Ionică Tăutu (usual rendition of Ion Tăutu; 1798–1828) was a Moldavian low-ranking boyar, Enlightenment-inspired pamphleteer, and craftsman ("an engineer by trade", according to Alecu Russo).

Constitutional project
The last in a succession of boyars who advanced reforms during the Phanariote rule, Tăutu stood for the interests of a coalition of low-ranking nobility which aimed to protect itself against competition from modern developments, while adopting various liberal and Romanian nationalist principles in order to counter the growing political power of Moldavian princes. The entire group was referred to as cărvunari, an antiquated Romanian rendition of the Italian carbonari (although, unlike the latter, they were not organized as a secret society); the reference was to remain a denominator for radical groups in both Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) until the 1848 Wallachian revolution.

In 1822, under the rule of Ioan Sturdza (the first non-Phanariote prince in Moldavia), Ionică Tăutu advanced a thorough constitutional project, which soon became highly controversial. The new law proposed habeas corpus, free trade, as well as a radical definition of private ownership which denied confiscation under any circumstances; at the same time, it called for a reform of the traditional government by the prince and the estates of the realm (the Boyar Divan), which placed virtually all powers with the latter - thus attempting to preserve privileges obtained by boyars in the previous decades. Nevertheless, Tăutu was a cautious adversary of the French Revolution, which he likened to "the anarchy of crowds".

Given that high-ranking boyars had come to dominate the political landscape (and an inner-circle of families had effectively blocked several Phanariote reforms), Tăutu met stiff opposition from the political class: his reforms also attempted to increase representation for low-ranking boyars - a group otherwise threatened with extinction. The most noted adversary of his project was Mihail Sturdza (future prince), who rejected all decrease in influence for the high-ranking boyars. Ultimately, the Russian consulate in Iași, which had progressively gained influence in internal politics between the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and the Greek War of Independence, called for the initiative to be stopped, citing previous treaties between the Ottoman Empire (Moldavia's suzerain) and Russia, as well as the will of Emperor Alexander I of Russia.

Tăutu retreated from public life and died in self-exile in Istanbul.

Legacy
His image was held in esteem by radical of later generations, and often offered as an example of nationalist revival. Alecu Russo, who wrote his memoirs in the 1850s, described Tăutu as "the revived Romanianness, carried along by all patriotic sentiments, and having the same role as the one Vladimirescu [the leader of the previous Wallachian uprising] had with a peasant rifle".

Giving evidence of an ultimately left-wing tradition emerging from low-ranking boyars (in his criticism of the conservative guidelines advocated by Junimea), the Poporanist Garabet Ibrăileanu postulated that Ionică Tăutu's was a "revolutionary class" and "the representative of all disinherited classes".

Notes

References

Neagu Djuvara, Între Orient şi Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995
Keith Hitchins, Românii, 1774-1866, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1998 (translation of the English-language edition The Romanians, 1774-1866, Oxford University Press, USA, 1996)
 Garabet Ibrăileanu,  Spiritul critic în cultura românească:  Evoluţia spiritului critic - Deosebirile dintre vechea şcoală critică moldovenească şi "Junimea"
 Alecu Russo,  Amintiri

1798 births
1828 deaths
Moldavia
Romanian nobility

Ionică Tăutu


Tytherington is an area in the north of Macclesfield in Cheshire, England. It comprises a large residential housing estate and has a church, Tytherington Family Worship Church, an academy school, Tytherington School and a golf club. Tytherington Wood forms part of Macclesfield Riverside Park. Tytherington Business Park lies to the north-east.

Manchester Road divides the housing estate, the "Dorchester Way area" being to the west and "Rugby Drive area" to the east. Rugby Drive derives its name from Macclesfield Rugby Club, since relocated to Prestbury. The rugby pitch remains but is used predominantly for football.

Tytherington has become a relatively affluent residential area, the average house price being around £320,000.

Tytherington Hall
Tytherington Hall (or Tytherington House) was a stone mansion built by the wife of William Brocklehurst in the 19th century as a surprise for her husband. Brocklehurst's wife led him to the gates to the driveway from where Brocklehurst "refused to go any further". The building later became the residence of Mr Henry Charlton, a philanthropic cotton merchant from Manchester. Miss Salt from Buxton bought the house in the early 20th century and named it 'Marlborough College for Girls'.

During World War II, American soldiers were billeted in the Hall and in Nissen huts dotted around the grounds. In the times of the occupation by the Americans and other troops the Hall fell into disrepair and was demolished in the 1960s to make way for Marlborough Primary School and the Tytherington housing estate.

References

See also
Tytherington Old Hall

Macclesfield

Tytherington, Cheshire


Tenacious D is the debut studio album by American comedy rock band Tenacious D, released on September 25, 2001 by Epic Records. The album's polished production was a departure from the band's acoustic origins, due in part to the production of the Dust Brothers.
"Wonderboy" was the first single released from the album, followed by "Tribute". Both singles had music videos filmed for them, with the Liam Lynch-directed "Tribute" video achieving cult status. While Tenacious D did not achieve chart success after its release, it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) by the end of 2005. Despite only peaking at number 38 in the UK, it had sold 426,000 copies countrywide by 2006.

Conception
For their first album, they enlisted the help of drummer Dave Grohl, keyboardist Page McConnell of Phish, guitarist Warren Fitzgerald, and bass player Steven Shane McDonald. The Dust Brothers produced the album. The majority of the songs on their debut album stem from early versions as seen on their HBO TV series, Tenacious D. The record itself does not list the song titles on the back cover as is the convention but instead on the back cover of the jacket; therefore one must open the CD (after presumably buying it) to read them. This is perhaps to allow songs with expletives or words otherwise deemed offensive to escape censorship or omission.

Recording
The recording session for the album began with a two-day session at Neil Diamond's ArcAngel studio in Los Angeles where initial drum tracks were recorded. They were able to use the studio because Diamond had just appeared with Black in the film Saving Silverman, in which Black plays a Neil Diamond cover singer. "Diamond claims it was the Liberty Records studio," King says. "It's a really old place." At least one song was cut from the final release of the album. A studio recording of "Jesus Ranch," the final song from the HBO shorts (the closing credits feature the end of "The Road"), was omitted from the album because "it just didn't cut the mustard" (quoted by the D in the FAQ section of their website). The HBO version can be found on their DVD, The Complete Masterworks, and a recorded studio demo can be found on their 2002 EP, D Fun Pak.

Album cover controversy

The front cover features Black and Gass standing naked below the Devil. The pose is similar to that shown on some Devil tarot cards. Due to the Satanic nature of the cover, the album was briefly recalled from stores. The band performed in front of this at concerts.

Structure

The first single "Wonderboy", a biographical ballad, was critically well-received, with the BBC describing it as "endearing". In 2002, the video, directed by Spike Jonze, won a  Music Video Production Association for "Best Direction of a Music Video".

"Tribute", the second single from the album, discusses the "greatest song in the world" written to save the souls of Gass and Black from a demon but later forgotten. The song dropped guitar riffs from Led Zeppelin's "Stairway to Heaven" which had appeared in early versions. The single, the band's most successful, achieved Tenacious D's only chart top-ten peaking at number 4 in Australia. The video, directed by Liam Lynch, was voted by Kerrang! readers as the fifth best music video.

The third music video for "Fuck Her Gently", a song described as an "underground hit" and, according to Black, lauded by women's groups depicted an animated Black and Gass as cherubs by John Kricfalusi, the creator of Ren and Stimpy.

The album opens with "Kielbasa", a song discussing anal sex. The previously popular pseudo-science book, Dianetics is also mentioned, as well as Krishna. "Dio" is a tribute to Ronnie James Dio that calls for the singer to "pass the torch" on to Tenacious D. Black has said that this was a compliment as they could have asked others for the torch but "ultimately, we were bestowing an honor upon him." Reportedly, Dio approved of the song and let Tenacious D appear in the video for his single, "Push". In addition, Dio also appeared in the 2006 film Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny, playing himself. "Explosivo" was originally intended as a tribute to Kurt Cobain.

Seven of the tracks on the album are comedy skits: "One Note Song", "Hard Fucking", "Inward Singing", "Cock Pushups", "Friendship Test", "Karate Schnitzel" and "Drive-Thru".

"Double Team" is another song on the topic of sex, in particular threesomes. "The Road" deals with groupies whilst touring. "Lee", named after their "no 1 fan" Lee, is a song from the short "The Fan", in which the band stalk their biggest fan, and sing an obsessive song about him. "Karate" is described as an aggressive song taken from the short "Angel in Disguise" in which Black and Gass fight. The song ends with Black saying the words 'donkey crap' in reverse audio. "Kyle Quit The Band", from "The Search for Inspirado", is a song which documents the band reuniting after breaking up.

"Rock Your Socks" with Tenacious D's desire to prove its classical and rock prowess through giving "a taste" of Bach's Bourrée in E minor from Suite in E minor for Lute, BWV 996, also used in another of Tenacious D song – "Classico". ("That is Bach and it rocks..."), popularized by one of the most famous classical guitarists: Andrés Segovia and prog rock band, Jethro Tull. The song features a shock comedy climax when lead singer Jack Black asks for the listener, in return for their troubles in playing to them, to perform a coprophilic ritual (referred to colloquially as a Cleveland steamer).

"Friendship" talks of Black and Gass' relationship. They sing of friendship being "rare".

In "City Hall", the longest song on the album – described as epic – lead singer Black calls for the legalisation of cannabis. The song is described by the band, and others as a rock opera.

Some critics have lamented that songs performed live and featured on the TV series were not included on the album. These include "Jesus Ranch" and "Cosmic Shame". Black accounted for the band's decision not to include "Jesus Ranch" saying "it just didn't cut the mustard". A demo recording of "Jesus Ranch" was later released on the D Fun Pak.

Touring
In support of the album, the band embarked on a national tour. All the songs were performed acoustically. The band covered Queen's "Flash" and The Beatles "You Never Give Me Your Money".

Tenacious D shows featured "City Hall" in the encore, a song about rioting against the government, and it played at shows until the events of September 11 attacks. The band initially removed the song from the set, but would eventually return it in the spring of 2002.

Critical reception

Tenacious D's first album garnered critical acclaim. Review aggregate website Metacritic gave the album a score of 85 out of 100, signifying "universal acclaim". Entertainment Weekly described the release as being "hilarious," and "no mere comedy record." AllMusic said it "rocks so damn hard" but it reflects on the lack of some of the songs from the HBO episodes. The A.V. Club wrote that Black and Gass manage "an odd simultaneous fusion of stupid and clever", while Time wrote, "The pleasures of Tenacious D... flow from a similar revelation: Black and Gass set themselves up as buffoons with titles like Karate Schnitzel, then proceed to defy expectations with precise guitars, polished vocal harmonies and slamming backup musicians".

