Thomas Martin  (8 March 1696/7 – 7 March 1771), known as "Honest Tom Martin of Palgrave", was an antiquarian and lawyer.

Early life
Martin was born at Thetford in the school house of St. Mary's parish, which is the only parish of that town situated in the county of Suffolk. He was son of William Martin, rector of Great Livermere, Suffolk, and of St Mary's, Thetford, by his wife Elizabeth, only daughter of Thomas Burrough of Bury St. Edmunds, and aunt to Sir James Burrough, master of Caius College, Cambridge.

Martin was largely self-taught, having had a neglected education. For many years he was the only pupil at the Thetford free school, being left to read on his own. He took an early interest in antiquities. In 1710 Thetford was visited by the elderly Peter Le Neve, Norroy King of Arms and first President of the revived Society of Antiquaries. Le Neve sought a guide to the many antiquities of the town only to be told that no-one knew more than thirteen-year-old Master Martin. This began a close friendship between the learned old man and the teenage boy lasting until the death of the former in 1729.

Martin soon afterwards became clerk in the office of his brother Robert, who practised as an attorney in that town. According to notes by Martin, dated 1715, he disliked this employment, and regretted that want of means had prevented him from going to Cambridge University.

Antiquarian
In 1722 he was still at Thetford, but in 1723 he was settled at Palgrave, Suffolk, where he passed the remainder of his life. He was a student of topography and antiquities, became a member of the Spalding Gentlemen's Society, and was admitted a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, at the same time as Martin Folkes, on 17 February 1720. Cole, who often met him at Sir James Burrough's lodge at Caius College, and who had also been at his house at Palgrave, said, "he was a blunt, rough, honest, downright man; of no behaviour or guile; often drunk in a morning with strong beer, and for breakfast, when others had tea or coffee, he had beefsteak or other strong meat. . . . His thirst after antiquities was as great as his thirst after liquors". His great desire was not only to be esteemed, but to be known and distinguished by the name of "Honest Tom Martin of Palgrave". For many years his "hoary hairs were the crown of glory for the anniversary of the Society of Antiquaries," of which he was so long the senior fellow (Gent. Mag. 1779, p. 411).

His house at Palgrave was pulled down in 1860. It was large, with central entrance, and thirteen windows in front looking towards the village church.

Wives and family
By his first wife, Sarah, widow of Thomas Cropley, and daughter of John Tyrrel of Thetford, he had eight children, of whom two died early; she died in 1731, a few days after having given birth to twins. Soon afterward he married Frances, widow of Peter Le Neve, Norroy king-of-arms, then living at Great Witchingham, Norfolk. He had been acting as one of Le Neve's two executors, the other executor Thomas Tanner having recently been made a bishop and moved to his new diocese at St Asaph. By his marriage with the widow Martin illegally came into the possession of a collection of English antiquities and pictures intended by Le Neve for donation to a public institution. By his second wife he had four children, Samuel, Peter, Matthew, and Elizabeth.

Further acquisitions
The Le Neve collection of historical books and manuscripts relating to the county of Norfolk, which Martin misappropriated, has been described by Richard Gough as 'the greatest fund of antiquities for his native county that ever was collected for any single one in the kingdom'. This collection was supplemented by Martin during his remaining years, notably by the acquisition of the collections of Francis Blomefield in 1753. Blomefield's manuscripts included the Paston Letters.

Financial troubles and death
Martin was a good lawyer, but he gradually lost his practice. Money troubles meant that he was obliged to sell many of his books and some of his manuscript collections. He died at Palgrave on 7 March 1771, and was buried, with others of his family, in the porch of the parish church, where a small mural monument of white marble, with an English inscription, was erected by his friend Sir John Fenn.

Legacy of his collections
John Worth, chemist, of Diss, advertised in 1774 proposals for publishing a history of Thetford, compiled from Martin's papers by Mr. Davis, a dissenting minister, of Diss, and five sheets of the work were actually printed by Crouse of Norwich. The project was stopped by Worth's sudden death, and the manuscript was purchased by Thomas Hunt, bookseller, of Harleston, Norfolk; who subsequently sold it, together with the undigested materials, copyright, and plates, to Richard Gough. Gough published the work under the title of The History of the Town of Thetford, London, 1779. Prefixed is a portrait of Martin engraved by P. S. Lamborn, at the expense of John Ives, from a painting by T. Bardwell. A copy of this, engraved by P. Audinet, is in Nichols's Illustrations of Literature. A memoir of Martin was communicated by Sir John Cullam; the public were indebted to Francis Grose for a new set of the plates; and the coins were arranged by Benjamin Bartlett.

Martin's lack of money obliged him to dispose of books, with manuscript notes, to Thomas Payne, in 1769. A catalogue of his remaining library was printed after his death, at Lynn, in 1771. Worth purchased it, with his other collections, for £600. The printed books he immediately sold to Booth & Berry of Norwich, who disposed of them in a catalogue, 1773. The pictures and lesser curiosities Worth sold by auction at Diss; part of the manuscripts in London, in April 1773, by Samuel Baker; and in a second sale there, in May 1774, manuscripts, scarce books, deeds, grants, pedigrees, drawings, prints, coins, and curiosities. What remained on the death of Worth, consisting chiefly of the papers relating to Thetford, Bury, and the county of Suffolk, were purchased by Thomas Hunt, who sold many of them to private purchasers. Richard Gough had the Bury papers. The dispersion was completed by the sale of Ives's collection in London, in March 1777, he having been a principal purchaser at each previous one.

Two volumes, almost entirely in Martin's handwriting, with some notes of Blomefield, Ives, and others, by 1893 came into the possession of G. G. Milner-Gibson Cullum of Hardwick House, Suffolk. These volumes, containing notes on about 235 Suffolk churches, were purchased by Sir John Cullum, author of the History of Hawstead and Hardwick, from John Topham the antiquary in 1777. In addition to these Cullum had a thin notebook on some Norfolk churches; and some of Martin's notes passed to the family of Mills of Saxham. Another volume of Martin's notes was sold with the books of John Gough Nichols, and is in the library of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology. There was in the British Museum a copy of Gough's Anecdotes of British Topography, 1768, with copious manuscript notes by Martin. Many of his letters are printed in Nichols's Literary Anecdotes (ix. 413 et seq.)

At the sale of William Upcott's manuscripts, Sir John Fenn's Memoirs of the Life of Thomas Martin was purchased by Sir Thomas Phillipps.

Notes

References

Cullum. Memoir in the History of Thetford, Pref. pp. v–ix and 284, 285; Addit. MSS. 5833 f. 166, 19090 ff. 19, 24, 19166 f. 168;
Dibdin, Thomas Frognall. Bibliomania, pp. 510–13; Gent. Mag. 1853, i. 531;
Fenn, John. Memoirs of the life of Thomas Martin, Gent. (Norfolk Archaeology, XV. (1904) 233-48).
Gough, Richard. British Topography, ii. 16, 39*;
Horne. Introduction to Bibliography, ii. 661, 662;
William Thomas Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual (Bohn), p. 1491;
Monthly Review, 1780, lxii. 299;
Nichols. Illustr. of Lit. iii. 608, v. 167;
Nichols. Literary Anecdotes v. 384, v.i 97, ix. 413-39;
Notes and Queries, 1st ser. xii. 321, 2nd ser. x. 86, xi. 142, 3rd ser. xii. 163, 420.
Stoker, David. 'The ill-gotten library of 'Honest Tom' Martin' in Property of a gentleman: the formation, organisation and dispersal of the private library 1620–1920 ed. Robin Myers and Michael Harris, St Paul's Bibliographies, 1991. pp. 91–112.

Attribution

1697 births
1771 deaths
English book and manuscript collectors
English antiquarians
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
People from Mid Suffolk District
People from Thetford

Thomas Martin of Palgrave


Edgar Josef André, or Etkar Josef André (17 January 1894 – 4 November 1936) was a politician in the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and an antifascist.

Early years
Born in Aachen, André was a manual labourer's son. By the time he was five, he had already lost his father, and his mother, who was ill, found it quite hard to look after her three children. Belgian relatives brought them to Liège where for a while, Edgar found himself living at an orphanage. After leaving school, he took up an apprenticeship at a bookshop, where he came into contact with political literature.

SPD membership
In 1911, he became a member of the Belgian Labour Party, and in only two years' time, he had become the Secretary of the Socialist Worker Youth in Brussels. In 1914, he took part in the Party Congress of the Belgian Labour Party. In the First World War, he volunteered for service in the Rhineland and in late 1918 wound up a prisoner of the French. After coming back to Germany, he went first to Koblenz, where he joined the Socialist Worker Youth and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). In 1922, he moved to Hamburg. There he worked in building and at the harbour, and he became a member of the Building Workers' Alliance, and later also the Transport Workers' Alliance.

KPD membership
During the post-war early 1920s depression, which struck Germany especially hard owing to the war reparations exacted from it by the Treaty of Versailles, André came into sharp conflict with the SPD's policies, resulting in his resignation from the party, and his joining the KPD on 1 January 1923. He soon belonged to Ernst Thälmann's circle of friends. As a member of the KPD's Wasserkante District Leadership (1926–1930), he was one of the best liked labour leaders in Hamburg. As the Hamburg jobless workers' spokesman, he likewise stepped forward as co-founder and leader of the Wasserkante branch of the Rotfrontkämpferbund, the KPD's protection and defence organization (1924–1929). After attending the KPD's party school, André was, in 1931-32, active in the International Union of Seamen and Harbour Workers as an instructor and propagandist, spending much of his time in Belgium and France. His knowledge of French was a great advantage to him in this endeavour.

Arrest, imprisonment, torture and death
After Hitler seized power following the Reichstag fire, Edgar André was arrested on 5 March 1933. He was held in custody for three and a half years, during which time he was tortured. When it was over, he could walk only on crutches, and he had lost his hearing. When his trial began in Hamburg on 4 May 1936, on charges of murder, nine cases of attempted murder and public order offences, the prosecution could only present insufficient evidence of André's guilt. Nevertheless, the prosecutor requested – one assumes on Hitler's personal orders – that the death penalty be imposed . On 10 July 1936, the judge imposed just such a sentence.

The authorities ignored the international protest movement over the case, and André was beheaded on 4 November 1936. A few hours later, Fuhlsbüttel Prison's 5,000 inmates went "on strike" in protest over André's death.

In the Spanish Civil War, shortly before his death, the first battalion of the International Brigades was formed under the name "Edgar André".

