black ring. The ears are almost naked inside, edged with long whitish hairs and blackish outside. The bushy tail is black with pale brownish underfur. The soles of its feet are naked. These characteristics differ strikingly from those of other genet species. Its rhinarium and olfactory bulbs are smaller than in other genets, which may indicate a poorly developed sense of smell. Its trenchant teeth indicate an adaptation to piscivory.

Two adult males measured from  in head and body length with a  long tail. One male weighed , and a female .

Distribution and habitat
Aquatic genets have only been recorded in rainforest east of the Congo River and in the Tshopo District at elevations from . They have not been recorded with certainty from Uganda. Based on past records, their range is predicted to be limited to closed evergreen lowland and submontane forests in the Congo Basin.

Ecology and behavior
Aquatic genets are thought to be solitary and crepuscular. They primarily feed on freshwater fish, including catfish, barbels, squeakers, carps, and also crustaceans. They possibly detect the movements of the fish with their whiskers, or attract the fish by patting the surface of the water with their whiskers.

A pregnant female was collected in December. To date, nothing else is known about their gestation, reproduction and development of offspring.

Threats
It is unclear whether there are any major threats to aquatic genets. They are caught in snare traps set up by Pygmy people in the Ituri Forest.

Conservation
In 1979, the aquatic genet has been given full protection by the Congolese government. It is assumed to be present in the Okapi Wildlife Reserve.

References

External links
 Animal Diversity Web: Genetta piscivora

Genets (animals)
Fauna of Central Africa
Mammals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Mammals described in 1919
Northeastern Congolian lowland forests
Endemic fauna of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Aquatic genet


Gaithoose o Fleet (English: Gatehouse of Fleet) is a toun in the ceevil pairish o Girthon, Kirkcoubrieshire, within the destrict cooncil region o Dumfries an Gallowa, Scotland, that his existit syne the mid-18t century, awtho the aurie his been bade in syne a muckle earlier. The muckle o its development wis attributable til the entrepreneur James Murray's deceesion tae built his simmer hame, Cally Hoose, there in 1763. The hoose is noo the Cally Palace Hotel.

Ower the nixt hundred year, the toun developit intae a centre for industry, in particular cotton mills. The wastlin approach til the toun is ringt by the imposin Cardoness Castle. Gaithoose o Fleet is the birthplace o Victorian airtist John Faed. The renount inventor o clockwark mechanisms, Robert Williamson  wis kenned an aw to hae set up a warkshap in the toun in 1778, that burnt til the grund (an claimt his life) in 1794.

The toun taks its name frae its location near the mooth o the river cried the Watter o Fleet that empies intae Wigtown Bay at Fleet Bay, an its forgane role as the "Gait Hoose" o "the hoose on the Road o the River Fleet" o tollbooth o the late 18t century stagecoach route frae Dumfries tae Stranrawer, noo the A75 road. It wis a haven alang this route, an vaigers wad aften stap in the aurie raither nor forderin the jurney at nicht acause o the heich nummers o reivers an briganders at the time.

Cally Hoose wis designt by Robert Mylne an built in 1763. The hoose wis sauld in 1933 and becam a hottle, that appent in 1934. It wis uised as a residential schuil for evacuees frae Glesga durin the Seicont Warld War, reappenin as a hottle in the later 1940s.

The sattlement o Anwoth is yin mile til the wast o Gaithoose o Fleet; this is whaur Samuel Rutherford wis meenister frae 1627 til 1636.

Gaithoose his the seicont auldest average population o touns in Scotland.

Jeannie Donnan (1864-1942), "The Galloway Poetess", wis born here afore flittin tae Whithorn in Wigtounshire whaur she bade on George Street an whaur she is commemoratit by a plaque. She wrate poetry aboot local events. Her warks include Hameland: the Poems of Jeannie Donnan, 1907; War Poems, 1915, and The Hills of Hame, 1930. Mony o her poems wis publisht an aw in the Galloway Gazette.

The Kirk o the Resurrection, wis built 1971 and it wis designt by Sutherland, Dickie & Copeland. The kirk is lichtit by a dramatic celestory windae. Metal sculptures o the Resurrected Christ an Our Lady by Liverpool airtist Arthur Dooley (1929-1994) wis afore on the sanctuary waw. Syne the closur o this kirk on 1st Februar 2020 and aheid o its demoleetion, the sculptures hae been remuived tae St Andrew an St Cuthbert Kirk in Kirkcoubrie.

The Swallows is an airtwark creatit in willae by local airtist Lizzie Farey an wis an memorial commision.  The last Mess wis celebratit on 1t Februar 2020 by the Bishop o Gallowa, William Nolan an pairish priest Rev Fr William McFadded. The kirk will be demolisht an the site sauld for hoosin.

Pairt o the action o Five Red Herrings, a 1931 Lord Peter Wimsey detective novelle by Dorothy L. Sayers, taks place in Gaithoose o Fleet.

Namely fowk
Joe Ansbro the rugby player wis reared near Gaithoose o Fleet an attendit the  Gatehouse Primary School .
Katrina Bryan, the "Nina" o the CBeebies show Nina and the Neurons, wis born in the toun in 1980.
John Faed, James Faed, Thomas Faed, Boab Patterson-Faed an Susan Bell Faed, members o the celebratit faimily of Victorian airtists, wis aw born at Barlay Mill, Gaithoose of Fleet.
Catherwood Learmonth FRSE (1896-1981) spent his early life here
Hamish MacInnes, the weel-kenned muntaineer an pioneer o muntain rescue in Scotland wis born in the toun in 1930.
Sir John McMichael FRSE (1904-1993), Professor o Medicine at Hammersmith Hospital, London, Director o the British Postgraduate Medical Federation an a trustee o the Wellcome Trust, wis born in the town.
Richard Gilbey

Attractions
Gaithoose o Fleet sits at the bottom o the Fleet Valley National Scenic Area (NSA). Cairnsmore of Fleet National Nature Reserve (NNR) is locatit at the tap o the Watter o Fleet catchment  . Garries Park is central tae Gaithoose o Fleet. The're a restore't mill nixt til the River Fleet, "The Mill on the Fleet.". The road gangs an aw tae an attraction o historical significance, Cardoness Castle. Strands near the toun can be fund at Carrick and Sandgreen. The Cream o' Galloway offers a major veesitor attraction. The Clints o Dromore near the auld Gatehouse of Fleet railwey station provide guid rock-climin.

