Josiah Charles Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp,  (21 June 1880 – 16 April 1941) was an English industrialist, economist, civil servant, statistician, writer, and banker. He was a director of the Bank of England and chairman of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway.

Life and career
Stamp was born in Hampstead, London, the third of seven children; his youngest brother L. Dudley Stamp was known as a geographer. At the time of his birth his father owned and managed a provision and general shop in London.

Stamp was educated at Bethany School, Goudhurst in Kent. He left at 16 and joined the Civil Service as a boy clerk in the Inland Revenue Department.  With a brief interval in the Board of Trade, he rose to assistant inspector of taxes at Hereford in 1903, an inspector of taxes in London in 1909, and assistant secretary in 1916.

Meanwhile, Stamp was studying economics as an external student.  He was awarded a first class degree (1911) by the University of London and a doctorate (1916) by the London School of Economics.  The thesis, published as British Incomes and Property, became a standard work on the subject and established his academic reputation. In 1919 he changed career, leaving the civil service for business, to join as secretary and director of Nobel Industries Ltd, from which Imperial Chemical Industries developed. In 1926 he became Chairman of the LMS and was instrumental in getting William Stanier appointed in 1932 as Chief Mechanical Engineer to resolve the locomotive problems of the company. In 1928 he was appointed a director of the Bank of England.

Stamp was often called to serve on public commissions, committees and boards: he was a member of the Royal Commission on Income Tax, 1919, the Northern Ireland Finance Arbitration Committee, 1923–24, the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924, the Dawes Reparation Commission's Committee on German Currency and Finance, 1924, the Young Committee in 1929 and the Economic Advisory Council, 1930–39. In 1935, he was a founder member of the Anglo-German Fellowship and had made low key visits to Nuremberg in 1936 (when he met Adolf Hitler – whom Stamp noted was a "statesman and demagogue combined" – and Franz von Papen), and 1937, to view the Nazi Party Congress with the unspoken support of the then Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax.

From 1927 until his death Stamp was Colonel commanding the Royal Engineers Railway and Transport Corps, and became Honorary Colonel of Transportation Units in the Royal Engineers Supplementary Reserve in 1938.

Stamp was widely regarded as the leading British expert on taxation, and took an active part in the work of the Royal Statistical Society, serving as president from 1930 to 1932.

Stamp refused to be moved out of his house, 'Tantallon', in Park Hill Road, Shortlands, during the German bombing of The Blitz.  He, aged sixty, and his wife, aged sixty-three, were killed by a bomb's direct hit on the air-raid shelter at their home on 16 April 1941.  They were buried at Beckenham Cemetery.

Honours and awards
Stamp was invested as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1918, Knight in the Order (KBE) in 1920, and Knight Grand Cross (GBE) in 1924 and Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (GCB) in 1936. He was a Knight of Grace of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. He also held the Grand Cross of the Austrian Order of Merit (awarded 1936) and the Afghan Order of Astaur. He was raised to the peerage on 28 June 1938 as Baron Stamp, of Shortlands in the County of Kent.

Stamp was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1933 and an International Member of the American Philosophical Society.

He was first Mayor of the Borough of Beckenham, Kent, within which he had settled at Shortlands, in 1935. He was made an honorary Freeman of the same borough in 1936 and of Blackpool in 1937. In 1936, he served as President of the Geographical Association; his brother L Dudley Stamp, also became President of the Association, in 1950.

Family
Stamp met his future wife, Olive Jessie Marsh, a soprano and student teacher, when he was seventeen. Pursuing their work and studies separately for several years until their marriage in 1903, they engaged in a correspondence (Jones 1964).  Between 1904 and 1917 they had four sons, Wilfred, Trevor, Maxwell and Colin.  It was as a result of this marriage that Stamp, son of a Baptist father and Church of England mother, converted to the Wesleyan Methodist Church. A few of his writings (see below), such as Christianity and Economics (1939), discuss the relevance of Christian values to contemporary economics systems.

Stamp's son Wilfred was killed at the same time and in the same place as his father, but English law has a legal fiction that in the event of the order of deaths being indeterminable, the elder is deemed to have died first. Legally therefore, Wilfred momentarily inherited the peerage: and as a consequence the family had to pay death duty twice. The peerage passed to the second of Stamp's four sons, Trevor.

Quotes

A well known quote from Stamp (often referred to as Stamp's Law) is:

"The government are very keen on amassing statistics. They collect them, add them, raise them to the nth power, take the cube root and prepare wonderful diagrams. But you must never forget that every one of these figures comes in the first instance from the chowky dar (village watchman in India), who just puts down what he damn pleases." (Stamp recounting a story from Harold Cox who quotes an anonymous English judge).

Another quote attributed to Stamp is:

"Banking was conceived in iniquity and was born in sin. The bankers own the earth. Take it away from them, but leave them the power to create money, and with the flick of the pen they will create enough deposits to buy it back again. However, take away from them the power to create money and all the great fortunes like mine will disappear and they ought to disappear, for this would be a happier and better world to live in. But, if you wish to remain the slaves of bankers and pay the cost of your own slavery, let them continue to create money." (Said to be from an informal talk at the University of Texas in the 1920s).

Sources

 A. L. Bowley Lord Stamp Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 104, No. 2 (1941), pp. 193–196.
 J. Harry Jones, M.A., LL.D., Josiah Stamp, Public Servant: The Life of the First Baron Stamp of Shortlands, London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1964, 365 pp.  With an Epilogue by his youngest son, Colin, from a talk broadcast over Springbok Radio from Johannesburg, South Africa, 5 October 1960.

Books by Josiah Stamp
Sourced from Who Was Who.

 British Incomes and Property 1916
 Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers 1919
 The Fundamental Principles of Taxation 1921
 The National Income 1924 with A. L. Bowley 1927
 The Christian Ethic as an Economic Factor 1926
 On Stimulus 1927
 Some Economic Matters in Modern Life 1929
 Criticism and other addresses 1931
 Internationalism 1931
 The Financial Aftermath of War 1932
 Taxation During the [Great] War 1932
 Ideals of a Student 1933
 Motive and Method in a Christian Order 1936
 The National Capital and Other Statistical Studies 1937
 The Science of Social Adjustment 1937
 We live and learn 1937
 Christianity and Economics 1939

References

External links

 Stamp, Josiah Charles at economia.unipv.it – Brief notes on Stamp's life
 Steam Index: Sir Josiah Charles Stamp – A biography emphasising Stamp's management of the LMS railway
 Josiah Charles Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp on the National Portrait Gallery website
 STAMP, Josiah Charles
  – Record at the British Academy to which Stamp was elected in 1926

1880 births
1941 deaths
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the British Academy
British civilians killed in World War II
English economists
English statisticians
Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society
Alumni of University of London Worldwide
Alumni of the University of London
London, Midland and Scottish Railway people
Deaths by airstrike during World War II
Presidents of the British Science Association
British public transport executives
Mayors of places in Greater London
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Barons created by George VI
20th-century English businesspeople
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp


Roosevelt Island is a station on the IND 63rd Street Line of the New York City Subway. Located in Manhattan on Roosevelt Island in the East River, it is served by the F trains at all times and the <F> trains during rush hours in the peak direction. After this station, the next stations will be Lexington Avenue 63rd Street and 21st Street Queensbridge.

This station is for F trains.

There are two two tunnels.

There is one tunnel to Queens and another one to Manhattan.

But sometimes, E trains and other trains enter this station via 6th Avenue to World Trade Center or Jamaica Center or other stations.

New York City Subway stations

Roosevelt Island station


Amarna letter EA 144, titled: "Zimreddi of Sidon," is a square-shaped, mostly flat clay tablet letter written on both sides and the bottom edge. It is from a vassal state in Canaan (city-state Sidon), and is written by the 'mayor' of Sidon, the author of Amarna letter EA 144, and Amarna letter EA 145. Zimreddi is also referred to in a few other Amarna letters.

The letter is in a crude cuneiform style, but in nearly perfect condition (few lacunas). It is in a similar style of many of the Canaanite city letters showing subservience to the Pharaoh (King). The letter is approximately 4 in wide x 3.5 in tall.

The Amarna letters, about 300, numbered up to EA 382, are a mid-14th century BC, about 1350 BC and 20–25 years later, correspondence. The initial corpus of letters were found at Akhenaten's city Akhetaten, in the floor of the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh; others were later found, adding to the body of letters.

Letter EA 144 (see here [*EA 144: Obverse, bottom edge, Reverse, CDLI no. 271185 (Chicago Digital Library Initiative)]), is numbered VAT 00323, from the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin.

The letter

EA 144: "Zimreddi of Sidon"
EA 144, letter one? of two. (Not a linear, line-by-line translation, and English from French.)
(Obverse & Reverse):

(Lines 1-5)--Say to the king, my lord, my god, my Sun, the breath of my life: Thus1 Zimreddi, the mayor of Sidon.
(6-12)--I fall at the feet of my lord, god, Sun, breath of my life ((at the feet of my lord, my god, my Sun, the breath of my life)) 7 times and 7 times. May the king, my lord, know that Sidon, the maidservant of the king, my lord, which he put in my charge, is safe and sound.
(13-21)--And when I heard the words of the king, my lord, when he wrote to his servant, then my heart rejoiced, and my head went [h]igh, and my eyes shone, at hearing the word of the king, my lord. May the king know that I have made preparations2 before the arrival of the archers of the king, my lord. I have prepared everything in accordance with the command of the king, my lord.
(22-30)--May the king, my lord, know that the war against me is very severe. All the cit[i]es that the king put in [m]y ch[ar]ge, have been joined to the 'Ap[ir]u. May the king put me in the charge of a man that will lead the archers of the king to call to account the cities that have been joined to the 'Apiru, so you can restore3 them to my charge that I may be able to serve the king, my lord, as our ancestors (did) before.--(complete EA 144, only minor, restored lacunae, lines 1-30)

Akkadian text
The Akkadian language text: (through line 12, obverse)

Akkadian:

(Line 1)--a-na LUGAL-ri EN-ia—(To King-Lord-mine...)
(2)--dingir-meš-ia (d)utu-ia sza-ri til-la-ia—((of) god(pl)-mine, Sun-god-mine (which of) 'breath-of-life')
(3)--qí-bí-ma—(speak(-ing)!...)
(4)--um-ma 1. Zi-iM-Re-eD-Di—('message thus' 1.-Zimreddi,...)