Splendid magazine said of Tenacious D, "As entertainment, Tenacious D succeeds surprisingly well – for the first few listens.... The only long-term replay value you'll get from this record will come from playing it for friends who haven't heard it." Flak Magazine criticised the band's use of skits between songs, describing them as "distracting" and a "nuisance". In addition, Andy Gill of The Independent remarked that the album was full of "swearing and scatology" and was "bereft of even the slightest skidmark of humour".

Track listing

Personnel
Tenacious D
 Jack Black – lead vocals, rhythm acoustic guitar
 Kyle Gass – lead acoustic guitar, rhythm electric guitar, backing vocals

Additional musicians
 Dave Grohl – drums, guitar on tracks 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 18, 20, 21
 Steve McDonald – bass guitar
 Warren Fitzgerald – lead electric guitar
 Page McConnell – keyboards
 Alfredo Ortiz – percussion on tracks 3, 15, 18, 20
 Woody Jackson – sitar on track 1
 Andrew Gross – strings on tracks 4, 6
 Ken Andrews – guitar on tracks 3, 10, 11, 15
 John King – echoplex on track 7

Production
 Produced by The Dust Brothers (John King and Michael Simpson)
 Assistant engineer – Tony Scloss
 Mixed by Ken Andrews, except tracks 2, 5, 6, 9, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, which were mixed by The Dust Brothers
 Assistant mixing engineer – Cameron Webb
 Engineer for Dave Grohl sessions – Adam Kasper
 Engineer at ArchAngel – Bernie Becker
 Recorded at The Boat (RCR Labs) in Silverlake, California
 Drums Recorded at ArchAngel Recording Studio
 Mixed at Larrabee North in North Hollywood, California
 Sound Castle Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California
 Record One Studios in Sherman Oaks, CA
 Mastered by Tom Baker for Precision Mastering in Hollywood, California
 Art direction and design: Brandy Flower
 Photography: Sean Murphy and Matthew Gass

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

References

External links
 An article discussing The Boat, and the Dust Brothers
 An article looking at the recording techniques used by the Dust Brothers for Tenacious D

2001 debut albums
Tenacious D albums
Epic Records albums
Albums produced by the Dust Brothers

Tenacious D (album)


André Benoît François Hyacinthe Le Berthon was a French politician. He was born on January 7, 1713 in Bordeaux (Gironde) and died April 17, 1800 in Paris.

He was the first president of the Parliament of Bordeaux on the death of his father in August 1766.

Simon-Antoine Delphin de Lamothe, admitted to the Parliament of Bordeaux at the age of 18. The pleasure of munching on his colleagues from the Palace arouses strong protests to bring the first President André-Benoît-François-Hyacinthe Le Berthon to intervene.

He was received at the Bordeaux Masonic Lodge La Française in 1773 and was its perpetual venerable from 1779.

In August 1787, the Parliament of Bordeaux, having taken up the defense of the tax-burdened people, was again exiled to Libourne. King Louis XVI again fearing riots agreed to return to Parliament in August 1788.

He was a member of the nobility at the Estates General of 1789, showing himself open to reforms.

References

1713 births
1800 deaths
French nobility
Politicians from Nouvelle-Aquitaine
People from Bordeaux


The Treaty of Rio de Janeiro is the treaty between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Empire of Brazil, signed August 29, 1825, which recognized Brazil as an independent nation, formally ending the Brazilian war of independence.

The treaty was ratified by the Emperor of Brazil on August 24, 1825, and by the King of Portugal on November 15, 1825, and on that same date the two instruments of ratification were exchanged between Brazilian and Portuguese diplomats in Lisbon.

The Treaty entered into force on November 15, 1825, upon the exchange of the ratification documents. It was proclaimed in Portugal on that same date, and was proclaimed in Brazil on April 10, 1826.

British mediation
The treaty was mediated by the British government, which supported Brazilian independence and informally recognized the independence of Brazil before the signing of treaty. However, the British government wished to receive promises that Brazil would abolish its slave trade with Africa. Afterwards, the newly independent Brazilian government signed the British-Brazilian Treaty of 1826, promised to abolish its slave trade within four years, and negotiated various other commercial factors.

Content

The treaty consists of eleven articles, which establish respectively:

ART. I – His Most Faithful Majesty recognizes Brazil in the category of independent Empire and separated from the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves; And to his most beloved and dear son Pedro by Emperor, yielding and transferring from his free will the sovereignty of the said Empire to his son and to his legitimate successors. His Most Faithful Majesty only takes and reserves for himself the same title.
ART. II – His Imperial Majesty, in recognition of the respect and love of his august father, the Lord John VI, consented to His Most Faithful Majesty to take to his person the title of Emperor.
ART. III – His Imperial Majesty promises not to accept the proposal of any Portuguese Colonies to join the Empire of Brazil.
ART. IV – There will now be peace and alliance and the most perfect friendship between the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves and the Empire of Brazil with complete forgetfulness of the past disputes between the respective peoples. His Imperial Majesty pledges to pay the sum of two million pounds sterling, or 80 tons of gold, as compensation, to the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves.
ART. V – The subjects of both Portuguese and Brazilian Nations shall be considered and treated in their respective States as those of the most favored and friendly nation, and their rights and properties religiously guarded and protected; It being understood that the present owners of real property shall be held in the peaceful possession of the same property.
ART. VI – All ownership of real estate, or furniture and stocks, seized or confiscated, belonging to the subjects of both the sovereigns of Portugal and Brazil shall then be refunded, as well as their past income, minus the expenses of the administration, their indemnified owners reciprocally in the manner set forth in Article VIII.
ART. VII – All vessels and cargoes apprehended, belonging to the subjects of both sovereigns, shall be similarly restituted or their owners compensated.
ART. VIII – A commission appointed by both Governments, composed of Portuguese and Brazilian nationals of equal numbers, and established by their respective Governments, shall be charged with examining the subject matter of Articles VI and VII; It being understood that complaints shall be made within one year after the commission has been formed and that in the event of a tie in the votes, the matter shall be decided by the representative of the sovereign mediator. Both Governments shall indicate the funds by which the first claims settled shall be paid.
ART. IX – All public complaints from Government to Government will be reciprocally received and decided, or with the restitution of the objects claimed, or with compensation of their fair value. In order to adjust these claims both High Contracting Parties agree to make a direct and special Convention.
ART. X – Trade relations between both Portuguese and Brazilian Nations will be restored from the outset, with all commodities repaying 15 percent of consumer rights provisionally; With the duties of re-exporting and re-exporting the same as that practiced before the separation.
ART. XI – The reciprocal exchange of ratifications of this Treaty shall take place in the city of Lisbon within five months or shorter, if possible, from the date of signature of this Treaty. In witness whereof, we, the undersigned, the plenipotentiaries of His Most Faithful Majesty and His Imperial Majesty, by virtue of our respective full powers, have signed this Treaty with our fists, and have set the seal of our arms upon them. Done in the city of Rio de Janeiro, on the 29th day of August, 1825.

See also
 Brazilian Declaration of Independence
 Brazilian imperial family
 Empire of Brazil

External links

Treaties of the Empire of Brazil
Treaties of the Kingdom of Portugal
Brazil–Portugal relations
1825 treaties
1825 in Portugal
1825 in the Empire of Brazil
Pedro I of Brazil
John VI of Portugal

Treaty of Rio de Janeiro (1825)


Harry Ritchie (born 1958) is a Scottish writer and journalist. He is the author of six books, and numerous newspaper articles and book reviews.

Biography
Ritchie was born in Kirkcaldy, Fife. He attended Kirkcaldy High School and the University of Edinburgh, then studied for a D.Phil. at Lincoln College, Oxford. His doctoral thesis on the literary scene of the 1950s was published by Faber as the book Success Stories in 1988. His subsequent works are the comic travel books Here We Go  and The Last Pink Bits, the novels Friday Night Club and The Third Party, and a book about English grammar, English for the Natives (John Murray).

Ritchie edited the anthology New Scottish Writing, and contributed an essay to Nick Hornby's anthology of football writing, My Favourite Year, about his lifelong passion for Raith Rovers, his hometown football club.

Ritchie lives in London with the journalist and broadcaster Tracey MacLeod.

References

1958 births
Living people
People from Kirkcaldy
Scottish journalists
People educated at Kirkcaldy High School
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford

Harry Ritchie


The Orion Arm, or Orion–Cygnus Arm, is a minor spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy. It is of interest because the Solar System (including the Earth) is inside it. The spiral arm is some  across and approximately  in length.

The Orion Arm is named after the Orion constellation, one of the most prominent constellations. It is seen in the Northern Hemisphere during winter and in the Southern Hemisphere during summer. Some of the brightest stars and most famous celestial objects are in the Orion Arm: Betelgeuse, Rigel, the stars of Orion's Belt and the Orion nebula. They are shown on the interactive map below.

The Orion Arm is between the Carina–Sagittarius Arm (toward the Galactic centre) and the Perseus Arm (toward the outside Universe). The Perseus Arm is one of the two major arms of the Milky Way. The Solar system is on the Orion spur, between the two longer adjacent arms Perseus and Carina-Sagittarius.

Inside the Orion Arm, the Solar System is close to the inner rim, in the Local Bubble. It is about halfway along the Orion Arm's length, about  from the Galactic centre.

Interactive map

References

Local galaxies

Orion Arm


The de novo protein synthesis theory of memory formation is a hypothesis about the formation of the physical correlates of memory in the brain. It is widely accepted that the physiological correlates for memories are stored at the synapse between various neurons. The relative strength of various synapses in a network of neurons form the memory trace, or 'engram,' though the processes that support this finding are less thoroughly understood. The de novo protein synthesis theory states that the production of proteins is required to initiate and potentially maintain these plastic changes within the brain. It has much support within the neuroscience community, but some critics claim that memories can be made independent of protein synthesis.