References

External links
  Gatehouse of Fleet wabsteid
  Monumental Inscriptions for Auld an New Girthon Pairish Kirkyairds
  https://scotlandschurchestrust.org.uk/church/church-of-the-resurrection-gatehouse-of-fleet/
  http://www.whithorn.info/history/historyinfo.asp?rowID=2
  http://www.rckirkcudbright.org.uk/gatehouse-art-work/4564916306

Touns in Dumfries an Gallowa
Dumfries an Gallowa
Places o Scotland

Gaithoose o Fleet


Janis Martin (August 16, 1939 – December 14, 2014) was an American opera singer who sang leading roles first as a mezzo-soprano and later as a soprano in opera houses throughout Europe and the United States. She was particularly known for her performances in the operas of Richard Wagner and sang at the Bayreuth Festival from 1968 to 1997.

Biography
Martin was born in Sacramento, California, the daughter of a radio producer.  She studied at both California State University, Sacramento and the University of California, Berkeley. She began studying singing in Sacramento with Julia Monroe and later studied in New York with Lili Wexberg and Otto Gruth. She made her operatic debut in 1960 at San Francisco Opera as  Theresa in La sonnambula  and at 21 was the youngest member of the company that season. She continued to sing a number of comprimario mezzo-soprano roles with the company through 1969, including Sister Anne in the 1961 world premiere of Norman Dello Joio's opera Blood Moon.  She returned as a soprano in 1970 in the title role of Tosca and appeared there regularly though 1990, when she sang the role of Brünnhilde in Die Walküre, Siegfried, and Götterdämmerung for the company's complete performance of Wagner's Ring Cycle.

On March 23, 1962, she won the National Finals of Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions singing "Mon cœur s'ouvre à ta voix" from Samson et Dalila.  Her New York City Opera debut that same year was as Mrs. Grose in The Turn of the Screw. Her Metropolitan Opera debut came on December 19, 1962 when she sang Flora Bervoix in La traviata with Anna Moffo as Violetta. She went on to sing 147 performances at the Met between 1962 and 1997, first in mezzo-soprano roles, including Singer in the 1964 US premiere of Menotti's The Last Savage and from 1973 leading soprano roles including Kundry in Parsifal, Marie in Wozzeck, Senta in Der fliegende Holländer, and the title role in Tosca. Her final appearance with the company was in 1997 when she sang Brünnhilde in Die Walküre with Plácido Domingo as Siegmund and Deborah Voigt as Sieglinde.

Martin sang with the Deutsche Oper Berlin from  1971 to 1988 and at the Bayreuth Festival from 1968 to 1997 as Eva and Magdalena (Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg); Fricka, Sieglinde, and Brünnhilde (Die Walküre); Gutrune and 2nd Norn (Götterdämmerung); Fricka and Freia (Das Rheingold) and Kundry (Parsifal).  Her performances in other European opera houses include Venus (Tannhäuser), Marie (Wozzeck) and The Woman (Erwartung) at La Scala; Marie at the Royal Opera House; Brünnhilde at the Vienna State Opera, Isolde (1981) and Kundry at the Oper Zürich (1981), and Ariadne at the Staatsoper Hannover (1982).  Martin retired from the stage in 2000 to live in Nevada County, California, where she gave singing lessons and occasional recitals and concerts.

Martin's first husband was French horn player and World War II veteran, Boris Rybka. They lived together in Europe and Sacramento. Martin and her second husband, the German conductor and choirmaster Gerhard Hellwig, had a son, Robert. The marriage ended in divorce.  Martin died at the age of 75 on December 13, 2014. She is survived by her brother Richard, her son Robert, resident in San Antonio, Texas, and two grandchildren.

Recordings
Arnold Schoenberg: Erwartung – Janis Martin; BBC Symphony Orchestra; Pierre Boulez, conductor (1977). Label: CBS.
Richard Wagner: Rienzi (complete recording of Wagner's shortened 1843 version) – René Kollo, Siv Wennberg, Janis Martin, Theo Adam; Dresden Staatskapelle; Heinrich Hollreiser, conductor (1975). Label: EMI.
Richard Wagner: Der fliegende Holländer – Norman Bailey, Janis Martin, René Kollo, Martti Talvela, Chicago Symphony Orchestra & Chorus; Sir Georg Solti, conductor (1976). Label: Decca.

References

Sources
Cummings, David (ed.), "Martin, Janis", International Who's Who in Classical Music 2003, Routledge, 2003, p. 509.
Hamilton, David (ed.), "Martin, Janis", The Metropolitan Opera Encyclopedia, Simon and Schuster, 1987, p. 214.

External links
 Bayreuther Festspiele, Janis Martin German-language profile
 Interview with Janis Martin, October 16, 1980.
 Performance Record: Martin, Janis (Mezzo Soprano, Soprano), MetOpera Database
 San Francisco Opera Archives, Janis Martin

1939 births
2014 deaths
American operatic sopranos
American operatic mezzo-sopranos
California State University, Sacramento alumni
Musicians from Sacramento, California
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Winners of the Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions
Singers from California
20th-century American women opera singers
Classical musicians from California
21st-century American women

Janis Martin (soprano)


Aspasia (;  ; after 428 BC) was a metic woman in Classical Athens.  Born in Miletus, she moved to Athens and began a relationship with the statesman Pericles, with whom she had a son, Pericles the Younger.   According to the traditional historical narrative, she worked as a courtesan and was tried for asebeia (impiety), though modern scholars have questioned the factual basis for either of these claims, which both derive from ancient comedy.  Though Aspasia is one of the best-attested women from the Greco-Roman world, and the most important woman in the history of fifth-century Athens, almost nothing is certain about her life.

Aspasia was portrayed in Old Comedy as a prostitute and madam, and in ancient philosophy as a teacher and rhetorician.  She has continued to be a subject of both visual and literary artists until the present.  From the twentieth century, she has been portrayed as both a sexualised and sexually liberated woman, and as a feminist role model fighting for women's rights in ancient Athens.

