Richard A. Ritger (November 8, 1938 – August 27, 2020) was a right-handed ten-pin bowler in the Professional Bowlers Association (PBA), who spent his later years as a bowling instructor and proprietor of Dick Ritger's Bowling Camp. Known for his smooth stroker delivery, he is one of only 17 players in history to have won at least 20 career PBA Tour titles.

PBA career
Ritger grew up in River Falls, Wisconsin. He joined the PBA Tour in 1964, and won his first two PBA titles in successive weeks in 1966. He won his 20th and final PBA title in 1979. The 20 titles put him in a 14th-place tie with Wayne Webb, Amleto Monacelli and Tommy Jones on the all-time list. He won multiple titles in five different seasons on tour, including three titles each in the 1969, 1973 and 1974 seasons. Ritger also won two titles in the Classic Division at the National USBC Championships, in Team (1967) and All-Events (1977).

A gentleman on the lanes and off, Ritger won the PBA's Steve Nagy Sportsmanship award on two occasions. His status among the all-time greats was solidified with his election to the PBA Hall of Fame in 1978.

Ritger's best chance at a major title came in 1970, when he made the televised final of the Tournament of Champions and shot 268 in the final match. But he was on the wrong end of 26-time titlist Don Johnson's legendary 299 game. He also finished runner-up in the 1972 PBA National Championship and 1979 Tournament of Champions.

PBA Tour titles
 1966 Southern California Open (Encino, California)
 1966 Fort Worth Open (Fort Worth, Texas)
 1967 Fresno Open (Fresno, California)
 1968 North Phoenix Open (Phoenix, Arizona)
 1968 New Orleans Lions Open (New Orleans, Louisiana)
 1969 Greater Buffalo Open (Buffalo, New York)
 1969 Japan Gold Cup (Tokyo, Japan)
 1969 Bellows-Valvair Open (Rochester, New York)
 1970 Japan Gold Cup (Tokyo, Japan)
 1972 Bay City Open (Bay City, Michigan)
 1973 Fair Lanes Open (Towson, Maryland)
 1973 STP Classic (Miami, Florida)
 1973 Canada Dry Open (Detroit, Michigan)
 1974 Midas Open (Alameda, California)
 1974 Fair Lanes Open (Towson, Maryland)
 1974 Star Lanes-Ebonite Open (Waukegan, Illinois)
 1975 Ebonite Don Carter Classic (Miami, Florida)
 1977 AMF Pro Classic (Garden City, New York)
 1978 Dutch Masters Open (North Olmsted, Ohio)
 1979 AMF Magicscore Open (San Antonio, Texas)

Bowling instructor career
In the 1980s, Ritger started a bowling pro shop business and went into the instructional field, working as a coach for AMF and his own Dick Ritger's Bowling Camps.  He became recognized as one of the most effective bowling instructors in the world, running over 500 clinics in 24 countries covering five continents.

Already a member of the USBC Hall of Fame in the Performance category, Ritger was the first person inducted into the USBC's new Bowling Coaches Hall of Fame in June, 2008.

Personal
Ritger began bowling regularly at age 9 in his family's 10-lane center in Hartford, Wisconsin. In his teens, he often competed in adult leagues. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin - La Crosse with a double major in Physical Education and Recreation.

Death
Ritger died in his home on August 27, 2020, at the age of 81. He is survived by Judy Ritger (his wife of 60 years), three children, 13 grandchildren and 14 great-grandchildren.

