A home network or home area network (HAN)  is a type of computer network that facilitates communication among devices within the close vicinity of a home. Devices capable of participating in this network, for example, smart devices such as network printers and handheld mobile computers, often gain enhanced emergent capabilities through their ability to interact. These additional capabilities can be used to increase the quality of life inside the home in a variety of ways, such as automation of repetitive tasks, increased personal productivity, enhanced home security, and easier access to entertainment.

Origin
IPv4 address exhaustion has forced most Internet service providers to grant only a single WAN-facing IP address for each residential account. Multiple devices within a residence or small office are provisioned with internet access by establishing a local area network (LAN) for the local devices with IP addresses reservied for private networks.  A network router is configured with the provider's IP address on the WAN interface, which is shared among all devices in the LAN by network address translation.

Infrastructure devices

Certain devices on a home network are primarily concerned with enabling or supporting the communications of the kinds of end devices home-dwellers more directly interact with. Unlike their data center counterparts, these "networking" devices are compact and passively cooled,  aiming to be as hands-off and non-obtrusive as possible:
 A gateway establishes physical and data link layer connectivity to a WAN over a service provider's native telecommunications infrastructure. Such devices typically contain a cable, DSL, or optical modem bound to a network interface controller for Ethernet. Routers are often incorporated into these devices for additional convenience.
 A router establishes network layer connectivity between a WAN and the home network. It also performs the key function of network address translation that allows independently addressed devices within the same home network to establish transport layer connections across the WAN from a single, outward-facing WAN IP address. These devices often come with an integrated wireless access point and 4-port Ethernet switch.
 A network switch is used to allow devices on the home network to talk to one another via Ethernet. While the needs of most home networks are satisfied with the built-in wireless and/or switching capabilities of their router, some situations require the addition of a separate switch with advanced capabilities. For example:
 A typical home router has 4 to 6 Ethernet LAN ports, so a router's switching capacity could be exceeded.
 A network device might require a non-standard port feature such as power over Ethernet (PoE). (IP cameras and IP phones)
 A wireless access point is required for connecting wireless devices to a network. When a router includes this device, it is referred to as a wireless router.
 A home automation or smart home controller acts as a gateway and router for low-power wireless networks of simple, non-data-intensive devices such as light bulbs and locks.
 A network bridge binds two different network interfaces to each other, often in order to grant a wired-only device access to a wireless network medium.

Physical connectivity and protocols

Home networks can use either wired or wireless technologies to connect endpoints. Wireless is the predominant option in homes due to the ease of installation, lack of unsightly cables, and network performance characteristics sufficient for residential activities.

Wireless

Wireless LAN

One of the most common ways of creating a home network is by using wireless radio signal technology; the 802.11 network as certified by the IEEE. Most wireless-capable residential devices operate at a frequency of 2.4 GHz under 802.11b and 802.11g or 5 GHz under 802.11a. Some home networking devices operate in both radio-band signals and fall within the 802.11n or 802.11ac standards. Wi-Fi is a marketing and compliance certification for IEEE 802.11 technologies. The Wi-Fi Alliance has tested compliant products, and certifies them for interoperability.

Wireless PAN

Low power, close range communication based on IEEE 802.15 standards has a strong presence in homes. Bluetooth continues to be the technology of choice for most wireless accessories such as keyboards, mice, headsets, and game controllers. These connections are often established in a transient, ad-hoc manner and are not thought of as permanent residents of a home network.

Low-rate wireless PAN

A "low-rate" version of the original WPAN protocol was used as the basis of Zigbee. Despite originally being conceived as a standard for low power machine-to-machine communication in industrial environments, the technology has been found to be well suited for integration into embedded "Smart Home" offerings that are expected to run on battery for extended periods of time. Zigbee utilizes mesh networking to overcome the distance limitations associated with traditional WPAN in order to establish a single network of addressable devices spread across the entire building. Z-Wave is an additional standard also built on 802.15.4, that was developed specifically with the needs of home automation device makers in mind.

Twisted pair cables

Most wired network infrastructures found in homes utilize Category 5 or Category 6 twisted pair cabling with RJ45 compatible terminations. This medium provides physical connectivity between the Ethernet interfaces present on a large number of residential IP-aware devices. Depending on the grade of cable and quality of installation, speeds of up to 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, 1 Gbit/s, or 10Gbit/s are supported.

Fiber optics

Some neighborhoods support running fiber optic cables running directly into homes. This enables service providers to offer internet services with much higher bandwidth and/or lower latency characteristics associated with end-to-end optical signaling.

Telephone wires
 VDSL and VDSL2
 HomePNA support up to 160 Mbit/s

Coaxial cables
The following standards allow devices to communicate over coaxial cables, which are frequently installed to support multiple television sets throughout homes.
 DOCSIS
 The Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) standard can achieve up to 270 Mbit/s
 CWave
 HomePNA support up to 320 Mbit/s

Power lines

The ITU-T G.hn and IEEE Powerline standard, which provide high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area networking over existing home wiring, are examples of home networking technology designed specifically for IPTV delivery. Recently, the IEEE passed proposal P1901 which grounded a standard within the Market for wireline products produced and sold by companies that are part of the HomePlug Alliance.  The IEEE is continuously working to push for P1901 to be completely recognized worldwide as the sole standard for all future products that are produced for Home Networking.
 HomePlug and HomePNA are associated standards
 Universal Powerline Association

Endpoint devices and services
Traditionally, data-centric equipment such as computers and media players have been the primary tenants of a home network. However, due to the lowering cost of computing and the ubiquity of smartphone usage, many traditionally non-networked home equipment categories now include new variants capable of control or remote monitoring through an app on a smartphone. Newer startups and established home equipment manufacturers alike have begun to offer these products as part of a "Smart" or "Intelligent" or "Connected Home" portfolio. The control and/or monitoring interfaces for these products can be accessed through proprietary smartphone applications specific to that product line.

General purpose
 Personal computers such as desktops, laptops, netbooks, and tablets
 A network attached storage (NAS) device can be easily accessed via the CIFS or NFS protocols for general storage or for backup purposes.
 A print server can be used to share any directly connected printers with other computers on the network.
 IP phones or smartphones (when connected via Wi-Fi) utilizing VoIP technologies

Entertainment
 Smart speakers
 Television: Some new TVs and DVRs include integrated WiFi connectivity which allows the user to access services such as Netflix and YouTube.
 Home audio: Digital audio players, and stereo systems with network connectivity can allow a user to easily access their music library, often using Bonjour to discover and interface with an instance of iTunes running on a remote PC.
 Gaming: Video game consoles rely on connectivity to the home network to enable a significant portion of their overall features, such as the multiplayer in games, social network integration, ability to purchase or demo new games, and receive software updates. Recent consoles have begun more aggressively pursuing the role of the sole entertainment and media hub of the home.
 DLNA is a common protocol used for interoperability between networked media-centric devices in the home.

Some older entertainment devices may not feature the appropriate network interfaces required for home network connectivity. In some situations, USB dongles and PCI Network Interface Cards are available as accessories that enable this functionality.

Lighting

 "Connected" light bulbs such as Lifx, Philips Hue, Samsung Smart Bulb, GE Link
 Zigbee Light Link is the open standards protocol used by current major "Connected" light bulb vendors

Home security and access control
 Access control: Plume
Security alarms: iSmartAlarm
 Garage door and gate openers: Liftmaster MyQ, GoGogate

Environmental monitoring and conditioning
 HVAC: Nest Learning Thermostat
 Smoke/CO detectors: Nest Protect

Cloud services

The convenience, availability, and reliability of externally managed cloud computing resources continues to become an appealing choice for many home-dwellers without interest or experience in IT. For these individuals, the subscription fees and/or privacy risks associated with such services are often perceived as lower cost than having to configure and maintain similar facilities within a home network. In such situations, local services along with the devices maintaining them are replaced by those in an external data center and made accessible to the home-dweller's computing devices via a WAN connection.

Network management

Network Layer Configuration
DHCP is used to assign internal IP addresses to members of a home network. A DHCP server typically runs on the router with end devices as its clients. The router itself is a client of the external DHCP servers owned by the internet service provider. All DHCP clients request configuration settings using the DHCP protocol in order to acquire their IP address, a default route and one or more DNS server addresses. Once the client implements these settings, it will be able to communicate on that internet.

