A raceme ( or ) or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the shoot grows in height, with no predetermined growth limit. Examples of racemes occur on mustard (genus Brassica) and radish (genus Raphanus) plants.

Definition
A raceme or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing pedicellate flowers (flowers having short floral stalks called pedicels) along its axis. In botany, an axis means a shoot, in this case one bearing the flowers. In indeterminate inflorescence-like racemes, the oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the shoot grows in height, with no predetermined growth limit. A plant that flowers on a showy raceme may have this reflected in its scientific name, e.g. the species Cimicifuga racemosa. A compound raceme, also called a panicle, has a branching main axis. Examples of racemes occur on mustard (genus Brassica) and radish (genus Raphanus) plants.

Spike
A spike is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence, similar to a raceme, but bearing sessile flowers (sessile flowers are attached directly, without stalks). Examples occur on Malabar nut (Justicia adhatoda) and chaff flowers (genus Achyranthes). A spikelet can refer to a small spike, although it primarily refers to the ultimate flower cluster unit in grasses (family Poaceae) and sedges (family Cyperaceae), in which case the stalk supporting the cluster becomes the pedicel. A true spikelet comprises one or more florets enclosed by two glumes (sterile bracts), with flowers and glumes arranged in two opposite rows along the spikelet. Examples occur on rice (species Oryza sativa) and wheat (genus Triticum), both grasses.

Catkin
An ament or catkin is very similar to a spike or raceme "but with subtending bracts so conspicuous as to conceal the flowers until pollination, as in the pussy–willow, alder, [and] birch...". These are sometimes called amentaceous plants.

Spadix
A spadix is a form of spike in which the florets are densely crowded along a fleshy axis and enclosed by one or more large, brightly–colored bracts called spathes. Usually the female flowers grow at the base, and male flowers grow above. They are a characteristic of the family Araceae, for example jack–in–the–pulpit (species Arisaema triphyllum) and wild calla (genus Calla).

Examples

Etymology
From classical Latin, a racemus is a cluster of grapes.

See also
 Inflorescence
 Glossary of botanical terms

References

Flowers
Plant morphology

sv:Blomställning#Typer av blomställningar

Raceme


Peugeot is a French company. They make cars, vans, motorcycles and scooters in France.

Vehicles

Peugeot 605

The Peugeot 605 is the name of a car. This was a full-size car. It was made between 1989 and 1999 after the company stopped the production of Peugeot 505. After this, the company made a smaller car named Peugeot 405, and a bigger car named Peugeot 605. The Peugeot 605 is a car of the luxury-family car class.

Peugeot 306

The Peugeot 306 is the name of a car that started being made in 1993 and stopped being made in 2002. It was a small, family car. There were several verities of this car: from the slowest version, the 1.4, all the way up to the fastest version which was called the GTI-6.
The Peugeot 306 also came in a diesel veriety, which many people see as an important step in bringing economical diesel oil powered car to people. This version came in 1.8 litre, 1.9 litre, and 1.9 litre turbocharged versions. In 1999, Peugeot replaced these diesel engines with the 2.0 litre HDI engine which was better at saving fuel than all the other engines.

Peugeot 3008

The Peugeot 3008 was launched in 2008 as part of Peugeot's range . The design of this crossover aimed to combine the genres of an MPV and a hatchback. The 3008 comes with turbocharged 1.6-litre petrol engines, plus 1.6 and 2.0-litre diesels.

Following the original 3008 model, Peugeot revealed the 3008 HYbrid4  later in the 2010 Paris Motor Show. It is the first diesel electric hybrid car.

In 2012, the 3008 was facelifted.

In May 2016, the 3008 received an all-new second generation. It now resembles a proper SUV rather than a MPV, and it comes with Peugeot's i-Cockpit from the 208.

In September 2020, the second generation 3008 was facelifted with a new front end.

Current Vehicles

The cars that Peugeot currently make are the:

208, 308, 408, 508, 2008, 3008, 5008, and Rifter.

The vans that Peugeot currently make are the:

Expert/Traveller, Boxer, Partner

Discontinued Vehicles
Some of the cars that Peugeot formerly made are the:

106, 107, 108, 206, 207, 306, 307, 405, 406, 407, 605, 607, and the 807.

Other websites

Peugeot International Website

Peugeot Motocycles Website

19th-century establishments in France
Automobile companies of France

Peugeot


Selfishness means the quality or state of being selfish and selfish means lack of consideration for other people. It is having more concern for yourself than for others. A selfish man aims at obtaining as much happiness as he can for himself and does not care whether other people are happy or unhappy. In order to attain his object, he tries to appropriate as large a share as possible of the good things of this world. It may be accompanied by a lack of empathy. Selfishness is the opposite of selflessness. It is also different, though related, to self-centredness and self-affirmation. Many psychologists approve of a healthy level of selfishness, in order for some people to stay happy.

In the study of ethics and morality, selfishness is usually considered bad. In contrast, acts of selflessness are praised. Wider debate about it, however, such as in philosophy, psychology and economics, has shown that scholars have had many different opinions about its value and consequences. In most major religions, selfishness is considered an immoral or bad habit. In Christianity, it is associated with pride, often considered the worst of the Seven deadly sins. Aristotle condemned men who would only try to profit themselves; but he approved of those who would try to gain the praise from others that he deserved.

In the context of modern-day economics, there is a much wider opinion. Bernard Mandeville has argued that the economic advancement of society depends on selfish actions. Ayn Rand argued that selfishness is a virtue and the cause of all progress.