Awards and recognition
 PBA Steve Nagy Sportsmanship award (1970, 1973)
 PBA President, 1977–78
 Inducted into PBA Hall of Fame, 1978
 Inducted into USBC Hall of Fame (Performance Category), 1984
 World Bowling Writers Distinguished Service Award, 1995
 John Martino Award for "Outstanding Contribution to the Sport of Bowling," 1998
 BPAA Dick Weber Bowling Ambassador Award, 2006
 Inducted into USBC Bowling Coaches Hall of Fame, 2008
 Was ranked #14 on the PBA's 2008 list of "50 Greatest Players of the Last 50 Years"
 Inducted into Wisconsin State USBC Hall of Fame (Skills Category), 2009

References

Other sources
PBA.com, official site of the Professional Bowlers Association and the Lumber Liquidator's PBA Tour
wibowl.com, Official site of the Wisconsin State USBC Bowling Association

American ten-pin bowling players
1938 births
2020 deaths
People from River Falls, Wisconsin
University of Wisconsin–La Crosse alumni
Sportspeople from Wisconsin

Dick Ritger


Charles Arthur Broadwater (September 25, 1840–May 24, 1892) was a wealthy and influential Montana railroad, real estate, and banking magnate.

Broadwater was born in St. Charles, Missouri. He was president of the Montana Central Railway, a spur line which ran between Great Falls, Montana Helena and Butte, Montana. He opened the Montana National Bank in Helena, and had extensive real estate holdings in the state. Montana's Broadwater County is named after him.

Broadwater began his career in 1862 as a livestock trader in the gold rush town of Bannack, Montana.  He soon extended his interests into transportation, becoming superintendent of the large Diamond R Freighting Company, which dominated shipping in the Territory of Montana before the coming of the railroads.

In the 1870s, Broadwater allied himself with James J. Hill, founder of the St. Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba Railway, which, in 1890, became the Great Northern Railway (U.S.). Broadwater was also one of the Democratic "Big Four" of early Montana politics, along with Marcus Daly, William A. Clark, and Samuel T. Hauser.

He may, however, be best remembered for the luxurious but ill-fated Hotel Broadwater and Natatorium, which he built near Helena between 1888 and 1889. He hoped to capitalize on Montana's newfound mining elite and the wealth that came along with it but although the hotel was the last word in luxury and innovation it was never able to draw the wealthy crowds that Charles Broadwater predicted.

Broadwater died at his hotel in Helena, Montana on May 24, 1892 of the effects of influenza contracted in New York the previous year. More than 5,000 people attended his funeral. He is buried in Forestvale Cemetery.

External links
Hotel Broadwater and Natatorium

1840 births
1892 deaths
People from St. Charles, Missouri
American bankers
American civil engineers
American real estate businesspeople
Infectious disease deaths in Montana
Deaths from the 1889–1890 flu pandemic
Montana pioneers
Montana articles lacking sources
19th-century American businesspeople

Charles Arthur Broadwater


The SATURN Development Group was an important industry forum that enabled the specification of chip-to-chip interfaces for the communications industry.  It was co-founded in 1992 by PMC-Sierra and Sun Microsystems.  Several significant specifications were completed through its actions including PL-2, PL-3, and PL-4.  Many important semiconductor devices were developed to these specifications.  SATURN was also influential in the specification of the ATM Forum's physical layer "UTOPIA" standards.

Initial members included SynOptics and Interphase.  The first meeting was held in April 1992. By August 1993, the SATURN group had 28 members.

After the formation of the Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF), two of the SATURN group's interfaces were successfully adopted by OIF.  The PL-3 specification became SPI-3 and the PL-4 specification became SPI-4.2.  The existence of the OIF also eliminated the need for the SATURN Development Group, and it was wound down around 2002.

External links
 Early history of SATURN
 Light Reading article on PL-4
 Light Reading article on PL-5

Technology consortia

SATURN Development Group


The Arts District is an area of Oklahoma City with many of the city's popular attractions and venues. Many of the buildings in the district are known for urban art deco architecture and charm.

Located at the near western portion of downtown just outside the skyscrapers of the Central Business District, the Arts District includes attractions such as the Myriad Gardens, the Civic Center Music Hall, Stage Centre for the Performing Arts, the Ronald J. Norick Downtown Library, the Oklahoma City Municipal Building, the Oklahoma City Museum of Art, and the Oklahoma City National Memorial.

Due west of the Arts District is the Film Exchange District and WesTown.

