The relationship between Christianity and politics is a historically complex  subject and a frequent source of disagreement throughout the history of Christianity, as well as in modern politics between the Christian right and Christian left. There have been a wide variety of ways in which thinkers have conceived of the relationship between Christianity and politics, with many arguing that Christianity directly supports a particular political ideology or philosophy. Along these lines, various thinkers have argued for Christian communism, Christian socialism, Christian nationalism, Christian anarchism, Christian libertarianism, Christian democracy, the divine right of kings, or tsarist autocracy. Others believe that Christians should have little interest or participation in politics or government, or none at all.

History

Antiquity

Early Christianity was most prominent in the Roman Empire, where it was illegal to practice Christianity and persecution of Christians took place. The first state to recognize Christianity as its official religion was the Kingdom of Armenia in 301. Christianity gained prominence in Roman politics during the reign of Constantine the Great, who favored Christianity and legalized its practice in the empire in 313. Christians were also appointed to government positions at this time. In 380, Trinitarian Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire by Theodosius I. The first major instance of Christianity wielding power in politics took place in 390. After the Massacre of Thessalonica, the bishop of Milan forbade Emperor Theodosius the Eucharist until he repented, and Theodosius complied.

Early Christians were described by Celsus as those who refused military service and would not accept public office, nor assume any responsibility for the governing of cities. Origen confirms this description and adds that Christians do more for the good of the empire by forming an "army of piety" that prays for the well-being of the emperor and the safety of the empire. It has been argued that Christianity made a significant positive contribution to the development of modern democracy.

Middle Ages

Christianity dominated European politics in the Middle Ages. During the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Pope effectively served as the political leader of the region. The Byzantine Empire continued to be the center of the church in the East. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned by Pope Leo III as the Emperor of the Romans, establishing a precedent of interdependence of the church with the Carolingian Empire, and eventually, the Holy Roman Empire.

The church also maintained strong influence over the other kingdoms of Europe. Secular rulers would support missionary efforts in order to enlarge their realms. Bishops and abbots were not only church leaders, but often also large land-owning princes and thus vassals of secular feudal lords. The line dividing church and state interests was not always clear. The church also ruled its own territory directly in the form of the Papal States.

The most notable instances of the church exercising influence over the kingdoms were the Crusades, when it called the Christian kingdoms to arms to fight religious wars. Some Crusades aimed to recover and secure Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims (1095-1291); other Crusades attacked the Cathari (1209-1229), and the Teutonic Knights and their supporters fought against non-Catholics (including Eastern Orthodox Christians) in the Baltic Sea area (1147-1410). In Spain, the Crusader mindset continued for several centuries after the last crusade in the Middle East, in the form of the Reconquista, a series of wars (711-1492) fought to recover the Iberian peninsula from the Muslim Moors.

Reformation

The Reformation caused a political backlash in the Holy Roman Empire. In response, the Diet of Worms was assembled, and promotion of Lutheranism was made illegal. The English Reformation was deeply influenced by English politics. When the church refused to grant an annulment to the marriage of Henry VIII, he formed the Anglican tradition through the Church of England under the political rule of the crown.

Scripture

Politics is addressed directly or indirectly in several parts of the Bible. Romans 13:1 and 1 Peter 2:13-14 say that all should follow the authority of government, as government authority is instituted by the authority of God. LGBT are challenged with Romans 1:26-27 and Leviticus 18:22, which describe same-sex behavior as unnatural and detestable, respectively. Matthew 19:3-6 describes marriage as between a man and a woman, and 1 Corinthians 6:9-10 says that homosexual offenders will not inherit the kingdom of God. The abortion debate is influenced by Exodus 21:22-25, which demands a penalty for the action of killing a fetus by mistake.

The Hebrew Bible contains a complex chronicle of the Kings of Israel and Judah, written over the course of many generations by authors whose relationships and intimacy with the rulers of the several kingdoms fluctuated widely in both intimacy and respect. Some historical passages of the Hebrew Bible contain intimate portrayals of the inner workings of the royal households of Saul, David and Solomon. The accounts of subsequent monarchs are frequently more distanced and less detailed and frequently begin with the judgment that the monarch "did evil in the sight of the Lord". The Christian New Testament instead begins with the story of Jesus, crucified as a criminal who had offended both the Jewish priesthood and the Roman imperial authorities. At least to outward appearances, Jesus was at the periphery of political life and power in the Roman province of Judea.

Denominations

Catholicism

The Catholic Church is deeply intertwined with the history of European politics. It developed alongside the status of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire and persisted through the Middle Ages as one of the most powerful political forces in Europe. In 2015, Pope Francis stated that Catholics have a duty to participate in politics to improve the world. The Catholic Church does not officially take political stances and encourages followers to come to their own political decisions, but it also states that these decisions must be made in accordance with natural law.

The Catholic Church in the United States has sought to discipline Catholic politicians that take pro-choice stances on abortion, most notably President Joe Biden. Conservative, moderate, and liberal Catholics all have a major presence in the United States.

Catholicism and war

Catholics historically have had a wide variety of positions on issues of war and peace. The historical peace churches are now the chief exponents of Christian pacifism, but this was an issue that first came to light during the Roman Empire.

Soldiers in the Roman military who converted to Roman Catholicism were among the first who had to face these issues. Catholics in the Roman military had to confront a number of issues, that go beyond the obvious one about whether war could be reconciled with the Christian religion. Paganism saturated Roman military institutions. Idols of the Greco-Roman gods appeared on the legionary standards. Military service involved oaths of loyalty that might contradict Catholic teachings even if they did not invoke pagan gods. The duties of Roman military personnel included law enforcement as well as defense, and as such Roman soldiers were sometimes obliged to participate in the persecution of Christians themselves. Sexual licentiousness was considered to be a moral hazard to which military personnel were exposed. See Imperial cult (ancient Rome).

The conversion of Constantine I transformed the relationship of the Christian churches with the Roman military even as it transformed the relationship of the churches with the Roman state. A strongly contrary idea, sometimes called "caesaropapism", identified the now Catholic Empire with the Church militant. The Latin word Christianitas originally meant the body of all Christians conceived as a political body, or the territory of the globe occupied by Christians, something akin to the English word Christendom. Apocalyptic texts were reinterpreted. The idea of a Christian empire continued to play a powerful role in Western Europe even after the collapse of Roman rule there; the name of the Holy Roman Empire bears witness to its claims to sanctity as well as to universal rule. An apocryphal apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius, written during the seventh century, depicts a saintly Last Roman Emperor who holds his earthly kingdom in anticipation of Christ's return. According to Pseudo-Methodius, the Last Emperor will wage war in the last days against God's enemies, including Gog and Magog and the Antichrist.

Protestantism
Anglicanism was developed when King Henry VIII established the Church of England as the state church of the Kingdom of England. The Church of England is still closely involved in British politics and disputes sometimes take place over its role. The Hawaiian Kingdom also had an Anglican church as its official state church, the Church of Hawaii in the late 19th century.

Southern Baptism leans heavily conservative and is involved with the politics of the Republican Party in the United States. Lutheranism is influential in the politics of the Nordic countries. The Church of Denmark, the Church of Iceland, and the Church of Norway are all Lutheran state churches, while the Church of Sweden was a state church until 2000. Calvinism was the official religion of the Netherlands while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state church. The United Methodist Church advocates political activism among Methodists. Methodists in the United States tend to lean conservative or moderate.

Anabaptism adheres to a two kingdom concept. This is the belief that the kingdom of heaven or of Christ (the Church) is different and distinct from the kingdoms of this world. It essentially means the separation of church and state but differs from other Protestant approaches in their belief that the separation is absolute and the church has no right to interfere in the affairs of the state any more than the state in the church. This viewpoint is still held by the most religiously conservative Anabaptist groups, such as the Amish, Old Order Mennonites, Conservative Mennonites, and Old Order River Brethren. Not all Anabaptist churches subscribe to anarchist ideologies. The Hutterite church traces its roots back to the Radical Reformation and Jacoub Hutter, but respect and adhere to government authority. The Bruderhof, another church community in the Anabaptist tradition, respects the god-given authority of the state, while acknowledging that their ultimate allegiance is to God.

Ideologies

Liberalism
Separation of church and state is a prominent idea in liberalism, so direct influence of Christianity in liberal politics is typically limited.

Conservatism
Conservatism in Europe and the Americas is heavily influenced by Christianity. The Christian right within evangelical Christianity has formed many of its political views on social issues such as abortion, homosexuality and public education from passages in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. In the Epistle to the Romans, chapter 13:1-7, Paul instructs Roman Christians to submit to government. See also 1 Peter 2:13-17 and Titus 3:1 for parallels. Mainstream theologians and the Christian right have interpreted Romans 13:1–7 to mean Christians should support the state and wield the sword when necessary, as God has instituted the idea of governments to be his main tool to preserve social order.

Socialism

The first Jewish Christian communities, as described in the Acts of the Apostles, were organized along a principle of communal ownership of goods. Some expressions of the Christian left have interpreted passages in Acts to mean that an ideal society would be based on Christian socialism or Christian communism. However, passages that have far greater influence for Christians who actively care for the poor are the words of Jesus, usually found in red in most bibles, which appear to give priority to the poor as a Christian obligation.

There are some intentional Christian communities that, inspired by the first Christian church as described in Acts 2 and 4, share all their possessions in an effort to put into action Christ's command to love God and neighbour. The Simple Way, the Bruderhof communities, and the Hutterites are all inspired, to some degree, by the model of church community described in Acts. More common expressions of Christian love and commitment to the poor are churches of all denominations that fund localised soup kitchens, charity shops and shelters for the homeless as well as mission programs overseas. In Roman Catholic circles the doctrine of preference for the poor has been important since 1979 and it still drives the church's practice of hospitality to those in any kind of need.

Anarchism

More than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. The foundation of Christian anarchism is a rejection of violence, with Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You regarded as a key text. Tolstoy takes the viewpoint that all governments who wage war, and churches who in turn support those governments, are an affront to the Christian principles of nonviolence and nonresistance.

Christians have interpreted Romans 13:1–7 to mean they should support the state and wield the sword when requested, as God has sanctified the state to be his main tool to preserve social order. Christian anarchists do not share this interpretation of Romans 13 but given Paul's declaration to submit to authorities they do not attempt to overthrow the state. However anarchists still describe the state as an evil power executing wrath and vengeance. As wrath and vengeance are opposite to the Christian values of returning good for evil, Christian anarchists neither support, nor participate in, the state.