References

Other websites
What is Selfish?

Narcissism
Ethics

Selfishness


Grytting is a village in Hadsel Municipality in Nordland county, Norway.  The village is located on the island of Langøya on the northern shore of the Hadselfjorden.  It is located approximately half-way between the towns of Stokmarknes and Sortland; just south of the village of Gjerstad.

Most of the inhabitants in Grytting are employed in either agriculture or the fishing industry.  Elbjørg has a home bakery there, and her bread is known locally to be one of the best in that area.   One Horse Centre (Grytting Hestesenter og hovslager) is located there as well, just across the road of Elbjørg's home bakery.

Cross country skiing and ski jumping are common sports. The community maintains two ski jump hills and a  long prepared cross country skiing track. A local school served children here until 1989, but it was closed and is now used as a kindergarten.

In the Viking era there was a large settlement here, with only some ruins left today.  A local guide is needed since it is quite hidden. The only things to be seen are some old Viking graves around the Lunnan area.

The area was inhabited early due to a lagoon, perfect for boats in bad weather.  Wildlife includes fresh water fish (trout, salmon), sea fish (cod, coalfish, crustacean), grouse, and moose.  It is an attractive area for fishing and hunting.

References

Hadsel
Villages in Nordland
Populated places of Arctic Norway

Grytting


The Chandler Store is a historic formerly commercial building on Maine State Route 27 in the center of the Belgrade Lakes village of Belgrade, Maine.  Built in 1838, it is one of only two known commercial buildings in the state to be built out of granite blocks.  It is now a private residence.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.

Description and history
The former Chandler Store building stands on the west side of SR 27, on land that fronts on Long Lake to the west.  The building is a -story structure, built out of blocks of dressed granite, with a side-gable roof.  The main facade is three bays wide, with the main entrance in the center bay, topped by a lintel in which "BUILT J. CHANDLER 1838" is incised.  Sash windows occupy unadorned rectangular openings, as does the entrance.  On the south (left) facade, a two-story wood frame porch is covered by a flat roof, with square posts as support.

The building was constructed in 1838 for J. Chandler by two Irish masons.  Chandler supposedly hired the two men "for 50% and all the rum they could drink", to quarry the stone in nearby Vienna, and to build the structure.  The stones were brought to the site by hauling them by sled across Long Pond when it was frozen in winter.  In 1922 Charles R. Brown hired a mason to cut additional windows, and in 1927 added the porches as part of the building's residential conversion.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Kennebec County, Maine

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Kennebec County, Maine
Greek Revival architecture in Maine
Commercial buildings completed in 1838
Houses in Kennebec County, Maine

Chandler Store


Psychoanalysis is a field of psychology and medical therapy. It is a set of theories and ways of treating mental disorders. It was started in the early 1890s by the Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud, with experience from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others.

Since then, psychoanalysis has expanded and been revised, reformed and developed in different ways. Freud's own colleagues and students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung, had their own ideas. They went on to develop their ideas independently from Freud. Much later, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein used the ideas to treat troubled children.

The basic ideas of psychoanalysis are:
 besides inherited personality, a person's development is determined by events in early childhood;
 human behavior, experience, and thought is largely influenced by unconscious irrational drives;
 attempts to bring these drives into awareness is resisted by defence mechanisms;
 conflicts between conscious and unconscious (repressed) material can result in mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, depression, etc.;
 liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved by bringing this material into the conscious mind (e.g. by the skilled guidance of the analyst.

The unconscious mind
Sometimes people cannot say why they are feeling the way they feel or acting the way they act. What causes the feelings and actions is called the unconscious mind in psychodynamic theory.

Different methods
Under the broad umbrella of "psychoanalysis" there are at least 22 different approaches to the theory and clinical treatment. The term also refers to a method of studying child development.

Freudian psychoanalysis uses a type of treatment where the subject (analytic patient) talks, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams. From these the analyst works out the unconscious conflicts which cause the patient's symptoms and character problems. By interpreting them for the patient, the analyst creates insight into the problems. The analyst identifies and clarifies the patient's pathological defences, wishes and guilt.

Psychoanalysis has been criticized on many fronts. It has been called a pseudoscience, and lacking in empirical support. However, it remains influential within psychiatry, more so in some quarters than others.

References

Philosophical movements and positions
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis


Clostridium difficile toxin B is a cytotoxin produced by the bacteria Clostridioides difficile, formerly known as Clostridium difficile. It is one of two major kinds of toxins produced by C. difficile, the other being a related enterotoxin (Toxin A). Both are very potent and lethal.

Structure

Toxin B (TcdB) is a cytotoxin that has a molecular weight of 270 kDa and an isoelectric point, pl, of 4.1. Toxin B has four different structural domains: catalytic, cysteine protease, translocation, and receptor binding. The N-terminal glucosyltransferase catalytic domain includes amino acid residues 1–544 while the cysteine protease domain includes residues 545–801. Additionally, the translocation region incorporates amino acid residues from 802 to 1664 while the receptor binding region is part of the C-terminal region and includes amino acid residues from 1665 to 2366.