Bibliography
 Bredel, Willi: Edgar André: Ein deutscher Antifaschist mit dem Tode bedroht. Strasbourg: Ed. Prométhée, 1936
 Uhse, Bodo: Die erste Schlacht: Vom Werden und den ersten Kämpfen des Bataillons Edgar André. Strasbourg: Ed. Prométhée, 1938
 Joachim Priewe: Begegnung mit Etkar André: Ein Lebensbild. Berlin (Ost) 1986.

External links

1894 births
1936 deaths
Politicians from Aachen
Politicians from the Rhine Province
Belgian Labour Party politicians
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Communist Party of Germany politicians
Rotfrontkämpferbund members
Executed communists in the German Resistance
People executed by Germany by decapitation
People from North Rhine-Westphalia executed by Nazi Germany
People executed by Nazi courts

Edgar André (politician)


Isabelle Coutant-Peyre (born in 1952) is a French lawyer engaged to Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, the international terrorist better known as "Carlos" or "Carlos the Jackal".

She represented Zacarias Moussaoui early on during his imprisonment, while he was awaiting trial for his role in the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001.

She was married to a civil servant and has three sons, Florent, Gabriel and Aurelien.

She became a lawyer and worked with Jacques Vergès, defender of Djamila Bouhired and she supports her defence of "revolutionary fighters" with income from her activities as a business lawyer.

In her political cases, she employs "rupture" techniques.
She was briefly jailed for likening French police to the Gestapo.

Her fiancé Carlos is currently held in Clairvaux Prison, where he is part of the general inmate population, and their attempts to marry have been frustrated by legal issues. Conjugal visits can only be made after a civil marriage occurs; a Muslim ceremony performed in 2001 (when Carlos was married to his second wife and Isabelle was married to her first husband) has no legal force. She believes Carlos is innocent of all his alleged crimes in Paris.

Her other clients include Stellio Capo Chichi, Youssouf Fofana (murderer of Ilan Halimi), Roger Garaudy, Mohamed Benalel Merah (father of Mohammed Merah responsible for Toulouse and Montauban shootings), Charles Sobhraj, and the Islamic Republic of Iran against the film Argo.

Bibliography
 "Grand témoin : Isabelle Coutant-Peyre", in Hallier Edernellement vôtre, Jean-Pierre Thiollet, Neva Editions, 2019, p. 173–188.

References

External links
Sunday Telegraph on Isabelle's love for Carlos

1952 births
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
20th-century French women lawyers
21st-century French women lawyers
20th-century French lawyers
21st-century French lawyers

Isabelle Coutant-Peyre


ARA Santísima Trinidad ("Most Holy Trinity") is a Type 42 destroyer of the Argentine Navy, the only one of her class built outside Britain. She participated in the 1982 Falklands War. In January 2013 the ship capsized and sank at her moorings in the Argentine naval base of Puerto Belgrano due to lack of maintenance, being refloated in December 2015. The navy's plan to turn her into a museum ship was not realised and, in 2020, the Argentine president stated that the ship should be scrapped, though this was later blocked by federal courts.

Construction and trials
The destroyer was built at the Argentine AFNE Río Santiago shipyard, supported by engineers and technicians from the UK, and commissioned in October 1980.

Sabotage
Construction began in 1973, but commissioning was long delayed by an improvised limpet mine attack carried out by divers of the guerrilla organization Montoneros on 22 August 1975. The date was chosen as a retaliation for the Trelew massacre three years before, when a number of leftist militants, most of them from the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP), were executed inside Almirante Zar air base, operated by the navy. The raid was allegedly planned in imitation of Operation Frankton, a British commando attack against German shipping in Bordeaux during World War II. The attack involved the use of a folding boat, frogmen and a limpet mine with  of explosives, which was laid on the river bed below the destroyer after a failed attempt to attach the device to the hull. The ship's bottom and electronics suffered severe damage, and completion was suspended for a year as a result of the attack.

Commissioning
The Argentine Navy enhanced the offensive capabilities of their Type 42s by fitting MM-38 Exocet missiles. The boat decks of the original design were replaced by special decks to install the missiles around the funnel, but the launchers were apparently never mounted on Santísima Trinidad. In April 1981 she made her maiden voyage to Britain, where the destroyer carried out her first sea trials, and her crew was trained in the operation and launching of Sea Dart missiles. She returned to Argentina in December 1981 having successfully completed all training and trials.

Operational history

Falklands War

Argentine Landings

Santísima Trinidad was the leading ship of the Argentine landings on the Falklands on 2 April 1982. Both the navy and the army commanders of the operation were on board. A team of 84 amphibious commandos and 8 tactical divers landed at Mullet Creek at midnight in 21 Gemini boats lowered from her deck. The wireless message demanding the surrender of the British Governor, Rex Hunt (governor), along with the Royal Marines detachment on the islands was also radioed from the destroyer.

Sea Harrier incident
During the remainder of the Falklands War, along with her sister ship , the unit served as the main escort to the aircraft carrier . At first Hércules operated independently along with a group of older destroyers, but the development of mechanical problems in her sister ship forced the Argentine commander to merge the two Type 42 destroyers into one escorting force. The carrier naval group was known as Grupo de Tareas 79.1 (Task Force 79.1), and was intended to search for and engage its British counterpart from waters north of the Falklands. Santísima Trinidad was responsible for the command and control of the group's air defence.

Late on 1 May, the carrier launched a number of S-2 Tracker surveillance aircraft, with the aim of finding the British Task Group. One of the Tracker's crews radioed that they were being chased by an unknown jet while returning to Veinticinco de Mayo. Shortly after midnight, Santísima Trinidad was ordered to switch her Type 965 radar on and track the unidentified contact.  She then locked onto a Sea Harrier with her Type 909 fire-control radar, followed afterwards by her sister-ship Hércules. The British aircraft, Sea Harrier XZ451 piloted by Flight Lieutenant Ian Mortimer of 801 Naval Air Squadron, retreated because of the threat of the Sea Dart, but not before spotting the area of deployment of the Argentine fleet. After realising that the enemy was not engaged in a major amphibious operation as supposed, which made any attempt of the Argentine against the British carriers extremely dangerous, the Argentine commander, Admiral Allara, decided to withdraw his forces to shallow waters close to the coast.

Coastal surveillance

The destroyer lost her Lynx helicopter on 4 May when the aircraft hit her flight-deck as the Argentine fleet was redeploying.  She spent the next few days in dry dock to repair the mechanical problems which reduced her speed during the operations of 1 May. In the following weeks, Santísima Trinidad was engaged in patrol duties off Patagonia. During the Air Force attacks on Bluff Cove on 8 June, Santísima Trinidad played a key role by jamming the frequencies used by the Sea Harriers air controllers with interference signals. Once the end of hostilities was declared, Santísima Trinidad escorted the British transport  into Puerto Madryn with about 3,000 Argentine prisoners on board.

After the war
After the war the British weapons and supplies embargo on Argentina made the purchase of spare parts impossible. The Argentine Minister of Defence considered selling the destroyers, and as a consequence, the Navy placed Santísima Trinidad in reserve as a parts supplier for Hércules. From 2 to 15 March 1987 she took part in Operation Grifo, the Argentine response to Operation Fire-Focus, the largest British military exercise around the Falklands since 1982. Her last Sea Dart missile test launch was conducted on 27 November 1987 against an Argentine-built drone. Santísima Trinidads last voyage took place in 1989.

Fate
Since 2004, Santísima Trinidad was listed as "in reserve awaiting overhaul", but it was expected that the navy would formally decommission her. There were projects in the Argentine congress calling for Santísima Trinidad to be converted into a museum ship.

On 21 January 2013, Santísima Trinidad suffered a broken valve which resulted in the flooding of several compartments. The flooding was beyond the capacity of the pumps and the crew was evacuated. The ship took on a 50-degree list and then sank at her berth in Puerto Belgrano.  Santísima Trinidad was in poor condition before she sank; the ship had been cannibalized to keep her sister Hércules operational, as the British refused to sell spare parts to Argentina after the Falklands War. In September 2014, specialists of the Argentine navy began an operation to raise the ship. In December 2015, Santísima Trinidad was refloated and the Navy announced their plan to turn her into a museum dedicated to the 1982 war. This project seemed to have been discarded by 2018. The Argentine president decreed on 17 December 2020 that the ship should be placed out of use and disposed of.

In December 2021, an Argentine federal court ruled that the ship cannot be scrapped due to her historical significance and can qualify for status as a national historic site.

See also
 List of ships of the Argentine Navy

References

Notes

Bibliography

Type 42 destroyers of the Argentine Navy
1974 ships
Ships built in Argentina
Falklands War naval ships of Argentina
Maritime incidents in 1975
Maritime incidents in Argentina
Ship bombings
Maritime incidents in 2013
Cold War destroyers of Argentina

ARA Santísima Trinidad (D-2)


Tomas "Tommy" Pettersson (born 29 December 1952) is a Swedish former motorcycle speedway rider.

Born in Norrköping, Pettersson learnt to ride a speedway bike in England, at Olle Nygren's training school in Boston. He made his competitive debut in 1971 for his home town team Vargarna, and won the Swedish Junior Championship the following year. He rode for Sweden in test matches against the Soviet Union in 1973 and England in 1974, and was due to tour England with Sweden in 1975 but a broken leg from a racing crash ruled him out. In 1976 he signed for Birmingham Brummies but a dispute between Birmingham and Vargarna meant that he only appeared in three challenge matches for Birmingham. He returned to Britain in 1977, first with Bristol Bulldogs and then a longer spell with Leicester Lions.

References

1952 births
Living people
Swedish speedway riders
Bristol Bulldogs riders
Leicester Lions riders
Sportspeople from Norrköping

Tommy Pettersson


Highland Park was a city near and eventually neighborhood in Louisville, Kentucky, United States, that was razed as a part of the expansion of Louisville International Airport.  Its boundaries were roughly the CSX railroad tracks to the west, and what would become the Kentucky State Fair & Exposition Center and the airport on all other sides (initially these were farm land).

Highland Park was originally built largely for workers at the nearby Louisville & Nashville Railroad yard, with professor and businessman T. C. H. Vance laying out streets in the 1880s.  Its relatively common name was based on its elevated location in relation to surrounding areas, particularly Louisville.  Vance's daughter gave the streets their Indian-themed names, such as Hiawatha and Wampum, which was a fashionable practice at the time.