(5)--LÚ ha-za-nu ša URU Sí-Du-Na-ki—(man-(mayor-governor) city-Siduna), (Sídōn)
(6)--a-na GÌR-MEŠ EN-ia, dingir-meš (d)utu sza-ri—(at feet(pl), Lord-mine, (which of) gods(pl), Sun-god, King)
(7)--ša til-la-ia a-na GÌR-MEŠ EN-ia—((which of) breath-of-life, at feet(pl), my Lord)
(8)--dingir-meš-ia (d)utu-ia sza-ri til-la-ia—((of) god(pl)-mine, Sun-god-mine, King, 'breath-of-life')
(9)--7-šu ù 7-ta-a-an am-qú-ut—(7 times and 7 times (again)...--...I bow(-ing))(am bowing)
(10)--lu-ú i-de LUGAL EN-ia i-nu-ma—(may it be!..Know! King-Lord-mine...--...Now-(Now, at-this-time))
(11)--šal-ma-at URU Sí-Du-Na-ki geme2-ti—((there is) Peace, city-Sidunahis,..."maidservant")
(12)--LUGAL EN-ia sza i-din i-na qa-ti-ia

See also
Zimredda (Sidon mayor)
Amarna letters–phrases and quotations

External links

EA 144: Obverse, bottom edge, Reverse (with Photo & line drawings), CDLI no. 271185 (Chicago Digital Library Initiative)
CDLI listing of all EA Amarna letters, 1-382

References

Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, )
 Parpola, 1971. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Parpola, Simo, Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, c 1997, Tablet I thru Tablet XII, Index of Names, Sign List, and Glossary-(pp. 119–145), 165 pages.

Amarna letters
History of Sidon

Amarna letter EA 144


Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC) was a civil war during the late Roman Republic between two factions led by Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), respectively. The main cause of the war was political tensions relating to Caesar's place in the republic on his expected return to Rome on the expiration of his governorship in Gaul.

Before the war, Caesar had led an invasion of Gaul for almost ten years. A build-up of tensions starting in late 50 BC, with both Caesar and Pompey refusing to back down, led to the outbreak of civil war. Pompey and his allies induced the Senate to demand Caesar give up his provinces and armies in the opening days of 49 BC. Caesar refused and instead marched on Rome.

The war was fought in Italy, Illyria, Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Hispania. The decisive events occurred in Greece in 48 BC: Pompey defeated Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrhachium, but the subsequent larger Battle of Pharsalus was won by Caesar and Pompey's army disintegrated. Many prominent supporters of Pompey (termed Pompeians) surrendered after the battle, such as Marcus Junius Brutus and Cicero. Others fought on, including Cato the Younger and Metellus Scipio. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated upon arrival.

Caesar led a military expedition to Asia Minor before attacking North Africa, where he defeated Metellus Scipio in 46 BC at the Battle of Thapsus. Cato and Metellus Scipio killed themselves shortly thereafter. The following year, Caesar defeated the last of the Pompeians, at the Battle of Munda in Spain, who were led by his former lieutenant Labienus. Caesar was then made dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity" or "dictator for life") by the Roman senate in 44 BC. He was assassinated by a group of senators (including Brutus) shortly thereafter.

The civil war is one of the commonly recognised endpoints of Rome's republican government. Some scholars view the war as the proximate cause of the republic's fall, due to its polarising interruption of normal republican government. Caesar's comprehensive victory followed by his immediate death left a power vacuum; over the following years his heir Octavian was eventually able to take complete control, forming the Roman Empire as Augustus.

Background

The main issue at hand in the lead-up to the war was how Caesar, who had been in Gaul for almost ten years before 49 BC, was to be re-integrated into the political fabric of Rome after accumulating immense power and wealth in Gaul.

Starting from 58 BC, the year after his consulship in 59, Caesar had held the proconsulship of Cisalpine Gaul along with Illyricum under the terms of the lex Vatinia and Transalpine Gaul at the assignment of the Senate. Caesar had allied himself with Crassus and Pompey in the so-called First Triumvirate during his consulship. The alliance of three men "induced a sharp restructuring of alliances and alignments" with temporary benefit to them but harm in the long-run with aristocratic groups coalescing in opposition. The short-term benefits to the three emerged from their own purposes: ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement, agrarian measures involving Pompey and Crassus.

The political alliance between the three began to fray in the mid 50s BC, but was put on hold with a renegotiation and the joint consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 55 BC. Their joint consulship assigned new provincial commands to the consuls, with Pompey receiving Spain while Crassus went to Syria to fight the Parthians; Caesar, for his part, had his proconsulship in Gaul renewed.

After Crassus' departure from Rome at the end of 55 BC and following his death in battle in 53 BC, the alliance started to fracture more cleanly. With the death of Crassus, and that of Julia (Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife) in 54 BC, the balance of power between Pompey and Caesar collapsed and "a faceoff between [the two] may, therefore, have seemed inevitable". From 61 BC, the main political fault-line in Rome was counterbalancing against the influence of Pompey, leading to his seeking allies outside the core senatorial aristocracy, i.e. Crassus and Caesar; but the rise of anarchic political violence from 55 to 52 BC finally forced the Senate to ally with Pompey to restore order. The breakdown of order in 53 and 52 BC was extremely disturbing: men like Publius Clodius Pulcher and Titus Annius Milo were "essentially independent agents" leading large violent street gangs in a highly volatile political environment. This led to Pompey's sole consulship in 52 BC in which he took sole control of the city without convening an electoral assembly.

Political agitation to strip Caesar of his command and his legions had already started in the spring of 51 BC: M Claudius Marcellus argued in that year that the capture of Alesia and victory over Vercingetorix meant that Caesar's provincia (i.e., task) in Gaul was completed and therefore his command had lapsed. He also argued that Caesar's expected desire to stand for a second consulship in absentia was no longer justified after his victory. Regardless, the Senate rejected Marcellus' motion, as well as his later motion to declare Caesar's term in Gaul to end on 1 March 50 BC. At this time, Pompey was also instrumental in rejecting the proposed motions.

Subsequent to the summer of 50, "positions had been hardened and events progressed irreversibly toward cataclysm", with Pompey now rejecting Caesar's standing for a second consulship until he gave up his army and provinces. The Senate as a whole was relatively pacific, strongly supporting a proposal by Caesar's ally C Scribonius Curio, who was then tribune of the plebs, that both Pompey and Caesar give up their armies and commands. The proposal passed in the Senate by 370 in favour to 22 against on 1 December 50 BC, it was rejected by Pompey and the consul. The consul, C Claudius Marcellus then seized upon rumours that Caesar was preparing to invade Italy and charged Pompey with defending the city and the Republic.

One of the reasons given as to why Caesar decided to go to war was that he would be prosecuted for legal irregularities during his consulship in 59 BC and violations of various laws passed by Pompey in the late 50s, the consequence of which would be ignominious exile. However, the prosecution theory emerging from Suetonious and Pollio is in "highly dubious territory" and "dubious in the extreme". There is no evidence from the period 50–49 BC that anyone was seriously planning on putting Caesar on trial. Caesar's choice to fight the civil war was motivated by his mostly stumbling in efforts to attain a second consulship and triumph, in which failure to do so would have jeopardised his political future. Moreover, war in 49 BC was advantageous for Caesar, who had continued military preparations while Pompey and the republicans had barely started preparing.

Even in ancient times, the causes of the war were puzzling and perplexing, with specific motives "nowhere to be found". Various pretexts existed, such as Caesar's claim that he was defending the rights of tribunes after they fled the city, which was "too obvious a sham". Caesar's own explanation was that he would protect his personal dignitas; both Caesar and Pompey were impelled by pride, with Caesar refusing to "yield submissively to the blusterings of the conservatives, much less to the bullying of Pompey" in Gruen's words, and Pompey similarly refusing to accept Caesar's proposals, delivered as if they were directives. There was little conscious desire for war until the last weeks of 50 BC, but "the boni had entrapped themselves... in a political vise from which they could not emerge with dignity except by aggressive self-assertion" while Caesar could not "permit [his status and reputation] to collapse through submission".

Civil war

For the months leading up to January 49 BC, both Caesar and the anti-Caesarians composed of Pompey, Cato, and others seemed to believe that the other would back down or, failing that, offer acceptable terms. Trust had eroded between the two over the last few years and repeated cycles of brinksmanship harmed chances for compromise.

On 1 January 49 BC, Caesar stated that he would be willing to resign if other commanders would also do so but, in Gruen's words, "would not endure any disparity in their [Caesar and Pompey's] forces", appearing to threaten war if his terms were not met. Caesar's representatives in the city met with senatorial leaders with a more conciliatory message, with Caesar willing to give up Transalpine Gaul if he would be permitted to keep two legions and the right to stand for consul without giving up his imperium (and, thus, right to triumph), but these terms were rejected by Cato, who declared he would not agree to anything unless it was presented publicly before the Senate.

The Senate was persuaded on the eve of war (7 January 49 BC) – while Pompey and Caesar continued to muster troops – to demand Caesar give up his post or be judged an enemy of the state. A few days later, the Senate then also stripped Caesar of his permission to stand for election in absentia and appointed a successor to Caesar's proconsulship in Gaul; while pro-Caesarian tribunes vetoed these proposals, the Senate ignored it and moved the senatus consultum ultimum, empowering the magistrates to take whatever actions were necessary to ensure the safety of the state. In response, a number of those pro-Caesarian tribunes, dramatising their plight, fled the city for Caesar's camp.