The glycosylation activity of toxin B occurs in the N-terminal catalytic region (residues 1–544). This region glycosylates substrates independent of any cytotoxic activity. However, a small deletion of the receptor binding region causes attenuation of toxin B activity. The translocation region contains a hydrophobic stalk-like structure, which may help residues 958–1130 in forming membrane spanning pores. The receptor binding region that includes the C-terminal repetitive region (CRR) increases the TcdB membrane interaction but does not participate in pore formation. In addition, cysteine protease and translocation regions both have complex structures that play an important functional role in translocation and receptor binding. However, deleting the translocation region of amino acids decreases the cytotoxic activity 4-fold. Both cysteine proteases and a majority of translocation regions harbor hydrophobic proteins, which show access
to TcdB and other toxins crossing the cell membranes.

Receptor binding domain

The C-terminal of TcdB (the green region of Fig. 2) contains a region known as the combined repetitive oligopeptides (CROPs) that contains amino acid residues 1831–2366. These CROPs make up 19–24 short repeats (SRs) of amino acids, roughly 31 long repeats (LRs) of amino acids, toxin A, and Toxin B. The TcdB CROPs region consists of 19 SRs and 4 LRs.  This SRs and LRs region allows formation of cell wall binding motifs that help to bind sugar moieties of the cell surfaces.

Purification

In order to purify toxin B from C. difficile cell cultures, brain heart infusion broth is used because it promotes the synthesis of toxin B. The filtration method facilitates purification of toxin B from the supernatant of C. difficile. The toxin concentration of the supernatant is proportional to the organism cell count. It has been proposed by many studies that the majority of the toxins are released in either late log phase or early stationary phases, hence, toxin B is continuously secreted by cells. Although there are many methods employed by different studies in purifying toxin B, the majority of studies use methods involving concentrations of ultrafiltrated ammonium sulfate or precipitation, in lieu by either gel filtration or ion-exchange chromatography. In addition, the effectiveness of the ion-exchange chromatography method helps to differentiate between TcdA and TcdB.

Function

When the catalytic threonine residue of glucosyltransferase deactivates a family of small GTPases,e.g. the Rho family; Rac, and Cdc42 inside the target cells disturb signal transduction mechanisms, which leads to dysfunctioning of actin cytoskeleton, cell-cell junction, and apoptosis (Fig. 5). Rho induces the activity of actin stress fibers. Rac proteins controls the activities of membrane ruffling and NADPH-oxidase neutrophil. Cdc42 regulates the F-actin filament formation in filopodia.

Cytotoxicity

Several studies have demonstrated that the presence of TcdB in mammalian cells leads to rapid changes within cell morphology and cell signaling. Within a short period of time, cells have the appearance of plaque with small dosages of TcdB and TcdA. In addition, death of the cells is a major impact of these toxins after cells have been intoxicated. An investigation by Donta et al., forwarded that TcdB has serious impacts in other mammalian cells such as chinese hamster ovary cells, human cervical epithelial cells, mouse adrenal cells, rat hepatocytes and rat astrocytes (Fig.3).

The cytotoxic activity is based on cell types, which could range from 4-fold to 200-fold. Generally, when cells are infected with TcdB, they not only lose their structural integrity, but also diminutions of F-actin filaments. Cell roundings by TcdB take no longer than 2 hours (Fig. 4), but as far as cell death goes, it can take approximately 24 hours. With regard to Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD), the effects of cytopathicity are more critical than actual cell death because once cells lose integrity of the cytoskeleton actin filament, they also lose its normal function.

Effects on small GTPases

The cause of cytotoxic activity by TcdB within the host cell is mainly mediated via receptor endocytosis. Acidic endosomes allow toxin B to enter the cytosol. This phenomenon takes place by a binding receptor region, which enables toxin to enter host cells. Through the accessibility of the host cells' cytosol, TcdB deactivates the small GTPases (Fig. 5), e.g. the Rho family members Rac and Cdc42 by the process of glycosylation of threonine 35 in Cdc42 and Rac, and threonine 37 in Rho. These Rho GTPases are found ubiquitously in the cytosol of eukaryotic cells that are responsible for the organization of the actin cytoskeleton because the toxins in the cytosol cause condensation of actin filaments as a consequence of cell rounding and membrane blebbing (Fig. 3), which ultimately leads to apoptosis. TcdB causes critical changes to cell dynamics and morphology. Figure 3 shows the probable effect of toxin B on a cell's surface; membrane blebbing (black arrows). In addition, TcdB inactivates Rho GTPases. As a consequence, cell-cell junctions are disrupted, which enhances epithelial permeability of toxin B and fluid accumulation in the lumen. This is one of the main causative agents in contracting Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD)(Fig. 5).

Furthermore, the rate of hydrolysis by TcdB of UDP-glucose is approximately five-fold greater than TcdA. Several studies have indicated that Rho exhibits posttranslational modification through prenylation and carboxymethylation, which occurs in the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane, hence, the exchange of GTP to GDP. When TcdB binds to Rho and other small GTPases, GTP hydrolyzes to GDP, which leads to GTP-bound (active) to GDP-bound (inactive) (Fig. 5). In addition, this interchange activity is regulated by guanine factors in the cell's cytosol.

Disturbance on signal pathways

The cellular regulation of Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 has effects outside the vicinity of the actin filaments of the cytoskeleton (Fig. 4), These small GTPases are incorporated in the cell cycle that regulates signals via mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MAPKKs). Some physiological parts of the cells that are not involved in actin filaments, may not cause cell rounding or cell death right away, but in downstream pathway activity, may lead to the deterioration of actin filaments and finally, cell death.

In 1993, a study conducted by Shoshan et al., showed that cells with TcdB changed phospholipase A2 activity. This was an independent event from disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. Shoshan et al., also showed that TcdB inhibited the receptor signaling activity by deactivating the Rho proteins via phospholipase D.