History

Originally, protein synthesis inhibitors (PSI) were only used as antibiotics. Through various mechanisms unique to each PSI, they would inhibit the synthesis of proteins, generally at the translational level. They achieved renown within the biological scientific community, when research on protein synthesis required PSI's to investigate certain physiological processes. Through this line of research, it was found that injection of PSI in the hippocampus resulted in amnesia: the memories undergoing consolidation at the time of injection were lost (Flexner & Flexner, 1966). After the injection, the animals (generally rats) would have their memories retested, and, as a consequence of interrupted memory consolidation, they reacted to a familiar situation as though they were in a novel environment. This gave rise to the de novo protein synthesis theory: the formation of a long-term memory requires the synthesis of new proteins.

Eric Kandel established many of the biochemical markers of learning and memory in the Aplysia (California sea slug) in the 1970s, as his findings suggested potential pathways surrounding protein synthesis (Abel, Nguyen, Barad, Deuel, Kandel & Bourtchouladze, 1997). He won the Nobel prize in 2000 for his research (Kandel, n.d.). In the same year, Nader published his findings about the liability of retrieved memories that had already undergone consolidation. (Nader, Schafe, & Le Doux, 2000). For example, memories of past events are examples of memories that have already been consolidated. Nader discovered that, in the process of remembering, retrieved memories that became reactivated would require consolidation again. Various factors could interrupt this process; but without protein synthesis, memory re-consolidation would not occur and would result in the potential loss of the retrieved memory. This has been known as the reconsolidation theory of memory, which states that, after reactivation, memories undergo a process similar to initial consolidation to return them to their permanent state. Since then, a wealth of research has been done to clarify the mechanisms, genes, and proteins involved in the physiological correlate of memory.

Protein synthesis inhibitors

Protein synthesis inhibitors are a class of antibiotics, which prevent the production of new proteins by inhibiting the cell's gene expression ("Protein synthesis inhibitors", PSI). They generally operate at the ribosomal level through various mechanisms that prevent the ribosome from completing translation (Vazquez, 1967). Protein synthesis inhibitors that work in prokaryotic cells are often used as clinically prescribed antibiotics, while those that act of eukaryotic cells have been adapted for research purposes. In research, commonly used PSI's include anisomycin, cycloheximide, and puromycin - although the use of puromycin has stopped recently because of its toxic qualities and numerous side effects (Burka, Ballas, & Sabesin, 1975). Anisomycin has relatively high effectiveness in inhibiting protein synthesis and has a large effective time window (Villers, Godaux, & Ris, 2012). Cycloheximide is frequently used in acute studies, because of its high level of inhibition and ease of reversibility (Villers, Godaux, & Ris, 2012).

Physiological changes

Long term potentiation

A line of research investigates long term potentiation (LTP), a process that describes how a memory can be consolidated between two neurons, or brain cells, ultimately by creating a circuit within the brain that can encode a memory. To initiate a learning circuit between two neurons, one prominent study described using tetanus stimulations to depolarize one neuron by 30mV, which, in turn, activated its NMDA glutamate receptors (Nowak, Bregestovski, Ascher, Herbert, & Prochiantz, 1984). The activation of these receptors resulted in Ca2+ flooding the cell, initiating a cascade of secondary messengers. The cascade of resulting reactions, brought about by secondary messengers, terminates with the activation of cAMP response binding element protein (CREB), which acts as a transcription factor for various genes and initiates their expression (Hawkins, Kandel, & Bailey, 2006). Some proponents argue that the genes stimulate changes in communication between neurons, which underlie the encoding of memory; others suggest that the genes are byproducts of the LTP signaling pathway and are not directly involved in LTP. However, following the cascade of secondary messengers, no one would dispute that more AMPA receptors appear in the postsynaptic terminal (Hayashi et al., 2000). Higher numbers of AMPA receptors, taken together with the aforementioned events, allow for increased firing potential in the postsynaptic cell, which creates an improved learning circuit between these two neurons (Hayashi et al., 2000). Because of the specific, activity-dependent nature of LTP, it is an ideal model for a neural correlate of memory, as postulated by numerous studies; together, these studies show that the abolishment of LTP prevents the formation of memory at the neuronal level (Hawkins, Kandel, & Bailey, 2006).

Systems consolidation

Systems consolidation is the process by which memories are shifted from a vulnerable state to a fairly permanent one (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). It also describes roles that certain brain structures, most notably the hippocampus, play in memory consolidation and the extent certain types of memories can be consolidated. LTP describes cellular level consolidation, which is the consolidation of a memory that occurs between individual neurons. Initially, cellular consolidation, or LTP, begins in the hippocampus; there, protein synthesis inhibitors, tetrodotoxin, lidocaine, lesions and other factors can interfere with hippocampal activity and cause memory deficits (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). The systems consolidation theory of memory is usually investigated by studying the loss of memory for past events (retrograde amnesia) that occurs as a result of damage to the hippocampus, which is involved in systems consolidation. Retrograde amnesia can be either temporally graded (older memories are affected less) or flat (all memories, regardless of age, are affected equally), depending on the type of memory encoded and the extent of hippocampal damage (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011).

Semantic memory

Semantic memories (memories of facts) are one type of memory that is theorized to undergo complete systems consolidation in the hippocampus. Complete systems consolidation can eventually render semantic memories permanent, at which state they become independent from the hippocampus (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). There is evidence of semantic memories existing independently of any brain structure, especially when considering that the damage retrograde amnesia inflicts on semantic memory is temporally graded: there is a higher probability of older memories being retained even when the hippocampus is completely damaged (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). Newer semantic memories show a more variable likelihood of retainability, as they can be affected by minimal or complete destruction of the hippocampus (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011).

Episodic memory

Episodic memories (memories of moments or events) is a type of memory that may not undergo complete systems consolidation; as a result, they remain entirely dependent on the hippocampus (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). Therefore, they cannot exist independently of any brain structures, unlike semantic memories. Evidence shows that complete hippocampal damage results in flat retrograde amnesia for episodic memories, including older memories (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011). However, if the hippocampus is only partially damaged, then it is possible for the amnesia to have a temporal gradient (Sutherland & Lehman, 2011) similar to one seen with semantic memories: older memories are more likely to be retained and newer memories less.

Sleep and systems consolidation

The mechanism for systems consolidation is unknown, but it has been established that protein synthesis must occur in the cortex, where the hippocampal independent memory is stored, and that sleep is likely to play a role in systems consolidation (Stickgold & Walker, 2005). Many genes are upregulated during sleep, and therefore there is a possibility that protein synthesis is active in sleep-consolidation (Stickgold & Walker, 2005). It remains to be seen if cortical consolidation uses the same mechanisms as the hippocampus to establish the memory trace.

Proposed de novo proteins

Once it was established that proteins were involved in the formation of memories, and an understanding of how the processes surrounding the proteins worked was formed, the next stage was to identify candidates for plasticity related proteins (proteins that would support the plastic changes between neurons, PRP). While many molecules, proteins and enzymes have been implicated in the associated processes of memory, identifying the specific proteins that are synthesized specifically to facilitate memory is a challenge. Listed below are the most common candidates for PRPs that support memory and learning functions.

PKMzeta

In 2011 Todd Sacktor proposed a model for how de novo protein synthesis modulates plasticity. Protein Kinase M zeta (PKMzeta) is a plasticity related protein that regulates the physiological processes that underlie learning and memory in Sacktor's model. PKMzeta is an isoform of protein kinase C, which differs in that it doesn't have an auto-inhibitory domain that requires high levels of substrate to perpetually activate the enzyme (Sacktor, 2011). PKMzeta mRNA is transported to the synaptic zones of the dendrites, where it is translated through the activity of multiple signaling pathways associated with LTP (Sacktor, 2011). After expression, PKMzeta requires an initial phosphorylation by phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1), after which it can operate uninhibited (Sacktor, 2011). Protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1) normally propagates the endocytic removal of AMPA receptors containing the GluR2 subunit from the postsynaptic regions (Sacktor, 2011). PKMzeta and PICK1 share a common binding site, which allows them to form a multiprotein complex (Sacktor, 2011). N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) can disrupt the binding of PICK1 to the C-terminal of the AMPA receptors (Sacktor, 2011). This allows PKM zeta to phosphorylate the receptors, which traffics them to the synapse and enables easier excitability of the neuron (Sacktor, 2011). When in the membrane, a tyrosine dense binding site in the GluR2 AMPA receptors is used by brefeldin-resistant Arf-GEF 2 (BRAG2) to be actively removed from the synapse, where it is maintained in vesicles by PICK1 (Sacktor, 2011). PMKzeta continuously phosphorylates the GluR2 AMPA receptors to maintain their presence within the synaptic membrane (Sacktor, 2011). There have been many studies to confirm the roles of each of these molecules, though there is always doubt and speculation of alternative processes (Villers, Godaux, & Ris, 2012).

PKMzeta makes a great model for the de novo protein synthesis hypothesis. The effects of LTP summate to allow PKMzeta to be transcribed, which requires ribosomal activity in the dendrites (Sacktor, 2011). Blocking translation or transcription of proteins would prevent PKMzeta from being expressed, preventing the strengthening of neuronal networks that underlie a memory (Hawkins, Kandel, & Bailey, 2006). Because of its long half life, the maintenance of receptors at a synapse is not affected by PSI (Sacktor, 2011). But the creation of a new memory would require new PKMzeta expression, which accounts for the specificity of PSI induced amnesia (Sacktor, 2011).

Brain derived neurotrophic factor

Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a neurotrophin associated with plasticity and growth of the central nervous system (Lu, Christian, & Lu, 2007). It is a PRP candidate because its expression is closely related to activity, and abnormalities in its translation and signaling results in L-LTP deficits and amnesia (Lu, Christian, & Lu, 2007). BDNF has been shown to enhance the activity of early LTP, but the longer lasting phases of LTP are thought to require protein synthesis (Lu, Christian, & Lu, 2007). BDNF translation inhibition through PSI has shown the characteristic LTP blocking and amnesia, which has been followed up with genetic knockouts of the BDNF expressing gene (Lu, Christian, & Lu, 2007). In these BDNF deficient animals the application of external BDNF can allow for the induction of LTP (Lu, Christian, & Lu, 2007). There have been cases where BDNF needed not be present for the induction of LTP, suggesting that there may be in fact many parallel PRP pathways that lead to memory formation (Lu, Christian, & Lu, 2007).

BDNF and PKMzeta have some interaction effects. When LTP was induced in cell cultures in BDNF dependent ways (Theta burst stimulation or an increase in cAMP concentration) it was abolished with the application of ZIP (zeta-inhibitory peptide), a protein thought to specifically inactivate PKMzeta (Mei, et al., 2011). This suggests that PKMzeta is the end modulator of LTP and learning (Mei, et al., 2011). As expected PKMzeta levels dropped when PSIs were applied, but curiously this was not the case if BDNF was also applied (Mei, et al., 2011). These findings show that BDNF modulates the LTP process to make it protein synthesis independent, contrary to the de novo protein synthesis theory.