Neighborhoods in Oklahoma City
Districts of Downtown Oklahoma City
Arts districts

Arts District, Oklahoma City


Paul Nikolaus Cossmann (6 April 1869 – 19 October 1942) was a German journalist.

Biography
Born in Baden-Baden into a Jewish family, his parents were cellist Bernhard Cossmann and his wife Mathilde Hilb, the daughter of a Karlsruhe merchant. He never married. He converted to Roman Catholicism in 1905, and subsequently was a devout practitioner of the faith.

The elder Cossmann had been working in Moscow, but returned to his native country so that his son could be educated "as a German in Germany". While a gymnasium student in Frankfurt, he became a friend and devoted admirer of Hans Pfitzner; the two were the same age. He studied the natural sciences and philosophy, with a focus on Arthur Schopenhauer, and settled on a career in journalism. He launched Süddeutsche Monatshefte in Munich in 1903, leading it for the next three decades and soon establishing the review as one of the leading German cultural magazines of its day. During World War I, he intransigently promoted victory for Germany, while the magazine's special editions propelled its circulation upward, both on the front and among civilians. He retained a nationalist outlook in the wake of the German defeat, joining Münchener Neuesten Nachrichten as a political adviser in 1921.

Cossmann's tireless struggle against the Treaty of Versailles and campaigns about the related topics of war debt (1922) and the stab-in-the-back myth (1925) earned him the reputation of a ruthless nationalism. He was falsely accused of pursuing causes on behalf of a political party or wealthy backers, but in fact Cossmann acted from conviction. While the stab-in-the-back furore served to poison the political atmosphere, he had actually sought to integrate German workers into the societal mainstream. While a fanatic when it came to his version of the truth, he was reportedly an unusually kind man possessed of warm social feeling, as well as a tireless promoter of charitable initiatives. He was imprisoned in March 1933 for more than a year as an unconditional opponent of Adolf Hitler. From 1934 to 1938, he lived in seclusion in Isartal, studying the Church Fathers. In 1938, he was sent to a Munich-area concentration camp for Jews. In the summer of 1942, already seriously ill, he was deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp, where he soon died in the hospital. During his stay there, he consoled and spiritually strengthened his fellow inmates, some of whom revered him as a saintly figure.

References

1869 births
1942 deaths
People from Baden-Baden
19th-century German Jews
German Roman Catholics
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism
German people of World War I
German nationalists
German male journalists
German magazine editors
German magazine founders
German conservatives in the German Resistance
German people who died in the Theresienstadt Ghetto

Paul Nikolaus Cossmann


Anna Komnene (sometimes spelled Comnena; Greek: Άννα Κομνηνή, Anna Komnēnē) was a Greek princess, scholar, and doctor. She was the eldest daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos of Byzantium and Irene Doukaina.

Komnene was born in the Porphyra, the purple room of the Byzantine royal palace in Constantinople, on December 2nd, 1083. For some time, the emperor did not have a son, so Komnene who was originally engaged to Constantine Ducas, became an heir to the throne. While they were engaged, Anna went to live with Ducas's mother, Maria of Alania, where Komnena got an education in mathematics, philosophy, and medicine. Anna's future changed significantly when her brother John was born in 1087 and became the heir to the throne. This sparked Komnene's jealousy and hatred for her brother for the rest of her life. Unfortunately, Constantine Ducas died young and Anna married Nicephorus Bryennius in 1097 AD.

Anna began to plot a plan for her husband to inherit the throne, with the help of her grandmother, Anna Dalassene. Anna's mother, Irene, also helped Anna try to persuade her father while on his death bed, to give Brynnius the throne. The plan failed, mainly because of Nicephorus's loyalty to the heir of the throne, John. At her father's funeral, Anne is thought by many historians to have attempted an assassination of John, before he could claim the throne, but failed yet again.

John II Komnenos took the throne in 1188. Anna is supposed to have continued plotting against her brother, even though her husband refused to help her. Once her antics were discovered, Anna's lands were taken, and she was prohibited from entering the royal palace ever again. When Bryennius, her husband, died, Anna moved into a convent and began her work as a historian.