Embedded devices
Small standalone embedded home network devices typically require remote configuration from a PC on the same network. For example, broadband modems are often configured through a web browser running on a PC in the same network. These devices usually use a minimal Linux distribution with a lightweight HTTP server running in the background to allow the user to conveniently modify system variables from a GUI rendered in their browser. These pages use HTML forms extensively and make attempts to offer styled, visually appealing views that are also descriptive and easy to use.

Apple ecosystem devices

Apple devices aim to make networking as hidden and automatic as possible, utilizing a zero-configuration networking protocol called Bonjour embedded within their otherwise proprietary line of software and hardware products.

Microsoft ecosystem devices
Microsoft offers simple access control features built into their Windows operating system. Homegroup is a feature that allows shared disk access, shared printer access and shared scanner access among all computers and users (typically family members) in a home, in a similar fashion as in a small office workgroup, e.g., by means of distributed peer-to-peer networking (without a central server). Additionally, a home server may be added for increased functionality. The Windows HomeGroup feature was introduced with Microsoft Windows 7 in order to simplify file sharing in residences. All users (typically all family members), except guest accounts, may access any shared library on any computer that is connected to the home group. Passwords are not required from the family members during logon. Instead, secure file sharing is possible by means of a temporary password that is used when adding a computer to the HomeGroup.

Common issues and concerns

Wireless signal loss
The wireless signal strength of the standard residential wireless router may not be powerful enough to cover the entire house or may not be able to get through to all floors of multiple floor residences. In such situations, the installation of one or more wireless repeaters may be necessary.

"Leaky" Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi often extends beyond the boundaries of a home and can create coverage where it is least wanted, offering a channel through which non-residents could compromise a system and retrieve personal data. To prevent this it is usually sufficient to enforce the use of authentication, encryption, or VPN that requires a password for network connectivity.

However new Wi-Fi standards working at 60 GHz, such as 802.11ad, enable confidence that the LAN will not trespass physical barriers, as at such frequencies a simple wall would attenuate the signal considerably.

Electrical grid noise
For home networks relying on powerline communication technology, how to deal with electrical noise injected into the system from standard household appliances remains the largest challenge. Whenever any appliance is turned on or turned off it creates noise that could possibly disrupt data transfer through the wiring. IEEE products that are certified to be HomePlug 1.0 compliant have been engineered to no longer interfere with, or receive interference from other devices plugged into the same home's electrical grid.

Administration
The administration of proliferating devices and software in home networks, and the growing amount of private data, is fast becoming an issue by itself. Keeping overview, applying without delay software updates and security patches, keeping juniors internet use within safe boundaries, structuring of storage and access levels for private files and other data, data backups, detection and cleaning of any infections, operating virtual private networks for easy access to resources in the home network when away, etc.. Such things are all issues that require attention and planned careful work in order to provide a secure, resilient, and stable home network easy to use for all members of the household and their guests.

See also
Access control
Computer security software
Data backup
Encryption
Firewall (computing)
Home automation
Home server
Indoor positioning system (IPS)
Matter
Network security
Smart, connected products
Software update
Virtual assistant

References

External links
WikiBooks:Transferring Data between Standard Dial-Up Modems
Home Net WG of the IETF

Computer networking
Wi-Fi
Network

Home network


John Morris Duncan  (born December 19, 1948) is a Canadian politician.  He served as a Member of the Parliament of Canada from 1993 to January 2006 and again from October 2008 until August 2015. On August 6, 2010, he was appointed to the Canadian Cabinet as Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians, and Minister responsible for the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency until his resignation on February 15, 2013 over his inappropriate written communication to the Tax Court of Canada.  He later returned to Cabinet as Chief Government Whip, and served in that capacity until the 2015 election, which saw both Duncan's own defeat and the defeat of the government.

Education
Born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and raised in British Columbia, Duncan attended the University of British Columbia and graduated with a B.Sc. F from their Faculty of Forestry in 1972. Duncan's first experience as an elected official was as an alderman in Ucluelet, British Columbia from 1982 to 1983.

Entrance to politics
In the 1993 election, Duncan was elected as a member of the Reform Party. He has served in all that party's incarnations up until the 2006 federal election, when he lost his seat to Catherine J. Bell of the New Democratic Party by 630 votes.

Duncan was the Conservative Party's Official Opposition Critic for Natural Resources.  During that time he served on the Natural Resources Committee.  He helped shape Conservative Party policy on west coast offshore oil and gas, softwood lumber trade and the pine beetle epidemic.

While in parliament, he was a member of the "Restaurant Caucus" in the House of Commons, a group of MPs who have interests in the restaurant industry.

Duncan's Private Member's Bill C - 259 passed the 38th Parliament to receive Royal Assent to eliminate the excise tax on jewelry.  Duncan made parliamentary history as the first MP to have a Private Member's bill related to cutting taxation pass.

He won the Vancouver Island North Conservative Party nomination for the 2008 federal election and was elected with 45.78% of the vote.

On December 2, 2008, the New Democratic Party asked the RCMP to investigate John Duncan's alleged secret recording of a private NDP conference. He had apparently received the invitation to participate by mistake, in place of NDP MP Linda Duncan who had "a similar email address". This happened within the context of the 2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute.

On August 6, 2010, in a minor cabinet shuffle, he joined cabinet as Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development.

Under the Harper government, several key bills with a direct effect on aboriginal communities have stalled. As a result, First Nations across Canada have embarked on a widespread and prolonged series of demonstrations under the banner of "Idle No More". In addition, Attawapiskat chief Theresa Spence began a fast in December 2012 to demand a meeting with Harper and a Crown representative.
In response, Duncan wrote to Spence requesting she give up her hunger strike and meet with him. "I didn't ask for Minister Duncan," Spence replied. "And I have dealt with him before. When I observe him, he doesn't have a mind of his own because, before he would answer a question, he would always look at his people. He's not the Prime Minister."

On February 15, 2013, he resigned from his cabinet position as Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development after improperly advocating to a tax court on behalf of a constituent in June 2011, and was replaced by James Moore. He returned to cabinet in the more junior role as Minister of State and Chief Government Whip in July 2013.

In the 2015 Canadian federal election, Duncan sought reelection in the newly created riding of Courtenay—Alberni, but was defeated by Gord Johns of the NDP.

Electoral record

References

External links
Official site

1948 births
Living people
Members of the 28th Canadian Ministry
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
Reform Party of Canada MPs
Canadian Alliance MPs
Conservative Party of Canada MPs
People from Courtenay, British Columbia
Politicians from Winnipeg
University of British Columbia alumni
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada

John Duncan (Canadian politician)


Wreck diving is recreational diving where the wreckage of ships, aircraft and other artificial structures are explored. The term is used mainly by recreational and technical divers. Professional divers, when diving on a shipwreck, generally refer to the specific task, such as salvage work, accident investigation or archaeological survey. Although most wreck dive sites are at shipwrecks, there is an increasing trend to scuttle retired ships to create artificial reef sites. Diving to crashed aircraft can also be considered wreck diving. The recreation of wreck diving makes no distinction as to how the vessel ended up on the bottom.

Some wreck diving involves penetration of the wreckage, making a direct ascent to the surface impossible for a part of the dive.

Reasons for diving wrecks
A shipwreck may be attractive to divers for several reasons:
 it serves as an artificial reef, which creates a habitat for many types of marine life
 it often is a large structure with many interesting parts and machinery, which is not normally accessible to casual observers on working, floating vessels
 it often has an interesting history
 it presents new skill challenges for scuba divers to manage the risks associated with wreck penetration.
 it is part of the underwater cultural heritage and may be an important archaeological resource
 it provides a first-hand insight into context for the loss, such as causal connections, geographical associations, trade patterns and many other areas, providing a microcosm of our maritime heritage and maritime history
 it may contain artifacts of historical, artistic and/or monetary value, which can be recovered for profit (treasure hunting) or collection purposes (ranging from rare collector's items to souvenirs, memorabilia or other "trophies", such as crew members' or passengers' personal belongings, nautical instruments, brass portholes or silverware, cutlery, intact china or other tableware).

Types of wreck diving

In The Advanced Wreck Diving Handbook, Gary Gentile sub-divides wreck diving into three categories:
 Non-penetration diving (i.e. swimming outside the wreck)
 Limited penetration diving, within the "light zone", the parts of the interior of the wreck from which light entering the wreck from an exit can be seen. There may be parts of the interior illuminated by exterior light penetrating though holes too small to exit through, and these are not generally considered part of the light zone, as they cannot be used as an escape route. Limited penetration limits penetration to where the diver can see the way out.
 Full penetration diving, beyond the "light zone"

Each subsequent level involves additional hazards and greater risk, and therefore will normally require additional learning and experience to develop the required competence, and may also require additional equipment and the competence to use it effectively.