Highland Park incorporated as a city in 1890, and grew quickly to 323 families by 1900.  The city would grow to include Beechmont and Wilder Park, before all were annexed by Louisville in 1922, after a 5-year court battle.

While initially centered on Louisville Avenue, the city and neighborhood's main commercial district eventually became Park Boulevard, especially after a streetcar line was installed there in 1920.

Much of the neighborhood was razed to make way for the Watterson Expressway after World War II and all of it was finally razed in the early 1990s as a part of airport expansion, a plan first announced in 1987.  However, most of what was once Highland Park is now vacant, and has not been developed by the airport. The street pattern remains intact, but areas where houses once stood have been fenced off.

In 2009, the Regional Airport Authority, which owns the former Highland Park land, released plans to develop the land and re-route Crittenden Drive around it.

James Russell Lowell Elementary School was built in 1916 in Highland Park, at that time outside the Louisville city limits. It was known as the East Highland Park School. It was expanded in 1931 and demolished in 1993.

References

External links
Street map of Highland Park (most streets are still open to traffic; however, the areas where houses were sited are fenced off)
Highland Park, Louisville, KY (includes pictures of Highland Park)
Post-demolition photos of Highland Park
   Images of Highland Park (Louisville, Ky.) in the University of Louisville Libraries Digital Collections
"Highland Park: Railroad Workers Formed a Community of Basic Pleasures, Playing It Rough but Straight" — Article by Bill Pike of The Courier-Journal

Data on James Russell Lowell Elementary School
Additional on James Russell Lowell Elementary School

Former municipalities in Kentucky
Neighborhoods in Louisville, Kentucky
1880s establishments in Kentucky
1990s disestablishments in Kentucky
Former populated places in Kentucky

Highland Park, Louisville


Terry Blackwood is a contemporary Christian musician who is best known as lead singer for Christian pop act The Imperials. He was with the group for nearly a decade, joining in 1967 and remaining with them through 1976. At that time, he left the group along with fellow Imperial Sherman Andrus to form Andrus, Blackwood and Company, one of the only racially integrated groups in contemporary Christian music at the time. They recorded 6 albums together between 1977 and 1986.

Biography

Terry Blackwood is the son of Doyle Blackwood, original co-founder of the Blackwood Brothers Qt. Terry's distinctive vocal styling has been featured on many chart topping singles while associated with two highly acclaimed vocal groups, The Imperials and Andrus, Blackwood & Co. He was a featured soloist on many Gaither Homecoming videos.

Terry is performing with the Imperials in the US and around the world. Their association with Elvis Presley opened many doors for them to sing their gospel songs and they are being received very well. They released a six-song sampler entitled Gospel Ship. He released five digitally re-mastered albums of Andrus, Blackwood & Co. Soldier Of The Light, Step Out Of The Night, ABC Live, Grand Opening, and Following You, nominated for a Grammy award in 1978.

Terry had a solo album released in November, 2011 called Anthology.

Discography
From  Christian Music Archive
 Oh What A Savior 1962
 The New Stamps Qt 1963
 What A Day That Will Be 1964
 Introducing the Memphians 1965
 Doyle Blackwood and the Memphians 1966
 New Dimensions (Imperials) 1967
 Imperials Now (Imperials) 1968
 Love Is The Thing (Imperials) 1969
 Gospel Is Alive and Well (Imperials) 1970
 Time To Get It Together (Imperials) 1971
 The Imperials (Imperials) 1972
 Imperials Live (Imperials) 1973
 Follow The Man with the Music (Imperials) 1974
 No Shortage (Imperials) 1975
 Just Because (Imperials) 1976
 Keep Holding On 1976
 Grand Opening 1977
 Following You 1978
 Live 1980
 Soldiers of the Light 1981
 Step Out of the Night 1982
 Holiday 1984
 Best of Andrus, Blackwood and Company 1984
 Hymns and Classics 1993
 Friends IV An Offering 1997
 A Blackwood Homecoming 2000
 Friends IV One Voice 2002
 From The Heart 2003
 The Gospel Side of Elvis (Imperials) 2003
 Gospel Ship 2006
 If My People - The Single 2012
 The Journey 2016
 The Way 2022

External links

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American performers of Christian music

Terry Blackwood


12 Gauge is the self-titled debut album by 12 Gauge, released on May 20, 1994, through Scotti Bros. Records.

The album is best known for its lead single and 12 Gauge's only top 40 hit, "Dunkie Butt". The single spent 21 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at No. 28 and was certified gold by the RIAA for sales of 500,000 copies. The album itself made it to No. 141 on the Billboard 200, and 44 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, the only one of his three albums to reach the Billboard charts. After the Zomba Music Group purchased the Scotti Bros. label, the album was re-released in 1998.

Track listing

Charts

1994 debut albums
Scotti Brothers Records albums
12 Gauge (rapper) albums

12 Gauge (12 Gauge album)


Włodzimierz Zagórski of the Clan of Ostoja (born January 21, 1882 in Saint-Martin-Lantosque, France – disappeared August 6, 1927 en route from Wilno to Warsaw) was an Austro-Hungary military intelligence soldier, Polish brigadier general, staff officer, and aviator.

Youth
Włodzimierz Zagórski was born in Saint-Martin-Lantosque, France, near the city of Nice. He was born into nobility, specifically the Clan of Ostoja. His father was Jan Zagórski, one of many representatives of the noble Zagórski family living throughout Masovia, Warsaw, Lubelszczyzna, Lublin, and Cracow. Jan Zagórski was an active member of the January Uprising in 1863–1864, who as a result of his participation in the Uprising, was deported to Siberia only to escape and flee afterwards to France. Włodzimierz Zagórski's mother was Anna Kozłow, a dame of the House of Romanov and daughter of General Kozlov.
Włodziemierz Zagórski experienced extensive schooling in many various subjects while living in France. He graduated both legal and trade schools in France and Austria. He spoke fluently six languages, including French and German, and financed his own aviation training when the industry was just being popularized.

Military service in the Austro-Hungarian Army and the Polish Legions during World War I
Zagórski began his military service in 1900 in the Austro-Hungarian Army. On August 18, 1902, he was promoted to Second Lieutenant of Artillery. In 1910, he graduated from the General Staff Academy in Vienna and was promoted to Chief of Staff of the 8th Infantry Brigade of the Austro-Hungarian Army in Cracow. In 1911, he was transferred to the (Evidenzbureau) of the Austro-Hungarian Army, where he was responsible for leading irregular warfare in the Vistula Land, aimed at destabilizing said region of the Russian Empire. Zagórski was appointed as an official in the Second Branch of the General Staff in Vienna, where he commanded the so-called Hauptkundschaftstellen in Cracow, Przemyśl, and Lwów.

The Hauptkundschaftstellen was the governing body of the Evidenzbureau which commanded Austrian-sponsored Polish paramilitary and intelligence-gathering organizations in the Vistula Land. One of the commanders of such organizations Zagórski came into contact with was Józef Piłsudski. Piłsudski would gather and transfer intelligence over to Zagórski in exchange for Austrian funds which helped establish and expand Polish paramilitary capabilities in the Vistula Land - one such example being the Riflemen's Association.

 During the first two years of World War I, Zagórski was promoted to captain and appointed Chief of Staff of the Polish Legions. Józef Piłsudski opposed Zagórski's appointment as Chief of Staff, as Piłsudski was interested in re-constructing an independent Poland while Zagórski proved stubbornly loyal to Emperor Franz Joseph I. The Austrian Emperor would have opposed the breakaway of Polish-populated Austrian territories. As a result, Zagórski proved terribly difficult to work with, having created enemies with Piłsudski, Władysław Sikorski, and even members of the Austrian Army's High Command due to his extreme loyalty towards the Austrian Emperor.

From June 1916 to July 1917, Zagórski served as commander of the 3rd Infantry Regiment of the Polish Legions. The Oath Crisis took place during this time period, where Zagórski pledged his allegiance to the Central Powers, in contrast to the vast majority of his soldiers who did not. He imprisoned several of his soldiers and ordered for them not to be fed. When none of the prisoners complied with Zagórski's demand to pledge allegiance to the Central Powers, he ordered the soldiers to march shoe-less to an internment camp in Szczypiorno. Later, it was often recalled by the Polish Legions that as the column of shoe-less Poles marched past a furious Zagórski, the Polish soldiers bellowed out in unison the lyrics to "We Are the First Brigade", and added a fifth verse to the song where they verbally attacked Zagórski, ending the song with telling Zagórski to "go f--- yourself". As a result, Zagórski denounced several Polish Legion officers at the internment camp who entered undercover as regular soldiers with the aim of dividing the sentences among the imprisoned. Those denounced by Zagórski were transferred to another internment camp in Havelberg, where they were brutally treated, and even tortured.

From July 1917 to February 1918, Zagórski served as the commander of the 1st Light Artillery Regiment of the Polish Auxiliary Corps. After the successful break-through of the II Brigade at the Battle of Rarańcza, Zagórski was removed from the Polish Legions for plotting against the Austrian Army. He was interned at Khust, and later court-martialed. His sentence was quickly nullified due to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Despite having served in the Polish Legions, many within the Legions denounced Zagórski for his loyalty towards the Habsburg Emperors instead of his fellow Polish countrymen.

Service in the Polish Armed Forces
During the formation of the Polish Armed Forces in late October 1918, Zagórski was appointed Vice-Chief of the Polish Army's General Staff. However, on November 10 - only three weeks later - he was forced to resign. He was recalled to the Army at the start of Polish-Soviet border conflicts which soon erupted into the Polish-Bolshevik War. During the war, he was Chief of Staff of the Polish Northern Front, which was then led by General Józef Haller. He participated in the Battle of Warsaw.

From September 25, 1920 to November 23, 1920, he served as fill-in commander of the 4th Infantry Division, and was then assigned full command of the division until April 1921. On April 9, 1921, Zagórski asked of his own accord to be transferred to the Polish Army Reserves. From April 1921 to March 1923, Zagórski was enlisted in the reserves, and spent most of his time working for Francopol - a company which purchased and imported French-made aeroplanes for the Polish Army.

In March 1923, the Minister to Military Affairs, General Kazimierz Sosnkowski, called Zagórski up from the reserves and appointed him Chief of the Military Production Department to the Army. On November 1, 1923, he was promoted to colonel in the Staff of Generals.  On March 31, 1924, he was promoted by President Stanisław Wojciechowski to Brigade General.