Pore formation

TcdB accesses the interior of the cell through clathrin-mediated endocytosis, When toxin B is part of the cytosol, the glucosyltransferase passes through the endosomal membrane, which decreases pH, induces translocation and finally leads to morphological changes of translocation region residues (958–1130). The hydrophobic regions are embedded in the host membrane to form pores that allow glucosyltransferase domains to pass through. When cells are infected with TcdB in an acidic environment, it attenuates toxins and causes shape rearrangements (Fig. 6). As a consequence of acidic pH, TcdB displays clear differences in original fluorescence of tryptophan, susceptibility of proteases, and hydrophobic surfaces. Another group has shown that acidification leads to conformational changes of the toxin and, more importantly, helps to form pores. A putative translocation region ( Fig. 2) makes up approximately 801–1400 amino acids, of which residues 958–1130 are hydrophobic and are responsible for the formation of transmembrane pores. A majority of the studies used TcdB strain 630 to show the pore formation activity of C. difficile toxins.

Induced by pH

To see whether effects of proteolytic cleavage of TcdB takes place at the cell surface or in acidic endosomes, studies used Bafilomycin A1, which is known to block the v-type H+-ATPases of endosomes. This reduces the acidity in endosomes. The physiological uptake pathway of TcdB prevents cytopathic activity by TcdB. When cells were in acidic conditions (pH 4.0) for 5 minutes after binding TcdB to the cell surface at 37 degree Celsius, the shape rearrangements and rounding were observed. However, when rounded cells were incubated for an additional hour in neutral pH (7.0) with similar parameters, no cell rounding was observed. Both studies showed that toxin B has a property of proteolytic cleavage, which is critical for access to the cytosol. Having an acidic endosome pH leads to topological alterations of TcdB (Figure 6).

Genetics

The gene that encodes the TcdB protein, tcdB, is located within the chromosomal region of 19.6 kb. This is known as the locus of pathogenicity or PaLoc (Figure 2). The open reading frame (ORF) for tcdB is 7,098 nucleotides in length. It is important to mention that—besides the major toxin genes in the PaLoc region—there are three other accessory genes that encode in the PaLoc region: tcdR (L), tcdC (R) and tcdE in the middle. These genes help to regulate TcdA and TcdB expression. They also help to secrete or release the toxins from the cell. The encoding gene tcdE, located between tcdB and tcdA, is analogous to holin proteins, thus, it is suggested that tcdE works as a facilitator gene that enhances the release or secretion of TcdA and TcdB consequently increasing the permeability of the host cell membrane.

Toxin detection

There are different plasmid sizes of C. difficile. The detected molecular weights range from 2.7x106 to 100x106, but plasmid sizes show no correlation with toxicity. In order to detect the toxin B level in C. difficile, clinicians extensively use cell culture assays derived from stool specimens from patients with PMC. The cell culture assay is regarded as a "gold standard" for detecting toxicity in C. difficile because a small quantity of toxin B is capable of causing cell rounding (Fig. 4), thus, it is a major advantage of clinical laboratories to make correlations with the CDAD caused by TcdB. Although cytotoxic activity of large clostridial toxins (LCTs) was found in PMC patient stool specimens, toxin B activity had more detrimental cytotoxic effects in comparison with toxin A. Therefore, the activity of toxin A is attenuated when it is not isolated from toxin B. The detection of C. difficile toxicity is extremely sensitive, however, using the cell culture assay allows clinical laboratories to overcome the challenge; using doses as little as 1 pg/mL of toxin B is enough to causes cell rounding. This is the major advantage in using the culture tissue assay to detect toxicity in PMC patients. Even though clinical laboratories have tried to use an assay microtiter plate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and other techniques to detect the cytotoxic activity of toxin B in the feces of PMC patients, the results are not as accurate as those where cell culture assays were used.

Production factor

By adding antimicrobial, e.g. clindamycin, into the culture growth medium, studies have shown that the cytotoxic activity in C. difficile cultures increases by 4–8 fold. Moreover, knowing the role of antibiotics on the causes of PMC, many earlier studies focused on the effects of antimicrobials production of toxins. As a result, studies were able to conclude that the subinhibitory nature of vancomycin and penicillin levels were increasing the toxin production in cultures of C. difficile. The amounts of toxin production were correlated with the usage of growth medium for the organisms. Another study illustrated that the high levels of toxin production of TcdB were observed in complex mediums such as brain and heart infusion broth. High levels of toxins were produced with isolation of highly virulent. Conversely, low levels of toxins were produced with isolation of weakly virulent. Thus, it shows that the productions of toxins were co-regulated. Although the mechanism behind the environment's involvement in modulating the signals expressing the toxins is not understood, in vitro studies have shown that expression of toxin is strengthened by catabolite repression and stress, e.g. antibiotics. Another study has shown that limiting biotin in well-characterized medium increases the production of TcdB by 64-fold and TcdA by 35-fold. This was done with C. difficile and doses of biotin as small as 0.05nM. Several other early studies have argued against the theory that the production of toxin has anything to deal with stress or catabolite repression of either toxin TcdA or TcdB. Also, many studies say the main reason for the differences among other studies is due to toxin production not occurring with all isolates of C. difficile.