Sources

Aspasia was an important figure – and the most important woman – in the history of fifth-century Athens, and is one of the women from the Greco-Roman world with the most substantial biographical traditions.  The earliest literary sources to mention Aspasia, written during her lifetime, are from Athenian comedy, and in the fourth century BC she appears in Socratic dialogues.  After the fourth century, she appears only in brief mentions of complete texts, or in fragments whose full context is now lost, until the second century AD, when Plutarch wrote his Life of Pericles, the longest and most complete ancient biographical treatment of Aspasia.  Modern biographies of Aspasia are dependent on Plutarch, despite his writing nearly seven centuries after her death.

It is difficult to draw any firm conclusions about the real Aspasia from any of these sources: as Robert Wallace puts it, "for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality".  Aside from her name, father's name, and place of birth, Aspasia's biography is almost entirely unverifiable, and the ancient writings about her are frequently more of a projection of their own (without exception male) preconceptions than they are historical fact.  Madeleine Henry's full-length biography covers what is known of Aspasia's life in only nine pages.

Life

Early life
Aspasia was born, probably no earlier than 470 BC, in the Ionian Greek city of Miletus (in modern Aydın Province, Turkey), the daughter of a man called Axiochus.  A scholiast on Aelius Aristides wrongly claims that Aspasia was a Carian prisoner of war and a slave; this is perhaps due to confusion with the concubine of Cyrus the Younger, also called Aspasia.  The circumstances surrounding Aspasia's move to Athens are unknown.  One theory, first put forward by Peter Bicknell based on a fourth-century tomb inscription, suggests that Alcibiades of Scambonidae, the grandfather of the famous Alcibiades, married Aspasia's sister while he was in exile in Miletus following his ostracism, and Aspasia went with him when he returned to Athens.  Bicknell speculates that this was motivated by the death of Aspasia's father Axiochus in the upheaval in Miletus following its secession from the Delian League in 455/4 BC.

Life in Athens
According to the conventional understanding of Aspasia's life, she worked as a courtesan and then ran a brothel.  Some scholars have challenged this view.  Peter Bicknell notes that the "pejorative epithets applied to her by comic dramatists" are unreliable. Madeleine Henry argues in her biography of Aspasia that "we are not required to believe that Aspasia was a whore because a comic poet says she was", and that the portrayal of Aspasia as involved in the sex trade should "be looked upon with great suspicion".  Cheryl Glenn contends that Aspasia actually opened an academy for women that became "a popular salon for the most influential men of the day", including Socrates, Plato, and Pericles, and Rebecca Futo Kennedy suggests that the accusations in comedy that she was a brothel-keeper derived from this.  Despite these challenges to the traditional narrative, many scholars continue to believe that Aspasia worked as a courtesan or madam.  Konstantinos Kapparis argues that the kinds of comic attacks made on Aspasia would not have been acceptable to make about a respectable woman, and that it is therefore likely that Aspasia did have a history as a sex-worker before she began her relationship with Pericles.  Whether or not Aspasia worked as a courtesan, her later life, in which she apparently achieved some degree of power, reputation, and independence, has similarities to the lives of other prominent hetairai ("courtesans") such as Phryne.

In Athens, Aspasia met and began a relationship with the statesman Pericles.  It is uncertain how they met; if Bicknell's thesis is correct then she may have met him through his connection to Alcibiades' household.  Kennedy speculates that when Cleinias, the son of the elder Alcibiades, died at the Battle of Coronea, Pericles may have become the kurios (guardian) of Aspasia.  Aspasia's relationship with Pericles began some time between 452 and 441.  The exact nature of Pericles and Aspasia's relationship is disputed.  Ancient authors variously portrayed her as a prostitute, his concubine, or his wife.  Modern scholars are also divided. Rebecca Futo Kennedy argues that they were married; Debra Nails describes Aspasia as "the de facto wife of Pericles"; Madeleine Henry believes that Pericles' citizenship law of 451/0 made marriage between an Athenian and a metic illegal, and suggests a quasi-marital pallakia ("concubinage") enforced by contract; and Sue Blundell describes Aspasia as a hetaira and mistress of Pericles.

Aspasia and Pericles had a son, Pericles the Younger, born no later than 440/39 BC.  At the time of Pericles the Younger's birth, Pericles had two legitimate sons, Paralus and Xanthippus.  In 430/29, after the death of his two elder sons, Pericles proposed an amendment to his citizenship law of 451/0 which would have made Pericles the Younger able to become a citizen and inherit.  Though many scholars believe that this was specifically for Pericles, some have suggested that a more general exception was introduced, in response to the effect of the Plague of Athens and Peloponnesian War on citizen families.

According to Plutarch, Aspasia was prosecuted for asebeia (impiety) by the comic poet Hermippus.  She was supposedly defended by Pericles and acquitted.  Many scholars have questioned whether this trial ever took place, suggesting that the tradition derives from a fictional trial of Aspasia in a play by Hermippus.  Vincent Azoulay compares the trial of Aspasia to those of Phidias and Anaxagoras, both also connected to Pericles, and concludes that "none of the trials for impiety involving those close to Pericles is attested with certainty".

In 429 BC, Pericles died.  According to ancient sources, Aspasia then married another politician, Lysicles, and gave birth to another son, Poristes.  As "Poristes" is not otherwise known as a name – it means "supplier" or "provider", and was a euphemism for "thief" – some scholars have argued that the name comes from a misunderstanding of a joke in a comedy.  Henry doubts whether Aspasia had a child with Lysicles, and Kennedy questions whether she married Lysicles at all.  Pomeroy, however, suggests that Poristes' unusual name may have been chosen by Lysicles for political reasons, to draw attention to his providing for the people of Athens.  Lysicles died a year after Pericles, in 428, and nothing is recorded of Aspasia's life after this point.  It is unknown where or when she died.

Legacy

Ancient reception

In the classical period, two primary schools of thought developed around Aspasia.  One tradition, deriving from Old Comedy, emphasises her influence over Pericles and her involvement in the sex trade; the other, which can be traced back to fourth-century philosophy, concentrates on her intellect and rhetorical skill.  Some scholars have also proposed that the portrayal of several female characters in Athenian tragedy commented on Aspasia, including Euripides' Medea and Phaedra, and Sophocles' Jocasta.