Francopol Affair
From 17 August 1924 until 18 March 1926 he served as Chief of the Air Force Department in the War Ministry. An important figure in the development of the Polish air force, he attempted during this time period to implement a controversial armament program for the air force created by François-Lèon Leveque, a French officer who commanded the Polish Army's air force up until December 1922. The program called for the import of French-made aircraft to arm nearly 50 squadrons. Large amounts of credit were loaned by the French in exchange for purchase of French aircraft for the Polish air force. The rapid enforcing of the program by Zagórski resulted in the purchase of a large number of French aircraft through the Francopol company. By 1925, in terms of the number of aircraft, the Poles were considered a European aerial powerhouse. On the other hand, the quick purchase of such a vast number of aircraft overshadowed the fact that Poland lacked trained pilots to fly the newly purchased aircraft, lacked the proper facilities to base the aircraft in, and lacked properly trained technicians to service the aircraft. As a result, although Poland had a threatening force on paper, squadrons of airplanes rusted away, and along with it Poland's aerial potential. Additionally, despite having acquired reliable and superior aircraft such as the Breguet XIX or Potez XXV, Poland also purchased aircraft considered to be outdated, inferior, and marred with poor service and safety records, such as the SPAD S.61 or Farman F.68 Goliath.

From January 1926, Zagórski came under attack from Piłsudskiites in the government and military – including generals Daniel Konarzewski and Lucjan Żeligowski, for having mismanaged the formation of the Polish air force through the participation of corrupt elements. Specifically, Zagórski was attacked for the role of Francopol and French capital in the formation of the air force. Additionally, the argument was made that the native Polish aircraft industry has suffered drastically as a result of the purchase of French-made airplanes instead. On March 18, 1926, General Żeligowski fired Zagórski from his position as Chief of the Air Force in the War Ministry.
Zagórski was heavily criticized by public media. He had been a shareholder in Francopol since 1921, yet all the purchases for the air force through Francopol - including the purchase of 100 aircraft engines and 100 Spad S.61 aircraft, was supervised and approved by the General Prosecutor of the National Treasury.

May Coup of 1926 and imprisonment
During the May 1926 coup d'état, Piłsudskiite forces attacked the legal government of Prime Minister Wincenty Witos. Loyal to the Witos Government,  General Tadeusz Jordan-Rozwadowski ordered Zagórski on May 12 to take command of the Warsaw Air Group from Ludomił Rayski and to initiate bombing of pro-Piłsudski forces. Zagórski was arrested in Warsaw on May 15, 1926, along with four other generals who had supported the legal government, including his superior General Rozwadowski. The five prisoners-of-war were imprisoned in Wilno. Zagórski was accused to have had allegedly flown missions and personally bombed Piłsudski's force despite there being no evidence for these accusations. In October 1926, the five prisoners were cleared of all charges and approved for release, yet the army prosecutor lengthened their arrests instead, citing the prisoners to be threats to the interests of the Polish Army. A new round of charges were created against Zagórski and his role in the Francopol Affair, although they were never brought up against him.

Release and disappearance
Marian Zdziechowski, a prominent Piłsudskiite and professor at the Wilno University, publicly criticized the government's acceptance of lengthening the imprisonment period of the five prisoners. Zdziechowski's criticism had greatly influenced other Poles, and even members of Piłsudski's own circle, which in turn forced the government to release the prisoners due to public pressure. The five prisoners, including Zagórski, were finally released from prison on August 6, 1927.

Zagórski was escorted to the Wilno train station in non-military public attire. At 8:20 am, train 714 heading to Warsaw from Wilno departed the station with Zagórski on board. Zagórski was supposed to meet with Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski first thing upon his arrival at Warsaw, yet Zagórski did not arrive at his expected destination. Press speculation abounded as to his disappearance, but in the end he was never seen again, nor his body ever found. Media at the time speculated that the former intelligence officer disappeared fearing another trial regarding the Francopol Affair; some historians allege that Zagórski was murdered on the orders of Józef Piłsudski, yet there is no evidence to support such a thesis. To date, the whereabouts and fate of General Zagórski are unknown and the sole charges that were brought up against him after his disappearance were for desertion from the Polish Army.

See also
 Clan of Ostoja
 May Coup (Poland)
 List of people who disappeared
 Ostoja coat of arms
 Polish Legions in World War I
 We Are the First Brigade

External links

  Jerzy Rawicz, Generał Zagórski zaginął..., Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1963.
  Jerzy Gaul, Z działalności kapitana Włodzimierza Zagórskiego w latach 1914 – 1918, Przegląd Historyczny 1997.
  Maximillian Ronge, dwanaście lat służby wywiadowczej, Warszawa 1992.
  Piotr Kowalski, Generał brygady Włodzimierz Ostoja-Zagórski (1882-1927) - biografia, Toruń 2007. (Oficyna Wydawnicza Kucharski) - książka wyróżniona przez kapitułę Nagrody im. Józefa Mackiewicza
  Zbigniew Cieślikowski, Tajemnice śledztwa KO 1042/27. Sprawa generała Włodzimierza Ostoi-Zgórskiego, Warszawa 1997.
  Bohdan Urbankowski, Józef Piłsudski: marzyciel i strateg, (Józef Piłsudski: Dreamer and Strategist), Tom pierwszy (first tome), Wydawnictwo ALFA, Warsaw, 1997,
  Tadeusz Kryska-Karski i Stanisław Żurakowski: Generałowie Polski Niepodległej wyd. Editions Spotkania Warszawa 1991, s. 185
 H. P Kosk: Generalicja polska t. 2 Oficyna Wydawnicza "Ajaks" Pruszków 2001
  Piotr Stawecki: Słownik biograficzny generałów Wojska Polskiego 1918-1939, Warszawa 1994, , s. 198-199, s. 358-359
  Piotr Zarzycki: 1 Pułk Artylerii Najcięższej, Zarys historii wojennej pułków polskich w kampanii wrześniowej zeszyt 6, Przedsiębiorstwo Wielobranżowe "Egross-Mikromax" Sp. z o.o., Warszawa 1991, ,
  Lista starszeństwa oficerów Legionów Polskich w dniu oddania Legionów Polskich Wojsku Polskiemu (12 kwietnia 1917), Warszawa 1917, s. 1,
  M. Patelski, Jeńcy majowej wojny. Pobyt generałów: Tadeusza Jordan Rozwadowskiego, Juliusz Malczewskiego, Włodzimierza Zagórskiego i Bolesława Jaźwińskiego w Wojskowym Więzieniu Śledczym na Antokolu w Wilnie, [w:] Zamach stanu Józefa Piłsudskiego 1926 roku, pod red. Marka Siomy, Lublin 2007, s. 309-324.
  Rocznik Oficerski 1924, s. 19, 118,
  Rocznik Oficerski 1928, s. 12,
  "Formowanie Wojska Polskiego a rocznica niepodległości" , wykład Mariusza Patelskiego wygłoszony w Klubie Inteligencji Katolickiej w dniu 9 listopada 2003 r.
  Collections of Individuals - Włodzimierz Zagórski; Józef Piłsudski Institute of America (Archive 154, Folder 1170)
  (mostly in German)

References

Books

1882 births
1920s missing person cases
20th-century Polish military personnel
Clan of Ostoja
Missing person cases in Poland
People from Alpes-Maritimes
People of the Polish May Coup (pro-government side)
Polish Air Force generals
Polish Austro-Hungarians
Polish Auxiliary Corps personnel
Polish generals of the Second Polish Republic
Polish legionnaires (World War I)
Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War
Polnische Wehrmacht personnel
Year of death missing

Włodzimierz Zagórski (general)


The Emblem of Iran was made after the Islamic Revolution in that country, in 1979. After the revolution, Iran decided to use a new flag. The old flag had a picture of a golden lion and a sabre, that was a symbol for the Shah (king) of Iran. This emblem is a symbol for the whole country and the Islamic character of the new government. It is drawn to look like a version of the word الله which means "God" in the Arabic language, which is not the official language in Iran. It looks like a tulip, which is an old symbol for Iran.
Iran

National symbols of Iran

Coat of arms of Iran


Waldrada (also Vuldetrada) (531572), wife (firstly) of Theudebald, King of Austrasia (ruled 548–555), reputed mistress (secondly) of Chlothar I, King of the Franks (ruled until 561), was the daughter of Wacho, King of the Lombards (ruled ca. 510–539) and his second wife called Austrigusa or Ostrogotha, a Gepid.

The Origo Gentis Langobardorum names "Wisigarda…secundæ Walderada" as the two daughters of Wacho and his second wife, specifying that Waldrada married "Scusuald regis Francorum" and later "Garipald". The Historia Langobardorum names "Waldrada" as Wacho's second daughter by his second wife, specifying that she married "Chusubald rex Francorum".  Paulus Diaconus names "Wisigarda…[et] secunda Walderada" as the two daughters of King Wacho & his second wife, specifying that Walderada married "Cusupald alio regi Francorum" and later "Garipald". Gregory of Tours names Vuldetrada as the wife of King Theodebald.  Herimannus names "Wanderadam" wife of "Theodpaldus rex Francorum" when recording her second marriage to "Lotharius rex patris eius Theodeberti patruus".

According to Gregory of Tours, King Clotaire "began to have intercourse" with the widow of King Theodebald, before "the bishops complained and he handed her over to Garivald Duke of Bavaria", which apparently implies that King Clotaire did not marry Waldrada.

References

External links

Lethings
6th-century Frankish women
Frankish queens consort
6th-century Frankish nobility

Waldrada


Design fiction is a design practice aiming at exploring and criticising possible futures by creating speculative, and often provocative, scenarios narrated through designed artifacts. It is a way to facilitate and foster debates, as explained by futurist Scott Smith: "... design fiction as a communication and social object creates interactions and dialogues around futures that were missing before. It helps make it real enough for people that you can have a meaningful conversation with".

By inspiring new imaginaries about the future, Design Fiction moves forward innovation perspectives, as conveyed by author Bruce Sterling's own definition: "Design Fiction is the deliberate use of diegetic prototypes to suspend disbelief about change".

Reflecting the diversity of media used to create design fictions and the breadth of concepts that are prototyped in the associated fictional worlds, researchers Joseph Lindley and Paul Coulton propose that design fiction be defined as: "(1) something that creates a story world, (2) has something being prototyped within that story world, (3) does so in order to create a discursive space", where 'something' may mean 'anything'. Examples of the media used to create design fiction storyworlds include physical prototypes, prototypes of user manuals, digital applications, videos, short stories, comics, fictional crowdfunding videos, fictional documentaries, catalogues or newspapers and pastiches of academic papers and abstracts.