While she lived there, Anna wrote her book, The Alexiad. "The Alexiad" is a lengthy biography of her father's reign and the Byzantine Empire. It provides a picture of religious and intellectual activities within the empire. Anna writes about the faults and flaws in her father's reign as well as the successes and accomplishments. The 15 books of The Alexiad are written solely in Greek. Anne is the only female historian who wrote in Greek before the 19th century. She is also one of very few female authors and historians from Byzantium and was viewed as lesser by many. Her book is still important because Anna had access to the royal archives and had an inside view of politics. Her book remains one of the essential primary sources for Byzantine history and is a common read for those studying the time period.

Anna may have spent a large part of her life in a convent, but she did in fact become a nun until shortly before she died. She is thought to have died in 1153 however the exact date is unknown.

1083 births
1153 deaths
Greek princes and princesses
Greek physicians

Anna Komnene


Andrew Miller (February 5, 1857 – December 31, 1919) was an American magazine publisher and Thoroughbred racehorse owner and breeder who was a founding partner and secretary and treasurer of Life magazine.

Born in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, Andrew Miller studied at Exeter College before graduating in 1880 from Harvard University where he was a classmate of Theodore Roosevelt.

Andrew Miller began his career in the publishing industry as an employee at the Daily Graphic, a New York City newspaper that was the first with daily illustrations. He left a year later to found Life magazine with John Ames Mitchell. Miller would hold a twenty-five percent interest in the magazine with Mitchell the remainder. Both men would retain their holdings until their deaths. The success of Life magazine allowed Miller to indulge his passion for horse racing.

Thoroughbred racing
Andrew Miller owned racehorses for more than thirty years, starting with trotters and steeplechase runners before becoming heavily involved with racing Thoroughbreds on the flat. His most famous horse was Roamer, the 1914 American Horse of the Year and a U.S. Racing Hall of Fame inductee. Among his other racing successes, Andrew Miller's filly Lady Rotha won the Amsterdam and Travers Stakes in 1915. His colt, Ticket won the 1916 Tremont Stakes at age two and finished second as the favorite in the 1917 Kentucky Derby.

Miller served in various positions in the horse industry. He was President of the Driving Club of New York which operated the Fleetwood Park Racetrack harness racing track in Westchester County, New York, he was a Steward with the Jockey Club,  Secretary and Treasurer of the Saratoga Racing Association, and a Steward at Morris Park Racecourse.

Andrew Miller died on December 31, 1919, at his home in Manhattan at age 62.

References

External links
January 1, 1920 New York Times obituary for Andrew Miller

1857 births
1919 deaths
Businesspeople from Ontario
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Harvard University alumni
American magazine founders
Life (magazine) people
American racehorse owners and breeders
People from Hamilton, Ontario
People from Manhattan
19th-century American Episcopalians
19th-century American businesspeople

Andrew Miller (publisher)


Michael Jackel (born October 19, 1959 in Vancouver, British Columbia) is a Canadian–German retired professional basketball player. A 6'7' tall small forward, he won the EuroBasket 1993 with the senior German men's national team, and he was the first player to score more than 10,000 points in Germany's top-tier level Basketball Bundesliga.

College career
The son of German parents who had migrated to Canada, Jackel played college basketball at Simon Fraser University, from 1978 to 1982. He scored 1,940 points for the Clan, leaving as the second leading scorer in SFU history, behind Jay Triano. Posting 28.9 points per contest, he led the NAIA in scoring his senior year (1981–82), which earned him NAIA All-America Second Team honors that season. He was inducted into the SFU Hall of Fame in 1994.

Professional career
Jackel spent his 17-year professional career entirely in the German top-flight Basketball Bundesliga, playing for Wolfenbüttel (1982), Göttingen (1982–1985), Köln (1985–1988; 1989–1990), DBV Charlottenburg (1988–1989), Bamberg (1990–1997) and Braunschweig (1997–1999). He won four German League championships and four German Cup titles. In December 1996, Jackel became the first player in the Bundesliga to surpass the 10,000 point mark, and he finished his professional career in 1999, with 10,783 total points scored, which made him the all-time leading scorer in the league.