Opening of the war

Crossing the Rubicon

On the 10th or 11th of January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, a small river marking the boundary between the province of Cisalpine Gaul to the north and Italy proper to the south. Crossing the Rubicon, Suetonius claims Caesar exclaimed alea iacta est ("the die is cast"), though Plutarch maintains Caesar spoke in Greek quoting the poet Menander with anerriphtho kubos ("ἀνερρίφθω κύβος," "let the die be thrown"); Caesar's own commentaries do not mention the Rubicon at all. This marked a formal start to hostilities, with Caesar being "undoubtedly a rebel".

On both sides, the rank and file soldiers followed their leaders: "the Gallic legions obeyed their patron and benefactor [who] deserved well of the res publica... others followed Pompey and the consuls [who] represented the res publica". Caesar made sure to address his men: according to his own account, he spoke of injustices done to him by his political enemies, how Pompey had betrayed him, and focused mostly on how the rights of tribunes had been trampled by the Senate's ignoring tribunician vetoes, parading the tribunes who had fled the city before the troops in their disguises. On the senatus consultum ultimum, Caesar argued it was unnecessary and should be confined only to circumstances in which Rome was under direct threat.

For most Romans, the choice of what side to pick was difficult. Only a small number of people were committed to one side or the other at the onset of hostilities. For example, Gaius Claudius Marcellus, who as consul in 50 BC had charged Pompey with defending the city, chose neutrality. The then-young Marcus Junius Brutus, whose father had been treacherously killed by Pompey during Brutus' childhood, whose mother was Caesar's lover, and who had been raised in Cato the Younger's house, chose to leave the city, setting off a post in Cilicia and thence to Pompey's camp. Caesar's most trusted lieutenant in Gaul, Titus Labienus also defected from Caesar to Pompey, possibly due to Caesar's hoarding of military glories or an earlier loyalty to Pompey.

March on Rome

Caesar's timing was far-sighted: Italy was totally unprepared for an invasion. Caesar captured Ariminum (modern day Rimini) without resistance, his men having already infiltrated the city; he captured three more cities in quick succession. News of Caesar's incursion into Italy reached Rome around 17 January. In response Pompey "issued an edict in which he recognised a state of civil war, ordered all the senators to follow him, [and] declared that he would regard as a partisan of Caesar any one who remained behind". Pompey and his allies left the city along with many uncommitted senators, fearing bloody reprisals of the previous civil wars; other senators simply left Rome for their country villas, hoping to keep a low profile.

In late January, Caesar and Pompey were negotiating, with Caesar proposing that the two of them return to their provinces (which would have required Pompey to travel to Spain) and then disband their forces. Pompey accepted those terms provided that they withdraw from Italy at once and submit to arbitration of the dispute by the Senate, a counter-offer that Caesar rejected as doing so would have put him at the mercy of hostile senators while giving up all the advantages of his surprise invasion. Caesar continued to advance.

After encountering five cohorts under Quintus Minucius Thermus at Iguvium, Thermus' forces deserted. Caesar quickly overran Picenum, the area from which Pompey's family originated. While Caesar's troops skirmished once with local forces, fortunately for him, the population was not hostile: his troops were refraining from looting and his opponents had "little popular appeal". In February 49 BC, Caesar received reinforcements and captured Asculum when the local garrison deserted.

Only when he reached Corfinium did he encounter serious opposition led by Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, recently appointed governor of Gaul by the Senate. Pompey had urged Ahenobarbus to retreat south and join him, but Ahenobarbus had responded with requests for support; regardless, Caesar prepared for a siege. After Ahenobarbus received a letter from Pompey denying support, he claimed help was on the way but was caught planning a personal escape; in response, his men arrested him and sent envoys to surrender to Caesar after a short week-long siege. Among the surrendered were some fifty senators and equestrians, all of whom Caesar allowed to go free. When Corfinium's local magistrates handed over some six million sestertii that Ahenobarbus had brought to pay his men, Caesar returned it to the men and asked them to take an oath of loyalty, which they did.

Caesar's advance down the Adriatic coast was surprisingly clement and disciplined: his soldiers did not plunder the countryside as soldiers had during the Social War a few decades earlier. Nor did Caesar avenge himself on his political enemies as Sulla and Marius had. The policy of clemency was also highly practical: Caesar's pacificity prevented the population of Italy from turning on him. At the same time, Pompey planned to escape east to Greece where he could raise a massive army from the eastern provinces. He therefore escaped to Brundisium (modern Brindisi), requisitioning merchant vessels to travel the Adriatic.

Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundisium, arriving on 9 March with six legions. By then, most of Pompey's forces had departed, with a rearguard of two legions waiting for transport. While Caesar tried to block the harbour with earthworks and reopen negotiations, the earthworks were unsuccessful and Pompey refused to negotiate, escaping east with almost all of his men and all the ships in the region.

Spain and Africa

Following this setback and taking advantage of Pompey's escape east, Caesar marched west to Hispania. While in Italy, he assembled a meeting of the rump Senate on 1 April; the turnout was poor. There, Caesar repeated his grievances and requested senatorial envoys be sent to negotiate with Pompey; though the motion was passed, nobody volunteered. A meeting of the concilium plebis also was called; although Caesar promised every citizen a gift of 300 sestertii and a guarantee of the grain supply, the reception was muted. When one of the tribunes, Lucius Caecilius Metellus interposed his veto against Caesar's attempt to raid the state treasury, his veto was either ignored or his life threatened until he backed down. This also showed the sham nature of Caesar's supposed casus belli in protecting the rights of tribunes: "the man who had proclaimed that he was championing the rights of the tribunes in January was now as ready as his opponents... [to] threaten one of these magistrates". Caesar's raid captured some 15 thousand gold bars, 30 thousand silver bars, and 30 million sestertii, even seizing a special fund kept over the centuries to defend against Gallic attack.

Leaving Mark Antony in charge of Italy, Caesar set out west for Spain. En route, he started a siege of Massilia when the city barred him entry and came under the command of the aforementioned Domitius Ahenobarbus. Leaving a besieging force, Caesar continued to Spain with a small bodyguard and 900 German auxiliary cavalry. He arrived in June 49 and at Ilerda he defeated a Pompeian army under legates Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius. Pompey's remaining legate in Spain, Marcus Terentius Varro surrendered shortly thereafter, putting all of Spain under Caesar's control.

Concurrent to Caesar's invasion of Spain, he sent his lieutenant Curio to invade Sicily and Africa assisted by Gaius Caninius Rebilus, where his forces were decisively defeated in the Battle of the Bagradas River in August 49 BC. Curio was killed in battle.

Returning to Rome in December 49 BC, Caesar left Quintus Cassius Longinus in command of Spain and had praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus appoint him dictator. As dictator, he conducted elections for the consulship of 48 BC before using the dictatorial powers to pass laws recalling from exile those condemned by Pompey's courts in 52 BC, excepting Titus Annius Milo, and restoring the political rights of the children of victims of the Sullan proscriptions. Holding the dictatorship would have been the only way to avoid giving up his imperium, legions, provincia, and right to triumph while within the pomerium. Standing in the same elections he conducted, he won a second term as consul with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus as his colleague. He resigned the dictatorship after eleven days. Caesar then renewed his pursuit of Pompey across the Adriatic.

Macedonian campaign

Arriving at Brundisium, Caesar did not have enough transports to sail his entire force, meaning that multiple voyages across the Adriatic would be needed; this was complicated by a Pompeian fleet stationed on the eastern side of the Adriatic under the command of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. Sailing on 4 January 48 BC – in reality, due to drift from the Roman calendar, late autumn – Caesar took the Pompeians by surprise, with Pompey's troops dispersed to winter quarters and Bibulus' fleet not ready. Bibulus' fleet, however, quickly sprung into action and captured some of Caesar's transports as they returned to Brundisium, leaving Caesar stranded with some seven legions and little food. Caesar then pushed to Apollonia with little local resistance, allowing him to secure a base and some food stores; seeing that the main Pompeian supply base was at Dyrrachium, Caesar advanced on it but withdrew when Pompey arrived first with superior forces.

After receiving the remainder of his army from Italy under Mark Antony on 10 April, Caesar advanced against Dyrrachium again, leading to the Battle of Dyrrachium. After attempting circumvallation of the Pompeian defenders, Caesar attempted to capture the vital Pompeian logistics hub of Dyrrachium but was unsuccessful after Pompey occupied it and the surrounding heights. In response, Caesar besieged Pompey's camp and constructed a circumvallation thereof, until, after months of skirmishes, Pompey was able to break through Caesar's fortified lines and force Caesar into a strategic withdrawal for Thessaly.

After the victory, seeking to spare Italy from invasion, prevent Caesar from defeating in detail Scipio Nasica's forces arriving from Syria, and under pressure from his overconfident allies who accused him of prolonging the war to extend his command, Pompey sought to engage Caesar in a decisive battle. After meeting up with Scipio Nasica's Syrian reinforcements, Pompey led his forces after Caesar in early August, seeking favourable ground for a battle. After several days of cavalry skirmishes, Caesar was able to lure Pompey off of a hill and force battle on the plain of Pharsalus. During the battle, a flanking manoeuvre led by Labienus failed against a reserve line of Caesar's troops, leading to the collapse of the Pompeian infantry against Caesar's veterans. Shortly after the battle and sometime in October, Caesar was named dictator for the second time, for an entire year.

Pompey, despairing of the defeat, fled with his advisors overseas to Mytilene and thence to Cilicia where he held a council of war; at the same time, Cato's supporters regrouped at Corcyra and went thence to Libya. Others, including Marcus Junius Brutus sought Caesar's pardon, travelling over marshlands to Larissa where he was then welcomed graciously by Caesar in his camp. Pompey's council of war decided to flee to Egypt, which had in the previous year supplied him with military aid.

Egyptian dynastic struggle

When Pompey arrived in Egypt, he was greeted by a welcoming delegation made up of several Egyptians and two Roman officers who had served with him years before. Shortly after boarding their boat, he was murdered in sight of his wife and friends on the deck. Caesar pursued vigorously as Pompey's skill and client networks made him the largest threat; travelling first to Asia and then to Cyprus and Egypt, he arrived three days after Pompey's murder. There, he was presented with the head of Pompey, along with his signet ring; Caesar wept when he saw the ring and recoiled from the head: "his disgust and sorrow may well have been genuine, for from the beginning he had taken great pride in his clemency".