Christian eschatology and various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the State and political power as the Beast in the Book of Revelation. Apocalyptic texts frequently coach radical criticism of existing regimes under the form of allegory; this, at least, is a frequently mentioned interpretation of the Book of Daniel, frequently interpreted by secular scholars as a second-century diatribe against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who persecuted the Jews and provoked the revolt of the Maccabees. The Book of Revelation contains even more vehement imagery, which many secular scholars believe was directed against the Roman empire. The empire, or the city of Rome itself, are identified by these scholars as the Whore of Babylon, and the Roman emperor becomes the Beast or Antichrist. Both divine punishment and economic and military catastrophe are prophesied against "Babylon", which most scholars agree is John's code name for Rome.

No call to arms is contained within the Christian apocalypse. Instead, the calamities that doom the oppressive regime represented by these allegorical figures are expected from divine intervention alone. Nevertheless, if the books are properly read in this way, they seem to evidence deep hostility to the Roman government, no doubt a reaction to the persecution of Christians by the Roman state.

Libertarianism

An emerging tradition of political thought, Christian libertarians maintain that state intervention to promote piety or generosity can be unethical and counterproductive. Coercion by threat of violence robs otherwise moral acts of their virtue, inspires resentment and disrespect even for just laws on the part of the coerced, and has a spiritually deleterious effect upon the coercers. As John Chrysostom, late 4th-century Church Father and Archbishop of Constantinople, writes in his work On the Priesthood (Book II, Section 3), For Christians above all men are not permitted forcibly to correct the failings of those who sin. Secular judges indeed, when they have captured malefactors under the law, show their authority to be great, and prevent them even against their will from following their own devices: but in our case the wrong-doer must be made better, not by force, but by persuasion. For neither has authority of this kind for the restraint of sinners been given us by law, nor, if it had been given, should we have any field for the exercise of our power, inasmuch as God rewards those who abstain from evil by their own choice, not of necessity. Consequently much skill is required that our patients may be induced to submit willingly to the treatment prescribed by the physicians, and not only this, but that they may be grateful also for the cure. For if any one when he is bound becomes restive (which it is in his power to be), he makes the mischief worse; and if he should pay no heed to the words which cut like steel, he inflicts another wound by means of this contempt, and the intention to heal only becomes the occasion of a worse disorder. For it is not possible for any one to cure a man by compulsion against his will.

While Christian libertarians disagree over whether and to what extent agents of the state possess the moral authority to intervene in the lives of citizens, government involvement is generally viewed with skepticism and suspicion. As with the Christian left, war and nation-building are common targets of ethical scrutiny from Christians espousing the libertarian philosophy.

The governing maxim for many natural-rights libertarians, including those of faith, is the non-aggression principle, which forbids the initiation of force but does not preclude the restrained, proportional use of defensive or disciplinary violence against the initiator. It has been compared to the Golden Rule and its converse, the Silver Rule. Christian libertarians often defend the institution of private property by pointing to the many Biblical injunctions against theft, to the voluntary nature of faith and the sharing of goods in early Christian communities, and to the fact that Jesus never advocated the redistribution of income and wealth by political means.

According to Christian libertarianism, to seize the life, liberty, or legitimately acquired property of an individual by coercion, even for that person's well-being or for the benefit of others, constitutes a violation of his or her human dignity as an image-bearer of God. Thus, most forms of taxation and all laws that prevent or distort free and nonviolent exchange are unacceptable. The classical doctrine of original or ancestral sin furthermore suggests to Christian libertarians that political (and for some left-libertarians, economic) power ought to be democratically distributed and decentralized to guard against government oppression and the natural human tendency to corruption. In opposition to centralized political authority, Christian libertarians frequently cite the eighth chapter of the Biblical book of 1 Samuel (1 Kings LXX), in which God tells the prophet Samuel that the children of Israel have rejected Him by demanding a king to reign over them, and He describes the many ways such a king will oppress the people.

While one of the Church's societal roles may be to promote righteousness in service and humble obedience to God, equal liberty is the highest or only political value. The state's raison d'être is to prevent rights violations, to quarantine or punish justly, and ideally to restore offenders so they can again peaceably dwell and participate in civil society.

Fascism

After the onset of fascism in the 1920s and 1930s, several fascist movements adopted Christian ideas. Notable Christian fascist movements include the Fatherland Front in Austria and the Rexist Party in Belgium.

See also

 Caesaropapism
 Catholic Church and politics in the United States
 Christian communism
 Christian democracy
 Distributism
 Social credit
 Christian left
 Christian libertarianism
 Christian pacifism
 Christian Reconstructionism
 Christian republic
 Christian right
 Christian socialism
 Doctrine of the two kingdoms
 Dominion Theology
 European Christian Political Movement
 Judaism and politics
 Liberation theology
 Political Catholicism
 Political theology
 Progressive Christianity
 Religion in politics
 Symphonia (theology)
 Temporal power of the Holy See

References

Further reading
 Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty: A Translation into Modern English. ISR Publications, 2013. "Editorial foreword: Christianity and liberty".
 John Howard Yoder, The Politics of Jesus (1972)
 "Politics", entry in The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought, Adrian Hastings, Alistair Mason, and Hugh Pyper, editors. (Oxford, 2000)
 McKendry R. Langley, The Politics of Political Spirituality: Episodes from the Public Career of Abraham Kuyper, 1879-1918 (Jordan Station, Ont.: Paideia Press, 1984)

 Obery M. Hendricks Jr., The Politics of Jesus: Rediscovering the True Revolutionary Nature of Jesus' Teachings and How They Have Been Corrupted (2006)
 C. C. Pecknold, Christianity and Politics: A Brief Guide to the History (Cascade, 2010)

External links

 A Modern Christian Political Organization
 The Christian and the Authorities
 Radio Interview with Dr. Stephen Bede Scharper: A Political Theology of the Environment, University of Toronto, 3 October 2008.

Christianity-related controversies

Christianity and politics


The 132nd Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the British Army that remained in British India during the First World War. During the Second World War, it served with the 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division in Belgium and France, later being evacuated at Dunkirk and seeing service again in North Africa at El Alamein before being disbanded in January 1943.

Formation
After the creation of the Territorial Force in 1908, the 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th Volunteer battalions of the Middlesex Regiment were organised into a brigade within the Home Counties Division. The brigade was designated the Middlesex Brigade.

First World War
On the outbreak of the First World War, the men of the division accepted liability for overseas service to  relieve Regular troops for the fighting fronts. The 7th and 8th Middlesex sailed for Gibraltar on 4 and 10 September 1914. The rest of the division was ordered to India, although the brigade staffs and Regular adjutants of the battalions were to remain behind. To replace 7th and 8th Middlesex, the 4th Battalion, Border Regiment and 4th Battalion, King's Shropshire Light Infantry were added to the Middlesex Brigade, and the 1st Brecknockshire Battalion of the South Wales Borderers also sailed with the brigade. The Home Counties Division embarked at Southampton and sailed on 30 October 1914, disembarking at Bombay on 1–3 December.

Service in India
On arrival, the division's units were sent distributed to various peacetime stations across India, Aden and Burma to continue their training for war. The Border and KSLI battalions joined the Burma Division, the Brecon battalion went to Aden, and for a while the two Middlesex battalions were attached to the Presidency Brigade in 8th (Lucknow) Division. The TF battalions had all taken the prefix '1' (1/4th Queen's etc) to distinguish them from their 2nd Line battalions forming in the United Kingdom. In March 1915, 2/4th Border Regiment was sent out to the brigade to replace 4th KSLI, which had moved from Burma to Singapore. In May 1915, the division was numbered 44th (Home Counties) Division and the brigade formally became 132nd (1/1st Middlesex) Brigade (though without a commander or staff, and with its battalions scattered).

From 1915 onwards there was a regular drain on the battalions as they lost their best Non-Commissioned Officers for officer training, sent detachments to various places in India, and provided drafts to replace casualties among units fighting in Mesopotamia. By early 1916 it had become obvious that the Territorial Divisions in India were never going to be able to reform and return to Europe to reinforce the Western Front as had been originally intended. They continued training in India for the rest of the war, providing drafts and detachments as required. 1/9th Middlesex was transferred to Mesopotamia at the end of 1917, landing at Basra on 11 December and transferring to 53rd Indian Brigade, 18th Indian Division.

By 1918 the only units still formally attached to 132nd Brigade were 1/10th Middlesex and 1/4th Border (now returned from Burma and actually serving in the Jubbulpore Brigade of 5th (Mhow) Division). During 1919 the remaining Territorial units in India were gradually reduced, but 1/4th and 2/4th Border finally saw active service during the Third Afghan War.

Order of Battle
During the First World War the Middlesex Brigade was composed as follows:

Commander: Brigadier-General W.R. Clifford (remained in England)
 7th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (from Hornsey) – to Gibraltar
 8th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (from Hounslow) – to Gibraltar
 9th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (from Willesden) – to India
 10th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (from Ravenscourt Park) – to India
 4th (Cumberland and Westmorland) Battalion, Border Regiment (from Carlisle) – to Burma
 4th Battalion, King's (Shropshire Light Infantry) (from Shrewsbury) – to Burma
 1st Brecknockshire Battalion, South Wales Borderers (from Brecon)  – to Aden

Between the wars
The Territorial Force was disbanded shortly after the end of the war. It was, however, reformed in the 1920s as the Territorial Army and the 132nd Brigade was reformed as the 132nd (Middlesex) Infantry Brigade in 1920. The division was also reconstituted as the 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division. The brigade was reformed with the same composition as it had before the First World War. However, in 1920, the 10th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment was converted into the Home Counties Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals. They were replaced in the brigade by the 5th Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment from the 133rd (Kent and Sussex) Infantry Brigade.

In the late 1930s, however, all three of the Middlesex battalions were posted away or converted to other roles. The 9th Battalion was, in 1938, converted into the 9th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (60th Searchlight Regiment) and transferred to the 40th Anti-Aircraft Group, 2nd Anti-Aircraft Division. In the same year, the Middlesex Regiment was designated as a Machine Gun regiment and the 7th and 8th Middlesex were transferred elsewhere. Also in 1938, all infantry brigades in the British Army were reduced from four battalions to three. The 7th and 8th Middlesex were replaced by the 4th Royal West Kents from the 133rd Brigade and the 6th Battalion, East Surrey Regiment from the 131st (Surrey) Infantry Brigade. In 1939 the brigade was redesignated 132nd Infantry Brigade.