Clinical significance

Many early studies have suggested that toxin A (also known as TcdA) is the major toxin protein causing antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD); however, research scientists within the last decade or so have shown that Toxin B (or TcdB) plays a more important role in disease than anyone had forecasted. With this knowledge, Toxin B has been identified as the major virulence factor that causes the opening of tight junctions of intestinal epithelial cells, which enables toxin to increase vascular permeability and induce hemorrhaging. Hence, this leads to tumor necrosis factor α (TNF α) and proinflammatory interleukins being established as the major causative agents of pseudomembranous colitis (PMC) and antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD).

The involvement of toxin A and—most importantly—toxin B is the key element that determines the disease caused by C. difficile. Clinical laboratories have identified these toxins in patients' stool based on antibody and cytotoxicity assays. These bacterial toxins have been shown to be associated with Clostridium sordellii hemorrhagic toxin (TcsH), lethal toxin (TcsL), and Clostridium novyi alpha toxin (Tcn α), thus, making this cohort to be the large family of toxin clostridial. Because of similarities of these toxins with others, researchers have classified them as the family of large clostridial toxins (LCTs).

Mechanism of bezlotoxumab with TcdB

Bezlotoxumab is a human monoclonal antibody designed for the prevention of recurrence of Clostridium difficile infections.   By x-ray crystallized structure of N-terminal of TcdB, the toxin is identified to consist of three domains: a glucosyltransferase domain (GTD), a cysteine protease and a combined repetitive oligopeptide (CROP) domain. Bezlotoxumab specifically binds to two homologous sites within the CROP domain of TcdB. Structural analysis by X-ray crystallography indicates that antibody binding partially occludes putative carbohydrate binding pockets.  Consistent with this idea, Bezlotoxumab blocks binding of TcdB to mammalian cells.

Role in pseudomembranous colitis

In early stages of the disease of PMC, many studies have speculated that TcdA is more potent than TcdB. This has been deduced from in vivo experiments where toxin productions of TcdA were more severe than TcdB with antibiotics cecitis. Later, several studies showed that TcdB plays a major role in the disease of PMC and ADD. The study demonstrated that even though C. difficile did not produces TcdA, it still showed symptoms for the disease. Furthermore, later studies have shown that a purified form of TcdB is a more lethal enterotoxin in comparison to TcdA, and also, that intestinal epithelium is severely damaged and causes an acute inflammatory response. With better understanding of the toxin, researchers were able to state that TcdB is the major virulence factor that causes CDI over TcdA. However, when TcdA is present in the gut, it helps to facilitate TcdB's activity to have broader impacts, consequently, affecting multiple organ systems. In addition, when hamsters were vaccinated against TcdA, it showed hamsters were not fully protected from the C. difficile disease and this lead studies to conclude that TcdB is very lethal and potent. Furthermore, injecting a small dose of TcdA with a lethal dose of TcdB intravenously or intraperitoneally proved sufficient in causing the death of an animal. Therefore, TcdA works as a facilitator of TcdB exiting from the gut.

See also
 Clostridium difficile TcdE Holin
 Holin

References

Bacterial toxins

Clostridium difficile toxin B


Edgard Tupët-Thomé (19 April 1920 – 9 September 2020) was a French militant. He was in the Free French Forces. He was born in Bourg-la-Reine, France.

He was one of the first men to join the Free French Forces, led by Charles de Gaulle. He parachuted into Châteauroux on 9 December 1941. However, he was injured during his landing, and was forced to leave combat. Six months later, he left France to seek treatment in England.

In January 1944, he became second in command of the 3rd Parachute Chasseur Regiment.

In 1945, Tupët-Thomé resigned from the French Armed Forces. He was admitted to the École nationale de la France d'Outre-Mer and became an administrator of colonies in French Tunisia in January 1946.

He was honored with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and was named a Companion of the Liberation.

Tupët-Thomé died in Paris on 9 September 2020 at the age of 100.

References

1920 births
2020 deaths
French centenarians
French World War II resistance members
French military people
People from Hauts-de-Seine

Edgard Tupët-Thomé


Sahil Shroff is an Indian model and actor who made his debut in Hindi film Don 2: The King is Back.

Early life
Sahil comes from a Sindhi family and grew up in Australia. He did his master's degree in information technology, pursued management studies in Australia and worked graveyard shifts as a bouncer in the nightclubs there. He then moved to Mumbai and has been modelling full-time. His enviable physique and ability to carry off clothes got him noticed in the modeling circles.

Career

Sahil is best known as a contestant on the first season of the reality television competition The Amazing Race Asia, from 2006 to 2007. He has also done many TV commercials including HCL Enterprise, Tata Indica, Lux and Cadbury's Eclairs, and walked for designers like Manish Malhotra, Vikram Phadnis, Narendra Kumar and JJ Valaya. He took acting and voice lessons from veterans like Anupam Kher before walking into films.

In 2011, he made his Bollywood debut playing a supporting role in Farhan Akhtar's sequel Don 2. The film stars Shah Rukh Khan, Priyanka Chopra, Boman Irani and Lara Dutta. Sahil plays a young cop Arjun, who lends a helping hand to co-star Priyanka Chopra in her quest to chase the wily antagonist. The film released on 23 December 2011 and had rocked the box office by grossing  on the opening weekend.

In 2021, he participated in Bigg Boss 15 as a contestant.

Filmography

References

External links
 GS shoot by Tarun Khiwal

Indian male models
Living people
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Sindhi people
1982 births
The Amazing Race contestants
Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series) contestants

Sahil Shroff


Gaston Marie Dethier (1875 – 1958) was an American organist, pianist, and composer of Belgian birth.