Following his professional career, Jackel returned to his native Canada.

National team career
Between 1984 and 1993, Jackel won a total of 113 caps for the senior German men's national team, averaging 19.2 points per game. In the 1992 Summer Olympic Games, in Barcelona, he was Germany's second-leading scorer (14.1 points per game) behind Detlef Schrempf, and he had a 15-point performance against the Original Dream Team. At the EuroBasket 1993, he averaged 11 points a game, en route to the gold medal.

References

1959 births
Living people
Basketball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Basketball people from British Columbia
BSC Saturn Köln players
Canadian men's basketball coaches
Canadian men's basketball players
Canadian people of German descent
German basketball coaches
German men's basketball players
Olympic basketball players for Germany
Simon Fraser Red Leafs men's basketball players
Small forwards
Basketball players from Vancouver

Michael Jackel


Action Man: Search for Base X is an action video game developed by Natsume and published by THQ under license from Hasbro Interactive for the Game Boy Color. It was released in North America on January 30, 2001, and is based on the Action Man TV series.

Gameplay

The game's plot centers around the protagonist Alex "Action" Mann, and his mission to stop the evil Dr. X from releasing a weapon of mass destruction. Action Man must find Dr. X's base by playing through levels in various locales. The player is given a variety of suits for Action Man to wear in different situations, including a parka, a wet suit, and a space suit. Each level can be completed multiple times in order to achieve different goals; the correct suit and items are not required on the first completion of a level, but later attempts require specific suits and items to bypass obstacles. By wearing different suits and using specified items, alternate paths in levels can be discovered.

The gameplay is similar to other 16-bit era action video games. The game contains fifteen missions for the player to complete spread through six main areas. The player is allowed to choose two weapons to bring into battle with them, such as a crossbow and a pistol. The game allows the player to jump, run, swim, and climb through various areas of the game, allowing for a more varied experience.

History
In October 2000, THQ secured a license from Hasbro Interactive to release Action Man: Search For Base X in 2000.

Action Man: Search for Base X received above average reviews from critics, who felt that the game was difficult but fun nonetheless; the game has received a compilation score of 68.22% from GameRankings. GameSpot's Frank Provo praised the game's color palette and sound design, but noted the game was a bit too difficult. He was surprised that the game was even developed so late in the Game Boy Color's life cycle. IGN's Marc Nix criticized the game for being unfairly difficult, and compared it negatively to the Mega Man video game series. He blamed bad in-game controls for the difficulty of the game.

References

2001 video games
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy Color-only games
Action games
THQ games
Natsume (company) games
Video games based on animated television series
Video games based on Hasbro toys
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Iku Mizutani

Action Man: Search for Base X


Semantic similarity is a metric defined over a set of documents or terms, where the idea of distance between items is based on the likeness of their meaning or semantic content as opposed to lexicographical similarity. These are mathematical tools used to estimate the strength of the semantic relationship between units of language, concepts or instances, through a numerical description obtained according to the comparison of information supporting their meaning or describing their nature. The term semantic similarity is often confused with semantic relatedness. Semantic relatedness includes any relation between two terms, while semantic similarity only includes "is a" relations.
For example, "car" is similar to "bus", but is also related to "road" and "driving".

Computationally, semantic similarity can be estimated by defining a topological similarity, by using ontologies to define the distance between terms/concepts. For example, a naive metric for the comparison of concepts ordered in a partially ordered set and represented as nodes of a directed acyclic graph (e.g., a taxonomy), would be the shortest-path linking the two concept nodes. Based on text analyses, semantic relatedness between units of language (e.g., words, sentences) can also be estimated using statistical means such as a vector space model to correlate words and textual contexts from a suitable text corpus. The evaluation of the proposed semantic similarity / relatedness measures are evaluated through two main ways. The former is based on the use of datasets designed by experts and composed of word pairs with semantic similarity / relatedness degree estimation. The second way is based on the integration of the measures inside specific applications such as information retrieval, recommender systems, natural language processing, etc.