Second World War
The brigade and division, alongside most of the rest of the Territorial Army, was mobilised in late August 1939 due to the situation in Europe deteriorating situation in Europe. 3 September 1939 saw the start of the Second World War after the German Army invaded Poland two days before, on 1 September 1939.

Shortly after full mobilisation in early September 1939, 132nd Brigade HQ became HQ Central Sub-Area in the United Kingdom and the units of the brigade were temporarily under the command of other formations until the brigade reassembled in 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division on 7 October 1939.

Order of Battle
132 Brigade was constituted as follows:
 1/6th Battalion, East Surrey Regiment (until 4 May 1940, to 10th Brigade)
 4th Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment
 5th Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment
 132nd Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company (formed 1 December 1939, disbanded 15 January 1941)
 1st Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment (from 10th Brigade, from 4 May until 29 June 1940)
 1/7th Battalion, Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) (from 25th Brigade on 1 July 1940, returned to 131st Brigade 1 July 1941)
 2nd Battalion, Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment) (from 131st Brigade 2 July 1941)

Commanders
The following officers commanded 132nd Brigade during the war:
 Brigadier T.T. Waddington (until 8 November 1939)
 Brigadier J.S. Steele (from 8 November 1939 until 14 February 1941)
 Brigadier C.B. Robertson (from 14 February 1941 until 4 September 1942)
 Brigadier L.G. Whistler (from acting command of 133rd Brigade 4 September until 26 November 1942)
 Lieutenant Colonel W.H. Lambert (Acting, from 26 November 1942)

Service
On 2 April 1940, the 132nd Brigade, now commanded by Brigadier James Steele, MC, (later to become Adjutant-General to the Forces), an officer of the Regular Army, went to France with 44th Division as part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The division came under command of III Corps, including 5th Division and 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, another Territorial division. Both 44th and 42nd divisions had been held back from reinforcing the BEF sooner in order to participate in potential operations in Northern Europe, yet this had never come to anything. Shortly after their arrival, the 1/6th Battalion, East Surrey Regiment was transferred to the 10th Brigade, part of 4th Division, receiving the 1st Battalion, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment, a Regular Army unit, in exchange and the "Kent and Surrey" brigade became an all-West Kent formation. The reason for the exchange of units was due to official BEF policy of mixing the Regular and Territorial Armies, and, in theory, to strengthen the inexperienced Territorial divisions.

The brigade saw fighting in the St Omer–La Bassée area during retreat to Dunkirk, part of the Battle of France – when the brigade commander, James Steele, was awarded a DSO – and was then evacuated from Dunkirk on 31 May 1940.

Back in the United Kingdom, 132nd Brigade was re-equipped and positioned in its own county of Kent to defend what 44th Division's commander, Major-General Sir Brian Horrocks, regarded as 'the No 1 German invasion area, stretching from the Isle of Thanet to Dover and on to Folkestone'.

The brigade was shipped out to North Africa in May 1942 with the rest of 44th Division, where it fought at the Battle of Alam el Halfa and the Second Battle of El Alamein. The 44th Division was broken up after Alamein, due to a shortage of manpower in the Mediterranean, and the brigade's battalions were posted away during November and December. 132nd Brigade was officially disbanded in Egypt on 15 January 1943. The battalions were posted away to British Indian Army brigades, the 2nd Buffs joined the 26th Indian Infantry Brigade, the 4th Royal West Kents sent to the 161st Indian Infantry Brigade and the 5th Royal West Kents to the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade. The former two would both later fight in the Burma Campaign, the 4th Royal West Kents with distinction, winning a VC (belonging to Lance Corporal John Harman) in the Battle of Kohima, whilst the latter, the 5th Royal West Kents, would see service throughout the Italian Campaign.

Post war
The brigade was reorganised postwar but disbanded by 1968.

References

Bibliography

 Fraser, David (1999) [1983]. And We Shall Shock Them: The British Army in the Second World War. Cassell military. .

External links
 The Regimental Warpath 1914–1918
 The Long, Long Trail

Military units and formations established in 1908
Infantry brigades of the British Army
Infantry brigades of the British Army in World War I
Infantry brigades of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations disestablished in 1943

132nd Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)


David Hinds (born 15 June 1956) is a British musician and the founding member, rhythm guitarist and lead vocalist for the reggae band Steel Pulse.

Life and career
Hinds was born in Handsworth, Birmingham, England, to parents who migrated to the UK from Jamaica in the mid-1950s, along with many other Jamaicans and other British Caribbean islanders to rebuild post-World War II Britain. At the age of five, he started elementary school and completed all his schooling by 1974. During that period, the music out of Jamaica became a major influence on Hinds' perception on life in years to come. As he explained in an interview on radio programme Afropop Worldwide, "I remember each of my elder siblings coming over with the latest form of music and dance as well as what was happening socially and politically on the island."

At Handsworth Wood Boys Secondary School, Hinds met fellow student Basil Gabbidon; together, they founded Steel Pulse in 1975.

Outside of Steel Pulse, Hinds has written songs for various films including "Can't Stand It", featured in the film Do The Right Thing, directed by Spike Lee (1989). He has also released two solo singles via the France-based Heartical label.

References

External links

1956 births
Living people
English male singers
English pop guitarists
English male guitarists
English people of Jamaican descent
English Rastafarians
Musicians from Birmingham, West Midlands
British reggae musicians
Black British musicians
Converts to the Rastafari movement
People from Handsworth, West Midlands
Steel Pulse members

David Hinds


James Aloysius Foley (June 21, 1882 in New York City – February 11, 1946 in Manhattan, New York City) was an American lawyer and politician from New York.

Life
He was the son of James Foley (1846–1919) and Anne Moran Foley (1847–1928). He graduated from the College of the City of New York in 1901; and from New York Law School in 1904.

Foley was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 12th D.) in 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911 and 1912; and was Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities in 1911.

He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1913 to 1919, sitting in the 136th, 137th, 138th, 139th, 140th, 141st (all six 14th D.) and 142nd New York State Legislatures (16th D.); and was Minority Leader in 1919.

He was a member of the New York State Commission for the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in 1915.

On June 21, 1919, he married Mabel Graham Murphy (died 1954), the step-daughter of Tammany Boss Charles Francis Murphy. They had no children.

Foley was Surrogate of New York County from 1920 until his death. In 1924, after the death of his father-in-law, Foley was offered the leadership of Tammany Hall but he declined, preferring to continue on the bench.

He died on February 11, 1946, in the Harkness Pavilion of the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center in Manhattan, of a heart attack; and was buried at the Calvary Cemetery in Queens.

Sources
Official New York from Cleveland to Hughes by Charles Elliott Fitch (Hurd Publishing Co., New York and Buffalo, 1911, Vol. IV; pg. 354f, 357 and 359f)
State of New York at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, California, 1915 (Albany, 1916; pg. 27)
MISS MABEL MURPHY WEDS SENATOR FOLEY in NYT on June 22, 1919
FOR SURROGATE: JAMES A. FOLEY in NYT on November 3, 1919
SURROGATE FOLEY DIES AT AGE OF 63 in NYT on February 12, 1946 (subscription required)

1882 births
1946 deaths
Democratic Party New York (state) state senators
Politicians from Manhattan
Lawyers from Manhattan
Democratic Party members of the New York State Assembly
New York University alumni
New York Law School alumni
New York (state) state court judges
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Queens)
20th-century American judges
20th-century American politicians

James A. Foley


Michael Ross (born Isadore Rovinsky) (August 4, 1919 – May 26, 2009) was an American screenwriter and television producer. Ross, together with writing partners Don Nicholl and Bernard West, were writers/producers for All in the Family (for which Ross won the 1973 Emmy Award for Writing for a Comedy Series), The Jeffersons, The Dumplings, and Three's Company. Ross and West continued as executive producers of Three's Company after the death of partner Nicholl in 1980, also producing the spin-off shows The Ropers and Three's a Crowd.

Biography
Born and raised in New York City to Jewish family, Ross graduated from City College of New York City in 1939. Ross then served as a bomber pilot in United States Army Air Forces during World War II. Ross, along with longtime business partner Bernie West, made his mark in the 1970s with the breakout TV sitcom All in the Family, for which he won a writing Emmy in 1973.

Ross first worked with Norman Lear in the 1950s when Lear was the producer of NBC's short-lived (26 episodes) sitcom The Martha Raye Show. After writing for Lear's All in the Family, Ross wrote and served as executive producer for the spin-off The Jeffersons.

Ross later established the Michael and Irene Ross Chair in Hebrew and Yiddish and the Michael and Irene Ross Program in Jewish Studies at the City University of New York in New York City. Ross also made a $3 million bequest and 25% share of his rights to all his shows to the National Yiddish Book Center.

Ross died May 26, 2009 due to complications following a stroke and heart attack.

References

External links

American male screenwriters
American television producers
Primetime Emmy Award winners
1919 births
2009 deaths
Jewish American screenwriters
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters
20th-century American Jews
21st-century American Jews

Michael Ross (screenwriter)


Christ Episcopal Church is an Episcopal congregation in South Pittsburg, Tennessee, part of the Episcopal Diocese of East Tennessee. The church building and parish house, located at 302 West 3rd Street (at the corner of Holly Avenue), are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

History
The earliest members of the Christ Church congregation were foundry workers who had immigrated from England and were working in South Pittsburg for the Southern States Coal, Iron, and Land Company, which was based in London. They began meeting together for worship in 1876.

After the Southern States company donated land for a church, the congregation began construction of a new church building in 1882. Tennessee Episcopal Bishop Charles T. Quintard advised them on the building's design. He wrote that the new church should be "graceful and churchly," with a "good, deep, recessed channel," building dimensions "at least twice as long as ... wide," and a steeply pitched roof. He also advised that "emplaned weather boarding" was an appropriate material. The church building was completed in 1884. With support from Bishop Quintard and St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Chattanooga, Christ Church parish was formally established in May 1887. The following year a rectory was built, the bell tower was added to the church, and the church was consecrated by Bishop Quintard. The church's parish house was completed in about 1889. An addition in 1960 connected the parish house to the church.