Criticisms

Electrical activity

When anisomycin is applied to the hippocampus, active memories are unable to fully consolidate and are lost. When anisomycin is applied to cell cultures, electrical activity within the cultures cease (Sharma, Nargang, & Dickson, 2012). This particular property of PSIs was not accounted for when the de novo protein synthesis theory was established, and is an alternative explanation for the amnesiac effects of PSIs. If a neuron is not electrically active, it is not transmitting information; therefore, the lack of electrical activity in the neuron by itself could be responsible for the loss of a memory (Sharma, Nargang, & Dickson, 2012). Anisomycin administered at a dose that inhibits 95% of protein synthesis and associated electrical activity is not the highest dosage used in PSI research (Sharma, Nargang, & Dickson, 2012). Higher doses may alter other processes other than protein synthesis to cause the silencing of neural activity, considering Puromycin has cytotoxic qualities, so its possible that other PSI might have similar effects that manifest in the interruption of neural firing (Burka, Ballas, & Sabesin, 1975). Additionally, anisomycin has been shown to cause a substantial catecholamine release that co-occurs with neural suppression, which has not been fully explained yet (Sharma, Nargang, & Dickson, 2012). These side effects other than the inhibition of protein synthesis may account for the amnesiac effects induced by PSI, but these findings are relatively new and are expected to receive much research attention in the near future.

Memory formation and LTP independent of protein synthesis

Demonstrating that memories can be formed, and that LTP can be initiated, without protein synthesis strongly reduces the strength of the de novo theory, which explicitly states that synthesis is required to form memories. As a result, many studies have shown various ways of inducing these events while specimens are under the effects of anisomycin or other protein synthesis inhibitors (Villers, Godaux, & Ris, 2012). BDNF applied to cell cultures with PSI still undergo LTP, suggesting that post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation or horizontal transport could be employed in the absence of protein synthesis (Lu, Christian, & Lu, 2009). Additionally ZIP has amnesiac effects, but its specificity to PKMzeta have been questioned, which questions the accuracy of the PKMzeta model (Wu-Zhang, et al., 2012).

References

Abel, T., Nguyen, P., Barad, M., Deuel, T., Kandel, E., & Bourtchouladze, R. (1997). Genetic demonstration of a role for pka in the late phase of ltp and in hippocampus-based long-term memory. Cell, 88, 615–626.
Burka, E. R., Ballas, S. K., & Sabesin, S. M. (1975). Toxic effect of puromycin on erythrocyte membranes which is unrelated to inhibition of protein synthesis. Blood, 45(1), 21–27.
Flexner LB, Flexner JB (1966). Effect of acetoxycycloheximide and of an acetoxycycloheximide–puromycin mixture on cerebral protein synthesis and memory in mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 55, 369–374.
Hawkins, R. D., Kandel, E. R., & Bailey, C. H. (2006). Molecular mechanisms of memory storage in aplysia. biological bulletin, 210(3), 174–191.
Hayashi, Y., Hayashi, S. H., Esteban, J. A., Piccini, A., Poncer, J. C., & Poncer, M. (2000). driving AMPA receptors into synapses by LTP and CaMKII: Requirement for GluR1 and PDZ domain interaction. Science, 287(5461), 2262–2267.
Kandel, E. R. (n.d.). Eric R. Kandel - Autobiography. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved November 4, 2012, from http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/kandel-autobio.html
Lu, Y., Christian, K., & Lu, B. (2007). BDNF: A key regulator for protein-synthesis dependent LTP and long-term memory? Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 89(3), 312–323. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2007.08.018.
Mei, F., Nagappan, G., Ke, Y., Sacktor, T.C., Lu, B. (2011). BDNF Facilitates L-LTP Maintenance in the Absence of Protein Synthesis through PKMζ. PLoS ONE. 6(6): e21568.
Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406, 722–726. doi:10.1038/35021052.
Nowak, L., Bregestovski, P., Ascher, P., Herbert, A., & Prochiantz, A. (1984). Magnesium gates glutamate-activated channels in mouse central neurones. Nature, 307(2), 462–465. doi:10.1038/307462a0.
Protein synthesis inhibitors. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68011500
Sharma, A. V., Nargang, F. E., & Dickson, C. T. (2012). Neurosilence: Profound suppression of neural activity following intracerebral administration of the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(7), 2377–2387. Retrieved from doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3543-11.2012.
Sheng, M., & Greenberg, M. E. (1990). The regulation and function of c-fos and other immediate early genes in the nervous system. Neuron, 4, 447–485.
Stickgold, R., & Walker, M. P. (2005). Memory consolidation and reconsolidation: What is the role of sleep? Trends in Neurosciences, 28(8), 408–415. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2005.06.004.
Sutherland, R. J., & Lehman, H. (2011). Alternative conceptions of memory consolidation and the role of the hippocampus at the systems level in rodents. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 21(3), 446–451. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2011.04.007.
Vazquez, D. (1967). inhibitors of protein synthesis at the ribosome level: Studies on their site of action. Life sciences, 6, 381–386.
Villers, A., Godaux, E., & Ris, L. (2012). Long-lasting LTP requires neither repeated trains for its induction nor protein synthesis for its development. PLoS ONE, 7(7), e40823. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040823.
Wu, X, et al. (2004). AMPA protects cultured neurons against glutamate excitotoxicity through a phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase-dependent activation in extracellular signal-regulated kinase to upregulate BDNF gene expression. Journal of neurochemistry, 90, 807–818. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02526.x.
Wu-Zhang AX, Schramm CL, Nabavi S, Malinow R, Newton AC (2012) Cellular pharmacology of protein kinase M zeta (PKMzeta) contrasts with its in vitro profile: implications for PKM zeta as a mediator of memory. J Biol Chem 287: 12879–85

Further reading

Protein biosynthesis
Neuroscience of memory

De novo protein synthesis theory of memory formation


James Lawrence (January 15, 1851 – July 4, 1914) was a Democratic politician from the state of Ohio. He was Ohio Attorney General 1884–1886.

Biography
James Lawrence was born January 15, 1851, at Old Washington, Guernsey County, Ohio, son of Congressman William Lawrence. He attended public schools and graduated from Kenyon College in 1871. At college he was a member of Theta Delta Chi and Phi Alpha Delta. He then studied law at Cambridge, Ohio under Joseph W. White, and was admitted to the bar in 1874. He moved to Cleveland, Ohio and entered the law office of G. H. Foster, eventually becoming his partner, and remained so until 1893. He then became head of Lawrence and Estep.

In 1883 Lawrence was nominated by the Democratic Party for Attorney General, and defeated Republican Moses B. Earnhart in the general election. In 1885, he ran again and was defeated by Republican Jacob A. Kohler. In 1888 he married Jennie Gardner Porter, granddaughter of Eunice Yale, son of Capt. Josiah Yale. They had three children together. Their names were Harriet, and twins Keith and Margaret R. In 1893 and 1894 he was Corporate Council of the City of Cleveland. From 1896 to 1911, Lawrence was professor of law at Western Reserve University. In 1902 he was elected Common Pleas Judge, and was elected again in 1910. He served until his death July 4, 1914. He died at Brookside, West Virginia while on vacation with his wife.

He was a Freemason.

Notes

References

People from Guernsey County, Ohio
Politicians from Cleveland
Kenyon College alumni
Ohio Democrats
Ohio lawyers
Ohio Attorneys General
1851 births
1914 deaths
Ohio state court judges
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers

James Lawrence (Ohio politician)


Maidan is an originally Persian  word for a town square or public gathering place, adopted by various other languages: Urdu  (maidān); Arabic  (maydān);  Turkish ; Bangla ময়দান, meaning field, and Crimean Tatar, from which Ukrainian also borrowed . Its ultimate source is Proto-Indo-European  - compare Avestan , Sanskrit  () and Latin . Various versions include maydan, midan, meydan, majdan,  mayadeen and maydān.  It also means field (मैदान) in Hindi. It became a loanword in other South Asian languages to give similar means, such as in Tamil in which the word is maidhanam.

The broad geographical footprint of the use of Maidan in toponymy, from Central Europe to South-East Asia, is a reflection of the Turkish rule in these areas.

Places

In the Persian and Central Asian space
Maidaan-e naqsh-e jehaan or Naqsh-e Jahan Square, a square in the centre of Isfahan, Iran
Towns and villages in Iran:

Meydan, Fars, Fars Province
Meydan, Ilam, Ilam Province
Meydan, Baft, Kerman Province
Meydan, Rabor, Kerman Province
Meydan, Harsin, Kermanshah Province
Meydan, Kermanshah, Kermanshah Province
Meydan, Sonqor, Kermanshah Province
Meydan, Khuzestan, Khuzestan Province
Meydan, Dorud, Khuzestan Province
Meydan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad
Meydan-e Mozaffarkhan, Kurdistan
Meydan, West Azerbaijan
Meydan-e Olya, West Azerbaijan Province
Meydan-e Sofla, West Azerbaijan Province
Meydan Khalaf
Meydan Tarreh Barahvaz
Meydan Jiq, Malekan
Meydan-e Bozorg, Lorestan Province
Meydanlar, East Azerbaijan Province
Meydan-e Khodaverdi
Meydan-e Tafalli
Ban Meydan-e Abdollah
Chal Meydan
Eslamabad-e Sar Meydan
Kalateh-ye Meydan
Qaleh Meydan (disambiguation), various places
Qezelejah Meydan
Sang Dar Meydan (disambiguation), various places
Sarmeydan (disambiguation), various places
Soltan Meydan
Tak Meydan

Meydan, Afghanistan, village in Balkh Province in northern Afghanistan
Maydan, Kyrgyzstan, a town in Kyrgyzstan
Maidan Shar, the capital of Wardak province, Afghanistan
Mehraneh river (Meydan Chayi), a river in Tabriz, Iran
Tavisuplebis Moedani or Freedom Square, Tbilisi, the central square of Tbilisi, Georgia

In South Asia and Southeast Asia
Maidan (Tirah), a remote valley in Khyber District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Maidan, Nepal, a municipality in southern Nepal
Maidan, Lower Dir District, a valley in Lower Dir District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Asramam Maidan, the first airport of Kerala state, in Kollam, India
Medan, Indonesia - capital city of North Sumatra province
Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium, Hyderabad, India, originally named Fateh Maidan ("Victory Square")
Maidan (Kolkata), India, also referred to as the Brigade Parade Ground