Terminology
The concept of semantic similarity is more specific than semantic relatedness, as the latter includes concepts as antonymy and meronymy, while similarity does not. However, much of the literature uses these terms interchangeably, along with terms like semantic distance. In essence, semantic similarity, semantic distance, and semantic relatedness all mean, "How much does term A have to do with term B?" The answer to this question is usually a number between -1 and 1, or between 0 and 1, where 1 signifies extremely high similarity.

Visualization
An intuitive way of visualizing the semantic similarity of terms is by grouping together terms which are closely related and spacing wider apart the ones which are distantly related. This is also common in practice for mind maps and concept maps.

A more direct way of visualizing the semantic similarity of two linguistic items can be seen with the Semantic Folding approach. In this approach a linguistic item such as a term or a text can be represented by generating a pixel for each of its active semantic features in e.g. a 128 x 128 grid. This allows for a direct visual comparison of the semantics of two items by comparing image representations of their respective feature sets.

Applications

In biomedical informatics
Semantic similarity measures have been applied and developed in biomedical ontologies.
They are mainly used to compare genes and proteins based on the similarity of their functions rather than on their sequence similarity,
but they are also being extended to other bioentities, such as diseases.

These comparisons can be done using tools freely available on the web:
 ProteInOn can be used to find interacting proteins, find assigned GO terms and calculate the functional semantic similarity of UniProt proteins and to get the information content and calculate the functional semantic similarity of GO terms.
 CMPSim provides a functional similarity measure between chemical compounds and metabolic pathways using ChEBI based semantic similarity measures.
 CESSM provides a tool for the automated evaluation of GO-based semantic similarity measures.

In geoinformatics
Similarity is also applied in geoinformatics to find similar geographic features or feature types:
 SIM-DL similarity server can be used to compute similarities between concepts stored in geographic feature type ontologies.
 Similarity Calculator can be used to compute how well related two geographic concepts are in the Geo-Net-PT ontology.
 The OSM semantic network can be used to compute the semantic similarity of tags in OpenStreetMap.

In computational linguistics
Several metrics use WordNet, a manually constructed lexical database of English words. Despite the advantages of having human supervision in constructing the database, since the words are not automatically learned the database cannot measure relatedness between multi-word term, non-incremental vocabulary.

In natural language processing
Natural language processing (NLP) is a field of computer science and linguistics. Sentiment analysis, Natural language understanding and Machine translation (Automatically translate text from one human language to another) are a few of the major areas where it is being used. For example, knowing one information resource in the internet, it is often of immediate interest to find similar resources. The Semantic Web provides semantic extensions to find similar data by content and not just by arbitrary descriptors. Deep learning methods have become an accurate way to gauge semantic similarity between two text passages, in which each passage is first embedded into a continuous vector representation.

In ontology matching
Semantic similarity plays a crucial role in ontology alignment, which aims to establish correspondences between entities from different ontologies. It involves quantifying the degree of similarity between concepts or terms using the information present in the ontology for each entity, such as labels, descriptions, and hierarchical relations to other entities. Traditional metrics used in ontology matching are based on a lexical similarity between features of the entities, such as using the Levenshtein distance to measure the edit distance between entity labels. However, it is difficult to capture the semantic similarity between entities using these metrics. For example, when comparing two ontologies describing conferences, the entities "Contribution" and "Paper" may have high semantic similarity since they share the same meaning. Nonetheless, due to their lexical differences, lexicographical similarity alone cannot establish this alignment. To capture these semantic similarities, embeddings are being adopted in ontology matching. By encoding semantic relationships and contextual information, embeddings enable the calculation of similarity scores between entities based on the proximity of their vector representations in the embedding space. This approach allows for efficient and accurate matching of ontologies since embeddings can model semantic differences in entity naming, such as homonymy, by assigning different embeddings to the same word based on different contexts.