The church and parish house were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.

Description
Christ Church is an example of the Gothic Revival architectural style. Both the church and the parish house are single-story three-bay buildings. Consistent with Bishop Quintard's recommendation, at 27 by 57 feet (8 by 17 m) the church building is more than twice as long as it is wide. The church building and its interior decor, including a hand-carved altar and baptismal font, are built entirely from wood (except for a brick foundation). The square bell tower is two stories in height, has an open belfry, and is topped by a steep flared pyramidal roof. There are several stained glass windows, including a Tiffany Studios window installed in 1915. The church has a Moller organ that was installed in 1928.

In 1974, the Historic American Buildings Survey described Christ Church and its parish house as "among the few frame Gothic Revival buildings in the state of Tennessee." Together with buildings at Rugby, Tennessee, they were said to "exemplify the imaginative understanding of high style design associated with the Episcopal church in east Tennessee in the Victorian era."

Clergy
As of 2014, the rector is the Rev. Kim Merritt Hobby. The Rev. Gary England is the deacon assigned to Christ Church by the Rt. Rev. George Young, Bishop of East Tennessee.

References

External links

Christ Church website
Christ Episcopal Church & Parish House, 302 West Third Street, South Pittsburg, Marion County, TN, Historical American Buildings Survey

Carpenter Gothic church buildings in Tennessee
Episcopal churches in Tennessee
Historic American Buildings Survey in Tennessee
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee
Buildings and structures in Marion County, Tennessee
Churches completed in 1884
19th-century Episcopal church buildings
National Register of Historic Places in Marion County, Tennessee

Christ Episcopal Church (South Pittsburg, Tennessee)


Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg () was a duchy ruled by the Ernestine branch of the House of Wettin in today's Thuringia, Germany. The extinction of the line in 1825 led to a major re-organisation of the Thuringian states.

History

In 1640 the sons of the late Ernestine duke John II of Saxe-Weimar divided their paternal heritage (Ernestinische Teilung) whereby Duke Ernest the Pious, a younger son, received the newly established Duchy of Saxe-Gotha. In 1636 Ernest had married Elisabeth Sophie, the only child of Duke John Philip of Saxe-Altenburg. Upon her father's death in 1639, the Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg passed to her uncle Duke Frederick William II and her cousin Frederick William III.

The Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was nominally created in 1672, when Duke Frederick William III of Saxe-Altenburg died at the age of 14 and Ernest the Pious, by his marriage with Elisabeth Sophie, inherited the major part of his possessions. It was common for the Ernestine duchies to merge and split; Ernest's combined duchy was divided again after his death in 1675, and the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg proper came into existence in 1680 with the completion of this division and the accession of his eldest son, Frederick to the subdivision centered on the towns of Gotha and Altenburg.

Frederick had already served as regent in Saxe-Altenburg since 1672 and assumed responsibility for government affairs from his diseased father two years later. His residence remained at Friedenstein Castle in Gotha, he also had the Baroque palace of Friedrichswerth built nearby. Frederick I decisively secured his family's possessions with the implementation of the primogeniture in 1685. His son and successor Duke Frederick II gained further Ernestine territories upon the death of Duke Albert V of Saxe-Coburg in 1699 and Duke Christian of Saxe-Eisenberg in 1707.

Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg remained one of the mightiest Ernestine duchies under the rule of Duke Frederick III from 1732. He had the palaces and gardens in Gotha rebuilt in a lavish Baroque style and supported the religious refugees of the Moravian Church in Neudietendorf. His sister Augusta married Prince Frederick of Wales in 1736, their first-born son George III was crowned King of Great Britain and Ireland in 1760. Frederick made his court a centre of the Enlightenment (Aufklärung), continued by his son and successor Ernest II, who ruled from 1772. At the instigation of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, he promoted the painting oeuvre of Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein; he also appointed Franz Xaver von Zach director of the Gotha Observatory established in 1787.

Nevertheless, when the last dukes Emil August, a fervent admirer of the rise of Napoleon, and his brother Frederick IV had both died without male heirs, the house of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg finally became extinct in 1825 and quarrels arose between the three remaining Ernestine lines about the succession. As a result of an arbitration issued by King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony in 1826, the Ernestine duchies were rearranged and Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was again split:
Saxe-Gotha passed to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, which had to cede Saxe-Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. The territories constituted the newly created Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Saxe-Altenburg was given to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, who in turn passed his own domain to Saxe-Meiningen and again assumed the title of a Duke of Saxe-Altenburg.

After the abolition of German monarchies in the course of the German Revolution of 1918–1919, all former duchies became part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

Dukes of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg
 Ernest I the Pious (1640–1675), inherited Saxe-Altenburg in 1675
 Frederick I (1675–1691), son of previous; first to bear the title Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg
 Frederick II (1691–1732), son
 Frederick III (1732–1772), son
 Ernest II (1772–1804), son
 Emil August (1804–1822), son
 Frederick IV (1822–1825), brother, line extinct

See also
 Ernestine duchies

References
Handbook of Imperial Germany AuthorHouse, Sep 1, 2009 pg. 87

1680 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1826 disestablishments in Europe
States and territories established in 1680
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
Gotha-Altenburg

House of Wettin
Altenburg

Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg


Area code 479 is a telephone area code in the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) for thirteen counties in the northwestern part of the U.S. state of Arkansas. The numbering plan area (NPA) includes the cities of Bentonville, Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Rogers, Siloam Springs and Springdale. It was created on January 19, 2002 in an area code split of area code 501.

Service area
Area code 479 serves the counties of Benton, Crawford, Franklin, Johnson, Logan, Madison, Polk, Pope, Scott, Sebastian, Washington and Yell, and parts of  Carroll County, the rest being served with area code 870.

See also

479
479

Area code 479


Chukwuebuka Obi-Uchendu  (born 14 July 1982) is a Nigerian media personality. He is known for hosting the reality show Big Brother Naija, the long running Rubbin' Minds talk show on Channels TV as well as co-hosting The Spot and Men's Corner on Ebonylife television. He is an ambassador for Budweiser Nigeria, Samsung Nigeria, and 2Sure Nigeria.

Obi-Uchendu has received several award nominations and won the award for Outstanding TV Presenter of the Year at the Nigerian Broadcasters Merit Awards for his work on Rubbin' Minds.

Early life and education
Born in Benin City, Edo State to a banker father and a mother who is a nurse, he is the third of four children with an elder sister as well as one older brother, and a younger brother. He went through with his nursery and primary education in the mid-western Nigerian city of Benin, remarkably passing the Common Entrance Examination into secondary school from Primary Four. He subsequently moved to the capital city of Abuja with his family.

He had his secondary education at Christ The King College Abuja, graduating in 1997, before getting his university education at the University of Abuja, up until 2004. He proceeded to the Nigerian Law School Bwari, Abuja finishing in 2005 he then returned to school after a 5-year working gap, graduating in December 2010 from the Washington College of Law of the American University Washington D.C., with Master of Laws degree specializations in Intellectual Property as well as Communications law from the Law and Government program.

Career

Big Brother and beyond
In 2006, he went in as one of an eventual 14 housemates on the first season of the popular reality show Big Brother Nigeria, finishing in eighth place. To date, he is one of the most visibly successful BBN 2006 cast members. In January 2017, he was announced as the host of the second season of Big Brother Naija as well as the third season.

After the reality show in 2006, he signed endorsement deals with a major telecommunications brand as well as a popular brewing company and as such hosted Friend or Foe on NTA, the GLO Show, also on NTA, as well as Guinness' Greatness TV.
He also maintained a weekly column called Contrast with a Nigerian national daily newspaper, This Day.

In the run up to the 2011 general elections in Nigeria, he hosted the first ever presidential debate focused on youth issues, which was broadcast live across Nigeria.

Rubbin Minds and EbonyLife TV
In 2013, producers of Rubbin' Minds, a Nigerian television talk-show, announced that Obi-Uchendu would be the new host.

In 2013, Obi-Uchendu became one of the co-hosts of The Spot, a TV show on DSTV, alongside Lamide Akintobi and Zainab Balogun.

In July 2016, he became the host of Men's Corner'', Nigeria's first all male TV talk show.

Ahead of the Big Brother Naija Season 5 reunion, a few fans called for Ebuka Obi-Uchendu to step aside as host. But the greater number of fans and celebrities defended the host's performance so far.

Filmography

Awards and recognition

Personal life
On 15 April 2015 Ebuka got engaged to Cynthia Obianodo in Lagos. They got married on 6 February 2016 in Abuja. On 8 November 2016, they welcomed a daughter. In 2018 they announced they were expecting another child via Instagram. Cynthia once said she met her husband, Ebuka on Twitter.

See also
 List of Igbo people
 List of Nigerian media personalities

References

1982 births
Living people
Big Brother (franchise) contestants
Igbo people
Nigerian television personalities
Nigerian television presenters
Nigerian media personalities
People from Anambra State
Nigerian lawyers

Ebuka Obi-Uchendu


Crispin: At the Edge of the World is a novel by Edward Irving Wortis (under the pen name Avi), published in 2006. It serves as a sequel to his 2003 Newbery Medal award-winner Crispin: The Cross of Lead and is the second book in the Crispin trilogy. Crispin: At The Edge of the World was an ALA notable in 2007.

Plot summary
At the conclusion of the Newbery Award–winning Crispin: The Cross of Lead, Bear and Crispin are free to follow new lives. As they travel in search of a new home, Bear is attacked by his old comrades in the Peasant's Revolt and wounded by an arrow. They escape to a woods where they are discovered by an old midwife-healer and a girl named Troth, who nurses Bear back to health. When the old woman is killed, Bear becomes the guardian of both children.

Fearing Bear's pursuers will never give up, they board a ship bound for Flanders. A storm lands them in France instead, where they are captured by English soldiers intent on breaking into a French village church to loot it. The soldiers threaten harm to Bear unless the children do their bidding. A bloody battle ensues, during which Crispin kills a man. The children escape the church and the soldiers with the mortally wounded Bear, who later dies of age and his wounds.

Characters

Crispin – The title character. He is a 13-year-old peasant boy, living in rural England in the year 1377.
Bear (Orson Hrothgar) – A traveling jester and entertainer who takes Crispin and eventually Troth under his wing. He is also Crispin's teacher.
Troth – A girl with a cleft lip who lives with Aude. She joins with Bear and Crispin in their journey. The word troth means to pledge to be faithful.
Aude – A healer and midwife living in the woods with a girl named Troth.