Early life

Born in Liège, he was the son of organist Emile Jean Joseph Dethier (1849-1933), the brother of violinist Edouard Dethier, and the uncle of physiologist Vincent Dethier. He studied at the Royal Conservatory in his native city with Alexandre Guilmant. He was awarded premiers prix in organ, piano, harmony, and fugue from the conservatory.

In 1886, at just 11 years of age, Dethier was appointed organist at the Église Saint-Jacques-le-Mineur de Liège. He eventually left there to work in the same capacity at the Église Saint-Christophe de Liège.

Relocation to United States
He emigrated to the United States in 1894 where he eventually became a naturalized citizen. He was organist at The Church of St. Francis Xavier from 1894 until 1907. After he left in 1907 the position was filled by Italian organist Pietro Yon who would eventually become organist at St. Patrick's Cathedral.

Juilliard School
He taught organ on the faculty of the Juilliard School from 1907 until 1945. Among his notable pupils were Ray Lev, Marcelle Martin, Carl McKinley, Georges-Émile Tanguay, and Powell Weaver.

Dethier is best remembered today as the composer of a set of Variations on 'Adeste Fideles' (1902) which is occasionally performed today.

References

External links

1875 births
1958 deaths
American male composers
American classical composers
American classical organists
American male organists
Royal Conservatory of Liège alumni
Juilliard School faculty
Musicians from Liège
Male classical organists

Gaston Dethier


The Gilman Paper Company was an American paper producer founded by Isaac Gilman in the 1880s in the village of Fitzdale, Vermont, which would later be renamed Gilman, Vermont.

History
Gilman Paper Company's founder, Isaac Gilman, emigrated from Ukraine and began working in the paper manufacturing business in 1881. In 1921, Gilman Paper Company purchased the Fitzdale Paper Company. From 1921 to 1924, a period of major renovations and construction occurred. The steam plant, built in 1901, was demolished and replaced with four Stirling boilers and a 225-foot-high chimney. Two buildings were erected to house the paper machines and the grocery bag department. During this period, most of the employee residences in the nearby village were built and provided with fire, sewer, and water systems. Over the next decade, Gilman Paper Company expanded manufacturing in the paper converting field, opening a Kraft bag department, a gummed tape department, and a department that produced twisted yarn made from paper.

In the 1940s, Isaac Gilman's son Charles Gilman built an additional mill in St. Mary's, Georgia. The company was capable of producing 2.6 million pounds of paper per day, employed 1,100 workers and 1,500 independent contractors, with headquarters at 111 West 50th Street, New York. Gilman Paper Company grew to become the largest privately held paper company in the United States. In addition to the pulp mill in St. Marys, Georgia, Gilman Paper Company acquired extensive timberland in Florida and Georgia, including 7,400 acres in Nassau County, Florida that would become White Oak Conservation. A short-line railroad was built to haul trees, pulp, and paper. In 1969, Gilman Paper Company's Vermont mill was sold to Georgia-Pacific Corporation.

At the death of Charles Gilman in 1967, the company was run by his two sons, Charles (Chris) Gilman, Jr. and Howard Gilman. The article, The Fall of The House of Gilman, published in Forbes Magazine in 2003, described Gilman Paper Company's management under Charles and Howard Gilman:Their relationship became strained, riven by jealousy and bitterness over control of the company, according to friends and family. In 1979 their mother, Sylvia, sided with Chris, disinheriting Howard and leaving Chris with control of the business.With the assistance of attorney Bernard D. Bergreen, Howard Gilman was able to reinstate his stake in Gilman Paper Company. At the death of Charles Gilman, Jr., in January 1982, Howard Gilman bought the balance of the company from Charles's estate. Howard Gilman later died of a heart attack at his White Oak Conservation in Yulee, Florida, in 1998. At the time of his death, the Gilman family fortune was estimated to be $1.1 billion in assets, with $550 million in debts.

The paper mill was subsequently sold to Durango Products of Mexico. In 2002, Durango entered into bankruptcy, and the paper mill was shut down in September, 2002.

Environmental and legal record

St. Marys, Georgia
Gilman Paper Company began operation of a mill in St. Marys, Georgia, in 1941. By the 1970s, the location produced 900 tons of paper a day. Of the 4,000 residents of St. Marys, Gilman Paper Company employed between 1,500 and 2,000 individuals. At its peak, the mill's manager, George W. Brumley, reported:Gilman Paper Company is the only major Georgia industry south of Brunswick and east of Waycross. It can safely be stated that not less than 75 percent of the economy of Camden County is directly dependent on Gilman Paper Company.Of those employed by Gilman Paper Company was Georgia State Representative Robert W. Harrison, who served as the attorney for the St. Marys mill; the attorney for the surrounding cities of St. Marys, Kingsland, and Folkston; the attorney for the local school board and the hospital authority; and the attorney for Camden and Charlton Counties. Disputes that arose over Gilman Paper Company's obligation to pay city and county taxes were resolved by Robert Harrison, who spoke on behalf of Gilman Paper Company, the city, and the county.

Gilman Paper Company's 1958 tax arrangement with the city of St. Marys guaranteed that the valuation placed on its assets for property tax purposes remained frozen at its 1958 level. The agreement also exempted Gilman Paper Company from paying city tax on any new land purchases. The mill's value was listed on the St. Marys 1970 tax digest as $3 million, in contrast to the Camden County digest, which required approval by the state of Georgia, and placed the value at $15.4 million.