Egypt by this time had been embroiled in repeated civil wars, also frequently arbitrated by Rome – helped in part due to the massive bribes Egyptian monarchs gave to Roman leaders – which eroded the realm's independence. While in Egypt, Caesar started to get involved a dynastic dispute between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra, who in the will (registered in Rome) of the last Egyptian king (Ptolemy XII Auletes) had been made co-rulers. By 48 BC, relations between the two co-rulers had broken down, with the two shadowing each other with armies on opposite sides of the Nile.

Caesar demanded a ten million denarii payment of a large debt promised to him by the previous king; a demand almost certainly motivated by the "massive financial commitments" needed to pay his troops; he also declared that he would arbitrate the succession dispute between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra. In response, Pothinus (Ptolemy XIII's eunuch regent), apparently summoned an army to the city and besieged Caesar's occupation of the royal quarter; Caesar summoned reinforcements from Roman Asia.

While under siege in Alexandria, Caesar met Cleopatra and became her lover when she secreted herself into the royal quarter. Around this time, Caesar also produced his decision on the dynastic dispute: the will's terms were clear and both would have to be co-rulers. Ptolemy XIII impressed, probably already aware of Caesar and Cleopatra's relationship. After some months of siege, Caesar's forces were relieved by forces under Mithridates of Pergamum from Syria, bringing the Egyptians to battle with Caesar's forces where the Egyptians were utterly routed. Ptolemy XIII fled but drowned when his boat capsized.

After the victory, Caesar gave the Roman province of Cyprus to Egypt, likely secured payment of his financial demand, and invested Cleopatra (along with a new co-ruler Ptolemy XIV Philopator, Cleopatra's younger brother) with rule of Egypt. While Caesar's Alexandrian War implies he left Egypt forthwith, he actually stayed for some three months cruising with Cleopatra along the Nile, mostly to rest and perhaps also partly to make clear Rome's support for Cleopatra's new regime.

News of a crisis in Asia persuaded Caesar to leave Egypt in the middle of 47 BC, at which time sources suggest Cleopatra was already pregnant. He left behind three legions under the command of a son of one of his freedmen to secure Cleopatra's rule. Cleopatra likely bore a child, which she called "Ptolemy Caesar" and which the Alexandrians called "Caesarion", in late June. Caesar believed that the child was his, as he allowed use of the name.

War against Pharnaces

Aware of the civil war, Pharnaces II desired to reclaim his father's lands lost during the Third Mithridatic War and promptly invaded large parts of Cappadocia, Armenia, eastern Pontus, and Lesser Colchis. Roman sources paint him cruelly, ordering the castration of any captured Romans; these attacks were uncontested after Pompey stripped the east for troops until Caesar's legate Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus fought him unsuccessfully near Nicopolis in December 48 BC with an inexperienced force.

Caesar moved from Egypt north along the eastern Mediterranean coast, moving directly for Pharnaces' invasion, seeking to protect his prestige, which would suffer substantially if a foreign invasion were to go unpunished. Pharnaces attempted to treat with Caesar, who rejected all negotiations, reminding him of his treatment of Roman prisoners. Caesar demanded him to withdraw immediately from all occupied territories, return their spoils, and release all prisoners.

When the Romans arrived near the hilltop town of Zela, Pharnaces launched an all-out attack as the Romans were entrenching. The attack caused confusion among Caesar's forces but they quickly recovered and drove Pharnaces' forces down the hill. After a breakthrough on the Caesarian right, Pharnaces' army routed. He fled back to his kingdom but was promptly assassinated. The whole campaign had taken just a few weeks.

Caesar's victory was so swift that in a letter to a friend in Rome, he quipped "Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered"), a tag repeated on placards carried in his Pontic triumph; he also mocked Pompey for making his name fighting such weak enemies.

Brief return to Rome and mutiny

At Rome, however, during these Egyptian and Pontic campaigns, politics continued. Publius Cornelius Dolabella was serving as one of the tribunes for 47 BC. During his term, he proposed the abolition of all debts and a rent holiday. This led to Antony, who was serving as Caesar's magister equitum in the dictatorship, to intervene against the proposals. When Antony had left for Campania to deal with a mutiny in Caesar's Ninth and Tenth legions, domestic violence again flared up in Rome, leading to the Senate to invoke the senatus consultum ultimum but the lack of any magistrates with imperium present meant that nobody was able to enforce it; only after some time did Antony return, restoring order with serious loss of life, dealing a serious blow to his popularity.

At the same time, Cato led his forces from Cyrenaica across the desert to Africa (modern day Tunisia), linking up with Metellus Scipio; they, along with Labienus, induced the defection of one of Caesar's governors in Hispania Ulterior.

Caesar returned to Italy and Rome late in 47 BC, meeting and pardoning Cicero, who had given up hope in Pompeian victory after Pompey's death, at Brundisium. Upon his return, he made it clear that his confidence in Antony, but surprisingly not Dolabella, had been lost. Caesar elected suffect magistrates for 47 and magistrates for the new year (46 BC); he packed his men into the priestly colleges and the suffect magistracies, expanding the number of praetors from eight to ten, to reward them for their loyalty. For himself, he declined to continue the dictatorship, instead taking the consulship with Lepidus as his colleague.

The mutineers in Campania were not calmed by Caesar's return. Caesar sent one of his lieutenants, the future historian Gaius Sallustius Crispus (also appointed praetor for 46 BC), to parley with the men, but Sallust was almost killed by a mob. Caesar then went in person to the troops, who were then nearing Rome under arms; he granted them immediate discharges, gave promises that they would receive their land and retirement bonuses, and addressed them as quirites (citizens). His men, shocked by their casual dismissal, begged Caesar to take them back into service; feigning reluctance, he allowed himself to be persuaded and made notes to put the mutiny's leaders in exposed and dangerous positions in the upcoming campaign.

While in Italy, he also confiscated and sold at market price the property of Pompey and opponents now dead or still unpardoned, before also borrowing more funds. He handled Dolabella's proposed debt cancellation proposals by declining to take them up, arguing his large debts would have made him the chief beneficiary of such a plan. The decision to sell the confiscated properties at market price disappointed some of Caesar's allies, but also indicated his dire financial straits.

African campaign

Caesar ordered his men to gather in Lilybaeum on Sicily in late December. He placed a minor member of the Scipio family – one Scipio Salvito or Salutio – on this staff because of the myth that no Scipio could be defeated in Africa. He assembled six legions there and set out for Africa on 25 December 47 BC. The transit was disrupted by a storm and strong winds; only around 3,500 legionaries and 150 cavalry landed with him near the enemy port of Hadrumentum. Apocryphally, when landing, Caesar fell onto the beach but was able to successfully laugh the bad omen off when he grabbed two handfuls of sand, declaring "I have hold of you, Africa!".

Ruspina
At the start of the campaign, Caesar's forces were greatly outnumbered: Metellus Scipio led a force of ten legions (likely understrength like Caesar's legions) and large contingents of allied cavalry under King Juba I of Numidia, who also led some 120 war elephants. With the benefit of surprise, Caesar had the time needed to find and reorganise his scattered forces, also sending orders to Sicily to return with reinforcements. As the Pompeians had already acquired most of the available food supplies, Caesar was forced to move quickly. He bypassed Hadrumentum after it refused to surrender and established bases at Ruspina, where he led a large foraging party which then engaged in an encounter battle forces under Labienus. Caesar's inexperienced troops wavered under attack from Numidian skirmisher cavalry for most of the day before retreating after a counterattack, resulting in a strategic defeat, as Caesar was prevented from foraging.

Low on supplies, Caesar fortified his camp at Ruspina as Metellus Scipio joined Labienus' forces just three miles from Caesar's position. Their ally, King Juba, moved to link up as well, but was forced to redeploy west when his kingdom was invaded by his rival, Bocchus II of Mauretania, with forces led by a Roman mercenary, Publius Sittius, who had fled Rome after the collapse of the second Catilinarian conspiracy. This was a lucky break for Caesar, who had not arranged for it. Scipio's forces suffered from endemic desertion; however, Caesar took a defensive approach until he was reinforced by two legions, 800 Gallic cavalrymen, and substantial stores of food, at which point he retook the offensive.

After some skirmishing between Caesar and Metellus Scipio over some hills on the outskirts of town and the Pompeian water source at Uzitta, Metellus Scipio was reinforced by Juba's allied cavalry and heavy infantry. Following more skirmishing for terrain advantages around Uzitta, Caesar's forces were reinforced by the veteran legions who had mutinied in Campania. Running low on supplies and with little chance of taking Uzitta, Caesar decided to march away, seizing some food stores before advancing on and besieging Thapsus.

Thapsus and return
By doing so, Caesar forced the Pompeians to form up for battle. With good terrain narrowing the front, limiting Metellus Scipio's numerical advantage, Caesar went to address his men, who spontaneously attacked the opposing lines, taking them by surprise and quickly routing them. Plutarch, however, reports that Caesar felt an oncoming epileptic fit and was taken to rest, leading to the confused attack. Either way, Metellus Scipio's forces were routed, with overwhelmingly unequal casualties: some 10,000 dead Pompeians for around 50 casualties. Metellus Scipio and the rest of the Pompeian leadership was able, however, to escape, though most would end up dead in weeks, either from suicide or execution following capture: Metellus Scipio attempted to escape by sea but killed himself when intercepted by Caesarian ships; Juba and a Pompeian officer named Marcus Petreius arranged a suicide pact by single combat. Labienus was able to escape, making his way to Spain, where he joined Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey.

During the campaign before Thapsus, Cato the Younger held the city of Utica and was absent at the battle; when he was informed of the defeat, he consulted with his soldiers, who numbered but three hundred and were hopelessly outnumbered. After dinner, Cato took his sword and stabbed himself in the stomach; at the noise, a doctor was summoned, but Cato ripped the stitches open and "began ripping out his own entrails", dying before anyone could stop him.