References

External links
 Official Website

2006 American novels
American children's novels
Novels by Avi
Fiction set in the 1380s
Novels set in the 14th century
Children's historical novels
2006 children's books
Children's books set in the 14th century
Children's books set in France

Crispin: At the Edge of the World


Tutti frutti (from Italian tutti i frutti, "all fruits"; also hyphenated tutti-frutti) is a colorful confectionery containing various chopped and usually candied fruits, or an artificial or natural flavouring simulating the combined flavour of many different fruits and vanilla. It is a popular ice cream flavour in Western countries outside of Italy.

Fruits used for tutti frutti ice cream include cherries, watermelon, raisins, and pineapple, often augmented with nuts. In the Netherlands, tutti-frutti (also "tutti frutti", "tuttifrutti") is a compote of dried fruits, served as a dessert or a side dish to a meat course. In Belgium, tutti-frutti is often seen as a dessert. Typically, it contains a combination of raisins, currants, apricots, prunes, dates, and figs.

In the United States, tutti frutti can also refer to fruits soaked in brandy or other spirits, or even to fruit fermented in a liquid containing sugar and yeast.

In Luxembourg, tutti fruitty refers to fruit salad, mainly pre-packaged, canned fruit salad from the supermarket.

History
Tutti frutti ice cream has been served for at least 160 years, as it appeared on the bill of fare for an 1860 dinner in England.

Recipes for tutti frutti ice cream were found in cookbooks of the late 19th century. A tutti frutti ice cream recipe was included in the 1874 cookbook Common Sense in the Household: A Manual of Practical Housewifery This recipe calls for actual tutti frutti and is not fancifully named. In the 1883 cookbook The Chicago Herald Cooking School there is also a tutti frutti ice cream recipe.

In 1888, one of the first gum flavors to be sold in a vending machine, created by the Adams New York Gum Company, was tutti frutti.

Many restaurant menus circa 1900 in the collection of the New York Public Library also list this variety of ice cream.

At least one early-20th-century American cookbook contains a suggestion that tutti frutti ice cream was popular in the United States. The Italian Cookbook contains a recipe for Tutti Frutti Ice and says, "This is not the tutti frutti ice cream as is known in America".

A 1928 cookbook, Seven Hundred Sandwiches by Florence A. Cowles (published in Boston), includes a recipe for a "Tutti Frutti Sandwich" with a spread made of whipped cream, dates, raisins, figs, walnuts, and sugar.

References

Ice cream
Frozen desserts
Fruit dishes
Flavors of ice cream
Italian words and phrases

Tutti frutti


Christopher Columbus Bowen (January 5, 1832 – June 23, 1880) was a U.S. Representative from South Carolina.

Early life
Born in Providence, Rhode Island in 1832, Bowen attended the public schools. He moved to Georgia in 1850 as a young man, as good lands were available. There he engaged in agricultural pursuits and then studied law.

He was admitted to the bar in 1862 and commenced practice in Charleston, South Carolina. During the Civil War he enlisted in the Confederate States Army and served throughout the war as a captain in the Coast Guard. After the war, he resumed the practice of law in Charleston.

Political career
Bowen served as a member of the Republican State convention at Charleston in May 1867. He then served as the first chairman of the South Carolina Republican State central committee. He served as delegate to the State constitutional convention in November 1867.

Upon the readmission of South Carolina to the Union in 1868, he was elected as a Republican to the Fortieth and Forty-first Congresses and served from July 20, 1868, to March 3, 1871.

He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1870 to the Forty-second Congress, being defeated by Robert De Large, also a Republican. He challenged the victory by De Large, but the Election Committee took a long time to rule in the case. He served as a member of  The South Carolina House of Representatives from 1871 to 1872, and was elected sheriff of Charleston in November 1872.

The Election Committee declared that there were so many irregularities in the 1870 election that they could not declare a victor and demanded the congressional seat be made vacant in 1873.

Bowen died in New York City, June 23, 1880. He was interred in St. Laurence Cemetery, Charleston, South Carolina.

Sources

External links

1832 births
1880 deaths
Politicians from Providence, Rhode Island
American people of Welsh descent
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina
19th-century American politicians
Confederate States Army personnel

Christopher C. Bowen


Henry Woods (18 December 1868, in Cottenham – 4 April 1952, in Meldreth) was a British paleontologist.

In 1890 Woods earned a B.A. from the University of Cambridge, then became there curator of the Woodwardian Museum, earning an M.A. in 1894. In 1895 he won the Sedgwick prize. At Cambridge University, Woods was from 1892 to 1899 a demonstrator in paleobotany, and from 1894 to 1899 a demonstrator in paleozoology until his promotion to lecturer. From 1899 until his retirement in 1934 he was a lecturer in paleontology at Cambridge. In 1910 he married paleontologist Ethel Skeat, the daughter of Walter William Skeat, professor of Anglo-Saxon. Even after his retirement, Woods remained at the university as a librarian for the paleontology department until he was over eighty.

In 1940 Woods received the Wollaston Medal and in 1918 the Lyell Medal. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1916.

He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge; his wife is buried with him.

Works
 Palaeontology, invertebrate, Cambridge University Press, 7th edn. 1937, Online (1st edn. 1893)
 Elementary Palaeontology for geology students, Cambridge University Press 1893
 Catalogue of the Type Fossils in the Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge, Cambridge 2010 (1st edn. 1891)
 Trilobita and Eurypterida, in Sidney Harmer et al. Cambridge Natural History, vol. 4, 1909

References

External links
 Brief biography

British palaeontologists
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
English curators
Fellows of the Royal Society
Lyell Medal winners
Wollaston Medal winners
1868 births
1952 deaths
People from Cottenham
People from South Cambridgeshire District

Henry Woods (geologist)


The Allegri Quartet is a string quartet that was founded in 1953 by Eli Goren and William Pleeth.

It is Britain's longest-running chamber music ensemble.

A commitment to refreshing the repertoire had led the Allegri Quartet to give more than 60 world premières since 1964, including specially commissioned pieces by leading composers such as James MacMillan, Jonathan Harvey and Colin Matthews.

Personnel
The quartet's members have included:

1st Violin
 Eli Goren (founder)
 Hugh Maguire
 Peter Carter
 Daniel Rowland
 Ofer Falk
 Martyn Jackson

2nd Violin
 James Barton
 Peter Thomas
 David Roth
 Fiona McNaught
 Rafael Todes

Viola
 Patrick Ireland
 Prunella Pacey
 Keith Lovell
 Roger Tapping
 Jonathan Barritt
 Dorothea Vogel

Cello
 William Pleeth
 Bruno Schrecker
 Pal Banda
 Katherine Jenkinson
 Vanessa Lucas-Smith

The names of the current performers are shown in emboldened text.  Like all the senior professional String Quartets, the members of the Allegri teach and give masterclasses as well as performing and recording.

The Quartet celebrated their 50th anniversary in 2004 and held a reunion at the Llanfyllin Festival at which many of the past members also performed.

Daniel Rowland joined the Quartet following Peter Carter's retirement at the beginning of 2005.

Musical groups established in 1953
English string quartets

Allegri Quartet


was a Japanese politician and diplomat in the late 6th and early 7th century, during the Asuka period.

Ono was appointed by Empress Suiko as an official envoy (Kenzuishi) to the Sui court in 607 (imperial embassies to China), and he delivered the famous letter from Japan's Prince Shōtoku which began "The Son of Heaven where the sun rises [Japan], to the Son of Heaven where the sun sets [China], may good health be with you." Emperor Yang was angered at being addressed in this way, although it is not clear whether he was angered more by the insult of Sui being referred to as the land of the setting sun, or by the use of Son of Heaven to refer both to himself and the emperor of Japan, hinting that they were equals, premodern China considered other Kingdoms to be nothing more than barbarian states and uneducated culture before the Huaxia ideology and any lands on the Earth's surface not engaged at the Sinocentric tributary system were called  (; "lands outside of civilization"), the Emperor of China was considered the only legitimate emperor of the entire world (all lands under heaven) and the Japanese use of the same Chinese characters for Emperor ("son of heaven") was a subversion of this principle and Chinese theocracy. Nevertheless the Japanese disrespect, Emperor Yang was probably more interested in diplomatically distancing Japan from Goguryeo and getting support from Japan for being the other powerful kingdom besides Goguryeo in Northeast Asia than in matters of decorum, and despite the insult, he sent his own envoy, Pei Shiqing (), back to Japan with Ono. Goguryeo for years raided and assaulted Chinese borders, in an ill-fated attempt to subjugate the kingdom in the north, the Sui dynasty later   collapsed from unfavorable political opinion generated by the Goguryeo-Sui War and other causes.

Ono was then appointed envoy to Sui for a second time in the fall of 608 and accompanied Pei Shiqing on his return trip to China. Ono returned to Japan from his second mission in 609 and then largely disappeared from the historical record. Ono no Imoko is often cited as an example of an official who achieved promotion under the new meritorious Twelve Level Cap and Rank System implemented by Prince Shōtoku in 603. When Ono first appeared in the historical record and was appointed envoy to Sui, his rank was listed as Greater Propriety (5th rank), but he was later promoted to the top rank of Greater Virtue, largely due to his successful missions to the Sui court.

Ono no Imoko's family was notable for linguistics and scholarship, and the descendants of the family include Ono no Komachi, beautiful female poet; Ono no Takamura, poet and scholar; and Ono no Michikaze, calligrapher.

References

Citations

Sources
 Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 48943301

Japanese politicians
Ambassadors of Japan to China
People of Asuka-period Japan
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Sui dynasty
6th-century Japanese people
7th-century Japanese people
Deified Japanese people
Deified Japanese people in the Kiki

Ono no Imoko


In artillery, capsquares, or capsquires, are strong plates of iron which come over the trunnions of a cannon, keeping it in its carriage. They are fastened by hinges to the paizeplate, so that it could be lifted up and down. They form a part of an arch in the middle, to receive a third part of the thickness of the trunnions; for two thirds of them are let into the carriage, and the other end is fastened by two iron wedges, which are called the forelocks, and keys.