Comic tradition
The only surviving ancient sources to discuss Aspasia which were written during her life are from comedy.  The surviving comic tradition about Aspasia – unlike her male contemporaries – focuses on her sexuality.  Aristophanes, the only writer of Old Comedy for whom complete works survive, refers to Aspasia only once in his surviving corpus, in Acharnians.  In a passage parodying the beginning of Herodotus' Histories, Aristophanes jokes that the Megarian decree was retaliation for the kidnapping of two pornai ("prostitutes") from Aspasia.  A similar charge, attributed by Plutarch to Duris of Samos, that Aspasia was responsible for Athens' involvement in the Samian War, may have derived from this.  The mention of Aspasia's pornai in Acharnians is also the earliest known instance of the tradition that she worked as a brothel-keeper.

Outside of Aristophanes, mentions of Aspasia are known from the surviving fragments of Cratinus and Eupolis.  In a fragment of Cratinus' Cheirons, Aspasia is described as "Hera-Aspasia, a dog-eyed concubine".  Eupolis mentions Aspasia by name in three surviving fragments.  In Proslapatians, she is compared to Helen of Troy – like Aspasia, blamed for starting a war – and in Philoi to Omphale, who owned Herakles as a slave.  Eupolis also alluded to Aspasia in Demes, where Pericles, having been brought back from the dead, asks after his son; he is informed that he is alive, but is ashamed of having a porne as a mother.  Aspasia is also known to have been mentioned by Kallias, though the scholion to Plato's Menexenus which reports this is garbled and it is uncertain what Kallias said about her.  She may also have appeared in a play by Hermippus – this is possibly the source of the anecdote told by Plutarch that Aspasia was prosecuted by him for asebeia and for supplying free-born women for Pericles to have sex with.  Later authors to follow the comic tradition in focusing on Aspasia's sexuality and improper influence over Pericles, for example in Clearchus' Erotika.

Philosophical tradition

In the fourth century, four philosophers are known to have written Socratic dialogues which feature Aspasia.  Those by Antisthenes and Plato portray her negatively, in a way resembling her portrayal in comedy; Aeschines and Xenophon show her in a more positive light.  In the dialogues by Plato, Xenophon, and Aeschines, Aspasia is portrayed as an educated, skilled rhetorician, and a source of advice for marital concerns.  Armand D'Angour has argued that Diotima, to whom Socrates attributes his understanding of love in Symposium, is based on her.  In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, some authors followed Aspasia's more positive portrayal in Socratic literature, distancing her from prostitution and situating her in a tradition of wise women.  Didymus Chalcenterus wrote about exceptional women in history in his Symposiaka, downplaying her sexuality but noting her influence on Socrates' philosophy and Pericles' rhetoric. Both Athenaeus and Maximus of Tyre report that Socrates advised Callias to have Aspasia teach his son. In Rome, Cicero and Quintillian used the conversation between Aspasia and Xenophon in Aeschines' dialogue as a good example of inductio.

Modern reception

Aspasia's earliest post-classical portrayal is in the letters of Héloïse to Abelard.  Héloïse cites Aspasia's conversation with Xenophon and his wife in Aeschines' dialogue, which she probably knew through Cicero's reference to it, and proposes Aspasia as an example for how she should live her own life.

In the late medieval and early modern periods, Aspasia appeared in several catalogues, a fashionable genre at the time.  She was included in three "medallion books", with an imagined portrait and a brief biography.  The first of these was Guillaume Rouille's Promptuarium Iconum, which derives its depiction of Aspasia from Plutarch and focuses on her relationship with Pericles; in Giovanni Angelo Canini's Iconografia, Aspasia is depicted wearing a helmet and shield.  Aspasia also featured in two catalogues of women in this period as a teacher and philosopher: in Arcangela Tarabotti's  Tirannia Paterna, which portrays her as a teacher of rhetoric, and Gilles Ménage's Historia Mulierum Philosopharum, in which Aspasia is described as teaching rhetoric to Pericles and Socrates, and philosophy to Socrates.

By the eighteenth century, Aspasia was widely enough known to be included in dictionaries and encyclopedias, where depictions of her were largely based on Plutarch.  In 1736, Jean Leconte de Bièvre published the Histoire de deux Aspasies, also based on Plutarch's depiction, which portrayed Aspasia as an educated woman and Pericles' teacher as well as his wife.  The eighteenth century also saw the first known image of Aspasia to be created by a woman, Marie Bouliard's Aspasie.  The painting depicts Aspasia with one breast bared, looking into a handheld mirror and with a scroll in her other hand.  Though the bare breast references the eroticised traditions surrounding Aspasia, Madeleine Henry argues that the portrait differs from more pornographic depictions of women, with Aspasia looking into the mirror rather than out at the viewer, and holding a scroll rather than a cosmetic object such as a comb.

In the nineteenth century, Plutarch's narrative dominated the interpretation of Aspasia in both novels and paintings.  In the visual arts, the sexualised side of Aspasia was represented by Jean-Léon Gérôme's painting Socrates Seeking Alcibiades in the House of Aspasia, but this pornographised representation was relatively uncommon.  Honoré Daumier's lithograph of Socrates at the House of Aspasia depicts Aspasia as a "lorette", an ambiguous social position which referred to "loose, vulgar or 'liberated' women".  Other artists of the period depicted an Aspasia active in public life, and interacting with the most renowned men of the period.  In Henry Holiday's painting of Aspasia on the Pnyx, she is shown with another woman at the site of the Athenian assembly, the center of male public space in the city, while in two paintings by Nicolas-André Monsiau she is shown at the centre of discussions with celebrated Athenian intellectuals and politicians.  In Socrates and Aspasia, she converses with Socrates and Pericles; in Aspasia in Conversation with the Most Illustrious Men of Athens, Euripides, Sophocles, Plato, and Xenophon are also among those included.  In both of these paintings, Aspasia is speaking and commanding the attention of these men.  Melissa Ianetta argues that Germaine de Staël's novel Corinne models its heroine after Aspasia, placing her in the same tradition of feminine rhetorical skill.

An alternative nineteenth-century representation of Aspasia positioned her as a respectable wife. The authors Walter Savage Landor and Elizabeth Lynn Linton portrayed Aspasia as a good Victorian wife to Pericles in their novels Pericles and Aspasia and Amymone: A Romance of the Days of Pericles.  Lawrence Alma-Tadema's painting Phidias and the Frieze of the Parthenon also shows Aspasia as a respectable companion to men.  By contrast, Robert Hamerling's novel Aspasia showed her as a proto-feminist with far more agency than these romanticised accounts.