Caesar was disappointed he would not be able to pardon Cato, who had killed himself primarily to "out of a desire to avoid his enemy's mercy". He then remained in Africa to settle affairs in the region, subjecting communities which had supported Pompey to punitive fines. He also engaged in a brief affair with Eunoë, the wife of King Bogud of Mauretania. In June 46, he left Africa for Rome, stopping first in Sardinia, and returning to the city near the end of July.

Second Spanish campaign and end
After Caesar's return to Rome, he celebrated four triumphs: over Gaul, Egypt, Asia, and Africa. The victory over fellow Romans in Africa was "tactfully considered" a victory over Juba's Numidia. The celebrations began on 21 September and ran until 2 October, with lavish parades of prisoners and looted treasures. Caesar, as triumphator, also celebrated the occasion by appointing to himself the right to be preceded by seventy-two lictors – far beyond the consul's normal twelve and dictator's normal twenty-four – symbolising his having held the dictatorship three times. Massive games and public banquets were also held; Caesar also gave huge donatives to his men, equivalent to more than sixteen years pay, with even more for centurions and officers.

The main source for the campaign in Spain is known as the Spanish War (or Bellum Hispaniense) and was probably written by one of Caesar's officers, "but is by far the least satisfactory of the books added to his Commentaries". Elizabeth Rawson, in the Cambridge Ancient History, describes a "clumsy narrator". Other criticism is directed to writing: its "half-educated Latin", its status as "the most illiterate and exasperating book in classical literature", with "a very miserable style" and "bad imitations of Caesar's lucidity".

Early campaign
Caesar, however, left for Spain in November 46 BC, to subdue opposition there. His appointment of Quintus Cassius Longinus after his first campaign in Spain had led to a rebellion: Cassius's "greed and... unpleasant temperament" led to many provincials and troops declaring open defection to the Pompeian cause, in part rallied by Pompey's sons Gnaeus and Sextus. The Pompeians there were joined by other refugees from Thapsus, including Labienus.

After receiving bad news from the peninsula, he left with a single experienced legion, as many of his veterans had been discharged, and put Italy in the hands of his new magister equitum Lepidus. He led eight legions in total, which gave rise to fears that he might be defeated by Gnaeus Pompey's formidable force of more than thirteen legions and further auxiliaries. The Spanish campaign was replete with atrocities, with Caesar treating his enemies as rebels; Caesar's men adorned their fortifications with severed heads and massacred enemy soldiers.

Caesar first arrived in Spain and relieved Ulia from siege. He then marched against Corduba, garrisoned by Sextus Pompey, who requested reinforcements from his brother Gnaeus. Gnaeus at first refused battle at Labienus' advice, forcing Caesar into a winter siege of the city, which was eventually called off after little progress; Caesar then moved to besiege Ategua, shadowed by Gnaeus' army. Substantial desertions, however, started to take their toll on the Pompeian forces: Ategua surrendered on 19 February 45 BC, even after its Pompeian commander massacred suspected defectors and their families on the walls. Gnaeus Pompey's forces retreated from Ategua afterwards, with Caesar following.

Munda

Desertions forced Gnaeus Pompey to give battle on a ridge near Munda. Caesar, seeking a decisive outcome, gave battle, having his men march up the ridge to engage the Pompeians in a bitter struggle; Caesar's forces wavered, with Caesar rushing to the front lines to rally his men in person.

When Caesar's Tenth legion (on his right) broke through the Pompeian line, Labienus took a legion to plug the gap. However, the flank was already being routed by Caesarian cavalry, which drove the entire Pompeian force into a rout. The fighting was sufficiently fierce that Plutarch relates Caesar told his friends "he had often striven for victory, but now first for his life". Suetonius claims that Caesar considered suicide in despair. Caesar suffered around a thousand fatalities, "a high proportion from an army that is unlikely to have numbered much more than 25,000–30,000 men".

Labienus was killed on the field; Gnaeus Pompey escaped, but was captured and beheaded shortly thereafter. While Sextus Pompey was able to flee into hiding and there was a small revolt on the other side of the Mediterranean in Syria under Quintus Caecilius Bassus which persisted, the civil war was over.

Return
The victory prompted the Senate in Rome to declare fifty days of thanksgiving, give Caesar the title "Liberator", and dedicate a temple to Liberty. Further honours were granted in the coming months by a sycophantic Senate, including the right to sit on a special chair between the consuls in the Senate, placement of an ivory statue of Caesar on the capitol near the kings and in the temple to Quirinus. The month of his birthday, Quinctilis, was renamed in his honour (eventually becoming modern July); a temple to his clemency was established, he was given the permanent name Imperator, and the title parens patriae (father of his country).

Caesar returned to Rome via southern Gaul and Narbo Martius. During his return, he set up a number of colonies for his veterans, rewarded his soldiers and supporters, and granted Latin rights to various Gallic towns. He also met and reconciled with Mark Antony. While in Cisalpine Gaul, he also promised Marcus Junius Brutus the praetorship for 44 BC and possibly a consulship in 41.

He entered Rome about a year after he left in October 45 BC, to celebrate a triumph over fellow citizens, leaving something of a bad impression. He also permitted two of his legates, Quintus Pedius and Quintus Fabius Maximus, to hold triumphs as well. None of these celebrations were popular with critics in the Senate. Nor was Caesar's devaluing of the consulship and other offices in the name of political favours: for example, on the last day of the year, the consul died, leading Caesar to convene an election to make one of his allies, Gaius Caninius Rebilus, consul for a few hours in the afternoon, leading Cicero to write to a friend "if you could see it, you would weep".

Caesar, on his part, started planning an ambitious campaign into Dacia and Parthia upon his return.

Aftermath

Caesar's appointment during the civil war to the dictatorship, first temporarily – then permanently in early 44 BC – along with his de facto and likely indefinite semi-divine monarchical rule, led to a conspiracy which was successful in assassinating him on the Ides of March in 44 BC, three days before Caesar went east to Parthia. Among the conspirators were many Caesarian officers who had rendered excellent service during the civil wars, as well as men pardoned by Caesar.

Some scholars, such as Erich Gruen, view Caesar's civil war as the inciting event for the collapse of the republic. From this perspective, the civil war – triggered by miscalculation rather than design – caused the collapse of the republic by setting into motion a long-term disruption of functioning republican political culture. Others view the civil war as a symptom of the republic's collapse, either in terms of the republic's alienation of various interest groups (per Peter Brunt) or in terms of a prolonged political "crisis without alternative" where republican institutions were unable to effect needed reform from within while also being of such stature that no alternatives were seriously considered (per Christian Meier).

Chronology
 49 BC
 January 1: The Roman Senate receives a proposal from Julius Caesar that he and Pompey should lay down their commands simultaneously. The Senate responds that Caesar must immediately surrender his command.
 January 10: Julius Caesar leads his 13th Legion across the Rubicon, which separates his jurisdiction (Cisalpine Gaul) from that of the Senate (Italy), and thus initiates a civil war.
 February 15: Caesar begins the Siege of Corfinium against Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus who held the city against Pompey's orders.
 February 21: Corfinium is surrendered to Caesar after a bloodless week in which Ahenobarbus is undermined by his officers.
 February: Pompey's flight to Epirus (in Western Greece) with most of the Senate, despite Caesar's siege of Brundisium in March
 March 9: Caesar's advance against Pompeian forces in Hispania
 April 19: Caesar's siege of Massilia against the Pompeian Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, later the siege was conducted by Caesarian Gaius Trebonius
 June: Caesar's arrival in Hispania, where he was able to seize the Pyrenees passes defended by the Pompeian Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius.
 Late June: Siege of Curicta, Pompeians starved Caesarians force into submission.
 July 30: Caesar surrounded Afranius and Petreius's army in the Battle of Ilerda
 August 2: Pompeians in Ilerda surrendered to Caesar
 August 24: Caesar's general Gaius Scribonius Curio, is defeated in North Africa by the Pompeians under Attius Varus and King Juba I of Numidia in the Battle of the Bagradas River, and is killed in battle.
 Siege of Salona, Pompeians under Marcus Octavius failed to take pro-Caesarians town.
 September: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, a Caesarian, defeated the combined Pompeian-Massilian naval forces in the naval Battle of Massilia, while the Caesarian fleet in the Adriatic was defeated near Curicta (Krk)
 September 6: Massilia surrendered to Caesar, coming back from Hispania
 October: Caesar appointed Dictator in Rome; presides over his own election as consul and resigns after eleven days
 48 BC:
 January 4: Caesar landed at Caesar's Beach in Palasë (Palaeste)
 March: Marcus Antonius joined Caesar
 July 10: Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat by Pompey in Macedonia, he retreats to Thessaly.
 August 9: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.
 September 28: Caesar learned that Pompey was assassinated.
 Siege of Alexandria
 December: Pharnaces II, King of Bosporus, defeated the Caesarian Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus in the Battle of Nicopolis (or Nikopol)
 December: Battle in Alexandria, Egypt between the forces of Caesar supported by his ally Cleopatra VII of Egypt and those of rival King Ptolemy XIII of Egypt and Queen Arsinoe IV. During the battle part of the Library of Alexandria catches fire and is partially burned down.
 Caesar is named Dictator for one year.
 47 BC
 February: Caesar and his ally Cleopatra defeat the forces of her rivals Egyptian King Ptolemy XIII and Queen Arsinoe IV in the Battle of the Nile, Ptolemy was killed, Caesar then relieved his besieged forces in Alexandria. Caesar makes Cleopatra joint-ruler of Egypt with her younger brother Ptolemy XIV.
 May: Caesar defeated Pharnaces II in the Battle of Zela. (which Caesar tersely described as veni, vidi, vici.)
 Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt promotes her younger brother Ptolemy XIV of Egypt to co-ruler.
 August, Caesar quelled a mutiny of his veterans in Rome.
 October, Caesar's invasion of Africa, against Metellus Scipio and Labienus, Caesar's former lieutenant in Gaul
 46 BC
 January 4: Caesar narrowly escapes defeat by his former second in command Titus Labienus in the Battle of Ruspina; nearly 1/3 of Caesar's army is killed.
 February 6: Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio and Juba in the Battle of Thapsus. Cato commits suicide. Afterwards, he is accorded the office of Dictator for the next ten years.
 November: Caesar leaves for Farther Hispania to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance.
 Caesar, in his role as Pontifex Maximus, reforms the Roman calendar to create the Julian calendar. The transitional year is extended to 445 days to synchronize the new calendar and the seasonal cycle. The Julian Calendar would remain the standard in the western world for over 1600 years, until superseded by the Gregorian calendar in 1582.
 Caesar appoints his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his heir.
 45 BC
 January 1: Julian calendar goes into effect
 Battle off Carteia, Pompeian fleet of Publius Varus destroyed.
 March 17: In his last victory, Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the younger in the Battle of Munda. Pompey the younger died shortly after, and Labienus died in battle, but Sextus Pompey escaped to take command of the remnants of the Pompeian fleet.
 The veterans of Caesar's Legions Legio XIII Gemina and Legio X Equestris demobilized. The veterans of the 10th legion would be settled in Narbo, while those of the 13th would be given somewhat better lands in Italia itself.
 Caesar probably writes the Commentaries in this year
 44 BC
 Julius Caesar is named Dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity")
 Julius Caesar plans an invasion of the Parthian Empire
 Julius Caesar is assassinated on March 15, the Ides of March.