Non-penetration wreck diving is the least hazardous form of wreck diving, although divers still need to be aware of the entanglement risks presented by fishing nets and fishing lines which may be snagged to the wreck (wrecks are often popular fishing sites), and the underlying terrain may present greater risk of sharp edges.

Penetration within the light zone presents greater hazards due to overhead and greater proximity of the wreck's structure, but because of the proximity of a visible exit point, and some amount of external light, those hazards are more manageable.  However, there is clearly a much greater risk of entanglement and silt out inside of the structure, as well as the requirement to move laterally to a defined exit point before one can surface in the event of an emergency.

Full penetration involves the greatest level of risks, including the risk of getting lost within the structure, the risk of complete darkness in the event of multiple light failures, and the inability to escape unassisted in the event of a complete disruption to breathing gas supply.

These categorisations broadly coincide with the traditional division between "recreational" wreck diving (taught as a specialty course by recreational diver training agencies and normally limited to the "light zone" and/or 100-130 cumulative feet of depth plus penetration) and "technical" wreck diving (taught as a stand-alone course by technical diver training agencies).

Procedures and safety
Wrecks may present a variety of site-specific hazards to divers.  Wrecks are often fouled by fishing lines or nets and the structure may be fragile and break without notice.  Penetration diving, where the diver enters a shipwreck is an activity exposing the diver to hazards of getting lost, entrapment and consequently running out of breathing gas. Management of these risks requires special skills and equipment.  Many attractive or well preserved wrecks are in deeper water requiring deep diving precautions.  Training agencies recommend that at least one cutting device be carried in case the diver is entangled with fishing lines, nets or ropes and to have a spare light source in case the primary light fails.  If penetrating a wreck, a guideline tied off before entering a wreck  and run out inside the wreck is required by training agencies. A guideline can help a diver to find the way out more easily in case of low visibility, and has often been necessary for survival.  For penetration diving, a reserve of breathing gas sufficient to allow the diver to exit the wreck and make a safe ascent in the event of any reasonably foreseeable single failure of equipment is required by training agencies' protocols and scientific codes of practice. Many wreck divers use a minimum of the rule-of-thirds for gas management. This allows for 1/3 of the gas down and into the wreck, 1/3 for exit and ascent and 1/3 reserve. In dives where decompression stops are required this may not be sufficient. In addition, because of the potential fragility of the wreck, the likelihood of disturbing sediments or disturbing the many marine animals that take advantage of the artificial habitat offered by the wreck, extra care is required when moving and finning. Many divers are taught to use alternative finning methods such as frog kick or modified flutter kick which direct the thrust of the fins away from the bottom where most of the silt is likely to deposit. Good buoyancy control is necessary for safe and non-destructive diving in the environment of a wreck.

Connecting to the wreck
There are several methods for getting the divers to the wreck. The preferred method will depend on local conditions. In low visibility hooking onto the wreck is a reliable way of ensuring the divers will find it, but this procedure requires a wreck that is structurally suitable for snagging with a grapnel or anchor. A shotline which can be dropped off the wreckage is less likely to damage the wreck or become snagged and difficult to retrieve, but this requires appropriate visibility for the divers to be sure of finding the wreckage. When it is important to get back to the shotline for ascent, it may be tied to the wreckage by the first divers on site using a guide-line, which is retrieved by the last divers to leave. When there is a strong current, it may be necessary to drop in from up-current, a technique sometimes known as "parachuting in" or "free drop". The wreck may be first marked with a shotline, if this is considered useful or necessary.  Divers may surface on the shotline, anchorline or personal decompression buoy depending on the conditions.

When using the anchor line to control ascents and descents, a "tag line" may be used between the anchor line and the stern of the vessel, to allow secure transfer between these points in a current. When  there are alternative methods for descent, including free drop and descent on the shotline.

Penetration navigation
In technical penetration diving, there are broadly two approaches.

Use of guidelines

The conventional approach involves the use of continuous guidelines laid from a wreck reel, tied just outside the entrance point, just inside the entrance point, and at intervals inside (to mitigate the risk of a cut line, or a "line trap").  In deeper penetrations, two reels are used, so that in the event of a total loss of visibility where the diver loses contact with the primary line or the primary line gets cut, the secondary line can be anchored and then used as a reference point to sweep for the primary line. Procedures and techniques for navigation inside the wreck using a guide line are very much the same as in cave penetration.

Progressive penetration
An alternative approach, popularised to a limited extent by deep wreck divers in the American Northeast, is referred to as "progressive penetration".  Progressive penetration eschews the use of guidelines, but the diver makes several successive penetrations, each deeper than the last, memorising the layout for both the inward and outward journeys. The method is vulnerable to complete loss of visibility in a silt-out, and any disorientation in an unfamiliar area or due to nitrogen narcosis. It relies on accurate recall where an error can be fatal, and where a more reliable option is easily and affordably available. As a navigational technique, progressive penetration is generally considered unsafe. As a surveying technique it tends to be inaccurate unless measurements are also recorded. It is not taught by any of the mainstream recreational diver training agencies.

Divers engaging in penetration diving are conventionally taught to carry three lights - a primary light and two backup lights - thereby virtually eliminating the risk of completely losing light inside the wreck.  Nonetheless, total loss of visibility due to a silt-out remains a risk.

Deep wreck diving

Wrecks in shallower waters tend to deteriorate faster than wrecks in deeper water due to higher biological activity.  Accordingly, many of the older and larger shipwrecks that tend to offer full penetration dives tend to be deeper dives.  This can present additional complications; if a wreck dive is intended to be a decompression dive, then the diver will normally carry decompression gases in side-mounted cylinders.  However, it is difficult to penetrate many wrecks with both back-mounted and side-mounted cylinders, requiring divers to either use a different configuration, or leave their decompression gases outside the wreck prior to penetration.  This creates the possibility of a diver being unable to relocate their decompression gases if they exit the wreck at a different point from which they enter it.

Training
Because of the increasing popularity and higher risk of wreck diving, many diver training organizations such as Scuba Diving International and the Professional Association of Diving Instructors provide specialist wreck diver training courses, which divers are advised to take before wreck diving. Such courses  typically teach skills such as air management and the proper use of guidelines and reels.  Most recreational diving organizations teach divers only to penetrate to at most the limit of the "light zone" or a maximum aggregate surface distance (depth and penetration) of 100 feet.  Other technical diving organizations, such as IANTD, TDI and ANDI teach advanced wreck courses that emphasize a higher level of training, experience and equipment and prepare divers for deeper levels of wreck penetration. The Nautical Archaeology Society in the UK, teaches awareness of underwater cultural heritage issues as well as practical diver and archaeological skills. In this context some research projects are investigating the potentialities offered by digital technologies to adopt virtual replicas of the underwater wrecksite for training purposes. Other organizations, such as the Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC) deliberately create artificial reefs to provide features for divers to explore, as well as substrates for marine life to thrive upon.

Special equipment

As long as there is no penetration of the wreck, no special wreck diving equipment is required, and equipment is based on the situation outside the wreck. For example, if the wreck is at a depth that is classified as technical deep diving, then the basic equipment requirement will be based on that.

In the limited penetration diving zone, at least one diving reel and one primary light are recommended in addition to the basic equipment for the outside environment. Additional breathing gas for the rule of thirds in an overhead environment increases the required cylinder size.

For full penetration diving, additional equipment is necessary for safety. This is similar to equipment used in cave diving, but more cut-resistant line may be used. Most of this equipment is to reduce the risk of getting lost or trapped inside the wreckage. The most important components are lights and guide lines. Lights include a primary light, a secondary light and a positioning light. Line may be carried on, and deployed from, a primary reel, a safety reel, and a jump/gap reel. A redundant emergency gas supply is necessary. Depending on the dive plan, double cylinders are standard, even when stage cylinders are also carried. A cave diving helmet is useful protection for the head, and gloves protect against sharp metal edges. Equipment should be stowed compactly, to reduce the risk of snagging on wreckage and being damaged or trapping the diver. Rubber bands and metal or plastic clips are used to secure loose or dangling equipment.

Impact of recreational scuba diving on wrecks
The impact of recreational scuba diving on recreational dive values and the cultural heritage of shipwrecks has been found to comprise four basic types:
The removal of artifacts and associated disturbance to wreck sites,
Direct contact with wrecks and the benthic biota living on them by divers and their equipment,
Exhaled air bubbles trapped inside the wreckage,
Impact damage by anchors of dive boats, considered by some researchers to be the most damaging form of impact associated with recreational wreck diving.