Statewide and national publicity
In 1970, members of Ralph Nader's "Nader's Raiders" were located in nearby Savannah, Georgia, conducting the study, The Water Lords, regarding the influence of large companies on the pollution, tax evasion, and economy of surrounding areas. Gilman Paper Company's labor union president, Wyman Westberry, contacted the project's members to bring attention to the 18 million gallons of wastewater the mill generated daily and was discharging into the St. Marys River without treatment.

In May 1972, Ralph Nader associates, Harrison Wellford and Peter Schuck, published an article in Harper's Magazine about Gilman Paper Company's St. Marys location, titled  Democracy and the Good Life in a Company Town. Later that spring, Mike Wallace and the film crew of CBS Evening News 60 Minutes visited St. Marys to interview the mill's manager, George W. Brumley, and report on Gilman Paper Company's tax arrangements and involvement in local politics. Newsweek also featured a column detailing Gilman Paper Company's presence in St. Marys, Georgia.

During the September 1970 primary election for the office of the Georgia state representative from the 66th District, local physician and Camden County resident, Carl Drury, successfully campaigned against Gilman Paper Company's attorney and incumbent state legislator, Robert W. Harrison. However, in October 1970, ten days before the general election, Carl Drury was approached by a Gilman Paper Company employee with an accusation of medical misconduct. Carl Drury was informed that the accusation would be withdrawn if he would agree to end his campaign. Carl Drury refused to end his campaign, his medical license was suspended, and a grand jury was convened to investigate the charges. Nonetheless, Carl Drury won the general election and took office as state legislator in February 1971. The grand jury issued a report clearing Carl Drury of the charges, after investigation revealed that the eyewitness affidavit had been signed in the office of opponent Robert W. Harrison by an individual who claimed never to have read it.

After winning the election, state representative Carl Drury requested investigation of Gilman Paper Company's affairs, ranging from taxes to pollution control. The director of the Georgia Watershed Protection Branch ordered Gilman Paper Company to increase its anti-pollution efforts. The Georgia attorney general ruled that the tax arrangement between Gilman Paper Company and St. Marys was unconstitutional. The legislature passed a law requiring cities to use the county tax valuations, which are approved by the state, in determining city taxes. Gilman Paper Company's annual taxes in St. Marys rose from $45,000 to $227,000. A federal grand jury was convened to investigate irregularities in the county's politics.

Following the increased environment regulation, tax assessments, and negative publicity in 1972, a Gilman Paper Company supervisor, William (Tommy) Thomas, offered fellow mill employee, Lawrence Brown, $50,000 to kill the labor union president, Wyman Westberry. According to his later testimony, Lawrence Brown never intended to follow-through with the contract, but instead warned Wyman Westberry of the solicitation. Westberry and Brown drove across the state line to Florida, where they contacted the FBI. The FBI and the Georgia Bureau of Investigation provided Lawrence Brown with covert listening devices to record his conversations. Lawrence Brown proceeded to meet with George W. Brumley, Vice President and resident manager of the Gilman Paper Company; Robert W. Harrison, longtime attorney, former legislator, and local counsel for Gilman Paper Company; and William (Tommy) Thomas, an employee of Gilman. On the evidence gathered, a federal grand jury convened to take testimony about the murder plot in May 1972.

During Lawrence Brown's testimony, he repudiated his story and stated that the account of solicitation had been a mistake. After release, Brown continued to express that he was forced to renounce his story from fear of the Gilman Paper Company executives. By summer 1972, Lawrence Brown was reported missing. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution ran the front-page story for September 19, 1972, Offered $1,500 to Kill – Now He's Missing.

October 15, 1975, the United States grand jury, sitting at Savannah, indicted George W. Brumley, Vice President and resident manager of the Gilman Paper Company at St. Marys, Georgia; Robert W. Harrison, longtime attorney, former legislator, and local counsel for Gilman Paper Company; and William (Tommy) Thomas, an employee of Gilman. A nine-day jury trial resulted in the conviction of all three defendants on all pending counts, including conspiracy to commit murder.

Gilman Paper Company's mill in St. Marys, Georgia was the subject of the CBS Evening News 60 Minutes documentary Company Town, released in 1972. The film alleges that improper waste disposal, political corruption, and tax arrangements by the Gilman Paper Company resulted in the civil right infringement of the residents of St. Marys, Georgia and employees of the mill.

Gallery

References

Defunct pulp and paper companies
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Georgia (U.S. state)
American companies established in 1880
1880s establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Pulp and paper companies of the United States

Gilman Paper Company


In computer science, a pagoda is a priority queue implemented with a variant of a binary tree. The root points to its children, as in a binary tree. Every other node points back to its parent and down to its leftmost (if it is a right child) or rightmost (if it is a left child) descendant leaf. The basic operation is merge or meld, which maintains the heap property. An element is inserted by merging it as a singleton. The root is removed by merging its right and left children. Merging is bottom-up, merging the leftmost edge of one with the rightmost edge of the other.

References
 J. Francon, G. Viennot, and J. Vuillemin, Description and analysis of an efficient priority queue representation, Proc. 19th Annual Symp. on Foundations of Computer Science. IEEE, 1978, pages 1–7.
 R. Nix, An Evaluation of Pagodas, Res. Rep. 164, Dept. of Computer Science, Yale Univ. 1988?