References

Bibliography

Modern sources
 Books

 Articles

Primary sources

External links
 Lewis E 83 Historia belli civilis inter Caesarem et Pompeium at OPenn

40s BC conflicts
1st century BC in the Roman Republic
Cleopatra
Caesar's

Caesar's civil war


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Verifiable computing (or verified computation or verified computing) enables a computer to offload the computation of some function, to other perhaps untrusted clients, while maintaining verifiable results. The other clients evaluate the function and return the result with a proof that the computation of the function was carried out correctly. The introduction of this notion came as a result of the increasingly common phenomenon of "outsourcing" computation to untrusted users in projects such as SETI@home and also to the growing desire of weak clients to outsource computational tasks to a more powerful computation service like in cloud computing. The concept dates back to work by Babai et al., and has been studied under various terms, including "checking computations" (Babai et al.),  "delegating computations", "certified computation", and verifiable computing. The term verifiable computing itself was formalized by Rosario Gennaro, Craig Gentry, and Bryan Parno, and echoes Micali's "certified computation".

Motivation and overview
The growing desire to outsource computational tasks from a relatively weak computational device (client) to a more powerful computation services (worker), and the problem of dishonest workers who modify their client's software to return plausible results without performing the actual work motivated the formalization of the notion of Verifiable Computation.

Verifiable computing is not only concerned with getting the result of the outsourced function on the client's input and the proof of its correctness, but also with the client being able to verify the proof with significantly less computational effort than computing the function from scratch.

Considerable attention has been devoted in verifying the computation of functions performed by untrusted workers including the use of secure coprocessors, Trusted Platform Modules (TPMs), interactive proofs, probabilistically checkable proofs, efficient arguments, and Micali's CS proofs. These verifications are either interactive which require the client to interact with the worker to verify the correctness proof, or are non-interactive protocols which can be proven in the random oracle model.

Verification by replication

The largest verified computation (SETI@home) uses verification by replication.

The SETI@home verification process involves one client machine and many worker machines.
The client machine sends identical workunits to multiple computers (at least 2).

When not enough results are returned in a reasonable amount of time—due to machines accidentally turned off, communication breakdowns, etc.—or the results do not agree—due to computation errors, cheating by submitting false data without actually doing the work, etc.—then the client machine sends more identical workunits to other worker machines.
Once a minimum quorum (often 2) of the results agree, then the client assumes those results (and other identical results for that workunit) are correct.
The client grants credit to all machines that returned the correct results.

Verifiable computation
Gennaro et al. defined the notion of verifiable computation scheme as a protocol between two polynomial time parties to collaborate on the computation of a function F: {0,1}n → {0,1}m. This scheme consists of three main phases:

 Preprocessing. This stage is performed once by the client in order to calculate some auxiliary information associated with F. Part of this information is public to be shared with the worker while the rest is private and kept with the client.
 Input preparation. In this stage, the client calculates some auxiliary information about the input of the function. Part of this information is public while the rest is private and kept with the client. The public information is sent to the worker to compute F on the input data.
 Output computation and verification. In this stage, the worker uses the public information associated with the function F and the input, which are calculated in the previous two phases, to compute an encoded output of the function F on the provided input. This result is then returned to the client to verify its correctness by computing the actual value of the output by decoding the result returned by the worker using the private information calculated in the previous phases.

The defined notion of verifiable computation scheme minimizes the interaction between the client and the worker into exactly two messages, where a single message sent from each party to the other party during the different phases of the protocol.

An example scheme based on fully homomorphic encryption
Gennaro et al. defined a verifiable computation scheme for any function F using Yao's garbled circuit combined with a fully homomorphic encryption system.

This verifiable computation scheme VC is defined as follows:

VC = (KeyGen, ProbGen, Compute, Verify) consists of four algorithms as follows:

 KeyGen(F, λ) → (PK, SK): The randomized key generation algorithm generates two keys, public and private, based on the security parameter λ. The public key encodes the target function F and is sent to the worker to compute F. On the other hand, the secret key is kept private by the client.
 ProbGen(SK, x) → (σx, τx): The problem generation algorithm encodes the function input x into two values, public and private, using the secret key SK. The public value σx is given to the worker to compute F(x) with, while the secret value τx is kept private by the client.
 Compute(PK, σx) → σy: The worker computes an encoded value σy of the function's output y = F(x) using the client's public key PK and the encoded input σx.
 VerifySK (τx, σy) → y ∪ ⊥: The verification algorithm converts the worker's encoded output σy into the actual output of the function F using both the secret key SK and the secret "decoding" τx. It outputs y = F(x) if the σy represents a valid output of F on x, or outputs ⊥ otherwise.

The protocol of the verifiable computations scheme defined by Gennaro et al. works as follows:

The function F should be represented as a Boolean circuit on which the key generation algorithm would be applied. The key generation algorithm runs Yao's garbling procedure over this Boolean circuit to compute the public and secret keys. The public key (PK) is composed of all the ciphertexts that represent the garbled circuit, and the secret key (SK) is composed of all the random wire labels. The generated secret key is then used in the problem generation algorithm. This algorithm first generates a new pair of public and secret keys for the homomorphic encryption scheme, and then uses these keys with the homomorphic scheme to encrypt the correct input wires, represented as the secret key of the garbled circuit. The produced ciphertexts represent the public encoding of the input (σx) that is given to the worker, while the secret key (τx) is kept private by the client. After that, the worker applies the computation steps of the Yao's protocol over the ciphertexts generated by the problem generation algorithm. This is done by recursively decrypting the gate ciphertexts until arriving to the final output wire values (σy). The homomorphic properties of the encryption scheme enable the worker to obtain an encryption of the correct output wire. Finally, the worker returns the ciphertexts of the output to the client who decrypts them to compute the actual output y = F(x) or ⊥.

The definition of the verifiable computation scheme states that the scheme should be both correct and secure. Scheme Correctness is achieved if the problem generation algorithm produces values that enable an honest worker to compute encoded output values that will verify successfully and correspond to the evaluation of F on those inputs. On the other hand, a verifiable computation scheme is secure if a malicious worker cannot convince the verification algorithm to accept an incorrect output for a given function F and input x.

Practical verifiable computing
Although it was shown that verifiable computing is possible in theory (using fully homomorphic encryption or via probabilistically checkable proofs), most of the known constructions are very expensive in practice. Recently, some researchers have looked at making verifiable computation practical. One such effort is the work of UT Austin researchers. The authors start with an argument system based on probabilistically checkable proofs and reduce its costs by a factor of 1020. They also implemented their techniques in the Pepper system. The authors note that "Our conclusion so far is that, as a tool for building secure systems, PCPs and argument systems are not a lost cause."

The overall area, which now includes a number of implementations by different groups, has been surveyed.

In the 2010s, verifiable computing techniques have seen an increase of practical applications in blockchain technology.

References

Secure communication
Distributed computing

Verifiable computing


The Demak Sultanate (کسلطانن دمق) was a Javanese Muslim state located on Java's north coast in Indonesia, at the site of the present-day city of Demak. A port fief to the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit kingdom thought to have been founded in the last quarter of the 15th century, it was influenced by Islam brought by Muslim traders from China, Gujarat, Arabia and also Islamic kingdoms in the region, such as Samudra Pasai, Malacca and Bani (Muslim) Champa. The sultanate was the first Muslim state in Java, and once dominated most of the northern coast of Java and southern Sumatra.

Although it lasted only a little more than a century, the sultanate played an important role in the establishment of Islam in Indonesia, especially on Java and neighboring areas.

Etymology
The origin of Demak was the settlement named Glagah Wangi. According to tradition, the first person that Raden Patah encountered in Glagah Wangi was a woman named Nyai Lembah, from Rawa Pening. Nyai Lembah invited Raden Patah to settle in Glagah Wangi, which later was renamed as Demak Bintara.

There are several suggestions on the origin of the name Demak. According to
Indonesian historian Poerbatjaraka, it derived from the Javanese term delemak, which means "watery soil" or "swamp". According to Hamka, it derived from the Arabic term dimak, which means "tears", to imply the hardship endured during the struggle to establish Islam in Java. According to another historian, Sutjipto Wiryosuparto, it derived from a term in the Kawi language that means "heirloom" or "gift".

History

Formation
During the reign of Wikramawardhana of Majapahit, during the period from 1405 to 1433, a series of Ming armadas naval expeditions led by Zheng He, a Muslim Chinese admiral, arrived in Java. This Chinese expedition supported the establishment of the Muslim state of Malacca in the first half of the 15th century, later assisted by the establishment of Muslim Chinese, Arab and Malay communities in northern ports of Java such as Semarang, Demak, Tuban, and Ampel; thus Islam began to gain a foothold on the northern coast of Java.