Protection of wrecks
In many countries, wrecks are legally protected from unauthorized salvage or desecration.

In the United Kingdom, three Acts protect wrecks:
 Protection of Wrecks Act 1973: certain designated, charted, historic or dangerous sites may not be dived without a license
 Protection of Military Remains Act 1986: all military aircraft and 16 designated ships are considered war graves that can only be dived with a license. Other non-designated ships may be dived providing the divers do not enter, disturb or remove artifacts
 Merchant Shipping Act 1995: all wrecks and cargoes are owned: each artifact removed must be reported to the Receiver of Wreck
Wrecks that are protected are denoted as such on nautical charts (such as admiralty charts); any diving restrictions should be adhered to. Historic wrecks (often but not always defined as being more than 50 years of age) are often protected from pillaging and looting through national laws protecting cultural heritage. Internationally they may be protected by a State ratifying the Unesco Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. In this case pillaging is not allowed. One such example is the Queen Anne's Revenge which is undergoing archaeological recovery by the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources (NC DNCR) near Beaufort Inlet, NC.

In 2003 the Greek Ministry of Culture, issued a Ministerial Order classifying "any wreck of ship or aeroplane, sunk for longer than 50 years from the present" as Cultural Assets / Monuments, with a protection zone of 300 meters around them. Terms and conditions for visiting any monument in Greece are set by the Ministry of Culture.

In South African waters, the wrecks of ships or aircraft, and any associated cargo, debris or artifact more than 60 years old and are protected by the National Heritage Resources Act number 25 of 1999 (NHRA). The law of salvage and finds does not apply to historical shipwrecks, which are considered by the NHRA to be archaeological material, and as such are the property of the state, administered by SAHRA in trust for the nation, and may not be disturbed in any way except under the terms of a permit issued by the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA). There are severe penalties for contravening the Act, including heavy fines and jail terms. All members of the South African Police Services, and Customs and Excise officers may act as Heritage Inspectors in terms of the Act, with powers of search, confiscation and arrest. Historical wrecks may be visited provided that the sites are not disturbed or interfered with and no artifacts are removed or damaged.

Wreck diving sites

There are thousands of popular wreck diving sites throughout the world.  Some of these are artificial wrecks or sunk deliberately to attract divers (such as  and  in Florida,  in Grenada, and the wrecks of Recife in Pernambuco/Brazil which include artificial and disaster wrecks). Diver trails, also called wreck trails,  can be used to allow scuba-divers to visit and understand archaeological sites that are suitable for scuba-diving. One excellent example is the Florida Public Archaeology Network's (FPAN) "Florida Panhandle Shipwreck Trail."

Along the Outer Banks, navigational challenges posed by the Diamond Shoals area off Cape Hatteras, caused the loss of thousands of ships and an unknown number of human lives. More than 5000 ships have sunk in these waters since record keeping began in 1526. Among the better known shipwrecks was , a participant in the Battle of Hampton Roads during the American Civil War. Monitor foundered on 31 December 1862 off Cape Hatteras. During World War II German U-boats would lie offshore and silhouette passing freighters and tankers against the lights onshore. Dozens of ships along the North Carolina coast were torpedoed in this fashion by German submarines in what became known as Torpedo Alley. Popular wrecks include the , USS Monitor,  (), , , ,  and .

Others are wrecks of vessels lost in disasters (such as  in the British Virgin Islands,  in Cyprus and the many shipwrecks off the Isles of Scilly in England). In the Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand, the wreck of , a  cruise liner which was lost in 1986, is a popular dive site. Lying at  underwater, this wreck is an excellent base for recreational and technical divers.

More unusual are wrecks of structures, such as the wreck of the old cruise ship pier in Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, destroyed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989.  As part of the recovery and replacement of the Frederiksted Pier, the old pier was to be removed and sunk far out at sea in  deep waters.  Much of the old pier was used to create an artificial reef. Several barges carried the wreckage  down the beach, and dumped the wreckage of steel girders, vehicles, concrete tubes, pylons, and pavement into  deep waters to create a dive site now known as Armageddon.

A number of wreck diving sites are ships lost to wartime hostilities, such as  in the Red Sea, the wrecks of Subic Bay and Coron in the Philippines,  in Vanuatu and the "ghost fleet" of Truk Lagoon. In the Andaman Islands, the Inket Wreck, where a Japanese ship sank during World War II is a dive site near Duncan Island.

Some regions are particularly noted for the number and quality of wreck dive sites, such as Truk Lagoon in Micronesia, Scapa Flow in Orkney Islands, Scotland,  the Outer Banks of North Carolina, known as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic", and  the Great Lakes.

For technical divers there are a few wrecks that have attracted widespread popularity. For years SS Andrea Doria was regarded as the pinnacle of challenges to the wreck diver, but, since the popularisation of trimix as a breathing gas, technical divers now dive deeper and more challenging wrecks, and Andrea Doria is now considered by some to be a good training wreck for trimix divers.

In popular culture
Wreck diving is featured in the Uncharted video game series.

History

Connections with marine salvage and underwater archaeology

See also

References

External links

WRECKSITE Worldwide free database of + 65.000 wrecks with history, maritime charts and GPS positions
NOAA Wrecks and Obstructions Database
Sea Research Society
Dangers of Wreck Diving
Wreck Diving in the Graveyard of the Atlantic

Recreational diving
Shipwrecks
Underwater archaeology

ja:洞窟潜水

Wreck diving


The Rutland Railroad Pumping Station is a historic water pumping facility at 43 Lake Street in the town of Alburgh, Vermont.  Built in 1903, it is a rare example in Vermont of an early railroad-related water pumping facility.  In use until the 1940s, it provided water needed for steam engines at rail facilities elsewhere in Alburgh.  It is now owned by the town, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.

Description and history
The former Rutland Railroad Pumping Station stands on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain, at the western end of Lake Street.  It is a modest rectangular brick building, with a gabled roof and stone foundation.  The north-facing front is three bays wide, with a doorway in the left bay and rectangular window openings to the right.  All of the building openings have been boarded over.  The window openings are set in what were once round openings for pipes, as evidenced by infill brickwork.  The interior of the building is single open space with a poured concrete floor.  Equipment, most dating to the mid-20th century, is located at the southern end.  It includes a gasoline motor, electric motor, and water pump.

The Rutland Railroad, in a bid to expand service north of Burlington, capitalized on the financial difficulties of the competing Central Vermont Railroad to acquire rights to the railway crossing between Alburgh and Ogdensburg, New York in 1897.  It then built a major railyard in Alburgh, a presence that is largely no longer evident.  This pumping station was constructed about 1903 to provided water from the lake to the railyards, for use in the railroad's steam-powered locomotives.  It also served as a water supply for parts of the town.  During the first half of the 20th century, steam engines were supplanted by more efficient diesel and electric power, and the pumping station was functionally abandoned.  The town acquired the building from the railroad in 1954; its modern water supply plant stands nearby.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Grand Isle County, Vermont

References

National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Grand Isle County, Vermont
Buildings and structures completed in 1903
Buildings and structures in Alburgh, Vermont

Rutland Railroad Pumping Station


Cherríe Moraga (born September 25, 1952) is a Chicana feminist, writer, activist, poet, essayist, and playwright. She is part of the faculty at the University of California, Santa Barbara in the Department of English. Moraga is also a founding member of the social justice activist group La Red Chicana Indígena, which is an organization of Chicanas fighting for education, culture rights, and Indigenous Rights.

Early life
Moraga was born on September 25, 1952, in Los Angeles County, California. In her 1979 article "La Guera", she wrote of her experiences growing up as a child of a white man and a Mexican woman, stating that "it is frightening to acknowledge that I have internalized a racism and classism, where the object of oppression not only someone outside of my skin, but the someone inside my skin." Moraga has cited her mother as her main inspiration to become a writer, stating that she was an eminent storyteller.

Moraga attended Immaculate Heart College in Los Angeles, gaining a graduated bachelor's degree in English in 1974. Soon after attending, she enrolled in a writing class at the Women's Building and produced her first lesbian poems. In 1977, she moved to San Francisco, where she supported herself as a waitress, became politically active as a burgeoning feminist, and discovered the feminism of women of color. She earned her master's degree in Feminist Writings from San Francisco State University in 1980.