In the former Ottoman / Mamluk space
Meydan, Gölbaşı, a village in the district of Gölbaşı, Adıyaman Province, Turkey
Meydan, Kurucaşile, a village in the district of Kurucaşile, Bartın Province, Turkey
Sultanahmet Square (Sultanahmet Meydanı), formerly Atmeydanı ("Horse Square"), in the center of Istanbul, Turkey
Taksim Meydanı or Taksim Square, another central public square in Istanbul, Turkey
Midan at-Tahrir or Tahrir Square, the central public space of Cairo, Egypt
the esplanade formerly known as Maydan or Hippodrome outside the Cairo Citadel
Majdan (Novi Kneževac), a village in North Banat District, Vojvodina province, Serbia
Meidan Ekbis, a small town in Syria
Al-Midan, neighbourhood and municipality in Damascus, Syria
Maydan al Shajara, a town square in Benghazi, Libya
Tašmajdan Park, a major public space in Belgrade, Serbia
Dubai Meydan City, United Arab Emirates
Meydan Racecourse, a horse racetrack
Entisar Tower (Meydan Tower), skyscraper to be built in the city
Maidan, the Romanian name for Majdanpek in Serbia
Mïdän at Taḥrǐr or Tahrir Square, Alexandria, Egypt
Tahrir Square, Sanaa, or Maidan at-Tahrir, in Sanaa, Yemen

In Poland
Poland took up the word majdan from its numerous exchanges with the Ottoman and other Persianate-influenced cultures.

Majdan, Gmina Wojsławice in Lublin Voivodeship
Majdan, Gmina Żmudź in Lublin Voivodeship
Majdan, Hrubieszów County in Lublin Voivodeship
Majdan, Janów Lubelski County in Lublin Voivodeship
Majdan, Białystok County in Podlaskie Voivodeship
Majdan, Hajnówka County in Podlaskie Voivodeship
Majdan, Suwałki County in Podlaskie Voivodeship
Majdan, Tomaszów Lubelski County in Lublin Voivodeship
Majdan, Lesko County in Subcarpathian Voivodeship
Majdan, Garwolin County in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Mińsk County in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Ostrołęka County in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Otwock County in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Gmina Łochów in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Gmina Stoczek in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Gmina Wierzbno in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Wołomin County in Masovian Voivodeship
Majdan, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship

In Romania
Maidan, a village in Cacica Commune, Suceava County
Maidan, the former name of Brădișoru de Jos village, Oravița Town, Caraș-Severin County

In Ukraine

Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Майдан Незалежності) or Independence Square, the central square of Kyiv
Maidan Nezalezhnosti, a metro station on line M2
Maidan Konstytutsii (Kharkiv Metro), or Constitution Square, a metro station in Kharkiv
Maidan Pratsi (Kryvyi Rih Metrotram)
Staryi Maidan, village in Khmelnytskyi Raion, Khmelnytskyi Oblast
Viche Maidan (Ivano-Frankivsk), a city square
Maidan, a village in Berehomet rural hromada, Vyzhnytsia Raion, Chernivtsi Oblast
Maidan, a village in Vyzhnytsia urban hromada, Vyzhnytsia Raion, Chernivtsi Oblast
Maidan, a village in Tysmenytsia Raion, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast

Other uses in Ukraine

 Maidan (2014 film)
 Maidan People's Union, political party
 Euromaidan
 Anti-Maidan
 Anti-Maidan (Russia)
 AutoMaidan
 February 2014 Maidan revolution
 Orange Revolution (sometimes referred to as a Maidan revolution)

See also

 Majdany, the plural form of Majdan.

Notes

Place names

Maidan


Akiko Fukai () is a Japanese curator of fashion and textile arts.

She received a bachelor's and a master's degree in fashion history from National University of Ochanomizu and studied at Paris-Sorbonne University.

Currently, Fukai is the Director and Chief Curator of the Kyoto Costume Institute. Her catalogue of the collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute has been published in Japanese, English, French, and German by popular German arts books publisher Taschen.

Fukai has stated in interviews that the future of Japanese fashion is "basic clothing at reasonable prices."

Her scholarship emphasizes the relationship between tradition and innovation in Japanese fashion throughout history, with a particular focus on designs produced in Japan since the 1980s, the subject of her 2010 traveling exhibition Future Beauty: 30 Years of Japanese Fashion. The exhibition was the first comprehensive survey of Japanese avant-garde fashion designers from this period and focused on the works of Issey Miyake, Rei Kawakubo, Yohji Yamamoto, and Junya Watanabe among others. The exhibition began at the Barbican Art Gallery and traveled widely, including to the Seattle Art Museum.

One of the main differences she posits between Western and Japanese clothing is, in her own words: "In Europe, clothing is definitely external to the body. In Japan it is a coming together of the body and the garment ... [that] derives partly from the process of dressing and the rituals – the layering and layering of the kimono, for example." Her work on Japonism in fashion, inside and outside of Japan, examines western ideas of Japanese dress and how these ideas and styles were re-imported for a Japanese audience.

She has received numerous awards for her work, including honors from the Japanese Commissioner for Cultural Affairs in 2008 and the Academy of Japonism in Japan in 2000; in 2004, she received an honorary doctoral degree from her alma mater, the National University of Ochanomizu.

Exhibitions (selected)

 "Revolution in Fashion 1715–1815" (National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto, 1988)
 "Japonisme et Mode" (Musée de la Mode et du Costume, Paris, 1996)
 "Japonism in Fashion" (Brooklyn Museum and Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1998)
 "Fashion in Colors" (Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, 2005–2006)
 "Luxury in Fashion Reconsidered" (Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo, and National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto, 2009–2010)
 "Future Beauty: 30 Years of Japanese Fashion." (2010–2011, Barbican Art Gallery, London, other locations)

Publications

 Japonism in Fashion (1994)
 Fashion: The Collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute, A History from the 18th to the 20th Century (Taschen, 2002)
 The Century of Fashion (2005)
 The Cutting Edge: Fashion from Japan (2005)
 Fashion in Colors (2006)
 Reading Fashion from Pictures (2009)
 Future Beauty: 30 Years of Japanese Fashion (2010)
 Fashion: a Fashion History of the 20th Century (2012)
 Kimono Refashioned: Japan's Impact on International Fashion (2018)

References

Japanese women writers
Japanese curators
Japanese women curators
Women museum directors
1943 births
Living people

Akiko Fukai


Sandino is a municipality and town in the Pinar del Río Province of Cuba. The town is located close to the coast and as such, fishing is the main economic resource of this place. It is also the gateway to the Guanahacabibes Peninsula, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.

History
The municipality was named after the Nicaraguan revolutionary, Augusto César Sandino. In January 2019 Sacred Heart of Jesus Catholic Church in Sandino became the first Catholic church in Cuba to be inaugurated since the Cuban Revolution.

Geography
Located in the westernmost area of Cuba, the municipality borders with the territories of Guane and Mantua. Its westernmost point is Cape San Antonio (Cabo de San Antonio), on the Guanahacabibes Peninsula.

The municipality includes the hamlets of Babineyes, Bolívar, Cayuco, Cortés, Covadonga, La Bajada, La Conchita, La Fe, La Furnia, La Grifa, Las Martinas, La Yana, Las Tumbas, Los Cayuelos, María la Gorda, Marina Cabo San Antonio, Roncali, San Julián, Santa Barbara, Valle San Juan and Veinte de Mayo.

Demographics
In 2004, the municipality of Sandino had a population of 39,245. With a total area of , it has a population density of .

Education

Various high schools (Spanish secundarias) are established in Sandino, with students from San Juan y Martinez, San Luis, all the way to Guane  and Isabel Rubio (approximately an area of about ). Sandino is the newest pole of the Cuban university program ELAM (Escuela Latinoamericana de Medicina) where the Cuban government has placed many similar medical faculties. Many of the students are from Latin America and Caribbean countries such as Guyana, Argentina, Ecuador, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Bolivia, Peru, Suriname, Dominica, St. Lucia, Belize, Jamaica, Haiti, St. Vincent, Antigua, Solomon Islands, Nauru, Grenada, Barbados and more countries to be expected like Tuvalu and the Philippines. They are part of the new education program of the Escuela Latin Americana de Medicina.
There are several campuses located in this municipality. Most only contain people from one country (300 or more students), but there are others such as ELAM 10 that have more than 15 nationalities enrolled. These are however in lesser quantities and have a total of up to 500 students.

Transportation

There are not many roads in this municipality. And even out of this little number, most roads do not have names. The locations are identified by the farms they lead towards. There are regular buses that frequent the town of Sandino, and straight to several locations as Guane, Isabel Rubio and Pinar del Río. It is not uncommon to see oxcarts, donkey-carts and horse-driven carts. Most people have to walk great distances before they can find viable transportation. Hitchhiking is very common in these areas.

In the village of La Fé starts the national road Carretera Central, passing also through Sandino.

Notable People
 José Contreras (b. 1971), baseball player
 Daysbel Hernández (b. 1996), baseball player

See also

Municipalities of Cuba
List of cities in Cuba
Sandino Municipal Museum
Cabo San Antonio Lighthouse

References

External links

Villa Cabo San Antonio
Villa Maria La Gorda - International Diving Centre

Cities in Cuba
Populated places in Pinar del Río Province

Sandino, Cuba


Helga (derived from Old Norse heilagr - "holy", "blessed") is a female name, used mainly in Scandinavia, German-speaking countries and the Low Countries. (Hege, Helle, Helge, Helga, Helka or Oili). The name was in use in England before the Norman Conquest, but appears to have died out afterwards. It was re-introduced to English-speaking nations in the 20th century from Germany, the Netherlands, and the Nordic countries. Scandinavian male equivalent is Helge, or Helgi. Eastern Slavic names Olga (Ольга) and Oleg (Олег) are derived from it.