History
Design fiction is part of the speculative design discipline, itself a relative of critical design. Although the term design fiction was coined by Bruce Sterling in 2005, where he says it is similar to science fiction but "makes more sense on the page", it was Julian Bleecker's 2009 essay that firmly established the idea. Bleecker brought together Sterling's original idea and combined it with David A. Kirby's notion of the diegetic prototype and a paper written by influential researchers Paul Dourish and Genevieve Bell which argued reading science fiction alongside Ubiquitous Computing research would shed further light on both areas. Since Bleecker's essay was published design fiction has become increasingly popular as demonstrated by the adoption of design fiction in a wide variety of academic research.

Characteristics
Although design fiction shows a lot of overlaps with other Discursive Design practices such as critical design, Adversarial Design, Interrogative Design, Design for Debate, reflective design, and contestational design, it is possible to draw some of its special features.

Design fiction draws its inspiration from weak signals of our everyday lives, such as innovations in new technologies or new cultural trends, and use extrapolation to build disruptive visions of society. Through challenging the status quo, this practice aims at making ourselves question our current uses, norms, ethics or values, whether leading innovation, or consuming it at the other end of the line.

Design fictions tend to stand aside from manichaean utopian/dystopian depictions, and rather dig into more ambiguous grey areas of the explored subjects. As explained by Fabien Girardin, co-founder of The Near Future Laboratory: "Design Fiction doesn't so much 'predict' the future. It is a way to consider the future differently; a way to tell stories about alternatives and unexpected trajectories; a way to discuss a different kind of future than the typical bifurcation into utopian and dystopian".

Design fictions focus on the everyday, exploring and questioning interactions between people or HCI, habits, social behaviors, casual failures or rituals. Fabien Girardin on this point: "To contrast with other similar design approaches, we think Design Fiction is a bit different from critical design, which is a bit more abstract and theoretical compared to our own interest in design happening outside of galleries or museums. Design Fiction is about exploring a future mundane".

Another approach to design fiction is through live action role-playing games (larps). Malthe Stavning Erslev argues that the research larp Civilisation's Waiting Room, which explores a future society run by an AI, is a form of design fiction using what he calls a mimetic method that is "making the technology appear" in "deeply embodied, ephemeral encounters of enactment".

In recent pop culture, design fiction might be bonded to the Black Mirror anticipation series, each episode portraying a disturbing alternative present or near future where characters have to deal with the unexpected consequences of emerging technologies.

Methodology and process
Design fiction is an open and evolving practice, demonstrating a variety of approaches from designers and studios. However it is possible to draw some common lines:
 "What if?" questions
Design fictions often rely on a question: "What if?", creating a provocative framework for speculation from the start. This questioning format stimulates the exploration of tensions and sticking points, leading to the construction of the new fictional universe, in an alternative present or near future, which includes a new set of morals and values: "The New Normal".
 Diegetic prototypes

The speculative scenario and the fictional world in which it takes place are made tangible thanks to design tools and methods, to conceive what David A. Kirby was the first to call "diegetic prototypes". The term diegetic stands for their narrative attribute, made to be self-explanatory of the world they come from. At the same time, they purposely leave narrative spaces for the viewer's imagination to fill in: they "tell worlds rather than stories".  As explained by Julian Bleecker: "Design fiction objects are totems through which a larger story can be told, or imagined or expressed. They are like artifacts from someplace else, telling stories about other worlds".

These prototypes are effective entry points into complex topics subject to socio-technological controversies such as digital technologies, Internet of things, ubiquitous computing, biotechnology, synthetic biology, transhumanism, artificial intelligence, data or algorithms. They "help make things visceral and real enough to jump to discussions and get to decisions".
 Discussion and debate generation
Design fictions are meant to be displayed in order to create a space for discussion and debate. They can be exposed in various contexts depending on the targeted audiences: online – video platforms, social media, dedicated websites,... – or offline – galleries or museums, convenient stores, forums, ... – unveiling or not their fictional nature. In 2013, the project 99¢ FUTURES driven by the Extrapolation Factory studio showed that provoked discussions and debates could happen successfully in non-institutional places, such as a convenient store : they shelved artefacts – previously imagined and conceived during a workshop - among "real" current consumption objects. Customers passing by started to discuss about these pieces of futures, even purchasing the one they liked the most for a few dollars.

Application scope
 Public policy-making

Design Fiction is a helpful tool used to discuss and move forward public policy-making processes. In 2015, ProtoPolicy, a co-design project led by the Design Friction studio, All-Party Parliamentary Design and Innovation Group (APDIG) and Age UK aimed at building a shared understanding of the constraints and opportunities of political issues around Ageing in Place and loneliness through design fictions. A series of creative workshops involving older people communities led to the conception of "Soulaje", a provocative self-administered euthanasia wearable designed to start discussion around the taboo issues of death and freedom of choice. A second scenario staged "The Smart Home Therapist", a new kind of therapist who, through human psychology and artificial intelligence expertise, facilitates and improves older people's relationship with their smart homes and eases their access to personalized domestic products and services.
 Innovative companies
Design fiction can be a powerful tool for companies showing prospective approaches or interests within changing or emerging industries. It can be used to help inspiring new imaginaries about the future, collecting insights and qualitative data that will help to formulate strategic directions and decisions, anticipating risks, social and cultural obstacles, enabling discussion between stakeholders, involving internal teams and external audiences in future orientations, bringing out unexpected feedbacks, frictions, misuses, misappropriations or reappropriations of new technologies and highlight their multiple impacts on potential users and more broadly speaking on the society.

The Near Future Laboratory on its approach of design fiction towards companies: "Design Fiction is one approach among others, but its contribution focus on the near future and is tangible. For instance, instead of participating to workshops of multidisciplinary experts with a powerpoint filled with ideas for a technology, we propose to create the user manual for the envisioned product or produce a video that showcases how an employee appropriates the technologies with its features and limitations. These artifacts are meant to materialize changes, opportunities and implication in the use of technologies. They particularly point out details in situations of use with the objective to avoid a "general discussion". ... For our clients a successful Design Fiction means that they can feel, touch and understand near future opportunities and with convincing material of potential changes of their customers, markets, technologies, or competition."

 General public

Design fiction gets closer to activism when it comes to raising the awareness of the general public on emerging social, legal, political or economic issues. Oniria is a project developed by A Parede studio in 2016 in reaction to the Statute of the Unborn, a Brazilian law project settling the beginning of life at the stage of egg fertilisation, therefore prohibiting the Morning-After Pill in a country where abortion is already illegal under most circumstances. As a critique, designers imagined a scenario in which a company launches a contraceptive technology in line with this new measure. People were invited to share their own visions through various social media platforms on how their life would be affected and how they would bond to this new device in their everyday life.

Publications
The Manual of Design Fiction by Julian Bleecker, Nick Foster, Fabien Girardin, and Nicolas Nova, 2022

 Speculative Everything: Design, Fiction and Social Dreaming by Dunne and Raby, MIT Press, 2013

 2050: "Designing our Tomorrow", Architectural Design, Volume 85, Issue 4, July/August 2015. Edited by Chris Luebkeman with contributions from Tim Maughan, Dan Hill, Liam Young, Mitchell Joachim, et al.

 Ecotopia 2121: Visions of Our Future Green Utopia--in 100 Cities, written and illustrated by Alan Marshall, , an outcome of the Ecotopia 2121 Project

 "Design Fiction", A short essay on design, science fact and fiction by Julian Bleecker, 2009

 Little Book of Design Fiction for the Internet of Things by Paul Coulton, Joe lindley, and Rachel Cooper, 2018

See also
 Critical design
 Critical making
 Dystopia
 Scenario-based design
 Science fiction prototyping
 Speculative design
 Utopia

References

Critical design
Critical theory
Inquiry
Design
Narrative techniques

Design fiction


Lester Charles King (1907–1989) was an English geologist and geomorphologist known for his theories on scarp retreat. He offered a very different view of the origin of continental landscaping than that of William Morris Davis. Studying at university in New Zealand King was a disciple of Charles Cotton who was heavily influenced by Davis. While King's ideas were an attempt at refuting Davis' cycle of erosion they were themselves of cyclical nature and contributed to what Cliff Ollier has called "Davis bashing" — the ridicule of cyclical theories in geomorphology, in particular Davis' ones. Critics did however not propose alternative models. For him, the weathering of physical factors in arid areas causes the erosion of the hills, the deposition of the weathered material (pediments)  and the deposition of these material in lower altitudes, contributing to the formation of the pediplain. He was also an early proponent of continental drift, having lectured on this matter at a number of U.S. universities during a tour in 1958.

King was a supporter of the Expanding Earth hypothesis.

References

1907 births
1989 deaths
20th-century British geologists
British geomorphologists
Victoria University of Wellington alumni
University of New Zealand alumni
British expatriates in New Zealand
British expatriates in South Africa
Presidents of the Geological Society of South Africa

Lester Charles King


Daniel Bourne (born March 2, 1955) is a poet, translator of poetry from Polish, editor, and professor of English at The College of Wooster in Wooster, Ohio, where he has taught since 1988. He teaches Creative Writing and poetry.  He attended Indiana University Bloomington, where he received his  Bachelor of Arts in Comparative Literature and History in 1979, and a Master of Fine Arts in Creative writing in 1987.  Bourne is the editor and founder of the Artful Dodge literary magazine which focuses on fiction of place as well as translations, and has been praised for its publication of Polish poets in translation.  He lives outside Wooster with his wife Margret and his son Carter.

Poetry
Bourne's poetry has been published in American Poetry Review, Ploughshares, Indiana Review, Salmagundi, Shenandoah, The Journal, and North American Review. His poetry has also been widely anthologized.

In the award citation for the 2003 Edges Prize, won by Bourne for Where No One Spoke the Language, poet Carolyne Wright praises Bourne for his ability to "make the strange familiar," writing that  "Bourne speaks, across borders of linguistic and national difference, a profoundly human language for us all."  This collection "is worldly in the best sense: drawing on the author's extensive time in Poland, the poems meditate on history and cross-cultural perspectives. With intellectual depth and range, Bourne's poems bring the reader into a larger consciousness about our place on the earth."