Carriages and mountings

Capsquare


Freeride is a discipline of the sport longboarding. Freeride is the compound word referring to the act of descending a riding surface interspersed with various maneuvers such as semi-perpendicular slides by breaking traction and carving (riding in an 'S' shaped path). There are techniques that slow, or "check" speed, quickly assuming the previous riding stance & continuing forward progress. This sliding makes important use of one of the minimal safety devices used ( at minimum, it's recommended & is customary to wear a certified helmet and special purpose 'slide gloves ') ;slide gloves.  These uhmw polyurethane or Delrin© puck equipped gloves ( Velcro affixed to each palm is a disc or plate of replaceable plastic)  permit the freeriders the ability to place a palm down on the ground during the apex of slides to act as a form of outrigger of-sorts, supporting the rider's weight as they slide to shave speed-off their rapidly accelerating decent of a hill. Eventually, as rider experience increases, the need to assist ones balance through the use of ["hands-down"] style decreases & more experienced freeride practitioners can perform the same results via [" standup slide" ] " pre-checks" .  Standup slides take much practice and experience to accomplish.
The sliding style itself can have very different & custom- tailored characteristics, this being based
-on many factors such as riding style, board geometry, truck setup, bushing durometer, hill angle and distance, the asphalt or concrete road surface quality and most importantly, the particularly wheel size,shape and material choice (polyurethane durometer) ridden.

Riders often change their riding stance as a result of their body spinning around a vertical axis, which is known as riding "goofy" or "switch." Prominent freeride longboarders include Kyle Chin, Louis Pilloni and James Kelly.
The practice and discipline of freeride longboarding is very quickly growing in popularity the world over.

Skateboarding articles needing attention
Skateboarding
Skateboarding styles

Freeride (longboard)


Alexander Fraser, 11th Lord Saltoun (March 4, 1604 – August 11, 1693), was a Scottish peer and the 10th Laird of Philorth.

Life
Fraser was born in 1604 in the young town of Fraserburgh in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. His father was Sir Alexander Fraser (1570–1636), and his mother was Lady Margaret Abernethy, daughter of Sir George Abernethy, 7th Lord Saltoun of Abernethy. He entered King's College, Aberdeen, in 1619. Upon the death of his father in 1636, he inherited the lands of Philorth as its 10th Laird.

Alexander subscribed the Solemn League and Covenant at Aberdeen in 1638 and was a member of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland at Glasgow in 1639. Also in 1639, while serving under the Earl of Montrose, he led 200 men against the castles of Kellie and Gight. He was chosen as a commissioner for Aberdeenshire in 1643 and this capacity attended the Convention of Estates in Edinburgh. After King Charles I was apprehended and taken to England, Saltoun took part in the failed rescue mission to England in 1648, commanding a regiment of Scots. In the reign of Charles II, he is known to have lent large sums of money to the king.  He was a Member of Parliament for Aberdeenshire twice, first in 1648 and again in 1661-63.

During the English Civil War, he fought in the Royalist cause at the Battle of Worcester (1651) in which he was severely wounded and might have been killed had it not been for his servant, James Cardno, who rescued him, saw to his recovery and returned him to his home at Fraserburgh.

In 1669, Fraser served as commissioner for the visitation of the two colleges of Aberdeen. In 1670, his succession to the Lordship of Saltoun of Abernethy was ratified by King Charles II and confirmed by Act of Parliament.

Succession and numbering
Alexander Fraser, now designated the 11th Lord Saltoun, was traditionally designated the 10th because after the death of the 9th Lord Saltoun (Alexander Abernethy, 1611-1668), his sister Margaret Fraser, née Abernethy (1616-1669), succeeded with the title 10th Lady Saltoun. However, she survived her brother by only two and a half months, and the title passed to Alexander Fraser, cousin of the Abernethys through his maternal line. In recent times, it was realized that Margaret had her title by the old Scots system of succession, and the decision was made to renumber the Lords Saltoun. As a result, Lady Saltoun is designated the 10th in the succession with Alexander Fraser, accordingly, moving from 10th to 11th in the succession.

Family
Fraser married twice. His first wife was Isobel Forbes of Tolquhorn, who bore him one daughter, Janet. His second wife was Elizabeth Urquhart, née Seton, widow of John Urquhart of Craigfintrie and daughter of Alexander Seton of Meldrum. She was the mother of Fraser's son, Alexander, who predeceased him in 1672, necessitating that the title of 12th Lord Saltoun pass to William Fraser (1654-1715), grandson of the 11th Lord.

Death and memory
Alexander Fraser, the 11th Lord Saltoun of Abernethy, died on 11 August 1693 at the age of 89. He was remembered in the registry of the Episcopal Congregation of Fraserburgh in these words:
He was a man that was given to the reading of good books, and very much in the exercise of prayer, both in his closet; and when he had to meet with a minister of churchman of his profession: He would alwise [sic] desire them to pray before they parted with him. He was very civil and kind to all whom he had the freedom to converse with. He was also very charitable to the poor, at all occasions, wherever he and they did meet.

He was buried at Fraserburgh.

Notes

1604 births
1693 deaths
People from Fraserburgh
Members of the Convention of the Estates of Scotland 1643–44
Members of the Parliament of Scotland 1648–1651
Members of the Parliament of Scotland 1661–1663
Shire Commissioners to the Parliament of Scotland
Lords of Parliament (pre-1707)
Lords Saltoun

Alexander Fraser, 11th Lord Saltoun


The Mill Village Historic District encompasses a small 19th-century industrial on Stowe Street in Waterbury, Vermont.  The area is a compact and somewhat isolated example of a mill village of the mid-19th century; it is roughly bounded by Stowe Street, Graves Brook, and the northbound offramp of Exit 10 from Interstate 89.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.

Description and history
Waterbury's historic Mill Village area is now a quiet residential area, but it was for much of the 19th century a bustling industrial area.  Powered by the waters of Graves (or Thatcher's) Brook, a number of mills and small industrial operations thrived into the 20th century, when advances in industrial power and economy of scale spelled their decline.  Only one mill building survives: now known as the Waterbury Feed Company, and its accompanying dam and penstock date to about 1830.  The other surviving buildings in the district are residential, with most built between 1860 and 1890.

The district is bounded on the north by the bridge carrying Stowe Street across Graves Brook, and on the south by the northbound offramp of Exit 10 off Interstate 89.  The ramp and high pass high over the area, with the footings for their bridges partially set on former industrial areas.  The district includes houses on North Street, a side loop off Stowe Street, and Seabury Lane, a short spur extending west from North Street.  Most of the houses in the district are vernacular, with some indications of either Greek Revival or Italianate styling.  The most elaborate house in the district is the Baker house, which features a three-bay Greek Revival temple portico with a recessed porch set under a segmented arch in the gable.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington County, Vermont

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Washington County, Vermont
Waterbury, Vermont
Historic districts in Washington County, Vermont

Mill Village Historic District (Waterbury, Vermont)


Xeer (pronounced ) is the traditional legal system of Somalia, Somaliland, Djibouti, Somali Region, and the North Eastern Province in Kenya. It is one of the three systems from which formal Somali law draws its inspiration, the others being civil law and Islamic law. It is believed to pre-date Islam. However, Islam influenced it, incorporating some faith elements. Under this system, elders, known as the  serve as mediator judges and help settle court cases, taking precedent and custom into account. Xeer is polycentric in that different groups within Somali society have different interpretations of xeer.

Application of xeer
Somali society is traditionally structured around a patriarchal clan based system, subdivided into sub-clans, then lineages, and finally mag groupings. These groups are bound together either by family ties or contract. Xeer justice usually revolves around the latter groups, as these are the smallest. In these groups, each member is responsible for the crimes of another and must accordingly bear some fraction of any decided punishment. Within this system, only the victim or immediate family of a victim can bring criminal proceedings to xeer mediation. If the victim is a man, his father, brothers, or uncles can bring complaints. If the victim is a woman, complaints can be brought forward by the men in her family or the men in her husband's family.

In xeer, crimes are transgressions against property rights. Justice is directed in the form of material compensation to the victim. If the accused is found guilty, some material restitution must be paid. If restitution cannot be given, mag retribution is due, measured in terms of livestock (usually healthy female camels), to be paid to the victim or the victim's family. There is no concept of imprisonment under xeer. In some cases, elders may advise that neither side seeks restitution or retribution. The verdict is enforced by the victim's family or else by all able-bodied clansmen within the area wherein the verdict is to be executed.

Xeer judges are made up of the heads of extended families. These family heads are chosen for their knowledge of the law and wisdom, but otherwise, there is no formal training, and each judge is allowed to formulate their own doctrines and legal principles. Multiple judges are chosen to preside over each case by the involved parties, with this delegation being called an "ergo". The number of judges involved in a case is usually around ten, though it can be as few as two.

In each case, the goal is to reach consensus between the parties. Arbitration traditionally takes place under a large tree, and the mediators ask each party to submit to the judge's ruling. In modern times, meeting halls are often used instead of sitting under a tree. Each party has the right to appoint a representative to speak on its behalf while a recorder loudly repeats any important points that are made. If a fact is disputed, its veracity must be obtained by the testimony of three witnesses. If this cannot be done, an oath must be sworn. Should proceedings become heated, the presiding judge may order a recess, wherein both parties discuss issues relating to the case in small informal groups. Once the mediation has been decided, an appeal may be requested, although all parties must agree.

Principles of xeer
Different groups within Somali society undertake oral agreements with each other to define xeer law. Despite this informal nature, there is a series of generally accepted principles, agreements, and ideas that constitute xeer, referred to collectively as "xissi adkaaday". These are:

the payment of mag by the collective group (clan, sub-clan, lineage, or mag group) from which an offender originates as compensation for the crimes of murder, bodily assault, theft, rape, and defamation of character, given to the victim or victim's family;
the protection of vulnerable or respected members of society such as older adults, women, children, poets, guests and religious people
obligations to the family such as the payment of a dowry to a bride
the rights of a widower to marry the dead wife's sister and the inheritance of a widow by the dead man's brother
the punishments for elopement
and the division and use of natural resources like water and land.