Name days: Estonia - May 31, Hungary - October 3, Latvia - October 9, Sweden - November 21, Finland - May 31, Greece - 11 July

People
 Helga, also known as Saint Olga, (c. 890-969), Princess of Kiev

A
 Helga Adler (born 1943), East German historian and politician
 Helga de Alvear (born 1936), German art collector
 Helga Ancher (1883–1964), Danish painter
 Helga Anders (1948–1986), German-Austrian actress
 Helga Aradóttir (1538–1614), grand-daughter of executed Icelandic bishop Jón Arason
 Helga Arendt (1964–2013), West German sprinter

B
 Helga Bachmann (1931–2011), Icelandic actress and director
 Helga Baum (born 1954), German mathematician
 Helga Bîrsan (born 1928), Romanian gymnast
 Helga Braathen (1953–1982), Norwegian artistic gymnast
 Helga de la Brache (1817–1885), Swedish con artist
 Helga Brofeldt (1881–1968), Swedish film actress

C
 Helga von Cramm (1840–1919), German–Swiss painter, illustrator, and graphic artist
 Helga Cranston (1921–2013), German film editor
 Helga Correia (born 1977), Portuguese politician

D
 Helga Dagsland (1910–2003), Norwegian nurse and organizational leader
 Helga Dancberga (1941–2019), Soviet then Latvian actress
 Helga Davis, New York-based multidisciplinary artist
 Helga Deen (1925–1943), Jewish victim of National Socialism
 Helga Dernesch (born 1939), Austrian soprano and mezzo soprano
 Helga Diederichsen (1930–2005), Mexican swimmer
 Helga Diercks-Norden (1924–2011), German journalist and feminist activist
 Helga Dietrich (1940–2018), German orchidologist and author
 Helga Dudzinski (1929–2022), German figure skater

E
 Helga Einsele (1910–2005), German criminologist, prison director, and high-profile prisons reformer
 Helga Eng (1875–1966), Norwegian psychologist and educationalist
 Helga Erhart, Austrian para-alpine skier
 Helga Estby (1860–1942), American suffragist

F
 Helga Fägerskiöld (1871–1958), Swedish baroness
 Helga Feddersen (1930–1990), German actress
 Helga Flatland (born 1984), Norwegian novelist and children's writer
 Helga Foght (1902–1974), Danish textile artist
 Helga Forner (1936–2004), professor of singing
 Helga Franck (1933–1963), German stage and film actress
 Helga Frier (1893-1972), Danish actress

G
 Helga Gitmark (1929–2008), Norwegian politician
 Helga Glöckner-Neubert (1938–2017), German writer
 Helga Gnauer (1929–1990), Austrian fencer
 Helga Goebbels (1932–1945), eldest daughter of Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels and Magda Goebbels
 Helga Goetze (1922–2008), German artist, writer, and free love activist
 Helga Gomes, biological oceanographer
 Helga Göring (1922–2010), German stage, television, and film actress
 Helga Grebing (1930–2017), German historian and university professor
 Helga Guitton, German radio announcer
 Helga Gunerius Eriksen (born 1950), Norwegian novelist and children's writer

H
 Helga Haase (1934–1989), Polish-born speed skater in East Germany
 Helga Hahnemann (1937–1991), East German multi-faceted stage performer and entertainer
 Helga Halldórsdóttir (born 1963), Icelandic hurdler
 Helga Haugen (born 1932), Norwegian politician
 Helga Haugland Byfuglien (born 1950), Norwegian bishop
 Helga Helgesen (1863–1936), Norwegian domestic science teacher and politician
 Helga Hellebrand-Wiedermann (1930–2013), Austrian sprint canoer
 Helga Henning (1937–2018), German sprinter
 Helga Henselder-Barzel (1940–1995), German political scientist
 Helga Hernes (born 1938), German-born Norwegian political scientist, diplomat, and politician
 Helga Hoffmann (born 1937), German track and field athlete
 Helga Hörz (born 1935), German Marxist philosopher and women's rights activist
 Helga Hošková-Weissová (born 1929), Czech artist and Holocaust survivor

I
 Helga Nadire İnan Ertürk (born 1984), Turkish-German footballer

J
 Helga Jensine Waabenø (1908–1994), Norwegian nurse and Lutheran missionary
 Helga Jónsdóttir (born 1957), professor in nursing

K
 Helga Karlsen (1882–1936), Norwegian politician
 Helga Klein (1931–2021), German athlete
 Helga Koch (born 1942), German fencer
 Helga Kohl (born 1943), Polish-born photographer based in Namibia
 Helga Königsdorf (1938–2014), German mathematician and author
 Helga Konrad (born 1948), Austrian politician
 Helga W. Kraft, German-American professor
 Helga Krapf (born 1988), Filipina actress
 Helga Krause (1935–1989), German film editor
 Helga Kreuter-Eggemann (1914–1970), German art historian
 Helga Kuhse, Australian philosopher
 Helga Kurm (1920–2011), Estonian pedagogical scientist

L
 Helga Labs (born 1940), East German politician
 Helga Landauer (born 1969), Russian director, writer, and poet, based in New York City
 Helga Larsen (1884–1947), Danish trade unionist and pioneering politician
 Helga van Leur (born 1970), Dutch meteorologist
 Helga Lie (1930–2019), Norwegian politician
 Helga Lindner (1951–2021), German swimmer
 Helga Liné (born 1932), Portuguese-Spanish film actress and circus acrobat
 Helga Livytska, Ukrainian humanitarian and public figure
 Helga Luber, former East German slalom canoeist
 Helga Lütten (born 1961), German former professional tennis player

M
 Helga Martin (1940–1999), German film actress
 Helga Matschkur (born 1943), German gymnast
 Helga Mees (1937–2014), German fencer
 Helga Moddansdóttir, Haakon Paulsson's mistress
 Helga Molander (1896–1986), German actress
 Helga Moreira (born 1950), Portuguese poet
 Helga de la Motte-Haber (born 1938), German musicologist
 Helga Mucke-Wittbrodt (1910–1999), German physician
 Helga Mühlberg-Ulze, East German sprint canoeist

N
 Helga Neuner (born 1940), German actress
 Helga Newmark (1932–2012), first female Holocaust survivor ordained as a rabbi
 Helga Niemann (born 1956), German former swimmer
 Helga Niessen Masthoff (born 1941), retired West German tennis player
 Helga M. Novak (1935–2013), German-Icelandic writer
 Helga Nowitzki, German former international basketball player
 Helga Nowotny (born 1937), Austrian university professor emeritus

O-Ö
 Helga Offen (1951–2020), German volleyball player
 Helga Margrét Ögmundsdóttir (born 1948), Icelandic former professor
 Helga Margrét Þorsteinsdóttir (born 1991), Icelandic heptathlete

P
 Helga Pakasaar, Canada-based contemporary art curator and writer
 Helga Paris (born 1938), German photographer
 Helga Pedersen (1911–1980), Danish politician
 Helga Pedersen (born 1973), Norwegian politician
 Helga Pichler, Italian luger
 Helga Pilarczyk (1925–2011), German operatic soprano
 Helga Plumb (born 1939), Austrian-born Canadian architect
 Helga Pogatschar (born 1966), German composer

R
 Helga E. Rafelski (1949–2000), German particle physicist
 Helga Radtke (born 1962), German track and field athlete
 Helga Ramstad (1875–1956), Norwegian politician
 Helga Richter, retired German rower
 Helga Marie Ring Reusch (1865–1944), Norwegian painter
 Helga Ruebsamen (1934–2016), Dutch writer
 Helga Rullestad (born 1949), Norwegian politician
 Helga Rut Guðmundsdóttir (born 1970), Icelandic professor of music education

S
 Helga Salvesen (1963-2016), Norwegian physician and professor of medicine
 Helga Schauerte-Maubouet (born 1957), German-French organist, writer, and music editor
 Helga Schmid (born 1960), German diplomat
 Helga Schmidt-Neuber (1937-2018), German swimmer
 Helga Schneider (born 1937), Italian writer of German origin
 Helga Schubert (born 1940), German psychologist and author
 Helga Schultze (1940-2015), German female tennis player
 Helga Seibert (1939-1999), judge at Bundesverfassungsgericht
 Helga Seidler (born 1949), German former athlete and Olympic medalist
 Helga Sigurðardóttir (born 1969), Icelandic swimmer
 Helga María Sista (born 1947), Argentine alpine skier
 Helga Slessarev, scholar of German literature
 Helga Stene (1904-1983), Norwegian educator, feminist, and resistance member
 Helga Stentzel, Russian-born visual artist
 Helga Stephenson, Canadian media executive
 Helga Steudel (born 1939), German former motorcyclist and car racer
 Helga Stevens, Belgian politician
 Helga Stroh (born 1938), German fencer

T
 Helga Tawil-Souri (born 1969), Palestinian-American media scholar and documentary filmmaker
 Helga Testorf, subject of Andrew Wyeth's famous paintings
 Helga Thaler Ausserhofer (born 1952), Italian politician
 Helga Thomas (1891–1988), Swedish film actress
 Helle Thorning-Schmidt (born 1966), 41st Prime Minister of Denmark
 Helga Timm (1924-2014), German politician
 Helga Trüpel (born 1958), German politician (Bündnis 90/Die Grünen)

V
 Helga Vala Helgadóttir (born 1972), Icelandic politician
 Helga Vieira (born 1980), Portuguese female tennis player
 Helga Vlahović (1945–2012), Croatian journalist, producer, and television personality

W
 Helga Wagner (born 1956), German former swimmer
 Helga Wanglie (1903-1991), elderly woman in a persistent vegetative state
 Helga Weisz (born 1961), Austrian industrial ecologist, climate scientist, and professor of industrial ecology and climate change

Z
 Helga Zepp-LaRouche (born 1948), German journalist and politician
 Helga Zimmermann (born 1942), German former swimmer
 Helga Josephine Zinnbauer (1909-1980), Australian community worker and librarian
 Helga Zoega (born 1976), Icelandic professor of public health
 Helga Zöllner (1941-1983), Hungarian figure skater

Fictional characters
 Helga, wife of Hagar in the comic strip Hägar the Horrible
 Helga, a Dutch enemy character in the fighting game Human Killing Machine
 Helga the Fair, a character in Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu
 Helga, a character in the game Suikoden IV
 Helga Geerhart, a character in the BBC sitcom 'Allo 'Allo!
 Helga Hufflepuff, founder of Hogwarts' Hufflepuff house in the Harry Potter books
 Helga Jace, a character in DC Comics
 Helga Pataki, a character in the Nickelodeon animated series Hey Arnold!
 Helga Phugly, a character in The Oblongs
 Helga Sinclair, a character in Atlantis: The Lost Empire
 Helga Von Guggen, an antagonist in Totally Spies
 Helga Gallimard, wife of Rene Gallimard in the play M Butterfly
 Helga, wife of Floki, character in the historical series Vikings
 Helga Rasmussen, a founder of the Black Armory in the video game Destiny 2
 Helga von Bubble, a character in the Toy Story Toons short, Partysaurus Rex

Other
 Helga, one of the two phantom torsos carried by the Artemis 1 mission

External links
 Popularity of the name in the United States

Scandinavian feminine given names
German feminine given names
Dutch feminine given names
Hungarian feminine given names
Norwegian feminine given names
Swedish feminine given names
Danish feminine given names
Finnish feminine given names
Feminine given names
Icelandic feminine given names
Swiss feminine given names

Helga


Purdue University, in West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S., is the flagship university of the six-campus Purdue University System. Purdue was founded on May 6, 1869, as a land-grant university, accepted a donation of land and money from Lafayette businessman John Purdue to establish a college of science, technology, and agriculture in his name. The first classes were held on September 16, 1874, with three buildings, six instructors, and 39 students. Today, Purdue enrolls the second largest student body of any university in Indiana as well as the second largest international student population of any public university in the United States.