The poet, William Heyen, writes, "What Daniel Bourne has done here is something I haven't heard done yet--Charles Simic's surreal mode grounded, but with Simic's knowledge of Eastern Europe.   Remarkable and relentless, Where No One Spoke the Language achieves a voice of exile deeper than any I've heard from an American poet since The Waste Land." Indeed, before its publication, Where No One Spoke the Language was a finalist for the T.S. Eliot prize in poetry in 2003.

Bourne's poetry has been translated into Polish and Hungarian.  In Hungary, it appeared in Magyar Napló, the official literary magazine of the Hungarian Writers' Union.  In Poland, it appeared in Odra and Topos. His poem "Vigilia" and the title poem of his book, "Where No One Spoke the Language," were published under the pseudonym Jerzy Sarna in the illegal underground literary journal, Obecnosc, during martial law.

Translations
Bourne is well regarded for his translations of contemporary Polish poetry, notably his translations of Bronislaw Maj, and of On the Crossroads of Asia and Europe and other works by Polish poet Tomasz Jastrun.  This collection is praised by the Sarmatian Review which states, "Bourne strikes a careful middle ground between the rewrite and negative capability. And I think that is because he is no armchair translator, but a poet himself, who lived through the world described in Jastrun's poems. He was living in Warsaw during martial law, sneaking about to meet with various poets and writers and visual artists." Indeed, Bourne was in Poland during the Summer of 1980 and the rise of Solidarity—the shipyard strikes that soon took over the entire country and resulted in the Workers Accord being signed between Solidarity and the Polish government creating the first independent trade unions in the Eastern Bloc. He later returned to Poland for a year during the period of martial law, and then for two more years in 1985–87 on a Fulbright fellowship for the translation of younger Polish poets.  In The Polish Review, of On the Crossroads of Asia and Europe, it is commented that "Many of the poems read as English originals and have little of the awkwardness seen in some translated verse."

Bourne is considered an important translator of Polish poetry during the last decade of Communism and into the post-communist era, having also translated the poetry of Jan Polkowski and Krystyna Lars as well as being the editor of the section on Polish writing for Shifting Borders, an anthology of Eastern European poetry published in 1993.

Books

 Where No One Spoke The Language, Custom Words Press, 2006
 The Household Gods, Cleveland State University Press, 1995
 Boys Who Go Aloft, a poetry chapbook published by Sparrow Press in 1987

Notable translations

 Here At The End of My Hands,  by Bronislaw Maj
 On the Crossroads of Asia and Europe,  a collection of translations of Polish poetry and essayist Tomasz Jastrun, Salmon Run.

References

External links
Press Release: Daniel Bourne's poems featured in Salmagundi's 50th anniversary issue
Newspaper Article: Daniel Bourne to do Reading Tonight
Interview with Czeslaw Milosz
Bourne interviewed about poetry
"Covenant" poem

1955 births
Living people
American male poets
Polish–English translators
Indiana University Bloomington alumni
College of Wooster faculty

Daniel Bourne


Maximilian Reinitz (29 October 1872, Vienna - 25 September 1935, Vienna) was an Austrian Cubist painter; associated with the Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity) movement.

Biography
He was born to a Hungarian-German family from Fejér County. His interest in art came relatively late. From 1898 to 1902, he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich; initially with the genre painter, Johann Caspar Herterich, then with Johann's brother Ludwig von Herterich, Carl von Marr and the engraver, Peter Halm.

Upon completing his studies, he traveled throughout the region; visiting Budapest, Dresden and Berlin. He also undertook study trips to Italy and Albania. After 1914, he returned to Vienna and became a member of the Hagenbund.

Although he was primarily a Cubist painter, he supported most of the modern trends in European art. His showing at the Frühlings-Ausstellung (Spring Exhibition) of 1922 aroused such a torrent of negative reviews from conservative critics that he withdrew from the art community.

He was apparently riddled with self-doubt and suffered periods of severe depression. Although he was married twice and had two children, much of his life was spent in seclusion and little is known about him or his activities, outside of his showings. His works were rediscovered many years after his death.

Selected paintings

References

External links

ArtNet: More works by Reinitz.

1872 births
1935 deaths
20th-century Austrian painters
20th-century male artists
Cubist artists
Painters from Vienna
Painters from Austria-Hungary

Maximilian Reinitz


Henry IV (; 13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), also known by the epithets Good King Henry or Henry the Great, was King of Navarre (as Henry III) from 1572 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first monarch of France from the House of Bourbon, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. He pragmatically balanced the interests of the Catholic and Protestant parties in France as well as among the European states. He was assassinated in 1610 by a Catholic zealot, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII.

Henry was baptised a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother. He inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on his mother's death. As a Huguenot (Protestant), Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. He later led Protestant forces against the French royal army. Henry inherited the throne of France in 1589 upon the death of Henry III. Henry IV initially kept the Protestant faith (the only French king to do so) and had to fight against the Catholic League, which denied that he could wear France's crown as a Protestant. After four years of military stalemate, he converted to Catholicism to obtain mastery over his kingdom, reportedly saying, "Paris is well worth a mass." As a pragmatic politician he promulgated the Edict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants, thereby effectively ending the French Wars of Religion.

An active ruler, Henry worked to regularise state finance, promote agriculture, eliminate corruption and encourage education. He began the first successful French colonization of the Americas. He promoted trade and industry, and prioritized the construction of roads, bridges, and canals to facilitate communication within France and strengthen the country's cohesion. These efforts stimulated economic growth and improved living standards.

While the Edict of Nantes brought religious peace to France, some hardline Catholics and Huguenots remained dissatisfied, leading to occasional outbreaks of violence and conspiracies. Henry IV also faced resistance from certain noble factions who opposed his centralization policies, leading to political instability.

His main foreign policy success was the Peace of Vervins in 1598, which made peace in the long-running conflict with Spain. He formed a strategic alliance with England through his marriage to the cousin of Queen Elizabeth I. He also forged alliances with Protestant states, such as the Dutch Republic and several German states, to counter the Catholic powers. His policies contributed to the stability and prominence of France in European affairs.

Early life and King of Navarre

Childhood and adolescence

Henry de Bourbon was born in Pau, the capital of the joint Kingdom of Navarre with the sovereign principality of Béarn. His parents were Jeanne III of Navarre (Jeanne d'Albret) and her husband, Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, King of Navarre. Although baptised as a Catholic, Henry was raised in the Calvinist faith by his mother, who had declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre. As a teenager, Henry joined the Huguenot forces in the French Wars of Religion. On 9 June 1572, upon his mother's death, the 19-year-old became King of Navarre.

First marriage and Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

At the death of his mother Queen Jeanne, it was arranged for Henry to marry Margaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. The wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on the parvis of Notre Dame Cathedral.

On 24 August, the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre began in Paris. Several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henry's wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and his promise to convert to Catholicism. He was forced to live at the court of France, but he escaped in early 1576. On 5 February of that year, he formally abjured Catholicism at Tours and rejoined the Protestant forces in the military conflict. He named his 16-year-old sister, Catherine de Bourbon, regent of Béarn. Catherine held the regency for nearly thirty years.

Wars of Religion

Henry became heir presumptive to the French throne in 1584 upon the death of Francis, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir to the Catholic Henry III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Given that Henry of Navarre was the next senior agnatic descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice but to recognise him as the legitimate successor.

War of the Three Henrys (1587–1589)

A conflict for the throne of France then ensued, contested by these three men and their respective supporters:

 King Henry III of France, supported by the royalists and the politiques;
 King Henry of Navarre, heir presumptive to the French throne and leader of the Huguenots, supported by Elizabeth I of England and the Protestant princes of Germany; and
 Henry I of Lorraine, Duke of Guise, leader of the Catholic League, funded and supported by Philip II of Spain.

Salic law barred inheritance by the king's sisters and all others who could claim descent through only the female line. However, since Henry of Navarre was a Huguenot, many Catholics refused to acknowledge the succession, and France was plunged into a phase of the Wars of Religion known as the War of the Three Henrys (1587–1589).

The Duke of Guise pushed for complete suppression of the Huguenots and had much support among Catholic loyalists. Political disagreements among the parties set off a series of campaigns and counter-campaigns that culminated in the Battle of Coutras.

In December 1588, King Henry III had the Duke of Guise murdered, along with his brother Louis, Cardinal of Guise, thinking the removal of the brothers would restore his authority. However, the populace was horrified and rose against him. The King was no longer recognized in several cities; his effective power was limited to Blois, Tours, and the surrounding districts.

In the general chaos, Henry III relied on Henry of Navarre and his Huguenots. The two kings were united by a common interest—to win France from the Catholic League. Henry III recognized the King of Navarre as a true subject and Frenchman, not a fanatic Huguenot aiming to subjugate Catholics, and Catholic royalist nobles also rallied to them. With this combined force, the two kings marched to Paris. The morale of the city was low, and even the Spanish ambassador believed the city could not hold out longer than a fortnight. However on 2 August 1589, a monk infiltrated Henry III's camp and assassinated him.

King of France: Early reign

Succession (1589–1594)

When Henry III died, Henry of Navarre nominally became king of France. The Catholic League, however, strengthened by foreign support—especially from Spain—was strong enough to prevent a universal recognition of his new title. Pope Sixtus V excommunicated Henry and declared him ineligible to inherit the crown. Most of the Catholic nobles who had joined Henry III for the siege of Paris also refused to recognize Henry of Navarre, and abandoned him. He set about winning his kingdom by force of arms, aided by English money and German troops. Henry's Catholic uncle Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon was proclaimed king by the League, but the Cardinal was Henry's prisoner at the time. Henry was victorious at the Battle of Arques and the Battle of Ivry, but failed to take Paris after besieging it in 1590.

When Cardinal de Bourbon died in 1590, the League could not agree on a new candidate at the Estates General called to settle the question, also attended by the envoys of Spain. While some supported various Guise candidates, the strongest candidate was probably the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain, daughter of Philip II of Spain, whose mother Elisabeth had been the eldest daughter of Henry II of France. In the religious fervor of the time, the Infanta was considered a suitable queen, provided she married a suitable husband. The French overwhelmingly rejected Philip's first choice, Archduke Ernest of Austria, the Emperor's brother, also a member of the House of Habsburg. In case of such opposition, Philip indicated that princes of the House of Lorraine would be acceptable to him: the Duke of Guise; a son of the Duke of Lorraine; and the son of the Duke of Mayenne. The Spanish ambassadors selected the Duke of Guise, to the joy of the League. However, at that moment of seeming victory, the envy of the Duke of Mayenne was aroused, and he blocked the proposed election of a king.