Demak's origins are uncertain although it was apparently founded in the last quarter of the 15th century by a Muslim known as Raden Patah (from the Arabic name Fatah, also called "Pate Rodin" in Portuguese records, and "Jin Bun" in Chinese records). There is evidence that he had Chinese ancestry and perhaps was named Cek Ko-po.

According to tradition, Sunan Ampel ordered Raden Patah to establish an Islamic learning center in the Glagah Wangi village in coastal Central Java. Soon the village grew to become the center for dawah activities among distinguished Islamic proselytizers, traditionally known as Wali Songo or "the nine saints". At that time Glagah Wangi was a small fiefdom belonging to Majapahit. It was the only Majapahit fiefdom with a Muslim ruler. Then the name was changed to Demak, and it grew further by the establishment of a madrasa Islamic school and pesantren boarding school.

Raden Patah
The foundation of Demak is traditionally attributed to Raden Patah (r. 1475–1518), a Javanese noble related to Majapahit royalty. At least one account stated that he was the son of Kertabhumi, who reigned as king Brawijaya V of Majapahit (1468–1478).

According to tradition, Raden Patah was the son of Majapahit King Kertabhumi with his concubine, a Chinese princess who resided in the Majapahit palace. She was supposedly given away when unknowingly pregnant with the king's child to be betrothed to the regent of the vassal state of Palembang. There Raden Patah was born in 1448 with the name Raden Hasan. After coming of age, he went to Ampel Denta in Java (now Surabaya) to learn from Sunan Ampel, a prominent ulama. Sunan Ampel betrothed him to his daughter, Nyai Ageng Malaka. Subsequently, in the 1470s, Sunan Ampel sent him to establish a new settlement in Glagah Wangi, Central Java. Through Sunan Ampel's recommendation, Raden Hasan was appointed as the regent of Glagah Wangi by King Kertabhumi of Majapahit, with the title Adipati Bintara.

Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478, traditionally described in the sinengkalan or chandrasengkala (chronogram) Sirna ilang kertaning bhumi and corresponding to 1400 Saka,) to 1517. In 1478 the Sudarma Wisuta war took place, when Ranawijaya's army under general Udara (who later became vice-regent) breached Trowulan defences and killed Kertabumi in his palace. Demak sent reinforcements under Sunan Ngudung, who later died in battle and was replaced by Sunan Kudus, but they came too late to save Kertabumi, although they managed to repel the Ranawijaya army. This event is mentioned in Trailokyapuri (Jiwu) and the Petak inscription, where Ranawijaya claimed that he already defeated Kertabhumi and reunited Majapahit as one kingdom. Ranawijaya ruled from 1474 to 1498 with the formal name Girindrawardhana, with Udara as his vice-regent. This event led to war between Demak and Daha, since Demak rulers were descendants of Kertabhumi.

In response to the collapse of Kertabhumi of Trowulan and the rise of Girindrawardhana of Daha in 1478, Demak decided it was no longer obliged to sent tribute to the Majapahit central court and declared its independence. At that time Demak was temporarily led by Sunan Giri (Prabu Satmoto). Three years later the Islamic kingdom of Demak was established under the chronogram Geni mati siniram janmi, which corresponds to 1403 Saka or 1481 CE. Raden Hasan was crowned by members of Wali Songo under the new regnal name of Sultan Syah Alam Akbar Al-Fattah; thus in Javanese he was popularly known as Raden Patah.

A Chinese chronicle in a temple in Semarang states that Raden Patah founded the town of Demak in a marshy area to the north of Semarang. After the collapse of Majapahit, its various dependencies and vassals broke free, including northern Javanese port towns like Demak.

As the sign of his new reign, Raden Patah built a new Grand Mosque as the center of Islamic teaching. He appointed members of Wali Songo as advisors within his new government: Sunan Kudus as qadi (great judge of religious law), Sunan Giri as mufti, and Sunan Kalijaga as imam and advisor.

Demak managed to gain hegemony over other trading ports on the northern coast of Java such as Semarang, Jepara, Tuban, and Gresik. The supremacy of Raden Patah was expressed by Tomé Pires in Suma Oriental: "[S]hould de Albuquerque make peace with the Lord of Demak, all of Java will almost be forced to make peace with him... The Lord of Demak stood for all of Java".
Apart from Javanese city-states, Raden Patah also gained overlordship of the ports of Jambi and Palembang in eastern Sumatra, which produced commodities such as lign-aloes and gold. As most of its power was based on trade and control of coastal cities, Demak can be considered a thalassocracy.

Growth

Raden Patah's son, or possibly his brother, led Demak's brief domination in Java. He was known as Trenggana, and later Javanese traditions say he gave himself the title Sultan. It appears that Trenggana had two reigns—c. 1505–;1518 and c. 1521–1546—between which his brother in law, Yunus of Jepara, occupied the throne.

Between 1513 and 1518 Demak waged war against Patih Udara of Daha, the successor state of Majapahit located in today's Kediri. The main Demak army led by Raden Patah and Sunan Kudus marched overland through Madiun, while the Demak fleet led by Pati Unus took the sea route through Sedayu. Demak managed to consolidate its power by defeating Daha in 1518, because it was more accepted as the legitimate successor of Majapahit, since Raden Patah claimed direct descent from King Kertabhumi, who had died during the Girindrawardana invasion of Trowulan in 1478. Raden Patah died soon after this victory, also in 1518.

Pati Unus

Raden Patah was succeeded by his brother-in-law Pati Unus or Adipati Yunus (r. 1518–1521), referred to by Tomé Pires in Suma Oriental as "Pate Onus" or "Pate Unus", brother in-law of "Pate Rodim". Before ascending the throne of Demak, he ruled Jepara, a vassal state to the north of Demak. Pati Unus ruled under the regnal name Sultan Syah Alam Akbar II.

In two expeditions, with approximately 100 ships in 1513 and with 375 in 1521, Pati Unus led fleets from the Javanese coastal cities to seize the port of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula from the control of the Portuguese. The Javanese ports turned against the Portuguese for a number of reasons, the main one being opposition to Portuguese insistence on a monopoly of the spice trade. The Portuguese repelled both attacks, and the destruction of so many ships proved devastating to the Javanese ports, whose trading activity subsequently greatly declined.

Pati Unus was killed in the 1521 expedition, and was later remembered as Pangeran Sabrang Lor or "the Prince who crossed to the North" (the Java Sea to the Malay peninsula).

Sultan Trenggana

Pati Unus died childless, leading to the Demak succession crisis. The throne was contested between his brothers, the older Raden Kikin and the younger Raden Trenggana. According to tradition, the eldest son of Prince Trenggana, Prince Prawata, also known as Raden Mukmin, stole Keris Setan Kober, a powerful magical kris, from Sunan Kudus and used it to assassinate his uncle Raden Kikin by the river; Raden Kikin has since then also been known as Sekar Seda Lepen (flower that fell by the river). Raden Trenggana (r. 1522–1546) was then crowned by Sunan Gunungjati (one of the Wali Songo) and became the third and greatest ruler of Demak.

During Trenggana's reign a young man named Fatahillah came to his court to offer his service to the sultan. He had just returned from Mecca after several years studying Islam there, and had learned that his hometown in Pasai had been captured by the infidel Portuguese. He became a renowned general of Demak. Tradition has it that Trenggana was much impressed by Fatahillah's imposing figure and charisma and his knowledge of Islam, and gave him his daughter, the widow of Pati Unus, as his wife.

After learning of the 1522 Portuguese-Sunda alliance, in 1527 the Sultan ordered Fatahillah to capture the ports of Banten and Sunda Kelapa from the Kingdom of Sunda. Sunda Kelapa was later renamed Jayakarta. From these territories he created the Sultanate of Banten as a vassal state under Hasanudin, son of Gunungjati, whom he also gave his sister's hand in marriage, creating a new dynasty.

He appointed his daughter Ratna Kencana (popularly known as Ratu Kalinyamat) and her husband Sultan Hadlirin to rule Kalinyamat and Jepara. He also appointed Jaka Tingkir as Adipati (Duke) of Pajang and gave another daughter's hand in marriage to Jaka Tingkir.

Trenggana oversaw the spread of Demak's influence to the east and west. He conquered the Hindu-based resistance in Central Java and during his second campaign, conquered the last Javanese Hindu-Buddhist state, the largely defunct remnants of Majapahit; Tuban, an old Majapahit port mentioned in Chinese sources from the 11th century, was conquered in about 1527. During his reign Demak was able to subdue other major ports and its reach extended into some inland areas of East Java that are not thought to have been Islamized at the time.

His campaign ended when he sought to conquer the Hindu principality of Pasuruan in East Java and was killed in 1546. According to tradition, he was assassinated by a ten-year-old Adipati of Surabaya, who stabbed with a kris while serving him betel nut.

Decline

Sunan Mukmin
The death of the strong and able Trenggana in 1546 triggered a blood feud and civil war between Prince Arya Penangsang, Adipati of the vassal state of , who was the son of the assassinated Sekar Seda Lepen (Raden Kikin), and Trenggana's son Prince Mukmin or Sunan Prawata, who had committed the murder. According to the Babad Demak chronicle, several influential figures of Wali Songo supported different candidates for the succession. Sunan Giri supported Prince Mukmin, while Sunan Kudus supported Arya Penangsang, since he belonged to the line of the eldest male son of the Demak dynasty. On the other hand, Sunan Kalijaga proposed Hadiwijaya, popularly known as Joko Tingkir, who was the adipati of Pajang and also a son in-law of Trenggana.

Mukmin (r. 1546–1549) ascended the throne as the fourth Sultan of Demak. However, with the help of his teacher Sunan Kudus, Arya Penangsang of Jipang sent an assassin to kill Prawata and his wife using the same kris that Mukmin had used to kill his father.

Arya Penangsang
Arya Penangsang (r. 1549–1568) ascended to the throne of Demak in 1549 after assassinating his cousin Sunan Prawata. Arya Penangsang was a valiant but vicious man who never hesitated to use brutal force to achieve his goals. Feeling threatened, Prawata's son Arya Pengiri sought refuge in his aunt's realm in Kalinyamat, Jepara.