The twentieth century saw on the one hand increasing interest in Aspasia separately from her relationships with men, and on the other more prurient concern with her sexuality.  The former strand of Aspasia's reception saw the Latvian author, feminist, and politician Elza Rozenberga, who took the pseudonym Aspazija, model her campaigning for women's rights after what she saw as Aspasia's example.  Aspasia was also taken as a feminist role-model by Judy Chicago, who included her as one of the thirty-nine women given a place in her artwork The Dinner Party.  Recent novels have tended towards the more explicitly sexualised portrayal of Aspasia, including Achilles His Armour by the classicist Peter Green, Madelon Dimont's Darling Pericles, and Taylor Caldwell's Glory and Lightning, in which Aspasia is raised as a courtesan.  The 2018 video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey, which features Aspasia in a major role, follows the ancient tradition which portrayed her as a hetaira.  She is depicted as using her femininity to gain political power by manipulating men and through her connections to other women across the Greek world.

Notes

References

Bibliography

470s BC births
400s BC deaths
5th-century BC Athenians
5th-century BC Greek women
5th-century BC Greek philosophers
Ancient Athenian women
Ancient Greek rhetoricians
Ancient Greek women philosophers
Ancient Milesians
Conversationalists
Greek female prostitutes
Hetairai
Metic philosophers in Classical Athens
Philosophers of ancient Ionia
Rhetoric

Year of birth uncertain
Year of death unknown

Aspasia


In cryptography, a web of trust is a concept used in PGP, GnuPG, and other OpenPGP-compatible systems to establish the authenticity of the binding between a public key and its owner. Its decentralized trust model is an alternative to the centralized trust model of a public key infrastructure (PKI), which relies exclusively on a certificate authority (or a hierarchy of such). As with computer networks, there are many independent webs of trust, and any user (through their public key certificate) can be a part of, and a link between, multiple webs.

The web of trust concept was first put forth by PGP creator Phil Zimmermann in 1992 in the manual for PGP version 2.0:

Note the use of the word emergence in this context.  The web of trust makes use of the concept of emergence.

Operation of a web of trust
All OpenPGP-compliant implementations include a certificate vetting scheme to assist with this; its operation has been termed a web of trust. OpenPGP certificates (which include one or more public keys along with owner information) can be digitally signed by other users who, by that act, endorse the association of that public key with the person or entity listed in the certificate. This is commonly done at key signing parties.

OpenPGP-compliant implementations also include a vote counting scheme which can be used to determine which public key – owner association a user will trust while using PGP. For instance, if three partially trusted endorsers have vouched for a certificate (and so its included public key – owner binding), or if one fully trusted endorser has done so, the association between owner and public key in that certificate will be trusted to be correct. The parameters are user-adjustable (e.g., no partials at all, or perhaps six partials) and can be completely bypassed if desired.

The scheme is flexible, unlike most public key infrastructure designs, and leaves trust decisions in the hands of individual users. It is not perfect and requires both caution and intelligent supervision by users. Essentially all PKI designs are less flexible and require users to follow the trust endorsement of the PKI generated, certificate authority (CA)-signed, certificates.

Simplified explanation
There are two keys pertaining to a person: a public key which is shared openly and a private key that is withheld by the owner. The owner's private key will decrypt any information encrypted with its public key. In the web of trust, each user has a key ring with other people's public keys.

Senders encrypt their information with the recipient's public key, and only the recipient's private key will decrypt it. Each sender then digitally signs the encrypted information with their private key.  When the recipient verifies the received encrypted information against the sender's public key, they can confirm that it is from the sender. Doing this will ensure that the encrypted information came from the specific user and has not been tampered with, and only the intended recipient can decrypt the information (because only they know their private key).

Contrast with typical PKI
Unlike WOT, a typical X.509 PKI enables each certificate to be signed by a single party: a certificate authority (CA). The CA's certificate may itself be signed by a different CA, all the way up to a 'self-signed' root certificate. Root certificates must be available to those who use a lower-level CA certificate and so are typically distributed widely. They are for instance, distributed with such applications as browsers and email clients. In this way SSL/TLS-protected Web pages, email messages, etc. can be authenticated without requiring users to manually install root certificates. Applications commonly include over one hundred root certificates from dozens of PKIs, thus by default bestowing trust throughout the hierarchy of certificates which lead back to them.

WOT favors the decentralization of trust anchors to prevent a single point of failure from compromising the CA hierarchy.

Problems

Loss of private keys
The OpenPGP web of trust is essentially unaffected by such things as company failures, and has continued to function with little change. However, a related problem does occur: users, whether individuals or organizations, who lose track of a private key can no longer decrypt messages sent to them produced using the matching public key found in an OpenPGP certificate. Early PGP certificates did not include expiry dates, and those certificates had unlimited lives. Users had to prepare a signed cancellation certificate against the time when the matching private key was lost or compromised. One very prominent cryptographer is still getting messages encrypted using a public key for which he long ago lost track of the private key. They can't do much with those messages except discard them after notifying the sender that they were unreadable and requesting resending with a public key for which they still have the matching private key. Later PGP, and all OpenPGP compliant certificates include expiry dates which automatically preclude such troubles (eventually) when used sensibly. This problem can also be easily avoided by the use of "designated revokers", which were introduced in the early 1990s. A key owner may designate a third party that has permission to revoke the key owner's key (in case the key owner loses his own private key and thus loses the ability to revoke his own public key).

Public key authenticity check
A non-technical, social difficulty with a Web of Trust like the one built into PGP/OpenPGP type systems is that every web of trust without a central controller (e.g., a CA) depends on other users for trust. Those with new certificates (i.e., produced in the process of generating a new key pair) will not likely be readily trusted by other users' systems, that is by those they have not personally met, until they find enough endorsements for the new certificate. This is because many other Web of Trust users will have their certificate vetting set to require one or more fully trusted endorsers of an otherwise unknown certificate (or perhaps several partial endorsers) before using the public key in that certificate to prepare messages, believe signatures, etc.