Writing and themes
Moraga has been credited as one of the few writers to write and introduce the theory of Chicana lesbianism. Themes in her writing include the intersections of gender, sexuality, and race, particularly in cultural production by women of color. Moraga's work was featured in tatiana de la tierra's Latina lesbian magazine Esto no tiene nombre, which sought to inform and empower Latina lesbians through the work of writers like Moraga.

Sexuality
Moraga is openly gay, having come out as a lesbian after her college years. In "La Guera", Moraga compared the discrimination she experienced as a lesbian to her mother's experiences being a poor, uneducated Mexican woman, stating that "My lesbianism is the avenue through which I have learned the most about silence and oppression, and it continues to be the most tactile reminder to me that we are not free human beings". After coming out, Moraga began writing more heavily and became involved with the feminist movement. In Loving in the War Years, Moraga cites Capitalist Patriarchy: A Case for Socialist Feminism as an inspiration when realizing her intersecting identity as a Chicana lesbian, saying: "The appearance of these sisters' words in print, as lesbians of color, suddenly made it viable for me to put my Chicana and lesbian self in the center of my movement."

Career

Literature and writing
Moraga co-edited the anthology This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color with Gloria Anzaldúa, and the first edition was published in 1981 by Persephone Press.

In 1983, Barbara Smith, Audre Lorde and Moraga started Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, which has been credited as the first publisher dedicated to the writing of women of color in the United States. Kitchen Table published the second edition of This Bridge Called My Back. In 1986, the book won the Before Columbus Foundation American Book Award for that year. Along with Ana Castillo and Norma Alarcón, Moraga adapted this anthology into the Spanish-language Este puente, mi espalda: Voces de mujeres tercermundistas en los Estados Unidos.<ref>Short, Kayann. "Coming to the Table: The Differential Politics of 'This Bridge Called my Back, Genders 19 (1994): pp. 4–8.</ref> Later that same year Moraga's first sole-authored book, Loving in the War Years: lo que nunca pasó por sus labios, was published.

In 2007, Moraga was named  a 2007 USA Rockefeller Fellow and granted $50,000 by United States Artists. She won a Creative Work Fund Award in 2008, and the Gerbode-Hewlett Foundation Grant for Playwriting in 2009.

Moraga has reflected on her experiences with feminist writing and activism in an oral history conducted by the Voices of Feminism Oral History Project.

 "Still Loving in the (Still) War Years"
In 2009, Moraga published the essay "Still Loving in the (Still) War Years: On Keeping Queer Queer", which critiqued the mainstreaming of LGBT politics through an emphasis on same-sex marriage. In the essay she also discussed transgender people in queer communities and critiqued the increasing inclusion of trans issues in LGBT politics. She argues that young people are being pressured into transitioning by the larger queer culture, expressing fear that "the transgender movement at large, and plain ole peer pressure, will preempt young people from residing in that queer, gender-ambivalent site for as long and as deeply as is necessary." Some community members such as Morgan Collado and Francisco Galarte responded by emphasizing how this invalidated and dismissed the lived experience of young people who decide to transition.Galarte, Francisco J. 2014. "TRANSGENDER CHICAN@ POETICS: Contesting, Interrogating, and Transforming Chicana/o Studies." Chicana/Latina Studies 13 (2): 118–39. In this essay Moraga goes further to lament what she sees as the loss of butch and lesbian culture to those who choose to transition, stating that she "[does] not want to keep losing [her] macha daughters to manhood through any cultural mandates that are not of our own making." In response to this, Galarte argued that "Moraga's text forces transgender folks to bear the burden of proving loyalty to a nation as well as being the figure that is the exemplar of race, sex, and gender abjection and liberation".  She was also criticized for her refusal to address transgender women in the essay.
https://openjournals.neu.edu/nuwriting/home/article/download/58/44/

 Theater
From 1994 to 2002, Moraga published a couple of volumes of plays through West End Press of Albuquerque, NM. She has taught courses in dramatic arts and writing at various universities across the United States and is currently an artist in residence at Stanford University. She has written and produced numerous theater productions. She is currently involved in a theatre communications group and was the recipient of the NEA Theatre Playwriting Fellowship Award. In 2009 she received a Gerbode-Hewlett foundation grant for play writing.Watsonville: Some Place Not HereMoraga's 1996 play, Watsonville: Some Place Not Here, was commissioned by the Brava Theatre Center with support from the Rockefeller Foundation and had its world premiere at the Brava Theater May 25, 1996. It won the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts and was winner of the Fund for New American Plays Award from the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.

 Select bibliography

 Books This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (co-editor with Gloria Anzaldúa). 1st edition, Watertown: Persephone Press, 1981. 2nd edition, New York: Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, 1983. 3rd edition, Berkeley: Third Woman Press, 2002. 4th edition, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2015. Fortieth Anniversary edition, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2015.Loving in the War Years - Lo que nunca pasó por sus labios. 1st edition, Boston: South End Press, 1983. 2nd edition, Boston: South End Press, 2000.Cuentos: Stories By Latinas (co-editor with Alma Gómez and Mariana Romo-Carmona). New York: Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press,1983.
 Esta puente, mi espalda: Voces de mujeres tercermundistas en los Estados Unidos (co-editor with Ana Castillo). San Francisco: ISM Press, 1988.The Last Generation: Prose and Poetry. Boston: South End Press, 1993.The Sexuality of Latinas (co-editor with Norma Alarcón and Ana Castillo). Berkeley: Third Woman Press, 1993.Heroes and Saints and Other Plays. Albuquerque: West End Press, 1994. Waiting in the Wings: Portrait of a Queer Motherhood. 1st edition, Ithaca: Firebrand Books, 1997. 25 Anniversary edition, Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2022.The Hungry Woman: A Mexican Medea & The Heart of the Earth: A Popol Vuh Story. Albuquerque: West End Press, 2001.Watsonville: Some Place Not Here & Circle in the Dirt: El Pueblo de East Palo Alto. Albuquerque: West End Press, 2002.
 A Xicana Codex of Changing Consciousness: Writings, 2000-2010. Durham: Duke University Press, 2011. Native Country of the Heart: A Memoir. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Girox, 2019.Loving in the War Years and Other Writings, 1978-1999. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2023.

 Theater

 Giving up the Ghost (1986)
 Shadow of a Man (1990)
 Coatlicue's Call/ El llamado de Coatlicue (1990)
 Heroes and Saints (1992)Shadow of a Man (1992)
 Heart of the Earth: A Popol Vuh Story (1994)
 A Circle in the Dirt (1995)
 Watsonville: Some Place Not Here  (1996)
 The Hungry Woman (1995)
 Circle in the Dirt (2002)
 Digging Up the Dirt (2010)
 New Fire: To Put Things Right Again (2012).
 The Mathematics of Love (2016)

 Other works

 "Art in América Con Acento" (1994). Anthologized in Women Writing Resistance: essays on Latin America and the Caribbean (2003). Cambridge, Massachusetts: South End Press.

Selected critical works on Cherríe Moraga
 Alarcón, Norma. "The Theoretical Subject(s) of This Bridge Called My Back and Anglo-American Feminism." Criticism in the Borderlands: Studies in Chicano Literature, Culture and Ideology. Eds. Héctor Calderón and José David Saldívar. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1991. 28–39.
 Allatson, Paul. "'I May Create a Monster': Cherríe Moraga's Hybrid Denial." Antípodas: Journal of Hispanic and Galician Studies 11-12 (1999/2000): 103-121.
 Allatson, Paul. "Cherríe Moraga." The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American Literature. Ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005. Vol. 3: 1520–23.
 Arrizón, Alicia. "Cherríe Moraga." 50 Key Figures in Queer US Theatre. Eds. Jimmy A. Noriega and Jordan Schildcrout. London and New York: Routledge, 2022. 170-174.
 Gilmore, Leigh. Autobiographics: A Feminist Theory of Women's Self-Representation. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994.
 Ikas, Karin Rosa. Chicana Ways: Conversations with Ten Chicana Writers. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2002.
 Negrón-Muntaner, Frances. "Cherríe Moraga." Latin American Writers on Gay and Lesbian Themes: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook. Ed. David William Foster. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. 254–62.
 Vivancos Perez, Ricardo F.  Radical Chicana Poetics. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
 Yarbro-Bejarano, Yvonne. "Cherríe Moraga." Dictionary of Literary Biography. Vol. 82: Chicano Writers First Series. Eds. Francisco A. Lomelí and Carl R. Shirley. Detroit: Gale/Bruccoli Clark Layman, 1989. 165–77.
 Yarbro-Bejarano, Yvonne. "De-constructing the Lesbian Body: Cherríe Moraga's Loving in the War Years." The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader. Ed. Henry Abelove, Michèle Ana Barale and David M. Halperin. New York: Routledge, 1993. 595–603.
 Yarbro-Bejarano, Yvonne. The Wounded Heart: Writing on Cherríe Moraga. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001.