Prawata's younger sister Ratu Kalinyamat sought justice from Penangsang's teacher Sunan Kudus, but he declined her request, deeming Penangsang's revenge justified since Prawata had assassinated Penangsang's father, Raden Kikin (Sekar Seda ing Lepen). On their way home from Kudus to Kalinyamat, Ratu Kalinyamat and her husband, Sultan Hadlirin, were attacked by Penangsang's men. Hadlirin was killed and Ratu Kalinyamat barely survived. She urged her brother in-law, Hadiwijaya (popularly known as Jaka Tingkir), Adipati of Pajang (now Boyolali), to avenge her husband's death by killing Arya Penangsang.

Arya Penangsang soon faced heavy opposition from his vassals for his harshness, and was dethroned by a coalition of vassals led by Hadiwijaya. In 1568, Hadiwijaya sent his adopted son and also his son in-law Sutawijaya, who would later become the first ruler of the Mataram dynasty, to kill Penangsang.

In 1568, after Penangsang was killed, Hadiwijaya assumed the role of sovereign. However, instead of ruling from Demak, he moved all of Demak's regalia, heirlooms, and sacred artifacts to Pajang. He appointed Prawata's son Sunan Pangiri as adipati of Demak. The relationship between the two states was now reversed: Pajang became the suzerain kingdom, while Demak became its vassal. Thus the Demak Sultanate ended with the foundation of the short-lived Kingdom of Pajang.

Family tree
The following is a version of the royal house of Demak. It must be noted that the relations between various members of this house are assumed mostly from Javanese traditions, oral or written in babads or other forms of writings not conforming to modern historiography.

Economy

Demak derived its income from trade, importing spices and exporting rice to Malacca and the Maluku Islands. It was a busy port located at the end of a then navigable channel separating Java and Muria Island. The channel subsequently filled, joining Muria to Java; from the 15th to the 18th century until the 18th century, it was a major waterway for ships traveling along the northern Javanese coast to the Spice Islands and, via the Serang River, to the rice-producing interior of Java. This strategic location enabled Demak to become a leading trading center in Java.According to Tomé Pires, Demak had more inhabitants than any other port in Sunda or Java, and was the primary exporter of rice to Malacca. Demak's prominence grew with that of Malacca, and was also enhanced by Raden Patah's claim of direct descent from Majapahit royalty and his marriage ties with neighboring city-states.

Religion
Before the emergence of Demak, the northern coast of Java was the seat of many Muslim communities, both foreign merchants and local Javanese. The Islamization process gained momentum from the decline of the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire. Following the fall of the Majapahit capital to a usurper from Kediri, Raden Patah declared Demak's independence from Majapahit overlordship, and almost all northern Javanese ports later followed suit. However, the Demak royal family regarded themselves as descendants of Majapahit. Demak symbols continued to use the Surya Majapahit, an eight-pointed sun, while modifying it to remove Hindu associations. This modified symbol can be seen as decoration inside the Grand Mosque of Demak.As the first Islamic polity in Java, Demak has a venerated status among Indonesian Muslims. It is traditionally linked with the legendary Wali Songo, the nine Muslim ulama who proselytized Islam among the then strongly Hindu-Buddhist population of Java. As an early Islamic polity, the Demak Great Mosque was built in Demak and still stands today, it is widely believed to be the oldest still-existing mosque in Indonesia. The surrounding maqam (tombs) of Wali saints and Demak sultans here continue to draw ziyarat pilgrimage among Muslims in the region.

Legends
Later Javanese Babads provide varying accounts of the origins and expansion of Demak, but all describe it as the direct successor of Majapahit, not mentioning the possibility that by the time of its final conquest, Majapahit no longer ruled the area. The first "Sultan" of Demak, Raden Patah, is portrayed as the son of Majapahit's last king by a Chinese princess who was exiled from the court before Patah's birth; according to tradition, she first served as a concubine to Kertabhumi (Brawijaya V) in Trowulan, and when already pregnant with the king's son, was sent as a gift to marry the regent of Palembang.

Although these legends explain little about the actual events, they suggest that the dynastic continuity survived the Islamization of Java, or alternatively that the rulers of Demak reinforced their rule on Java by claiming descent from the Majapahit dynasty as a source of political legitimation. Demak was more likely a coastal settlement established as a result of Zheng He's Chinese expedition in the first half of the 15th century, ruled by non-Javanese foreigners, Chinese Muslims, possibly also attracting Arabs and Malay Muslim traders, which grew in power and supplanted the old kingdom.

See also

 The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)
 List of monarchs of Java

References

External links
 History of Demak

History of Central Java
Demak
Islamic states in Indonesia
Precolonial states of Indonesia
History of Islam in Indonesia
15th century in Indonesia
16th century in Indonesia
Former countries
Demak Sultanate

Demak Sultanate


Usher is a 2004 film written and directed by Roger Leatherwood. It is loosely adapted from the 1839 short story "The Fall of the House of Usher" by Edgar Allan Poe. It tells the story of a young hitman who falls on hard times and gets a job in a movie theatre. The theatre seems to have a personality of its own and the hitman, named Ash, finds himself losing his personality as he falls into a day-to-day work routine.

The feature film premiered at the 2004 Telluride Indie Film Festival (now defunct) and won Best Feature. Additionally, Thomas Alexander won the award for "Best Actor in a Feature" from Wicked Pixel's 2004 "Cinema Edge" awards and was reviewed by Film Threat magazine (online) and Shock Cinema.

Since November 2009 the film has been being posted in short non-sequential segments, one a week, by ArtOverLife Studios.

Roger Leatherwood directed the short animated film Lieing Man in 2008.

References

External links
 official site

Films based on The Fall of the House of Usher
2004 films
2000s English-language films

Usher (film)


The Images is a 0.53 ha group of rocky islets and reefs, part of the Actaeon Island Group, lying close to the south-eastern coast of Tasmania, Australia at the southern entrance to the D'Entrecasteaux Channel between Bruny Island and the mainland.

It is a conservation area.

Flora and fauna
Much of the group is bare of soil or vegetation, but the central section is dominated by dense and stunted blackwoods, matted extensively with blackberries.  Recorded breeding seabird and wader species are the Pacific gull and sooty oystercatcher.  The metallic skink is present.

References

Islands of South East Tasmania

The Images (Tasmania)


Horror punk (sometimes referred to as horror rock) is a dark style of music mixing gothic and punk rock sounds with morbid imagery. Often, song topics are taken from horror films, horror punk bands create an atmosphere by telling tales through their songs. It is closely related to an often overlaps with the death rock movement; while death rock tends to lean more towards the goth sound, horror punk leans towards a doo-wop sound.

The Misfits are recognized as the first band of the horror punk subgenre. Misfits first horror punk recording sessions can be traced back to 1977. In 1982, the Misfits released their first full-length album, Walk Among Us. Influenced by the Misfits, another early punk band TSOL released a horror punk album called Dance with Me in the early 1980s.

The genre, with the exception of artists like Jack Grisham (on the left) and Michale Graves (on the right), is generally  apolitical.

Horror hardcore is a term coined by Dwid Hellion that refers to a hybrid of horror punk and hardcore punk. The Misfits' third album, Earth A.D., and the early work of Glenn Danzig's subsequent band Samhain inaugurated the style. Septic Death and Integrity also performed this subgenre.

Horror metal is a term which originated in the 1980s to describe Ripper's first album. Since then, a number of bands playing several different styles of metal have fallen under this banner, including Necrophagia and the Vision Bleak.

Notable horror punk bands
AFI
Balzac
Calabrese
Dr. Chud's X-Ward
The Independents
The Misfits
Murderdolls
Nightmare Sonata
The Creepshow
The Other
Rosemary's Billygoat
Samhain
Schoolyard Heroes
Serpenteens
Wednesday 13

References

Punk rock

Horror punk


Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) was an important French surgeon of the 16th century. He caused a major change in how medicine was practiced. Unlike surgeons before him, he cared about his patients. He worked to promote healing and minimize a patient's pain. His said "I dressed him, God cured him." Paré was a royal surgeon to several French kings including Henry II. He considered by many to be the father of modern surgery.

Career
Paré was born about 1510 in France. His father was a country artisan. As a youth he was an apprentice to a barber. Then he trained as a barber-surgeon in Paris. This was at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris hospital.

There were three levels of those who practiced medicine. Physicians were at the top and were the only ones who could be members of the Faculty of Medicine. Master surgeons were the next group. Paré belonged to the lowest group, the barber-surgeons. At the time wars were being fought all around him. Battlefield medicine was brutal and dirty. Firearms were a new weapon on the battlefield and were causing new and different wounds. Shrapnel, shot and bullets were a new problem for surgeons. They also believed gunpowder was poisonous. To stop the bleeding, they poured boiling oil over the wound. This burned an already suffering soldier.

In 1536, Paré was a young war surgeon just getting started on the battlefield. He ran out of oil to seal soldiers' wounds after amputations. He made up a mix of egg yolks, oil of roses and turpentine. He applied this to several soldier's wounds. The next morning he was surprised to see those soldiers with the mix he made up were much better than the soldiers who had been scalded. He used ligatures to tie off arteries during amputations to stop bleeding.

Royal surgeon
In 1552, Paré became the official royal surgeon. He was surgeon to four French kings: Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III.

Paré wrote his first book, Methods of Treating Wounds, in 1545. He wrote it in French because he did not speak Latin. In 1575 he published his collected works. He was severely criticized by the Faculty of Physicians. This was the top school of physicians in France. Paré was called an ignorant fraud by Etienne Gourmelen, the dean of the Faculty. He stated no books on medicine could be published except through the Faculty of Physicians. Paré had the support of the king so his books sold without the Faculty. He wrote three more books. Paré wrote his own story titled The Apology and Treatise of Ambroise Paré.

References

Other websites

 Pages from Pare's 1575 book at the James Lind Library

1510 births
1590 deaths
People from Mayenne
French surgeons

Ambroise Paré