Despite the wide use of OpenPGP compliant systems and easy availability of on-line multiple key servers, it is possible in practice to be unable to readily find someone (or several people) to endorse a new certificate (e.g., by comparing physical identification to key owner information and then digitally signing the new certificate). Users in remote areas or undeveloped ones, for instance, may find other users scarce. And, if the other's certificate is also new (and with no or few endorsements from others), then its signature on any new certificate can offer only marginal benefit toward becoming trusted by still other parties' systems and so able to securely exchange messages with them. Key signing parties are a relatively popular mechanism to resolve this problem of finding other users who can install one's certificate in existing webs of trust by endorsing it. Websites also exist to facilitate the location of other OpenPGP users to arrange keysignings. The Gossamer Spider Web of Trust also makes key verification easier by linking OpenPGP users via a hierarchical style web of trust where end users can benefit by coincidental or determined trust of someone who is endorsed as an introducer, or by explicitly trusting GSWoT's top-level key minimally as a level 2 introducer (the top-level key endorses level 1 introducers).

The possibility of finding chains of certificates is often justified by the "small world phenomenon": given two individuals, it is often possible to find a short chain of people between them such that each person in the chain knows the preceding and following links. However, such a chain is not necessarily useful: the person encrypting an email or verifying a signature not only has to find a chain of signatures from their private key to their correspondent's, but also to trust each person of the chain to be honest and competent about signing keys (that is, they have to judge whether these people are likely to honestly follow the guidelines about verifying the identity of people before signing keys). This is a much stronger constraint.

Another obstacle is the requirement to physically meet with someone (for example, at a key signing party) to verify their identity and ownership of a public key and email address, which may involve travel expenses and scheduling constraints affecting both sides. A software user may need to verify hundreds of software components produced by thousands of developers located around the world. As the general population of software users cannot meet in person with all software developers to establish direct trust, they must instead rely on the comparatively slower propagation of indirect trust.

Obtaining the PGP/GPG key of an author (or developer, publisher, etc.) from a public key server also presents risks, since the key server is a third-party middle-man, itself vulnerable to abuse or attacks. To avoid this risk, an author can instead choose to publish their public key on their own key server (i.e., a web server accessible through a domain name owned by them, and securely located in their private office or home) and require the use of HKPS-encrypted connections for the transmission of their public key. For details, see WOT Assisting Solutions below.

Strong set

The strong set refers to the largest collection of strongly connected PGP keys. This forms the basis for the global web of trust. Any two keys in the strong set have a path between them; while islands of sets of keys that only sign each other in a disconnected group can and do exist, only one member of that group needs to exchange signatures with the strong set for that group to also become a part of the strong set. The strong set had a size of about 55000 Keys at the beginning of the year 2015.

Mean shortest distance

In statistical analysis of the PGP/GnuPG/OpenPGP Web of trust the mean shortest distance (MSD) is one measurement of how "trusted" a given PGP key is within the strongly connected set of PGP keys that make up the Web of trust.

MSD has become a common metric for analysis of sets of PGP keys. Very often you will see the MSD being calculated for a given subset of keys and compared with the global MSD which generally refers to the keys ranking within one of the larger key analyses of the global Web of trust.

WOT assisting solutions
Physically meeting with original developer or author, is always the best way to obtain and distribute and verify and trust PGP/GPG Keys with highest trust level, and will remain as the best level of best trustworthy way. Publishing of GPG/PGP full Key or full Key fingerprint on/with widely known (physical/paper-material based) book, by the original author/developer, is the 2nd best form of sharing trustworthy key with and for users. Before meeting a developer or author, users should research on their own on the developer or author in book library and via internet, and aware of developer's or author's photo, work, pub-key fingerprint, email-address, etc.

However, it is not practical for millions of users who want to communicate or message securely to physically meet with each recipient users, and it is also not practical for millions of software users who need to physically meet with hundreds of software developers or authors, whose software or file signing PGP/GPG public Key they want to verify and trust and ultimately use in their computers. Therefore, one or more trusted third-party authority (TTPA) type of entity or group need to be available for users and be usable by users, and such entity/group need to be capable of providing trusted-verification or trust-delegation services for millions of users around the world, at any time.

Practically, to verify any downloaded or received content or data or email or file's authenticity, a user need to verify their downloaded main content or main data/email or main file's PGP/GPG signature code/file (ASC, SIG). So users would need to use original developer's or original author's trustworthy and verified public-key, or users would need to use trustworthy file-signing public-key trusted-by the original owner of that public-key. And to really trust a specific PGP/GPG key, users would need to physically meet with every specific original author or developer, or users would need to physically meet with the original-releaser of file-signing pub-key, or, users would need to find another alternative trustworthy user, who is in trusted-chain of WOT (aka, another user or another developer or another author, who is trusted by that very specific original author or developer), and then physically meet with that person, to verify their real ID with his/her PGP/GPG key (and also provide your own ID and key to the other user, so that both side can sign/certify and trust each other's PGP/GPG key). Whether a software is popular or not, software users are usually located around the world in different locations. It is physically not possible for an original author or developer or file-releaser to provide public-key or trust or ID verification services to millions of users. Neither is it practical for millions of software users to physically meet with each and every software or every software-library or every piece of code's developer or author or releaser, which they will (use or) need to use in their computers. Even with multiple trusted people/person (by original-author) in trusted-chain from WOT, its still not physically or practically possible for every developer or author to meet with every other users, and it is also not possible for every users to meet with hundreds of developers whose software they will be using or working on. When this decentralized hierarchy based WoT chain model will become popular and used by most nearby users, only then physical meeting and pub-key certify and sign procedure of WoT will be easier.

A few solutions are: original author/developer need to first set a trust-level to sign/certify their own file-signing key. Then updated public-keys and updated file-signing public-keys must also have to be published and distributed (or made accessible) to users, via online secure and encrypted mediums, so that any user from any location in world, can get the correct and trusted and unmodified public-key. To make sure that each users are getting the correct and trusted public-keys and signed-code/file, original dev/author or original-releaser must publish their updated public-keys on their own key server and force HKPS encrypted connection usage, or publish their updated and full public-keys (and signed-code/file) on their own HTTPS encrypted webpage, under their own web server, from their own primary domain website, (not-from any sub-domains which are located in external-servers, not-from any mirror, not-from any external/shared forum/wiki etc website servers, not-from any public or external/shared cloud or hosting service servers), and must have to be located and kept securely inside their own premises: own-home, own-home-office, or own-office. In that way, those small pieces of original keys/code, will travel intact through internet and will remain unmodified during transit (because of encrypted connection) and will reach destination without being eavesdropped or modified, into user's side, and can be treated as trustworthy public-keys because of single or multi channel TTPA based verification. When a public-key is obtained (from original developer's own web-server) via more than one TTPA (trusted third party authority) based secured, verified and encrypted connection, then it is more trustworthy.