 Awards
 Brudner Prize. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Studies at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 2013.
 United States Artist Rockefeller Fellowship for Literature, 2007.
 National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies Scholars Award, 2001.
 David R. Kessler Award. CLAGS: The Center for LGBTQ Studies (In honor of contributions to the field of Queer Studies), 2000.
 The First Annual Cara Award. UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center/ Cesar Chavez Center for Interdisciplinary Instruction in Chicana/Chicano Studies, 1999.
 The Fund for New American Plays Award, a project of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, 1995 and 1991.
 Lifetime Achievement Award, Ellas in Acción, San Francisco, 1995.
 Lesbian Rights Award, Southern California Women for Understanding ("for Outstanding Contributions in Lesbian Literature and for Service to the Lesbian Community"), 1991.
 The National Endowment for the Arts Theater Playwrights' Fellowship, 1993.
 The PEN West Literary Award for Drama, 1993.
 The Critics' Circle Award for Best Original Script, 1992 (Heroes and Saints'').
 The Will Glickman Playwriting Award, 1992.
 The Drama-logue Award for Playwriting, 1992.
 The Outlook Foundation, Literary Award, 1991.
 The California Arts Council Artists in Community Residency Award, 1991-2 /1993-5.
 The American Book Award, Before Columbus Foundation, 1986.
 The Creative Arts Public Service  (CAPS) Grant for Poetry, New York State, 1983.
 The Mac Dowell Colony Fellowship for Poetry, New Hampshire, 1982.

See also

 Chicana feminism
 Feminist epistemology
 Lesbian feminism
 Lesbian Poetry
 Radical feminism
 Third-world feminism
 List of Mexican American writers
 List of women writers
 American Literature in Spanish

References
  Pignataro, Margarita Elena del Carmen (Arizona State University PhD thesis). "Religious hybridity and female power in "Heart of the Earth: A Popol Vuh Story" and other theatrical works by Cherrie Moraga." () (Dissertation/Thesis). 01/2009, . UMI Number: 3353695. - This work has an abstract in English and is written in the Spanish language.

Notes

External links

 Official site
 Cast Out: Queer Lives in Theater (University of Michigan Press, edited by Robin Bernstein) includes Moraga's essay "And Frida Looks Back: The Art of Latina/o Queer Heroics".
 Esta puente, mi espalda: Voces de mujeres tercermundistas en los Estados Unidos (co-editor, 1988). San Francisco: ism press.  (paperback);  (hardcover)

1952 births
21st-century American LGBT people
21st-century American women writers
American academics of Mexican descent
American anthologists
American Book Award winners
American feminist writers
American lesbian writers
American LGBT dramatists and playwrights
American women dramatists and playwrights
American writers of Mexican descent
Chicana feminists
Hispanic and Latino American dramatists and playwrights
Lambda Literary Award winners
Lesbian academics
Lesbian feminists
LGBT Hispanic and Latino American people
LGBT people from California
Living people
Women anthologists
Women book publishers (people)
Writers from Whittier, California

Cherríe Moraga


Leon Schlumpf (3 February 1925 – 7 July 2012) was a Swiss politician and a former member of the Swiss Federal Council (1979–1987).

Schlumpf was born in Felsberg.  He was elected to the Federal Council on 5 December 1979 as a member of the Swiss People's Party (SVP) from the Canton of Graubünden (Grisons). He subsequently handed over office on 31 December 1987.

During his time in office, he held the Federal Department of Transport, Communications and Energy and was President of the Confederation in 1984.

Schlumpf died on 7 July 2012 in Chur, aged 87.  He was the father of Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, member of the cantonal government of Graubünden (Grisons), who was herself elected to the Federal Council on 12 December 2007.

References

External links

1925 births
2012 deaths
People from Imboden District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Swiss People's Party politicians
Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
People from Chur

Leon Schlumpf


Binary acids or Hydracids are certain molecular compounds in which hydrogen is combined with a second nonmetallic element.

Examples:
HF
H2S
HCl
HBr
HI
HAt

Their strengths depend on the solvation of the initial acid, the H-X bond energy, the electron affinity energy of X, and the solvation energy of X.  Observed trends in acidity correlate with bond energies, the weaker the H-X bond, the stronger the acid.  For example, there is a weak bond between hydrogen and iodine in hydroiodic acid, making it a very strong acid.

Binary acids are one of two classes of acids, the second being the oxyacids, which consist of a hydrogen, oxygen, and some other element.

The names of binary acids begin with hydro- followed by the name of the other element modified to end with -ic.

Some texts contrast two types of acids.  1. binary acids  or hydracids and 2. oxyacids that contain oxygen.

See also
 Acid
 Oxyacid

References
Hill; Petrucci; McCreary; Perry. General Chemistry, Fourth Edition. New Jersey, Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005

Acids

Binary acid


The Dr. John R. Drish House, also known simply as the Drish House, is a historic plantation house in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States.  It is considered by state preservationists to be one of the most distinctive mixes of the Greek Revival and Italianate styles in Alabama.  First recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1934, it was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on July 31, 1975, and subsequently to the state's "Places in Peril" listing in 2006.  It was listed as Jemison School-Drish House on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015.

Construction
The large stuccoed brick mansion was built at the center of a  plantation on the edge of town for Dr. John R. Drish in 1837.  Drish, a native of Virginia, was among the earliest settlers of Tuscaloosa, settling there in 1822. A widower himself, he married a wealthy widow, Sarah Owen McKinney, in 1835.  By that time he had a successful physician's practice and worked as a building contractor, with many skilled slave artisans. These slaves executed much of the early plasterwork in Tuscaloosa.

Built for Drish by his slave artisans, the first early incarnation of the house is usually credited to the influence of state architect William Nichols.  The exterior of the house, as completed in 1837, featured full width, monumental Doric porticoes to the front and rear, with two-story pilasters dividing each bay on all four sides.

The house was extensively remodeled in the Italianate-style prior to the American Civil War, with a three-story brick tower being added, the front columns changed to the Ionic order, brackets being added to the eaves and overhangs, and two-story cast iron side porches to each side.  John Drish died in 1867, reportedly from a fall down a stairway, and Sarah Drish died in 1884.

Subsequent history
The mansion changed hands several times after the death of Sarah Drish; while it was still a residence the surrounding property was sold and subdivided to create Tuscaloosa's first major expansion.  The structure eventually came to be owned by the Tuscaloosa Board of Education, who opened the Jemison School in the house in 1906.  The house continued to be used as a school until 1925, after which it was purchased for use as a parts warehouse for Charles Turner's Tuscaloosa Wrecking Company.  It was during its use as a parts warehouse that Walker Evans took his famous photograph of it in 1935 or 1936, displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

In 1940, it was purchased by the Southside Baptist Church, which added a sanctuary abutting the house on one side and a detached Sunday school building on the other.  The church retained it for the rest of the 20th century.  It was eventually threatened by proposed demolition in 1994, but was leased to the Heritage Commission of Tuscaloosa County instead by former church members when the church became defunct in 1995.  The house was in a state of disrepair by 2006, when it was added to the "Places in Peril" listing by the Alabama Historical Commission and Alabama Trust For Historic Preservation.  It was deeded to the Tuscaloosa County Preservation Society in July 2007; the group has made efforts to stabilize the structure and hopes to raise enough funding for its eventual restoration.  They had the church additions demolished in 2009. In 2012 the Drish House was purchased by Nika McCool of Past Horizons LLC. Renovations continued on the exterior and interior of the house through May 2016, when it opened as an event venue.

Folklore
The house has been the site of purported hauntings since the early 20th century.  It was featured in Kathryn Tucker Windham and Margaret Gillis Figh's book 13 Alabama Ghosts and Jeffrey, in the short story "Death Lights in the Tower."  Alleged supernatural events over the years have included people reportedly seeing the third-story tower on fire, when no fire is present, and ghostly lights coming out of the house.