Purdue offers both undergraduate and graduate programs in over 210 major areas of study. Purdue has produced multiple Nobel Prize winners, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and NFL Super Bowl MVPs.  The university has been highly influential in America's history of aviation, and Purdue's aviation technology and aeronautical engineering programs remain among the highest rated and most competitive in the world. In the mid-20th century, Purdue's aviation program expanded to encompass advanced spaceflight technology giving rise to Purdue's nickname, Cradle of Astronauts.

Purdue's tenured faculty comprises sixty Academic Deans, Associate Deans, and Assistant Deans; 63 Academic Department Heads; 753 Professors; 547 Associate Professors and 447 Assistant Professors. Purdue employs 892 non-tenure-track faculty, Lecturers, and Postdoctorals at its West Lafayette campus. Purdue employs another 691 tenured and 1,021 Non-Tenure Track Faculty, Lecturers, and Postdoctorals at its Regional Campuses and Statewide Technology.

Purdue University generated a record $333.4 million in sponsored research funding during the 2007–08 fiscal year with participation from National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the U.S. departments of Agriculture, Defense, Energy, and Health and Human Services.

Other websites

 Official athletics website

References

Association of American Universities
Purdue University

Purdue University


Orange juice is a liquid extract of the orange tree fruit, produced by squeezing or reaming oranges. It comes in several different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine, and tangerine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of juice vesicles, known as "pulp" in American English, and "(juicy) bits" in British English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process. How juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the beverage name is often abbreviated as "OJ".

Commercial orange juice with a long shelf life is made by pasteurizing the juice and removing the oxygen from it. This removes much of the taste, necessitating the later addition of a flavor pack, generally made from orange products. Additionally, some juice is further processed by drying and later rehydrating the juice, or by concentrating the juice and later adding water to the concentrate.

The health value of orange juice is debatable: it has a high concentration of vitamin C, but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks. As a result, some government nutritional advice has been adjusted to encourage substitution of orange juice with raw fruit, which is digested more slowly, and limit daily consumption.

History
During World War II, American soldiers rejected vitamin C-packed lemon crystals because of their unappetizing taste. Thus the US government searched for a food that would fulfill the nutritional needs of the soldiers, have a desirable taste, and prevent diseases such as scurvy. The US federal government and the Florida Department of Citrus worked with a group of scientists to develop a product superior to the canned orange juice available in the 1940s. The result was frozen concentrated orange juice; this was not until three years after the war had ended.

By 1949, orange juice processing plants in Florida were producing over 10 million gallons of concentrated orange juice. Consumers liked concentrated canned orange juice as it was affordable, tasty, convenient, and high in vitamin C. The preparation was simple: empty the container of frozen concentrate into a measured volume of water and stir. However, by the 1980s, food scientists developed a fresher-tasting juice known as reconstituted ready-to-serve juice. Eventually in the 1990s, "not from concentrate" (NFC) orange juice was developed. Orange juice is a common breakfast beverage in the United States.

Due to the importance of oranges to the economy of Florida, "the juice obtained from mature oranges of the species Citrus sinensis and hybrids thereof" was adopted as the official beverage of Florida in 1967.

Nutrition

A cup serving (250 millilitres or 8 ounces) of fresh orange juice is 88% water and contains 26 grams of carbohydrates (including 21 grams of sugar), two grams of protein, and 0.5 grams each of dietary fiber and fat (table). One cup supplies 112 calories and 149% of the Daily Value (DV) of vitamin C, with moderate amounts (11-19% DV) of potassium, thiamin, and folate (table).

Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5.

As of 2020, consumption of orange juice was under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect cardiovascular diseases.

Commercial orange juice and concentrate

Frozen concentrated orange juice
Commercial squeezed orange juice is pasteurized and filtered before being evaporated under vacuum and heat. After removal of most of the water, this concentrate, about 65% sugar by weight, is then stored at about . Essences, Vitamin C, and oils extracted during the vacuum concentration process may be added back to restore flavor and nutrition (see below).

When water is added to freshly thawed concentrated orange juice, it is said to be reconstituted.

The product was developed in 1948 at the University of Florida's Citrus Research and Education Center. Since, it has emerged as a soft commodity, and futures contracts have traded in New York since 1966. Options on FCOJ were introduced in 1985. From the late 1950s to the mid-1980s, the product had the greatest orange juice market share, but not-from-concentrate juices surpassed FCOJ in the 1980s.

Not from concentrate
Orange juice that is pasteurized and then sold to consumers without having been concentrated is labeled as "not from concentrate". Just as "from concentrate" processing, most "not from concentrate" processing reduces the natural flavor from the juice. The largest producers of "not from concentrate" use a production process where the juice is placed in aseptic storage, with the oxygen stripped from it, for up to a year.

Removing the oxygen also strips out flavor-providing compounds, and so manufacturers add a flavor pack in the final step, which Cook's Illustrated magazine describes as containing "highly engineered additives." Flavor pack formulas vary by region, because consumers in different parts of the world have different preferences related to sweetness, freshness and acidity. According to the citrus industry, the Food and Drug Administration does not require the contents of flavor packs to be detailed on a product's packaging.

One common component of flavor packs is ethyl butyrate, a natural aroma that people associate with freshness, and which is removed from juice during pasteurization and storage. Cook's Illustrated sent juice samples to independent laboratories, and found that while fresh-squeezed juice naturally contained about 1.19 milligrams of ethyl butyrate per liter, juice that had been commercially processed had levels as high as 8.53 milligrams per liter.

Canned orange juice
A small fraction of fresh orange juice is canned. Canned orange juice retains vitamin C much better than bottled juice. The canned product loses flavor, however, when stored at room temperature for more than 12 weeks. In the early years of canned orange juice, the acidity of the juice caused the juice to have a metallic taste. In 1931, Dr. Philip Phillips developed a flash pasteurization process that eliminated this problem and significantly increased the market for canned orange juice.

Freshly squeezed, unpasteurized juice

Fresh-squeezed, the unpasteurized juice is the closest to consuming the orange itself. This version of the juice consists of oranges that are squeezed and then bottled without having any additives or flavor packs inserted. The juice is not subjected to pasteurization. Depending on storage temperature, freshly squeezed, unpasteurized orange juice can have a shelf life of 5 to 23 days.

Major orange juice brands
In the U.S., the major orange juice brand is Tropicana Products (owned by PepsiCo Inc.), which possesses nearly 65% of the market share. Tropicana also has a large presence in Latin America, Europe, and Central Asia. Competing products include Minute Maid (of The Coca-Cola Company) and Florida's Natural (a Floridian agricultural cooperative that differentiates itself from the competition by being locally owned and using only Florida grown oranges; Tropicana and Simply Orange use a mixture of domestic and foreign stock).

In Australia, Daily Juice (owned by National Foods) is a major brand of partially fresh, partially preserved, orange juice.

In the United Kingdom, major orange juice brands include Del Monte and Princes.

Additives
Some producers add citric acid or ascorbic acid to juice beyond what is naturally found in the orange. Some also include other nutrients. Often, additional vitamin C is added to replace that destroyed in pasteurization. Additional calcium may be added. Vitamin D, not found naturally in oranges, may be added as well. Sometimes omega-3 fatty acids from fish oils are added to orange juice. Low-acid varieties of orange juice also are available.

FCOJ producers generally use evaporators to remove much of the water from the juice in order to decrease its weight and decrease transportation costs. Other juice producers generally deaerate the juice so that it can be sold much later in the year.

Because such processes remove the distinct aroma compounds that give orange juice a fresh-squeezed taste, producers later add back these compounds in a proprietary mixture, called a "flavor pack", in order to improve the taste and to ensure a consistent year-round taste. The compounds in the flavor packs are derived from orange peels by squeezing the oil out of them. Producers do not mention the addition of flavor packs on the label of the orange juice.

Types of orange

Common orange juice is made from the sweet orange. Different cultivars (for example, Valencia, Hamlin) have different properties, and a producer may mix cultivar juices to get the desired taste. Orange juice usually varies between shades of orange and yellow, although some ruby red or blood orange varieties are a reddish-orange or even pinkish. This is due to different pigmentation in ruby red oranges.

The blood orange is a mutant of the sweet orange. The mandarin orange and the clementine and tangerine varieties are often used for sparkling juice drinks.

Many brands of organic orange juices have become available on the market.

Processing and manufacture

Manufacture of frozen concentrated orange juice

The processing of orange to frozen concentrated orange juice begins with testing the orange fruit for quality to ensure it is safe for the process. Then the fruit is cleaned and washed thoroughly and orange oil is taken from the peel of the orange. Next, the juice is extracted from the orange and is screened in order to remove seeds and large pieces of pulp. The juice is then heated to 190 to 200 °F in order to inactivate natural enzymes found in the juice. The concentration step occurs in a high vacuum evaporator where the water content in the juice is evaporated while the juice sugar compounds and solids are concentrated. The vacuum evaporator is a low temperature falling-film mechanism, which operates at a temperature between 60 and 80 °F. Evaporators work in a continuous manner in that fresh juice is added as concentrate is being constantly removed. The concentration process increases the soluble solid portion of the juice from 12 °Brix to 60-70 °Brix.