Measures

Topological similarity
There are essentially two types of approaches that calculate topological similarity between ontological concepts:
 Edge-based: which use the edges and their types as the data source;
 Node-based: in which the main data sources are the nodes and their properties.
Other measures calculate the similarity between ontological instances:
 Pairwise: measure functional similarity between two instances by combining the semantic similarities of the concepts they represent
 Groupwise: calculate the similarity directly not combining the semantic similarities of the concepts they represent

Some examples:

Edge-based
 Pekar et al.
 Cheng and Cline
 Wu et al.
 Del Pozo et al.
 IntelliGO: Benabderrahmane et al.

Node-based
 Resnik
 based on the notion of information content. The information content of a concept (term or word) is the logarithm of the probability of finding the concept in a given corpus.
 only considers the information content of lowest common subsumer (lcs). A lowest common subsumer is a concept in a lexical taxonomy ( e.g. WordNet), which has the shortest distance from the two concepts compared. For example, animal and mammal both are the subsumers of cat and dog, but mammal is lower subsumer than animal for them.
 Lin
 based on Resnik's similarity.
 considers the information content of lowest common subsumer (lcs) and the two compared concepts.
 Maguitman, Menczer, Roinestad and Vespignani
 Generalizes Lin's similarity to arbitrary ontologies (graphs).
 Jiang and Conrath
 based on Resnik's similarity.
 considers the information content of lowest common subsumer (lcs) and the two compared concepts to calculate the distance between the two concepts. The distance is later used in computing the similarity measure.
 Align, Disambiguate, and Walk: Random walks on Semantic Networks

Node-and-Relation-Content-based
 applicable to ontology
 consider properties (content) of nodes
 consider types (content) of relations
 based on eTVSM
 based on Resnik's similarity

Pairwise
 maximum of the pairwise similarities
 composite average in which only the best-matching pairs are considered (best-match average)

Groupwise
 Jaccard index

Statistical similarity
Statistical similarity approaches can be learned from data, or predefined. Similarity learning can often outperform predefined similarity measures. Broadly speaking, these approaches build a statistical model of documents, and use it to estimate similarity.

 LSA (Latent semantic analysis)(+) vector-based, adds vectors to measure multi-word terms; (−) non-incremental vocabulary, long pre-processing times
 PMI (Pointwise mutual information) (+) large vocab, because it uses any search engine (like Google); (−) cannot measure relatedness between whole sentences or documents
 SOC-PMI (Second-order co-occurrence pointwise mutual information) (+) sort lists of important neighbor words from a large corpus; (−) cannot measure relatedness between whole sentences or documents
 GLSA (Generalized Latent Semantic Analysis) (+) vector-based, adds vectors to measure multi-word terms; (−) non-incremental vocabulary, long pre-processing times
 ICAN (Incremental Construction of an Associative Network) (+) incremental, network-based measure, good for spreading activation, accounts for second-order relatedness; (−) cannot measure relatedness between multi-word terms, long pre-processing times
 NGD (Normalized Google distance) (+) large vocab, because it uses any search engine (like Google); (−) can measure relatedness between whole sentences or documents but the larger the sentence or document the more ingenuity is required, Cilibrasi & Vitanyi (2007), reference below.
 TSS - Twitter Semantic Similarity -pdf large vocab, because it use online tweets from Twitter to compute the similarity. It has high temporary resolution that allows to capture high frequency events. Open Source
 NCD (Normalized Compression Distance)
 ESA (Explicit Semantic Analysis) based on Wikipedia and the ODP
 SSA (Salient Semantic Analysis) which indexes terms using salient concepts found in their immediate context.
 n° of Wikipedia (noW), inspired by the game Six Degrees of Wikipedia, is a distance metric based on the hierarchical structure of Wikipedia. A directed-acyclic graph is first constructed and later, Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm is employed to determine the noW value between two terms as the geodesic distance between the corresponding topics (i.e. nodes) in the graph.
 VGEM (Vector Generation of an Explicitly-defined Multidimensional Semantic Space) (+) incremental vocab, can compare multi-word terms (−) performance depends on choosing specific dimensions
 SimRank
 NASARI: Sparse vector representations constructed by applying the hypergeometric distribution over the Wikipedia corpus in combination with BabelNet taxonomy. Cross-lingual similarity is currently also possible thanks to the multilingual and unified extension.