When original public-keys/signed-codes are shown in original dev's or author's own web server or key server, over encrypted connection or encrypted webpage, then any other files, data or content can be transferred over any type of non-encrypted connection, like: HTTP/FTP etc from any sub-domain server or from any mirror or from any shared cloud/hosting servers, because, non-encrypted connection based downloaded items/data/files can be authenticated later, by using the original public-keys/signed-codes, which were obtained from the original author's/developer's own server over secured, encrypted, and trusted (aka, verified) connection/channels.

Using encrypted connection to transfer keys or signed/signature code/files, allow software users to delegate their trust with a PKI TTPA (trusted third party authority), like public CA (Certificate Authority), to help in providing trusted connection in between the original developer/author's web server, and millions of worldwide users' computers, at any time.

When the original author/developer's domain-name and name-server is signed by DNSSEC, and when used SSL/TLS public certificate is declared/shown in TLSA/DANE DNSSec DNS resource-record, (and when SSL/TLS Certs in the trust chain are pinned and used via HPKP technique by web servers), then a web-server's webpage or data can also be verified via another PKI TTPA: DNSSEC and DNS namespace maintainer ICANN, other than a public CA. DNSSEC is another form of PGP/GPG WOT but for name-servers; it creates a trusted-chain for name-servers first (instead of people/person), and then people/person's PGP/GPG Keys and fingerprints can also be added into a server's DNSSEC DNS records. So any users who want to communicate securely (or any software users), can effectively get/receive their data/key/code/webpage etc. verified (aka, authenticated) via two (aka, dual/double) trusted PKI TTPAs/Channels at the same time: ICANN (DNSSEC) and CA (SSL/TLS Certificate). So PGP/GPG key/signed-code data (or file) can be trusted, when such solutions and techniques are used: HKPS, HKPS+DNSSEC+DANE, HTTPS, HTTPS+HPKP or HTTPS+HPKP+DNSSEC+DANE.

If a vast number of user's group create their own new DLV based DNSSEC registry, and if users use that new DLV (along with ICANN-DNSSEC) root-key in their own local DNSSEC-based DNS Resolver/Server, and if domain-owners also use it for additional signing of their own domain-names, then there can be a new third TTPA. In such case, any PGP/GPG Key/signed-code data or a webpage or web data can be three/triple-channel verified. ISC's DLV itself can be used as a third TTPA as its still used widely and active, so availability of another new DLV will become fourth TTPA.

Known public webs of trust
There are a few large scale public web of trust attempts with different implementation details.

 Debian web of trust for signing packages (1500 keys in 2016 )
 Bitcoin OTC web of trust used in Bitcoin marketplaces (5900 members in 2023 )
 Duniter web of trust for  currency (8400 keys in 2023 )

These webs of trust use case cover a wide range of applications including proof of personhood.

See also

 Friend-to-friend (F2F) computer network.
 Self-sovereign identity
 Virtual community
 Chain of trust
 Root of trust

References

Further reading

External links
An explanation of the PGP Web of Trust
analysis of the strong set in the PGP web of trust, no longer maintained; last archived link from August 2020.

Key management
Public key infrastructure
OpenPGP
Authentication
Computational trust
Identity management

ja:公開鍵基盤#信用の輪(Web of Trust)

Web of trust


The Boland Hall fire was a fatal fire in Boland Hall, a freshman residence hall on  the Seton Hall University campus in South Orange, New Jersey, United States on January 19, 2000. Three students died and 58 were injured, several with very serious burns. It was one of the deadliest college fires in recent U.S. history.

Two students who started the fire as a prank were indicted in mid-2003, reached a plea agreement with prosecutors in late 2006, and were sentenced to five years' imprisonment in early 2007.

The Fire
The fire began around 4:30 a.m. on January 19, 2000, when most students were asleep. Two students, later identified as Sean Ryan and Joseph LePore, set fire to a paper banner that had been partially torn off from a wall display, located in a third floor lounge. In their account, the two men were intoxicated and decided to set fire to the banner as a prank, which would cause the smoke detectors to go off and the students would evacuate into  weather. Ryan lit a match, passed it to LePore, who passed it back to Ryan, who "flicked" it onto the corner of the banner. They then left the banner smoldering and unattended before returning to their room about  from the lounge. The fire spread rapidly across three couches in the third floor lounge and approached temperatures of up to  ) in less than five minutes.

Though no accelerant was used, the fire burned hot enough to melt the synthetic carpet of the hall, causing severe injuries to many of the students attempting to escape the conflagration by crawling on the floor to reach the stairs. In an effort to aid the evacuation of students, the resident assistant for the third floor, Dana Christmas, ran down the halls and knocked on doors in an effort to wake students up and alert them to the danger.

Most students on the third floor evacuated through the thick smoke using the staircases; a few jumped over  to the ground. The residence hall had gone through several years of false fire alarms, causing students to ignore the alarms, including the one warning of this fire.

Victims
Three students died; Aaron Karol and Frank Caltabilota died of thermal injuries, and John Giunta died due to smoke inhalation. Two of the deceased were found in a lounge, and the third was found in a nearby room. Fifty-six students, police officers and firefighters were injured, four seriously enough to require lengthy hospital stays and rehabilitation.

The three students who died were honored with bachelor's degrees at the Class of 2003 graduation ceremony. On anniversaries of the fire, the University hosts a memorial Mass in honor of the victims at the memorial installed near the dormitory.

Aftermath
As the dormitory where the fire occurred did not have sprinklers, they were installed in all dormitories on Seton Hall's campus in the summer of 2000. Shortly after the fire, New Jersey passed legislation that required all dormitories to have sprinklers within four years. On December 7, 2000, a trash fire erupted in Boland Hall, leading the student residents to a 3 hour evacuation. The fire, which was confined to a trash barrel on the first floor, was controlled by a sprinkler system installed since the original fire. There were no injuries reported. The fire was investigated by the Essex County Prosecutors Office.

In 2017, US Senator Bob Menendez, US Representative Bill Pascrell, and US Representative Donald Payne Jr. joined safety advocates, local officials and University representatives to announce the Campus Fire Safety Education Act. Through the Act, higher education institutions could apply on their own or in collaboration with nonprofit fire safety organizations and public safety departments to receive funding to initiate, expand or improve fire safety programs on campus.