The concentrated juice is held in a cold wall tank and is stored at or below 35 °F to prevent browning and development of undesired flavors. Next, a small amount of fresh juice is added to the concentrated juice to restore natural and fresh flavors of orange juice that have been lost through the concentration process. Specific cold-pressed orange oils are used to restore the lost aroma and volatile flavors. After the addition of fresh juice, the brix content is reduced to 42 °F. The fresh juice is referred to as "cut-back" in the industry and attributes to 7-10% of the total juice. Orange peel oil is also added if the oil content is below the required level. The concentrate is then further cooled in a continuous cooler or cold wall tank to 20 to 25 °F. The concentrate is canned using steam injection methods to sterilize the lid and develop a vacuum in the can. The cans then undergo final freezing where they are conveyed on a perforated belt in an air blast at -40 °F. After freezing, the product is stored at 0 °F in a refrigerated warehouse.

Manufacture of "not from concentrate"
Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be "not from concentrate" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit.

The oranges then go through roller conveyors, which expose all sides of the fruit. The roller conveyors are efficiently built as they are well lighted, installed at a convenient height, and width to ensure all inspectors can reach the fruit to determine inadequacies. Some reasons why fruit may be rejected include indication of mold, rot, and ruptured peels. Afterwards, the oranges are separated based on size through machines prior to juice extraction. There are a number of different ways orange juice industry leaders extract their oranges. Some common methods include halving the fruit and pressing/reaming the orange to extract juice from the orange. One instrument inserts a tube through the orange peel and forces the juice out through the tube by squeezing the entire orange. Despite the variety of machines used to extract juices, all machines have commonalities in that they are rugged, fast, easy to clean and have the ability to reduce peel extractives into the juice. The extracted juice product does not contain the orange peel, but it may contain pulp and seeds, which are removed by finishers.

Finishers have a screw-type design that comprises a conical helical screw enclosed in a cylindrical screen with perforations the size of 0.020 to 0.045 inches. Thereafter, the finished orange juice flows through blending tanks where the juice is tested for acid and soluble solids. At this stage, sugar can be added to the juice depending on if the product will be a sweetened or unsweetened beverage. Following blending, the orange juice is deaerated where the air is incorporated into the juice during extraction. The benefits of deaeration include the elimination of foaming, which improves the uniformity of can fill and improvement regarding the efficiency of the heat exchanger. Orange peel oil is essential for maximum flavor, but according to U.S. standards for Grades of Canned Orange Juice, 0.03% of recoverable oil is permitted. Deoiling through the use of vacuum distillation is the mechanism used to regulate the amount of peel oil in the juice. Condensation separates the oil and the aqueous distillate, which is returned to the juice.

The next step is one of the most vital in the processing of orange juice. Pasteurization is important in destroying naturally occurring enzymes that are associated with deterioration of the juice. Pectinesterase is infamous for its deteriorative activity in orange juice. In the pasteurization process, the juice is generally rapidly heated  to 197 °F for about 40 seconds. Several industry leaders use flash pasteurization, which is carried out by tubular or plate-type heat exchangers. In order to prevent overheating, turbulent flow is vital to heat the juice rapidly. Cans are filled with the pasteurized juice and inverted immediately to allow the juice to sterilize the inside parts of the lid. The orange juice filled can is sealed and cooled to 90 to 100 °F by spinning on the conveyor belt under cool water sprays. Quality of storage is determined by time and temperature. Juice must be stored at cool temperatures to prevent deterioration.

Standards and regulations

Regulations in Canada
For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.

Regulations in the United States
In the United States, orange juice is regulated and standardized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh/frozen/pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of the following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, sugar syrup, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, dextrose, corn syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup, and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of orange juice soluble solids, excluding any added sweetening ingredients.

Regulations in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across the UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925/2006.

Physical and chemical properties

Molecular composition

On a molecular level, orange juice is composed of organic acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds. The main organic acids found in orange juice are citric, malic, and ascorbic acid. The major sugars found in orange juice are sucrose, glucose, and fructose. There are approximately 13 phenolic compounds in orange juice including hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, hydroxybenzoic acids, hesperidin, narirutin, and ferulic acid.

Composition of the cloud
The cloud is the portion of suspended particles that range in size from 0.05 micrometers to a few hundred micrometers in orange juice. The cloud is responsible for several sensory attributes in orange juice including color, aroma, texture, and taste. The continuous medium of the cloud consists of a solution of sugars, pectin, and organic acids while the dispersed matter is formed through cellular tissue comminuted in fruit processing. Specifically, the cloudiness of the juice is caused by pectin, protein, lipid, hemicellulose, cellulose, hesperidin, chromoplastids, amorphous particles, and oil globules. In particular the chemical composition of the cloud consists of 4.5-32% pectin, 34-52% protein, 25% lipids, 5.7% nitrogen, 2% hemicellulose, 2% ash, and less than 2% cellulose.

Physical structure
Orange juice is a suspension that consists of heterogeneous particles in a clear serum. A serum is the clear supernatant after the precipitation of the cloud through centrifugation. The previously mentioned cloud makes up a large part of the suspension.

If the suspension in orange juice is not stable, the cloud particles can flocculate which causes the suspension to physically decompose. The cloud can break apart and the citrus juice will clarify if the suspension becomes unstable. The activity of pectin methyl esterase increased the interaction between pectin and cloud proteins, which led to protein-pectin flocculation. The insoluble material of the cloud clumps in conditions above  and at a pH of 3-4 at which proteins coagulate and flocculate. Cloud flocculation is enhanced at pH 3.5 and can result in clarification, which is undesirable in orange juice.

The suspension is unstable when the zeta potential is less than 25 mv in magnitude. Zeta potential is a measure of the magnitude of electrostatic forces between particles, which affect repulsion, and attraction between particles. A low zeta value signifies that the repulsive forces will not be able to overcome Van der Waals attractions between cloud particles and thus begin to agglomerate. Agglomeration of cloud particles will prevent free flow characteristics, which is essential in the juice. A high zeta potential will inhibit particle-particle agglomeration and maintain the free flowing nature as well as uniform dispersion in orange juice.

The oil globules adsorbed to the cloud particles stabilize the suspension by decreasing the average density of particles to bring it closer to that of the serum. However, large amounts of oil can be problematic as they cause complete breakdown of suspensions by causing cloud particles to float to the surface. The particles in the cloud have a negative charge that decreases with decreasing pH. In accordance with cloud stability, the hydration of particles is more significant than their electrical charge.

Heat treatment
When orange juice is heat treated there is an increase in the number of fine particles and decrease in that of coarse particles. The fine particles in particular are responsible for the appearance, color, and flavor of orange juice. Heat treatment plays a vital role on pulp volume, cloud stability, serum turbidity, and serum viscosity. Heat treatment stabilizes the cloud through enzyme inactivation and enhances the turbidity of a stable cloud formation. The increase in serum viscosity is due to the extraction of pectic substances into the serum. Based on Stoke's law, the increase in serum viscosity is the cause for the enhanced cloud stability. In relation to pulp volume, the pulp from heated juices was finer and more compact than unheated juice pulp, which was voluminous and fluffy.

Properties of pulp
In orange juice, pulp is responsible for desirable flow properties, taste, flavor, and mouth feel. However, pulpy orange juice precipitates based on a rate dependent on the diameter, density, and viscosity of the suspended particles as well as the suspending juice. In order to remain suspended in orange juice, pulp particles must have appropriate particle size, charge, and specific gravity. Depending on type of processing method, the size of pulp particles ranges from . Those that are smaller than  are known to be more stable, so it is beneficial to reduce the size of particles by incorporating hydrocolloids to the juice product. Hydrocolloids would decrease the rate of sediment formation and decrease the falling rate of pulp particles.

Hydrocolloids
Hydrocolloids are long-chain polymers that form viscous dispersions and gels if dispersed in water. They have a number of functional properties in food products including emulsifying, thickening, coating, gelling, and stabilization. The main reason hydrocolloids are used in foods is their capability to modify the rheology of food systems. Hydrocolloids impact viscosity through flow behavior and mechanical solid properties like texture. Some common hydrocolloids that are used to stabilize juice products include gellan gum, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, xanthan, guar gum, and gum Arabic. The aforementioned hydrocolloids are generally used in the production of imitation orange juices and are often referred to as synthetic hydrocolloids. Pectin is the hydrocolloid found in natural orange juices.

Properties of pectin

Pectin is the soluble polymeric material in the pulp of oranges, which contains 75% of carboxyl of arabinose and galactose. Pectic compounds are complex heteropolysaccharides in that their chemical composition includes a chain structure of axial-axial α-1.4-linked d-galacturonic acid unit along with blocks of L-rhamnose regions that have side chains of arabinose, galactose, and xylose. Pectin methyl-esterase is the enzyme responsible for hydrolyzing carboxymethyl esters and liberating free carboxyl groups and methyl alcohols. The free carboxyl groups interact with cations to form insoluble pectic acid divalent metal ion complexes. These metal ion complexes precipitate in the juice and carry all the colloids in orange juice with it. The enzyme would flocculate the cloud and clarify the orange juice. Thus, in order to keep the orange juice cloud intact, it is vital to inactivate pectinesterase. Pectinesterase is inactivated by heating the juice for 1 minute at .

Interactions of pectin
The solution behavior of pectin is strongly influenced by a number of factors including hydrogen bonding, ionic character, and hydrophobic character. Hydrogen bonding is favored when pH is less than pKa while the ionic character is favored when pH is greater than pKa. Ionic character relies on free carboxyl content, the presence of cations, and is favored at a high water activity. Charge-charge repulsions along with the presence of neutral side chains are essential in inhibiting intermolecular association among pectin molecules. The methyl ester content in orange juice determines hydrophobic character, which is favored at low water activity.

There is a specific interaction between pectin and hesperidin through the sugar moieties in the hesperidin molecule. Through acid hydrolysis, the rhamnose and glucose sugar moieties are removed from hesperidin, which breaks the interaction between hesperidin and pectin. Hydrogen bonding plays a role in the specific interaction of neutral sugars of pectin and the sugar moiety of hesperidin. A polymer that has a high structural content of neutral sugar branches interacts with hesperidin more tightly and strongly than that of a low content of neutral sugar branches. The interaction between pectin and hesperidin is one of the factors that enable the colloidal suspension in orange juice to be stable.

See also

Juicing
 List of juices

References

Further reading
 Alissa Hamilton:  Squeezed: What You Don't Know about Orange Juice, Yale Agrarian Studies, 2010,

External links

Orange juice production Production process and distinction between juice products
Brief film clip of orange juice processing from 1968. From the State Library & Archives of Florida
Natural orange juice processing Industrial processing of natural orange juice

Orange drinks
Cold drinks
Drink mixers
Florida cuisine
Fruit juice
Orange production
Symbols of Florida
Florida culture
Citrus drinks

Orange juice