See also

 Adat (Malays of Nusantara)
 Anglo-Saxon law (England)
 Gadaa (Oromo)
 Aqsaqal (Central Asia)
 Coutume (France)
 Customary Aboriginal law (Australia)
 Customary law
 Early Germanic law
 Early Irish law (Ireland)
 Frith-borh
 Kanun (Albania)
 Kritarchy
 Laws of the Brets and Scots (Scotland)
 Medieval Scandinavian laws
 Pashtunwali and Jirga (Pashtuns of Pakistan and Afghanistan)
 Smriti and Ācāra (India)

 Vlach law (Romanians)
 Welsh Law (Wales)

References

Sources

 Abdile, Mahdi (2012). Customary Dispute Resolution in Somalia. African Conflict & Peacebuilding Review, Volume 2, Number 1: 87–110.
 Gladitz, Nicola. Somalia: A Tradition of Law
 Notten, Michael van (2005). The Law of the Somalis: A Stable Foundation for Economic Development in the Horn of Africa.

External links

Law of Somalia
Courts by type
Customary legal systems
Ancient Somalia
Collectivism

Xeer


Marcus Wiebusch is a German musician and lyricist.

From 1992 to 1999 he played in the political punk band ...But Alive, for which he sang, played guitar, and wrote lyrics.  He also had two even more aggressive and politically charged, but less prolific and recognized by-projects, the bands Die vom Himmel fielen and Utell A Lie, his only ever English-speaking project. During this time he established an independent record label called "B.A. Records" to put out his music and also to produce other bands like Tomte.

In 1994, while still playing with ...But Alive, he released his first and only solo album "Hippiekacke", which did not really satisfy him.

After breaking up all three groups he played in the ska band Rantanplan and still plays in the rock band Kettcar. To publish Kettcar's records he merged "B.A." with Tomte-singer Thees Uhlmann's "Hotel van Cleef" to form record label Grand Hotel van Cleef which he is co-owner and managing director of to this day. The label has evolved into one of the most influential, most popular independent labels in Germany with many more bands having signed on since.

In 2004 Wiebusch and Uhlmann were approached to take part in a movie project, , which entailed the formation of a band with actor Jürgen Vogel as singer. Wiebusch and Uhlmann agreed and wrote ten songs (based on the fictional biography of Vogel's character) for this band, Hansen, played guitar and sang background during the album's recordings and a tour during which filming took place and acted in the movie. No Songs of Love and Hansen's album were released simultaneously in 2005.

References

German male musicians
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Anarcho-punk musicians
German male guitarists

Marcus Wiebusch


Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (, , ; 6 December 1778 – 9 May 1850) was a French chemist and physicist. He is known mostly for his discovery that water is made of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by volume (with Alexander von Humboldt), for two laws related to gases, and for his work on alcohol–water mixtures, which led to the degrees Gay-Lussac used to measure alcoholic beverages in many countries.

Biography
Gay-Lussac was born at Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat in the present-day department of Haute-Vienne.

His father, Anthony Gay, son of a doctor, was a lawyer and prosecutor and worked as a judge in Noblat Bridge. Father of two sons and three daughters, he owned much of the Lussac village and began to add the name of this hamlet to his name, following a custom of the Ancien Régime. Towards the year 1803, father and son formally adopted the name Gay-Lussac. During the Revolution, under the Law of Suspects, his father, former king's attorney, was imprisoned in Saint Léonard from 1793 to 1794.

Gay-Lussac received his early education at the hands of the Catholic Abbey of Bourdeix. In the care of the Abbot of Dumonteil, he began his education in Paris, finally entering the École Polytechnique in 1798.

Three years later, Gay-Lussac transferred to the École des Ponts et Chaussées, and shortly afterward was assigned to C. L. Berthollet as his assistant. In 1804 he was appointed répétiteur (demonstrator) to Antoine François Fourcroy at the École Polytechnique, whom he succeeded in 1809 as professor of chemistry. From 1809 to 1832, he was also the professor of physics at the Sorbonne, a post which he only resigned for the chair of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes. In 1821, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute-Vienne in the chamber of deputies, and in 1839 he entered the chamber of peers. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832.

Gay-Lussac married Geneviève-Marie-Joseph Rojot in 1809. He had first met her when she worked as a linen draper's shop assistant; he noticed she was studying a chemistry textbook under the counter, which led to their acquaintance. The couple had five children, of whom the eldest (Jules) became a student of Justus Liebig in Giessen. Some publications by Jules are mistaken as his father's today since they share the same first initial (J. Gay-Lussac).

Gay-Lussac had a reputation as one of the greatest European scientists of his day, well justified by his innumerable discoveries in both chemistry and physics. The restored royalty made him a Peer of France, although he worked politically with the anti-clerical party. He was closely associated with François Arago.

Gay-Lussac died in Paris, and his grave is there at Père Lachaise Cemetery. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

Achievements

 1802 – Gay-Lussac first published the law that at constant pressure, the volume of any gas increases in proportion to its absolute temperature. Since in his paper announcing the law he cited earlier unpublished work on this subject by Jacques Charles, the law is usually called Charles's Law, though some sources use the expression Gay-Lussac's Law.  This law was independently and nearly simultaneously stated by John Dalton.
 1804 – He and Jean-Baptiste Biot made a hydrogen-balloon ascent; a second ascent the same year by Gay-Lussac alone attained a height of  in an early investigation of the Earth's atmosphere. He wanted to collect air samples at different heights to record differences in temperature and moisture.
 1805 – Together with his friend and scientific collaborator Alexander von Humboldt, he discovered that the composition of the atmosphere does not change with decreasing pressure (increasing altitude). They also discovered that water is formed by two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen (by volume).
 1808 – He was the co-discoverer of boron.
 1808 – Discovery and announcement of the law of combining volumes of gases; published in 1809.
 1810 – In collaboration with Louis Jacques Thénard, he developed a method for quantitative elemental organic combustion analysis by measuring the CO2 and H2O evolved when an organic compound is fully oxidized by potassium chlorate. He also summarised the equation of alcoholic fermentation.
 1811 – He recognized iodine as a new element, described its properties, and suggested the name iode.
 1815 – He synthesized cyanogen, determined its empirical formula, and named it.
 1824 – He developed an improved version of the burette that included a side arm, and coined the terms "pipette" and "burette" in an 1824 paper about the standardization of indigo solutions.

Awards and honors
 Along with Thénard, Gay Lussac received 30,000 francs from Napoleon in the third edition of the Galvanism Prize in 1809 for their research.
 In Paris, a street and a hotel near the Sorbonne are named after him as are a square and a street in his birthplace, Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat
 In Australia, the "Gay-Lussac Room" at AB Mauri STC, Sydney was named after him in honor of his work with yeast fermentation.

Academic lineage

Publications
 Chemistry courses of the École Polytechnique, Vol.1&2
Lessons of Physics, Faculty of Sciences in Paris, (November 6, 1827, March 18, 1828)

See also
Brin process
Joule expansion

References

Further reading

 Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French chemist (1778–1850) from the Encyclopædia Britannica, 10th Edition (1902)
 Rue Gay-Lussac, Paris
 Gay-Lussac's article (1809) "On the combination of gaseous substances", online and analyzed on BibNum (for English, click 'à télécharger').

École Polytechnique alumni
École des Ponts ParisTech alumni
Corps des ponts
1778 births
1850 deaths
People from Haute-Vienne
Academic staff of the University of Paris
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Discoverers of chemical elements
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
French atheists
19th-century French chemists
19th-century French physicists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Boron
Flight altitude record holders
French aviation record holders
Fluid dynamicists

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac


Aaron Cecil Snyder (September 14, 1907 – June 29, 1959) was an American lawyer who served as a prosecutor and judge in Puerto Rico.

Early life
Snyder was born in Baltimore, Maryland. After attending Baltimore City College and Johns Hopkins University as an undergraduate, he graduated from Harvard Law School in 1930.

Snyder practiced law briefly in New York City and Baltimore. In 1933, Maryland Senator Millard Tydings, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories, arranged for Snyder's appointment as United States Attorney for the District of Puerto Rico. As U.S. Attorney, he prosecuted Puerto Rican independence activist Pedro Albizu Campos and defended then-Senate President Luis Muñoz Marín at U.S. Senate hearings on Muñoz's allegedly communist leanings.

Supreme Court of Puerto Rico
In 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Snyder as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico. Snyder became the last non-Puerto Rican appointed to that court. As Associate Justice, he appeared before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Public Lands in 1950 in support of a bill allowing Puerto Rico to draft a local constitution. The bill was passed, and Snyder contributed to the drafting and translation of the Constitution of Puerto Rico.

In 1953, Governor Luis Muñoz Marín, following a long-standing tradition of appointing the most senior Associate Justice as Chief Justice when a vacancy arose, appointed him Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, the first appointment that a Puerto Rican governor made to the court, addressing the nomination to "A. Cecilio Snyder". Snyder actually used the name "Cecilio" when sworn in as Chief Justice.

Resignation
Four years later, in July 1957, after most of Puerto Rico's legal establishment had lost confidence in Snyder's leadership as Chief Justice, he resigned from the court effective September 15, 1957. He was succeeded as Chief Justice by Associate Justice Jaime Sifre Dávila. After his departure from the court, Snyder practiced law in San Juan, Puerto Rico until his death in 1959.

See also

List of Puerto Ricans
Jewish immigration to Puerto Rico

Sources

La Justicia en sus Manos, by Luis Rafael Rivera, 2007,

1907 births
1959 deaths
20th-century American Jews
Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico
Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico
Johns Hopkins University alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Baltimore City College alumni
United States Attorneys for the District of Puerto Rico
20th-century American judges

A. Cecil Snyder


The Honourable William Ralph Talbot Chetwynd  (July 28, 1890 – April 3, 1957) was a British-Canadian businessman and politician. The town of Chetwynd, British Columbia was named in his honor.

Born in Staffordshire, England, he was the younger brother of Sir (Arthur Henry) Talbot Chetwynd, 7th Baronet. He came to Canada at the age of eighteen, and was soon in Ashcroft, British Columbia (west of Kamloops Lake). He received employment from Charles Paget, 6th Marquess of Anglesey (nephew of Lady Florence Cecilia Paget, who was married to Chetwynd's first cousin once removed Sir George, 4th Baronet) to manage Anglesey's fruit farm holdings at Walhachin.

On October 8, 1912, he married Frances Mary Jupe, daughter of James Jupe of Mere, Wiltshire.

He fought in World War I as a member of the Royal Field Artillery, attaining the rank of lieutenant therein. He received the Military Cross in 1918 for his service.

After returning from Europe, he entered cattle ranching and the transportation business needed to get the cattle and other agriculture products to eastern markets. As a fruit grower and rancher, he saw both the potential for the Cariboo and Peace River Country, but also the need for efficient rail transportation to serve the region.