See also
Reportedly haunted locations in Alabama
National Register of Historic Places listings in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama

References

External links

Greek Revival houses in Alabama
Italianate architecture in Alabama
Plantation houses in Alabama
Houses in Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Reportedly haunted locations in Alabama
Houses completed in 1862
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Alabama
Historic American Buildings Survey in Alabama
1862 establishments in Alabama
National Register of Historic Places in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama

Dr. John R. Drish House


Hans Maria Kneihs (born 1943) is a leading performer and teacher of the recorder. He was born in Vienna and studied at the Music Academy, later to become the Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst. Originally, he studied the violoncello and played with the ORF Symphony Orchestra. He also edited the Eulenberg mini-score of the CPE Bach Violoncello Concerto. During this time, he became interested in historically informed performance and turned increasingly to playing the recorder. In 1964, he was appointed as Professor of Recorder at the Vienna Hochschule, a post which he has held since. In addition, he has lectured all over the world and held a number of other positions, such as President of the Linz Musikhochschule. His extensive solo recordings include several of the concertos of Vivaldi and Telemann and a significant amount of Baroque chamber repertoire. He is also a noted performer of contemporary repertoire, and has recorded a number of the major twentieth century works for the instrument.

In 1972, Kneihs and five of his former students formed the Wiener Blockflöten Ensemble. This group, playing for the most part on instruments by the maker Bob Marvin, recorded a number of LPs and CDs. For thirteen years, they performed internationally, including most major European cities, Japan, the USA and Canada.

Kneihs has also been active as an academic and editor. He has lectured and published extensively on interpretation and performance practice and, in addition to the CPE Bach score, has produced editions of Hotteterre and Telemann. As a tutor, he has taught internationally, including a number of appearances on Japanese television. Camerata, who are his main record label for CD recordings, are based in Japan.

References

1943 births
Living people
University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna alumni
Austrian male musicians
Recorder players

Hans Maria Kneihs


Charles Brewer (born 1958) is an American entrepreneur.

Charles Brewer is the founder of MindSpring Enterprises, an American Internet service provider, Green Street Properties, a real estate development company, and Las Catalinas, a resort town in Costa Rica. He serves on the board of directors of the Midtown (Atlanta) Alliance, the Atlanta Commerce Club, and he serves on the board of councilors of the Carter Center. He and his wife Ginny reside in Atlanta with their family.

Born and raised in Louisville, Kentucky, he graduated from high school at Kentucky Country Day School and later graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Amherst College with a degree in economics, and received his MBA from the Stanford University Graduate School of Business. After a frustrating experience trying to set up an Internet account, Charles decided to start his own ISP. He founded MindSpring Enterprises in 1994. From the beginning, Charles crafted a set of Core Values and Beliefs which outlined how employees in the company would treat each other and their customers. MindSpring grew to be one of the largest national ISPs, and eventually merged with EarthLink on February 4, 2000. Frustrated with the direction taken by the company after the merger, Charles soon left the company and sold his stock holdings.

On June 14, 2001, Charles announced the formation of Green Street Properties. Green Street's focus is on developing residential communities in the New Urbanist style, and its first project in Glenwood Park opened on June 18, 2005.  In August 2006 Charles and partners purchased the Las Catalinas property in Guanacaste, Costa Rica and began plans for the development of a compact, walkable beach town there. Charles withdrew from Green Street Properties at the beginning of 2008 in order to focus on Las Catalinas. Construction began at Las Catalinas in late 2009.

Charles Brewer said in a panel discussion that he is interested in running a company again in Atlanta specifically on March 19, 2015. He was speaking with Michael Tavani, the co-founder of Atlanta coupon app, Scoutmob, during a live version of Tavani's leadership series of podcast's called On Doers. The event was hosted at General Assembly Atlanta in Ponce City Market.

References

1959 births
Living people
American real estate businesspeople
Amherst College alumni
Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni
American computer businesspeople
Businesspeople from Louisville, Kentucky

Charles Brewer (businessman)


A commando is a soldier who has been highly trained in combat.

A commando is a special forces soldier who is "trained and equipped to conduct" special operations, according to Australian authorities.

In many miliaries, they are used to rescue hostages and board enemy ships. In the United Kingdom, to become a commando, candidates must pass either Royal Marine Commando training or the All Arms Commando Course.

The military of the United States and some other countries, do not have (military) units with commandos. The United States does have special forces soldiers (and they are sometimes called special forces operators). United States Army Special Forces is one of the special forces of the U.S. military.

Related pages
Special forces

References

Military occupations

Commando


Kamp Abbey (Kloster Kamp), also known as Altenkamp Abbey or Alt(en)feld Abbey (and in English formerly Camp Abbey) was the first Cistercian monastery founded in German territory, in the present town of Kamp-Lintfort in North Rhine-Westphalia.

History
It was founded in 1123 by Friedrich I, Archbishop of Cologne, and settled from Morimond Abbey. As the first Cistercian foundation in the region it attracted great endowments and became very wealthy and powerful. It was extremely active in the foundation of daughter houses:

In Germany: Walkenried Abbey (1129); Amelungsborn Abbey (c.1129); Volkenroda Abbey (1131); Hardehausen Abbey (1140); Michaelstein Abbey (1146); Saarn Abbey (1214); Neuenkamp Abbey (1231); Bottenbroich Abbey (1231); Burlo Abbey (1448); and Grevenbroich Abbey (1628);

In the Netherlands: Eiteren Abbey (1342); Mariënkroon Abbey(1382); and Sibculo Abbey (1412).

Kamp was largely rebuilt in the 15th century but suffered extensive damage in the Reformation. The abbey was abandoned early in the Cologne War (1583–1588); many of the monks went to the city of Neuss, where they underwent the siege and bombardment of July 1586; another portion went to Rheinberg, which was the focus of three battles to take the city, the last in 1589.  The abbey itself was destroyed by Adolf von Neuenahr in 1586. A small group of monks returned under abbot Polenius (1636–64), but re-construction did not begin until 1683, and the community did not return fully until 1700.

The abbey was secularised during the German mediatisation of 1802 and the buildings were sold, and mostly demolished. The church was converted for use as a parish church.

Between 1954 and 2002 a Carmelite community resided on the remains of the monastery. The last monk left the monastery in 2010.

The abbey site is still known for the terraced gardens and the orangeries.

References

 Geisbauer, G., 2002. Kloster Kamp, seine Äbte und Filiationen; Die Kamper Chronik - deutsch. Kamp-Lintfort: self-published.
 Willicks, E., and Geisbauer, G., 2000. Kloster Kamp - Geschichte und Gegenwart, Kamp-Lintfort: self-published.

External links

  Kloster Kamp

Cistercian monasteries in Germany
Monasteries in North Rhine-Westphalia
1120s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1123 establishments in Europe
Religious organizations established in the 1120s
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Buildings and structures in Wesel (district)

Kamp Abbey


Atlascopcosaurus () is a genus of herbivorous basal iguanodont dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of the present Australia.

Classification

The type specimen, NMV P166409, was found in 1984 at the Dinosaur Cove East site at the coast of Victoria, in layers of the Eumeralla Formation dating from the early Cretaceous, Aptian-Albian. The holotype consists of a piece of the upper jaw, a partial maxilla with teeth, and referred specimens include teeth, another maxilla, and dentaries. Although the rest of the skeleton is unknown it can be inferred from closely related species that the genus represents a small bipedal herbivore. By extrapolation it has been estimated that it was about two to three metres (6.5–10 ft) long and weighed approximately 125 kg.

The type species, Atlascopcosaurus loadsi, was named and described by Tom Rich and Patricia Vickers-Rich in 1989. The generic name refers to the Atlas Copco Company who had provided equipment for the dig that discovered this dinosaur in 1984. The project revealed 85 fossil bone fragments of various species. This opened the door for more excavation and, along with other companies, Atlas Copco helped over ten years excavate about sixty metres of tunnel in a cliff wall at the sea shore. The specific name, loadsi, honours William Loads, the state manager for Atlas Copco at the time, who assisted during the dig. Despite being assigned to Hypsilophodontidae by its describers, the original classification of Atlascoposaurus was considered untenable given that Hypsilophodontidae has been recovered as paraphyletic in subsequent cladistic studies and Atlascopcosaurus was tabulated as a basal member of Ornithopoda in the second edition of the Dinosauria. Because the teeth are not species-specific and the maxilla fragment is little informative, Agnolin et al. (2010) treated it as a nomen dubium, even though they noted similarities with the elasmarians Anabisetia and Gasparinisaura from Patagonia. However, Boyd (2015) considered the genus valid and recovered it at the base of Iguanodontia in a clade with Anabisetia, Gasparinisaura, and Qantassaurus.