The Parlement of Paris also upheld the Salic law. They argued that if the French accepted natural hereditary succession, as proposed by the Spaniards, and accepted a woman as their queen, then the ancient claims of the English kings would be confirmed, and the monarchy of centuries past would be rendered illegal. The Parlement admonished Mayenne, as lieutenant-general, that the kings of France had resisted the interference of the pope in political matters, and that he should not raise a foreign prince or princess to the throne of France under the pretext of religion. Mayenne was angered that he had not been consulted prior to this admonishment, but yielded, since their aim was not contrary to his present views.

Despite these setbacks for the League, Henry remained unable to take control of Paris.

Conversion to Catholicism: "Paris is well worth a Mass" (1593)

On 25 July 1593, with the encouragement of his mistress, , Henry permanently renounced Protestantism and converted to Catholicism to secure his hold on the French crown, thereby earning the resentment of the Huguenots and his ally Elizabeth I of England. He was said to have declared that  ("Paris is well worth a Mass"), although the attribution is doubtful. His acceptance of Catholicism secured the allegiance of the vast majority of his subjects.

Coronation and recognition (1594–1595)
Since Reims, traditional coronation place of French kings, was still occupied by the Catholic League, Henry was crowned King of France at the Cathedral of Chartres on 27 February 1594. Pope Clement VIII lifted excommunication from Henry on 17 September 1595. He did not forget his former Calvinist coreligionists, however, and was known for his religious tolerance.
In 1598 he issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted circumscribed liberties to the Huguenots.

Civil war and the Edict of Nantes
Henry IV successfully ended the civil wars. He and his ministers appeased Catholic leaders using bribes of about 7 million écus, a sum greater than France's annual revenue. Huguenot leaders were placated by the Edict of Nantes, which had four separate sections. The articles laid down the tolerance which would be accorded to the Huguenots including the exact places where worship may or may not take place, the recognition of three Protestant universities, and the allowance of Protestant synods. The king also issued two personal documents (called brevets) which recognized the Protestant establishment. The Edict of Nantes signed religious tolerance into law, and the brevets were an act of benevolence that created a Protestant state within France.

Despite this, it would take years to restore law and order to France. The Edict was met by opposition from the parlements, which objected to the guarantees offered to Protestants. The Parlement de Rouen did not formally register the edict until 1609, although it begrudgingly observed its terms.

Later reign

Domestic policies

During his reign, Henry IV worked through the minister Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, to regularize state finance, promote agriculture, drain swamps, undertake public works, and encourage education. He established the Collège Royal Henri-le-Grand in La Flèche (today the Prytanée Militaire de la Flèche). He and Sully protected forests from further devastation, built a system of tree-lined highways, and constructed bridges and canals. He had a 1200-metre canal built in the park at the Château Fontainebleau (which may be fished today) and ordered the planting of pines, elms, and fruit trees.

The King restored Paris as a great city, with the Pont Neuf, which still stands today, constructed over the river Seine to connect the Right and Left Banks of the city. Henry IV also built the Place Royale (known since 1800 as Place des Vosges), and added the Grande Galerie to the Louvre Palace. Stretching more than 400 metres along the Seine river bank, at the time it was the longest edifice of its kind in the world. He promoted the arts among all classes of people, and invited hundreds of artists and craftsmen to live and work on the building's lower floors. This tradition continued for another two hundred years, until ended by Napoleon I. The art and architecture of his reign have become known as the Henry IV style.

Economically, Henry IV sought to reduce imports of foreign goods to support domestic manufacturing. To this end, new sumptuary laws limited the use of imported gold and silver cloth. He also built royal factories to produce luxuries such as crystal glass, silk, satin, and tapestries (at Gobelins Manufactory and Savonnerie de Chaillot workshops). The king re-established silk weaving in Tours and Lyon, and increased linen production in Picardy and Brittany. He had distributed 16,000 free copies of the practical manual The Theatre of Agriculture by Olivier de Serres.

King Henry's vision extended beyond France, and he financed several expeditions of Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts and Samuel de Champlain to North America. France laid claim to New France (now Canada).

International relations

During the reign of Henry IV, rivalry continued among France, Habsburg Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire for the mastery of Western Europe. The conflict was not resolved until after the Thirty Years' War.

Spain and Italy

During Henry's struggle for the crown, Spain had been the principal backer of the Catholic League, and it tried to thwart Henry. Under the Duke of Parma, an army from the Spanish Netherlands intervened in 1590 against Henry and foiled his siege of Paris. Another Spanish army helped the Catholic League nobles opposing Henry to win the Battle of Craon in 1592.

The Spanish war was not ended with Henry's coronation, but after his victory at the Siege of Amiens in September 1597, the Peace of Vervins was signed in 1598. This freed his armies to settle the dispute with the Duchy of Savoy, ending with the Treaty of Lyon of 1601, which arranged territorial exchanges.

One of Henry's major problems was the Spanish Road which traversed Spanish territory through Savoy to the Low Countries. His first opportunity to cut the Spanish Road was a dispute over the ownership of the Marquisate of Saluzzo. The last marquis left Saluzzo to the French crown in 1548 (when Savoy was occupied by France), but the territory became disputed during the chaos of the Wars of Religion. The pope was asked to arbitrate between the claims of France and the Duke of Savoy. The Duke offered to cede Bresse to France if he could retain Saluzzo. Henri IV accepted this, but Spain objected that Bresse was a vital part of the Spanish Road, and persuaded the Duke to reject the decision. Henry IV was already at Lyon and had soldiers ready, and four days later he marched fifty thousand men against the duchy, occupying almost all of its area west of the Alps. In January 1601, Henry accepted another offer of papal arbitration and gained not only Bresse, but Bugey and Gex. Savoy retained a narrow corridor through the Val de Chézery. This still allowed Spanish troops to cross from Lombardy to Franche Comté without going through France, but it created a choke point where the Spanish Road was a single bridge across the Rhône River.

The Saluzzo conflict was Henry IV's last major military operation, but he continued to finance Spain's enemies. He generously assisted the Dutch Republic with over 12 million livres between 1598 and 1610. In some years, the payment was 10% of France's total annual budget. France also sent subsidies to Geneva after the Duke of Savoy attempted to capture the city in 1602.

Germany
In 1609 Henry helped negotiate an end to the War of the Jülich Succession.

It was widely believed that in 1610 Henry was preparing for war against the Holy Roman Empire, which was prevented by his assassination and the subsequent rapprochement with Spain under the regency of Marie de' Medici.

Ottoman Empire

Even before Henry's accession to the French throne, the French Huguenots were in contact with Aragonese Moriscos in plans against the Habsburg government of Spain in the 1570s. Around 1575, plans were made for a combined attack of Aragonese Moriscos and Huguenots from Béarn under Henry against Spanish Aragon, in agreement with the Dey of Algiers and the Ottoman Empire, but this project floundered with the arrival of John of Austria in Aragon and the disarmament of the Moriscos. In 1576, a three-pronged Ottoman fleet from Constantinople was planned to disembark between Murcia and Valencia while the French Huguenots would invade from the north and the Moriscos accomplish their uprising, but the fleet failed to arrive.

After his crowning, Henry continued the policy of a Franco-Ottoman alliance and received an embassy from Sultan Mehmed III in 1601. In 1604, a "Peace Treaty and Capitulation" was signed between Henry IV and the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I, granting France numerous advantages in the Ottoman Empire.

In 1606–07, Henry IV sent Arnoult de Lisle as Ambassador to Morocco to request the observance of past friendship treaties. An embassy was sent to Ottoman Tunisia in 1608 led by François Savary de Brèves.

East Asia

Under Henry IV, various enterprises were set up to develop long-distance trade. In December 1600, a company was formed through the association of Saint-Malo, Laval, and Vitré to trade with the Moluccas and Japan. Two ships, the Croissant and the Corbin, were sent around the Cape of Good Hope in May 1601. The Corbin was wrecked in the Maldives, leading to the adventure of François Pyrard de Laval, who managed to return to France in 1611. The Croissant, carrying François Martin de Vitré, reached Ceylon and traded with Aceh in Sumatra, but was captured by the Dutch on the return leg at Cape Finisterre. François Martin de Vitré was the first Frenchman to write an account of travels to the Far East in 1604, at the request of Henry IV.

From 1604 to 1609, following the return of François Martin de Vitré, Henry attempted to set up a French East India Company on the model of England and the Netherlands. On 1 June 1604, he issued letters patent to Dieppe merchants to form the Dieppe Company, giving them exclusive rights to Asian trade for 15 years, but no ships were sent until 1616. In 1609, another adventurer, Pierre-Olivier Malherbe, returned from a circumnavigation of the globe and informed Henry of his adventures. He had visited China and India, and met with Emperor Akbar.

Religion
Historians have assessed that Henry IV was a convinced Calvinist, and only changed his formal religious confession to achieve his political goals.

Henry IV was baptized as a Catholic on 5 January 1554. He was raised in the Reformed Tradition by his mother Jeanne III of Navarre. In 1572, after the massacre of French Calvinists, he was forced by Catherine de' Medici and the royal court to convert. In 1576, after escaping from Paris, he abjured Catholicism and returned to Calvinism. In 1593, to gain recognition as King of France, he converted again to Catholicism. Although a formal Catholic, he valued his Calvinist upbringing and was tolerant toward the Huguenots until his death in 1610, and issued the Edict of Nantes which granted them many concessions.

Nicknames

Henry was nicknamed Henri le Grand (the Great), and in France is also called le bon roi Henri (good king Henry) and le vert galant (The Green Gallant) for his numerous mistresses. In English he is most often referred to as Henry of Navarre.

Assassination
Though generally well-liked, Henry was considered a heretical usurper by some Catholics and a traitor to their faith by some Protestants. Henry was the target of at least 12 assassination attempts, including by Pierre Barrière in August 1593 and by Jean Châtel in December 1594.

Henry was killed in Paris on 14 May 1610 by François Ravaillac, a Catholic zealot who stabbed him while his coach was stopped on Rue de la Ferronnerie. The carriage was stopped by traffic congestion associated with the Queen's coronation ceremony, as depicted in the engraving by Gaspar Bouttats. Hercule de Rohan, riding in the coach with the king was wounded in the attack, but survived. Ravaillac was immediately seized, and executed days later. Henry was buried at the Saint Denis Basilica.

His widow, Marie de' Medici, served as regent for their nine-year-old son, Louis XIII, until 1617.