In 1942 he became the public relations officer for Pacific Great Eastern Railway (PGE; later BC Rail; now part of the CN Rail system), a post he held until 1952; he also served as a director of the PGE. He was a big advocate for building a railroad to central British Columbia. Running as a member from the District of Cariboo, he was elected to provincial legislature in 1952. He served on the Executive Council of British Columbia as Minister of Trade and Industry, Railways and Fisheries from 1952 to 1956, and also as Minister of Agriculture. At the age of 66, ill health forced him to retire from politics.

Full of confidence, he once bet executives at PGE, and politicians (a new Stetson hat), that the new extension line for Peace River would leave North Vancouver on June 11, 1956 at 4:15 pm. He had many takers, totaling more than $800 in hats. He won the bet, and got his picture in the newspaper wearing a stack of hats.

Chetwynd died at Victoria, British Columbia on April 3, 1957.

Rail service arrived in Little Prairie in April 1958. It would bring an economic transformation to the area, which until then had to rely on trucks to get any goods, such as timber, out of the valley.

The Premier of British Columbia, W.A.C. Bennett, renamed the PGE station at Little Prairie to Chetwynd, in his honor, and the town of Little Prairie soon changed its name in 1959.

Notes

1890 births
1957 deaths
British Army personnel of World War I
British Columbia Social Credit Party MLAs
Canadian transportation businesspeople
Canadian cattlemen
Canadian orchardists
Canadian public relations people
Canadian recipients of the Military Cross
English emigrants to Canada
Farmers from British Columbia
Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia
People from Staffordshire
People from the Thompson-Nicola Regional District
Royal Field Artillery officers
20th-century Canadian legislators
Military personnel from Staffordshire

Ralph Chetwynd


John Young Sangster (29 May 1896 – 26 March 1977) was a British industrialist and philanthropist. He was an important figure in the British motorcycle industry, where he was involved with Ariel, BSA and Triumph.

Early life
Sangster was born in Kings Norton, Worcestershire, England. He was the second of three sons of Charles Thomas Brock Sangster, an engineer and the owner of Cycle Components Ltd, which became known as the motorcycle brand Ariel in 1902.

After his education at Hurstpierpoint College, Sussex, Sangster started an engineering apprenticeship. It was interrupted by the First World War, in which Sangster served with the City of Birmingham battalion of the 14th Royal Warwickshire Regiment. His elder brother Fredrick Charles Sangster was killed in action in 1916.

Career

In 1918 Sangster joined the Cycle Components Manufacturing Company, where his father was managing director. He designed a small low-cost car that the company began manufacturing. The car's design was later sold to the Rover Company in Coventry, and Sangster joined Rover to manage the production of the car which became the Rover 8.

In 1923, Sangster returned to his father's company, and by 1930 was joint managing director with him. In 1932 Cycle Components went bankrupt. Sangster bought most of the company's assets and started a new company, Ariel Motors, which he developed with some of CC's former designers and engineers, including Val Page and Bert Hopwood, and later Edward Turner.

Sangster developed a motorcycle with a 4 hp White and Poppe engine which proved extremely successful. He added 586 cc and 992 cc machines to the company's line, setting the standard for competitions at the time.

In 1936, Sangster bought the financially struggling Triumph Cycles company renamed it Triumph Engineering Co., and brought in Edward Turner from Ariel to improve its product range. The Triumph Speed Twin, with a parallel-twin engine designed by Turner, was introduced in 1938, and was followed by a series of successful Triumph motorcycles until the early 1980s.

In 1944, Sangster sold Ariel to the BSA company. In 1951 he sold Triumph to BSA for £2.5 million, a good return on his initial £50,000 investment in 1936.

Sangster joined the board of BSA following their acquisition of Triumph. He became chairman of BSA in 1956, after a series of boardroom battles which ousted the previous chairman, Sir Bernard Docker. He appointed Turner as Chief Executive of the Automotive Division (comprising BSA, Ariel, Triumph, Daimler, and Carbodies, makers of London taxicabs). Sangster retired as chairman of BSA in 1961.

He took in two London evacuees, Gordon and Jean Rookledge, in 1944. He declined a peerage in 1962.

Sangster died in Belgravia, London, from cancer on 26 March 1977.

References

External links
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: Sangster, John Young by Barbara M.D. Smith.

1896 births
1977 deaths
British Army personnel of World War I
British motorcycle pioneers
Deaths from cancer in England
Daimler people
People from Kings Norton
People educated at Hurstpierpoint College
20th-century English businesspeople

Jack Sangster


Dustin Dakota Long (born November 30, 1981) is a former American football quarterback for Texas A&M University and Sam Houston State University.  He played briefly for the NFL's Dallas Cowboys.  Long is the son of Kim and Mike Long of Groves, Texas.  His father, Mike, played quarterback at Lamar University.

High school career
As a senior, Long led Port Neches–Groves High School to the 1999 4A Division II State Championship game while throwing for 3,130 yards and 28 touchdowns.  He was named Houston Chronicle Offensive Player of the Year and received the Willie Ray Smith Award, given to the South-east Texas Offensive MVP.  Long played in the Oil Bowl and the THSCA North-South All-Star Game.  He passed for 6,173 yards and 56 touchdowns in his high school career.

College career

2000 season
Long was redshirted.

2001 season
Long did not see any action during the regular season.  He entered the Galleryfurniture.com Bowl in the fourth quarter, but did not attempt a pass.

2002 season
Long had a record-breaking season as a sophomore after not attempting a pass as a freshman.  He won the starting spot from two-year incumbent starter Mark Farris with a solid performance against the Pitt Pathers in the second game of the season and started his first career game the following week against Virginia Tech.  Long passed for 2,509 yards and 19 touchdowns on 177-of-333 passing, his 2,509 season passing yards putting him at No. 2 in school history for a single season.  He started the last nine games of the season and played in all 12.  He posted 300-yard passing games against Kansas (399), Texas Tech (367) and Oklahoma State (332).  Long shared Big 12 Conference Offensive Player of the Week honors with Texas Tech's Kliff Kingsbury after passing for 367 yards and seven touchdowns against the Red Raiders, his seven touchdowns shattering a Big 12 record.  His 19 passing touchdowns tied him with Gary Kubiak for the most in one season at A&M.

2003 season
Long was supplanted by Reggie McNeal as the starting quarterback, although he did see action in all 12 games.  In his lone start against Mizzou (after an injury to McNeal), Long passed for 252 yards and a touchdown on 23-of-29 passing.  He finished the season with 709 passing yards and four touchdowns on 63-of-104 attempts.

2004 season
Unhappy with his lack of playing time, Long decided to transfer to Sam Houston State University following the 2003 season.  During his senior season, Long passed for 3,408 yards and 31 touchdowns and led the SHSU to an 11-3 record and helped propel them into the NCAA Division I-AA playoff semifinals.  He was named the Southland Conference Offensive Player of the Year and led the Bearkats to a share of the Southland title and an NCAA playoff berth.

In the first round of the playoffs, Long led his team to victory against Western Kentucky.  He threw for 323 yards and four touchdowns, leading Sam Houston State to a 54-24 win.

In the second round, Long passed for 478 yards and three touchdowns to rally the Bearkats from a 20-point fourth quarter deficit, leading them on a 75-yard drive which culminated with a seven-yard touchdown pass to Jason Mathenia as time expired for a 35-34 win over Eastern Washington University.

In the semifinals against Montana, Long was 35-of-53 for 375 yards, but was erratic throwing two interceptions without a touchdown.  He was sacked six times, matching his total for the entire season up to that point.  Ironically, Montana quarterback Craig Ochs was a transfer from Texas A&M's Big 12 rival Colorado Buffaloes.

Professional career
Although Long went undrafted in the 2005 NFL Draft, he participated in workouts and a team mini-camp with the Dallas Cowboys, who allocated him to the Hamburg Sea Devils of NFL Europa, where he did not see any regular-season action.  He helps his father, Mike Long, with coaching football at Monsignor Kelly Catholic High School in Beaumont, Texas.

External links
 Texas A&M profile

1981 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
Dallas Cowboys players
Hamburg Sea Devils players
Sam Houston Bearkats football players
Texas A&M Aggies football players
Players of American football from Beaumont, Texas

Dustin Long (American football)


The Great Lacuna is a lacuna of eight leaves where there was heroic Old Norse poetry in the Codex Regius. The gap would have contained the last part of Sigrdrífumál and most of Sigurðarkviða. What remains of the last poem consists of 22 stanzas called Brot af Sigurðarkviðu, but according to Henry Adams Bellows, the original size of Sigurðarkviða should have been more than 250 stanzas.

The missing original narrative is preserved in the Völsunga saga in prose form with four stanzas of poetry. The first two stanzas that are preserved through the saga deal with how Sigurd returns to Brynhildr leaping through the flames on Grani after Gunnar had failed:

Sigurd had, however, been given a potion of forgetfulness and so he had forgotten all about Brynhildr before returning to her. Moreover, he arrived to her disguised as Gunnar, and so Brynhildr was married to Gunnar instead. After the wedding, Brynhildr argues with her sister-in-law Gudrun, who is Sigurd's spouse, and Gudrun reveals to Brynhildr that it was Sigurd who saved her from her prison. Brynhildr who grasps the extent of the treachery of her in-laws (the Gjukungs) against her and Sigurd, speaks out her heart about Gunnar, in the third preserved stanza:

Brynhildr is furious and so Gunnar and Sigurd talk to her trying to calm her down. Sigurd and Brynhildr have a conversation about the treachery of their mutual in-laws, and understanding how deceived he has been, Sigurd leaves Brynhildr with a heavy heart:

Brynhild's fury would soon lead to the death of both her and Sigurd and to the end of the Gjukung clan.

J. R. R. Tolkien produced the poems Sigurðarkvida en nyja and Guðrunarkviða en nyja, now published as The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún, based on the content found in the saga.

Notes

References
 The Great Lacuna Stanzas from Völsunga saga believed to be from the lacuna, translated by Lee M. Hollander
 Fragment of a Sigurth Lay Henry Adams Bellows' translation and commentary
 Fragments of the Lay of Sigurd and Brynhild Benjamin Thorpe's translation

Eddic poetry
Nibelung tradition
Lost literature

Great Lacuna