Priority queues

Pagoda (data structure)


An octathlon is a combined event competition consisting of eight different sports or contests.

Track and field
An octathlon in athletics is an event which consists of eight track and field events. The word "octathlon" derives from the Greek words okto, the number 8, and athlos, meaning contest. The most common version of the combined event is contested by boys at youth level, most notably at the IAAF World Youth Championships in Athletics. The events within the youth octathlon are: the 100 metres, long jump, 110 metres hurdles, high jump, 400 metres, shot put, javelin throw, and finally the 1000 metres (omitting the discus & pole vault of the 10 event decathlon).

Although this is primarily a youth or junior event, logistical problems have seen senior octathlons contested, for example  at the 2007 South Pacific Games.

Workouts
The octathlon can also refer to a set of gym exercises, including the stationary bike, lat pulldown, step ups, row machine, treadmill, and bench press. Because all of these events are done on gym equipment, it can be done in most health clubs. Some claim it to be the ideal pre-season sport for athletes due to its mix of strength and cardiovascular activities.

References

Combined track and field events
Multisports

Octathlon


Hansford Rowe is an american fusion bass guitarist.

Practically a self-taught musician, Rowe started his career in playing bass in a local New York City band in jazz clubs, until he met drummer Pierre Moerlen. He moved to France with Moerlen and became a member of Gong, taking part in their transformation into Pierre Moerlen's Gong (PMG) in 1977, playing on their albums Expresso II, Downwind, Live, Time is the Key and Leave It Open. In 1986, he appeared on a re-united PMG album Breakthrough and in 1988 on Second Wind and Full Circle Live '88.

As one of the world's leading bassists, Rowe has worked with the likes of Mike Oldfield, Allan Holdsworth, John Martyn, Biréli Lagrène, La Monte Young, David "Fuze" Fiuczynski, Gary Husband and many others. He was also responsible for the development of the Warwick "Just Intonation" bass guitar.

In 1994, he was co-founder of Gongzilla with other former PMG members and continues to work with the band.

In 1999 he released a solo album recorded in Quebec and New York City entitled "No Other" . The album was recorded with compatriot Bon Lozaga (guitar) and other guest musicians. The tour for the album featured singer-songwriter Happy Rhodes.

in 2001, Rowe and Lozaga played on Rhodes' album Find Me, and toured the album in 2004.

In 2013, Rowe played on Karneef's album Love Between Us (Club Roll Records).

Currently performing in HR3 trio, with guitarist Julien Sandiford and drummer Max Lazich, 2011–present.  Plans are to release their debut album in 2013, which was recorded at Piccolo Studio in Montreal, and produced by Denis Savage.

References

Sources

External links

1954 births
Living people
Musicians from New York City
Canterbury scene
20th-century American bass guitarists
Gong (band) members

Hansford Rowe (musician)


The Shiba Inu is a breed of dog from Japan. It looks like a smaller version of the Akita Inu, and was first bred for hunting. Shiba Inu is one of seven Japanese dog species recognised as natural symbols of the country.

There are two types of Shiba. Aka-Shiba has red hair, and Kuro-Shiba has black hair. Shiba is a popular among breeders in Japan.

Shiba inu are faithful to their owners and are wary of strangers. They are popular as guard dogs. They are also the subject of an internet meme called Doge.

Other Japanese dogs
 Akita Inu
 Kai Inu also called the Kai Ken
 Kisyu Inu
 Tosa Inu
 Hokkaido Inu
 Koshi-no-inu (extinct since 1971)

Dog breeds originating in Japan
FCI breeds

Shiba Inu


Barbara Ann Roles (married names: Pursley, Williams, born April 6, 1941) is an American former figure skater who currently works as a coach. She is the 1960 Olympic bronze medalist and the 1962 U.S. national champion.

Personal life
Barbara Ann Roles is the daughter of Carl A. Roles. She married after retiring in 1960. Her daughter, Shelley Pursley Boatright, was born on June 24, 1961. In 1962, she gave birth to a son, Ronald Dean Pursley Chorak. She chose his middle name to honor her mentor, Deane McMinn, who died in the 1961 plane crash. She is the stepmother of U.S. skater Scott Williams.

Career
Roles won the U.S. junior title in 1958. The next year, she won the senior bronze medal and was assigned to her first World Championships, where she placed fifth. After taking silver at the 1960 U.S. Championships, Roles was sent to the 1960 Winter Olympics and 1960 World Championships. She won the bronze medal at both competitions. She retired following that season and started a family.

Roles was asked to come out of retirement following the crash of Sabena Flight 548, which killed the entire 1961 U.S. figure skating team. She complied and won the gold medal at the 1962 U.S. Championships, making her the first skater to win U.S. national titles on the novice, junior and senior levels. Roles was the only skater to accomplish this until Kimmie Meisner performed the same feat in 2007. She missed the following season to give birth to her second child.

Roles returned to competition in an attempt to qualify for the 1964 Winter Olympics, but placed fifth at the national championships and failed to make the team. She took up coaching in 1964. Her pupils have included Lisa-Marie Allen, Wendy Burge, Nicole Bobek, Brian Pockar, Vikki DeVries, Geoffry Varner, and Scott Williams.

Results

References

1941 births
American female single skaters
American figure skating coaches
Figure skaters at the 1960 Winter Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in figure skating
Living people
Olympic medalists in figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships medalists
Medalists at the 1960 Winter Olympics
Sportspeople from San Mateo, California
Female sports coaches
21st-century American women

Barbara Roles