Legacy

In 1614, four years after Henry IV's death, his statue was erected on the Pont Neuf. During the early phase of the French Revolution, when it aimed to create a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, Henry IV was held up as a model for King Louis XVI. When the Revolution radicalized and came to reject monarchy altogether, Henry IV's statue was torn down along with other royal monuments. It was nevertheless the first to be rebuilt, in 1818, and it still stands on the Pont Neuf today.

Henry IV was much lauded during the Bourbon Restoration, as the restored dynasty was keen to play down the controversial reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI in favor of Good King Henry. The song Marche Henri IV (Long Live Henry IV) was popular. After the assassination of the dauphin Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry by a Republican fanatic, seven months later his widow Princess Caroline  gave birth to their son, heir to the throne of France,  and conspicuously named him Henri after his royal forefather. The boy was baptised with Jurançon wine and garlic in the traditional of Béarn and Navarre, as Henry IV had been baptised in Pau.

Henry serves as a loose inspiration for the character Ferdinand, King of Navarre, in William Shakespeare's 1590s play Love's Labour's Lost.

A 1661 biography, Histoire du Roy Henry le Grand, was written by Hardouin de Péréfixe de Beaumont for the edification of Henry's grandson Louis XIV. A 1663 English translation was published for another grandson, King Charles II of England.

On September 14, 1788, when anti-tax riots broke out during the incipient French Revolution, rioters stopped travellers and demanded they dismount to salute Henry IV's statue.

Henry's minister Sully published his Royal Economies in 1611 after de Sully's fall from power, but subsequent research has shown that it exaggerates the economic accomplishments of the Sully's ministry. Many of the official source documents were altered or even forged to make them more impressive.

Genealogy

Ancestry

Marriages and legitimate children

On 18 August 1572, Henry married his second cousin Margaret of Valois; their childless marriage was annulled in 1599. His subsequent marriage to Marie de' Medici on 17 December 1600 produced six children:

Second marriage

Henry's first marriage was not a happy one, and the couple was childless. Henry and Margaret separated even before Henry acceded to the throne in August 1589; Margaret retired to the Château d'Usson in the Auvergne and lived there for many years. After Henry became king of France, it was of the utmost importance that he provide an heir to the crown to avoid the problem of a disputed succession.

Henry favoured the idea of obtaining an annulment of his marriage to Margaret and marrying his mistress Gabrielle d'Estrées, who had already borne him three children. Henry's councillors strongly opposed this idea, but the matter was resolved unexpectedly by Gabrielle's sudden death in the early hours of 10 April 1599, after she had given birth to a premature stillborn son. His marriage to Margaret was annulled in 1599, and Henry married Marie de' Medici, daughter of Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Archduchess Joanna of Austria, in 1600.

For the royal entry of Marie into Avignon on 19 November 1600, the citizens bestowed on Henry the title of the Hercule Gaulois ("Gallic Hercules"), concocting a genealogy that traced the House of Navarre back to a nephew of Hercules' son Hispalus.

Armorial
The arms of Henry IV changed throughout his lifetime:

Notes

References
 Vol. 2 (copies  1 &  2) at Google Books.

 online

Further reading

 Crawford, Katherine B. "The politics of promiscuity: Masculinity and heroic representation at the court of Henry IV." French Historical Studies 26.2 (2003): 225–252.

 Knecht, Robert Jean. The French wars of religion 1559–1598 (Routledge, 2014).

 Wolfe, Michael (1993). The Conversion of Henri IV: Politics, Power, and Religious Belief in Early Modern France. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Fiction

 George Chapman (1559?–1634), The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles, Duke of Byron (1608), éd. John Margeson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988)
 Alexandre Dumas, La Reine Margot (Queen Margot) (1845)
 Heinrich Mann,  (1935);  (1938)
 Maynard, Katherine. Reveries of Community: French Epic in the Age of Henri IV, 1572–1616 (Northwestern University Press, 2017).
 M. de Rozoy,  (1774)

External links

 , a poem by Letitia Elizabeth Landon adjoined to a painting Henri IV and Gabrielle d'Estrées by Richard Westall.
 Henri IV – An unfinished reign Official website published by the French Ministry of Culture.

1553 births
1610 deaths
16th-century kings of France
17th-century kings of France
16th-century Princes of Andorra
17th-century Princes of Andorra
16th-century Navarrese monarchs
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Ancien Régime
Assassinated French people
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis
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French people of the French Wars of Religion
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Murder in 1610
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Henry IV of France


Energy consulting is a sub-discipline of environmental consulting that focuses on optimizing a business' energy usage, and provides assistance to the state institutions to adjust its policies according to the anticipations presented. This usually imply not only quantitive changes in the consumption but also diversification towards more ecological sources. Energy consulting is often centered on reducing operational costs, though this is not always the main goal. With the increasing importance of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the minds of the general public, enterprise level businesses may contract an energy consultant to include more environmentally friendly energy sources into their energy mix.

With the recent volatility in the energy industry, energy consulting is quickly becoming a main component of business operations for enterprises worldwide.

Role of hedging and financial analysis
As a result of the volatility in the modern energy industry, many enterprise level businesses are turning to financial analysts, specifically through the use of derivatives and hedging to minimize exposure to the unstable energy industry.

See also
 Energy broker
 Consulting firm

References

Consulting by type

Energy consulting


Cognitive hearing science is an interdisciplinary science field concerned with the physiological and cognitive basis of hearing and its interplay with signal processing in hearing aids. The field includes genetics, physiology, medical and technical audiology, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychology, linguistics and social psychology.

Theoretically the research in cognitive hearing science combines a physiological model for the information transfer from the outer auditory organ to the auditory cerebral cortex, and a cognitive model for how language comprehension is influenced by the interplay between the incoming language signal and the individual's cognitive skills, especially the long-term memory and the working memory.

Researchers examine the interplay between type of hearing impairment or deafness, type of signal processing in different hearing aids, type of listening environment and the individual's cognitive skills.

Research in cognitive hearing science has importance for the knowledge about different types of hearing impairment and its effects, as for the possibilities to determine which individuals can make use of certain type of signal processing in hearing aid or cochlear implant and thereby adapt hearing aid to the individual.

Cognitive hearing science has been introduced by researchers at the Linköping University research centre Linnaeus Centre HEAD (HEaring And Deafness) in Sweden, created in 2008 with a major 10-year grant from the Swedish Research Council.

References

Resources
Linnaeus Centre HEAD
Interview, prof. Jerker Rönnberg

Animal genetics
Audiology
Branches of cognitive science
Cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive psychology
Linguistics
Physiology
Signal processing
Social psychology

Cognitive hearing science


Andrew W. Jenike (16 April 1914 – 8 August 2003) was an American engineer who developed and expanded the science of bulk material handling. He founded and served as company president for engineering consulting firm Jenike & Johanson, Inc. and published Utah Engineering Experiment Station Bulletins 123 and 108, which introduce the idea of mass flow.

Early life
Andrew Jenike was born in Poland on April 16, 1914. He graduated from the Warsaw University of Technology with a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering in 1939.  Upon graduation, he entered the Polish Army, where he served with distinction as an officer in the Second World War.

In peacetime, Jenike attended the University of London where in 1949 he received his Ph.D. in Structural Engineering.  While in England, he met his wife Una, and they immigrated to Canada and then to Salt Lake City, Utah in the United States.

Career
In his early career, Jenike worked for several engineering design firms as a mechanical and structural engineer.  At age 39, Jenike began studying the design of bins and hoppers for the storage and flow of bulk solids.  He approached the National Science Foundation and other groups for research funding.  They required him to be affiliated with a college or university, so Jenike became an associate research professor at the University of Utah where he spent seven years developing basic theories, test equipment, and design procedures. In 1957, he was appointed as vice chairman of the Utah Engineers Council.

A combination of some of his crude bin pressure measurements and the idea presented in V. V. Sokolovskii's book, Statics of Soil Media (Butterworth's Scientific, 1960) that soil stress varies directly proportional to the distance from a point gave rise to his Radial Stress Field concept.

Jenike is most strongly associated with the Jenike Shear Tester, which bears his name.  Jenike developed the continuum mechanics approach to hopper design.  He set forth these guiding principles in University of Utah Experimental Station Bulletins 108 and 123, the latter being one of the most cited work in the material handling field today.  In these bulletins he defined "mass flow," showed how the flow properties of bulk solids could be measured, and how these measurements could be used to design hoppers. Jenike was also the first to recognize the impact feeders play on achieving mass flow in a hopper.

Jenike designed the first mass flow bins for iron ore in 1960. In 1962, Jenike moved to Winchester, Massachusetts and entered full-time consulting.  Four years later he was joined by Jerry Johanson, who had formerly worked with Jenike in graduate school.  In 1966 Jenike incorporated the company Jenike & Johanson, Inc. The company was initially headquartered in the basement of Jenike's house.  Jenike was president of the firm until he retired in 1979.  He continued to conduct research for about eight years until, in 1987, a serious automobile accident prevented him from working further.

Awards and recognitions
Jenike received the Humboldt Prize in 1976; in 1989 he was elected Fellow of the ASME; and in 1993 he became the first person outside of the United Kingdom to receive the Solids Handling Award from the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. In 2007 the British Material Handling Board officially recognized Jenike as the leading Bulk Technology Pioneer of the 20th Century on the grounds of "his outstanding contribution that transformed the storage and handling of bulk solids from an empirical industry to a science."

References

1914 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American engineers
Polish emigrants to the United States
Warsaw University of Technology alumni
Alumni of the University of London
University of Utah faculty

Andrew Jenike


East India is a region of India consisting of the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha.

East India may also refer to:

 East Indies, a term used by Europeans from the 16th century onwards to identify what is now known as South Asia and Southeast Asia
 East India Company, an English joint-stock company founded in 1600
 East India Docks, a small group of docks in the Blackwall area of East London
 East India DLR station, a railway station in East London

East Indian(s) may refer to:

 Bombay East Indians, a Marathi-speaking, Roman Catholic ethnic group in Mumbai, India
 East Indian language is the dialect of Marathi, spoken by East Indians people in Mumbai, India
 Indian Americans, residents of the United States descended from migrants from India
 Indo-Canadians, residents of Canada descended from migrants from India
 Indo-Caribbeans, residents of Caribbean countries descended from migrants from India

See also
 Indian subcontinent
 East India Company (disambiguation)
 East Indies (disambiguation)
 East India Club
 Dutch East Indies, the Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II

East India (disambiguation)