Investigations
A report about the fire was created for the legal team for the defense by Doug Carpenter and Rick Roby, who are fire investigators at Combustion Science & Engineering Inc., who had previously filed another report that claimed the prosecutor's investigation was biased. The investigation following the fire reported that faulty reporting procedures as well as inadequate fire safety precautions by officials at Seton Hall University contributed substantially to the deaths and injuries. It also revealed that Boland Hall lacked sprinklers, although the university claimed that at the time that the residence hall was still in compliance with the building code. The report created by the defense team found that the ignition location for the fire was most likely a dropped cigarette and not arson.

In response, New Jersey enacted the first mandatory residence hall sprinkler law in the nation.

Litigation
A state law provided legal immunity to Seton Hall University from negligence claims, due to its status as a religious, nonprofit charitable institution. However, in 2001, the University reached a settlement deal with families of some of the victims, including two that died in the fire and 10 that were injured.

After a three-and-a-half year investigation, on June 12, 2003, a 60-count indictment charged two freshmen students, Sean Ryan and Joseph LePore, of starting the fire and felony murder for the deaths which resulted. During an attempt to arrest LePore, officers used an unmarked police vehicle with sirens and lights to get LePore to stop his vehicle, however LePore backed his vehicle into the police officers after both had come to a stop.

On November 15, 2006, LePore and Ryan admitted that they had set the fire and pleaded guilty to third-degree arson as well as pleading guilty to witness tampering. LePore also pleaded guilty to a disorderly persons charge after he had attempted to avoid police when he was arrested on the 2003 indictment. Their pleas were part of a plea deal, in which they plead guilty for a reduced sentence and dropped charges against LePore's parents, sister and friend that included hindering apprehension.

On January 26, 2007, they were sentenced to five years in a youth correctional facility, but were eligible for parole after 16 months. The families of the victims strongly condemned the two suspects during the sentencing hearing, calling them "cowards" for running away after setting the fire instead of helping to evacuate the dorm.

On March 31, 2008, both LePore and Ryan were denied parole from the Garden State Youth Correctional Facility in Yardville, where they had been incarcerated since February 2007. LePore was to be eligible for parole after another 18 months, and Ryan after another 11.

On May 6, 2009, Ryan was released on parole. However, LePore waived his right to be considered for parole and decided to serve out the remainder of his prison sentence and was scheduled to be released no later than 2010. LePore served less than three years in confinement. After he was released, he married, started a family, and reportedly works in the home-improvement business.

Depiction in media
Matt Rainey won the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography for his series in The Star-Ledger depicting the recovery of two students who sustained serious burns and injuries from the fire. The recovery of two of the injured students was also documented by Guido Verweyen, who created the documentary "After the Fire: A True Story of Heroes & Cowards".

References

Further reading
 Robin Gaby Fisher: After the Fire: A True Story of Friendship. Little Brown and Company 2008.
The Seton Hall fire took 3 lives. Twenty years later, their families still struggle with heartbreak

External links

South Orange, New Jersey
Seton Hall University
School fire disasters
Building and structure fires in the United States
Arson in New Jersey
January 2000 crimes in the United States
2000 murders in the United States
2000 fires in the United States
2000 in New Jersey

Boland Hall fire


Geoffrey Morris (8 February 1949 – 16 February 2015) was an English footballer who played for Walsall, Shrewsbury Town, Bangor City, Port Vale, Kidderminster Harriers, and Brisbane Lions (Australia). A winger, he scored 58 goals in 305 league games in an 11-year career in the Football League. He won promotion out of the Fourth Division with Shrewsbury Town in 1974–75.

Career
Born at Great Barr, West Bromwich, Morris began his career in 1964 at Walsall, who finished ninth in the Third Division in 1965–66 under the stewardship of Ray Shaw. He became the youngest player in the club's history when he made his debut against Peterborough United in September 1965 aged 16 years and 218 days. The "Saddlers" then finished 12th in 1966–67 and seventh in 1967–68. New boss Bill Moore took the club to 13th in 1968–69, 12th in 1969–70, 20th in 1970–71, and ninth in 1971–72. Morris left the club after a 17th-place finish in 1972–73. He scored 35 goals in 177 league games at Fellows Park.

He moved on to Maurice Evans's Shrewsbury Town, who were relegated into the Fourth Division in 1973–74, in exchange for George Andrews and £6,000. The "Shrews" then won immediate promotion with a second-place finish in 1974–75 under the stewardship of rookie manager Alan Durban. He scored nine goals in 75 league games at Gay Meadow.

He spent time in the Northern Premier League with Bangor City, before he was signed by Port Vale manager Roy Sproson for a £200 fee in August 1975. He was unable to make an impact for the "Valiants" in the 1975–76 season, making 15 Third Division and two FA Cup appearances, scoring one goal in a 1–1 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion at Vale Park on 6 September.

He was given a free transfer in May 1976 and moved on to Kidderminster Harriers. He helped Harriers to an eighth-place finish in Division One North of the Southern League in 1976–77.

He left Aggborough and moved to Australia to score 13 goals in 38 National Soccer League games for Brisbane Lions in 1977 and 1978.

Later life
Morris died on 16 February 2015 at the Royal Shrewsbury Hospital after a short illness, aged 66. His funeral took place at Shrewsbury Crematorium on 5 March.

Career statistics
Source:

Honours
Shrewsbury Town
Football League Fourth Division second-place promotion: 1974–75

References

1949 births
2015 deaths
Footballers from Birmingham, West Midlands
People from Great Barr
English men's footballers
Men's association football wingers
Bangor City F.C. players
Kidderminster Harriers F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Shrewsbury Town F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
Queensland Lions FC players
English Football League players
Northern Premier League players
Southern Football League players
National Soccer League (Australia) players

Geoff Morris (footballer, born 1949)


Embryo transfer is a medical procedure.  It is a step in the process of assisted reproduction (also called fertility treatment), which uses science and medical treatments to help women who have difficulty getting pregnant.

In embryo transfer, embryos are placed in a woman's uterus.  The goal is to create a pregnancy.  The embryos can be either fresh or frozen.  If they are frozen, they are thawed right before they are transferred.  Embryo transfer is the last step in a type of fertility treatment called in vitro fertilization.

Embryo transfer can be used for humans or animals.

References

Reproductive system

Embryo transfer