References

Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of Australia
Paleontology in Victoria (state)
Fossil taxa described in 1989
Taxa named by Patricia Vickers-Rich
Taxa named by Tom Rich
Ornithischian genera
Early Cretaceous ornithopods
Ornithopods of Australia

Atlascopcosaurus


Shefford is a town and civil parish in the Central Bedfordshire district of Bedfordshire, England. At the 2021 census it had a population of 7,311. It lies  south-east of Bedford. The town gives its name to Shefford, Quebec.

Toponymy
The name Shefford means "sheep ford", referencing the fords over the River Flit and River Hit. The name was recorded as "Shipford" in 1229, with the modern spelling being recorded from as early as 1262.

History
Roman remains were discovered in Shefford in the early nineteenth century.

Shefford grew up between a pair of fords on the main road from Bedford to Hitchin where it crosses the River Flit and River Hit. Another road leading west from that main road, heading towards Ampthill, became the town's High Street. Both fords were later replaced by bridges; North Bridge over the Flit and South Bridge over the Hit. A market was being held at Shefford by 1225, with a formal market charter being issued in 1229. By the fifteenth century the church of St Michael and All Angels had been built at the eastern end of the High Street near the junction with Southbridge Street, originally serving as a chapel of ease to Campton.

The working class poet Robert Bloomfield lived in Shefford from 1812 until his death there in 1823. One of the town's schools is named after him.

The Ivel Navigation was extended to reach the town in 1823, with the extension also being known as the Shefford Canal. It closed to traffic in 1876 following growing competition from the railways. The Midland Railway opened Shefford railway station in 1857 on its original main line to London. The route was downgraded to become the Bedford to Hitchin branch line following the opening of a new main line in 1868. It closed to passengers in 1961 and freight in 1964.

Between 1869 and 1974 Shefford was the site of an orphanage called St Francis' Boy's Home run by the Roman Catholic Church. It was situated on High Street next to the Catholic church of St Francis of Assisi. The church remains in use as a place of worship. The orphanage buildings have been converted into flats.

During World War II an entire Jewish children's community came into being in Shefford as 500 pupils from Judith Grunfeld's school were billeted in and around the town. The school was moved in 1939 and remained in Shefford until 1945. This was part of "Operation Pied Piper" where schools were moved in anticipation of wartime bombing. A book was written about this time, titled "Shefford: The Story of a Jewish School Community in Evacuation, 1939-1945", telling the story of the evacuated school.

Geography
The River Flit and the River Hit run through the town. The Flit runs from Flitwick and joins the River Ivel on the edge of Shefford. The Ivel eventually joins the River Great Ouse just north of Sandy.

Governance

There are two tiers of local government covering Shefford, at civil parish (town) and unitary authority level: Shefford Town Council and Central Bedfordshire Council. The town council is based at Shefford House at 15 High Street. Central Bedfordshire Council has its main offices at Priory House in Chicksands, immediately west of Shefford.

Shefford was historically a chapelry and township in the ancient parish of Campton. It became a separate civil parish in 1866. It remained part of the ecclesiastical parish of Campton until 1903.

Shefford Hardwick was an extra-parochial area north-west of Shefford. Such extra-parochial areas were made civil parishes in 1858. The parish of Shefford Hardwick was subsequently abolished in 1933 and absorbed into Shefford, which also gained territory from the neighbouring parishes of Southill, Clifton, Meppershall and Campton at the same time.

Facilities
Shefford incorporates a fire station, bowls club, sports club, a Memorial Hall, a Community Hall, many pubs and a brewery. As well as this, it has a variety of restaurants, including Chinese takeaways, award-winning Indian takeaways/restaurants, Turkish takeaway/restaurant and a fish and chip shop. Shefford has two petrol stations, two car dealers, and two pharmacies. There are three estate agents, a newsagent, a convenience store, a charity shop, an angling centre, a bakery, a tea room, a wine bar, a Post Office with sorting facilities an ironmonger/building supply centre, and the Banks and Taylor micro brewery (est. 1982).

There are two small supermarkets in town and one on the outskirts, a travel agent and a public library.

There are four Churches - Anglican, Baptist, Methodist and Roman Catholic. Several schools and nurseries, and a large medical practice.

The town has a scout group, Guiding Groups and a local Army Cadet Force hut at Chicksands on the Army Intelligence Corps base, which is part of Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire ACF, in 4 Company.

Transport
Shefford railway station was on the Bedford–Hitchin line but closed to passengers in 1961 and to freight in 1964; its goods yard is now the site of an industrial estate. Current public transport provision consists of hourly buses 9A and 9B between Bedford and Hitchin, operated by Intalink.

Education
The areas around Shefford are served by the middle school Robert Bloomfield Academy which  has a Grade 1 (outstanding) Ofsted report, Samuel Whitbread Academy, Shefford Lower School, Shefford Nursery, BEST nursery and Acorn Pre-School & The Mighty Oaks.

Sport and leisure

Shefford has a Non-League football club Shefford Town & Campton F.C. who play at STMA (Digswell). It is where Jack Collison (Wales and West Ham Footballer) grew up and went to school.  There is also a Shefford Saints (Junior) FC where girls and boys from Shefford and the surrounding villages are able to join from the U5 Development squad up to U16 merging into the Adult team.

A modern, concrete skatepark is currently in the planning stages to be constructed on the new building site located off of Campton road.

References

External links

 Shefford Town Council website
 Shefford pages at the Bedfordshire and Luton Archives and Records Service

Market towns in Bedfordshire
Towns in Bedfordshire
Civil parishes in Bedfordshire
Central Bedfordshire District

Shefford, Bedfordshire


A civil marriage is a marriage that is recognized by a government official. It can either be a religious ceremony or it can be secular. The definition and practice varies greatly between countries.

United Kingdom
At present the law allows same-sex marriages as well as man/woman marriages, and both religious and civil settings are possible.

England and Wales
In 1753 an Act of Parliament required all marriages to be done in a religious place. Church of England churches, Quakers meeting places and synagogues were examples of appropriate places.

Scotland
The Act of 1753 did not apply in Scotland. Marriages were, of course, done in churches. But actually it was enough for a couple to state their commitment in front of witnesses. A registrar would record the marriage. This was a type of common law marriage.

Marriage
Types of law

Civil marriage


The Microsoft acquisition hoax is a bogus 1994 press release suggesting that the information technology company Microsoft had acquired the Roman Catholic Church. It is considered to be the first Internet hoax to reach a mass audience.

The hoax comprises part of a cycle of "Microsoft jokes" in which Microsoft Corporation is portrayed as a wealthy but evil monopoly built on bloated or unreliable desktop software, planned obsolescence of products, corporate takeovers of once-innovative rivals and litigiousness. While multiple books have been devoted to the subject, the jokes most commonly circulated online as Internet memes.

Press release
The hoax consisted of a press release, purportedly from the Associated Press, that circulated around the Internet in 1994. The press release claimed that Microsoft "will acquire the Roman Catholic Church in exchange for an unspecified number of shares of Microsoft common stock," and that the company expects "a lot of growth in the religious market in the next five to ten years... the combined resources of Microsoft and the Catholic Church will allow us to make religion easier and more fun for a broader range of people."

Many of the press release's claims were unrealistic, from suggesting that Catholics would soon be able to take Holy Communion through their computer to claiming that conversion to Catholicism was an "upgrade". Despite these warning signs, several readers of the false press release contacted Microsoft to confirm the claims of the hoax, and on December 16, 1994, Microsoft formally debunked the claims.

Aftermath
Follow-up press releases made similarly outrageous claims—for example, one false press release claimed that IBM had acquired the Episcopal Church, and another suggested that the Italian television network RAI had invested in what the release claimed to be "Microsoft Corp.'s planned on-line computer service, the Microsoft Divine Network."

An Internet meme "Microsoft Acquires" spawned a series of similarly formatted mock press releases with an assortment of varying acquisition targets, including the government of the United States of America. According to the release, "United States citizens will be able to expect lower taxes, increases in government services, discounts on all Microsoft products and the immediate arrest of all executive officials of Sun Microsystems Inc. and Netscape Corp." One meta-joke claimed that Microsoft ultimately put an end to the jokes by acquiring "Microsoft Acquires".

Despite the proliferation of chain emails circulating the Internet both in 1994 and in the present, the Microsoft hoax was considered the first such hoax to reach a mass audience through the Internet.

References

Joke cycles
Internet hoaxes
Microsoft
Religious parodies and satires

Microsoft acquisition hoax