Semantics-based similarity
 Marker Passing: Combining Lexical Decomposition for automated Ontology Creation and Marker Passing the approach of Fähndrich et al. introduces a new type of semantic similarity measure. Here markers are passed from the two target concepts carrying an amount of activation. This activation might increase or decrease depending on the relations weight with which the concepts are connected. This combines edge and node based approaches and includes connectionist reasoning with symbolic information.
 Good Common Subsumer-(GCS)-based Semantic Similarity Measure

Semantics Similarity Networks
 A semantic similarity network (SSN) is a special form of semantic network. designed to represent concepts and their semantic similarity. Its main contribution is reducing the complexity of calculating semantic distances. Bendeck (2004, 2008) introduced the concept of semantic similarity networks (SSN) as the specialization of a semantic network to measure semantic similarity from ontological representations. Implementations include genetic information handling.

Gold standards
Researchers have collected datasets with similarity judgements on pairs of words, which are used to evaluate the cognitive plausibility of computational measures. The golden standard up to today is an old 65 word list where humans have judged the word similarity. For a list of datasets, and an overview of the state of the art see https://www.aclweb.org/.

 RG65
 MC30
 WordSim353

See also

 Analogy
 Componential analysis
 Coherence (linguistics)
 Levenshtein distance
 Semantic differential
 Semantic similarity network
 Terminology extraction
 Word2vec

References

Sources

 Gabrilovich, E. and Markovitch, S. (2007). Computing Semantic Relatedness using Wikipedia-based Explicit Semantic Analysis, Proceedings of the 20th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI), Hyderabad, India, January 2007.
 Lee, M. D., Pincombe, B., & Welsh, M. (2005). An empirical evaluation of models of text document similarity. In B. G. Bara & L. Barsalou & M. Bucciarelli (Eds.), 27th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, CogSci2005 (pp. 1254–1259). Austin, Tx: The Cognitive Science Society, Inc.
 Lemaire, B., & Denhiére, G. (2004). Incremental construction of an associative network from a corpus. In K. D. Forbus & D. Gentner & T. Regier (Eds.), 26th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, CogSci2004. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publisher.

 Navigli, R., Lapata, M. (2010). "An Experimental Study of Graph Connectivity for Unsupervised Word Sense Disambiguation". IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (TPAMI), 32(4), IEEE Press, 2010, pp. 678–692.

 Wong, W., Liu, W. & Bennamoun, M. (2008) Featureless Data Clustering. In: M. Song and Y. Wu; Handbook of Research on Text and Web Mining Technologies; IGI Global.  (the use of NGD and noW for term and URI clustering)

External links
 List of related literature

Survey articles
 Conference article: C. d'Amato, S. Staab, N. Fanizzi. 2008. On the Influence of Description Logics Ontologies on Conceptual Similarity. In Proceedings of the 16th international conference on Knowledge Engineering: Practice and Patterns Pages 48 – 63. Acitrezza, Italy, Springer-Verlag
 Journal article on the more general topic of relatedness, also including similarity: Z. Zhang, A. Gentile, F. Ciravegna. 2013. Recent advances in methods of lexical semantic relatedness - a survey. Natural Language Engineering 19 (4), 411–479, Cambridge University Press
 Book: S. Harispe, S. Ranwez, S. Janaqi, J. Montmain. 2015. Semantic Similarity from Natural Language and Ontology Analysis, Morgan & Claypool Publishers.

Computational linguistics
Statistical distance

Semantic similarity


Jeremiah Augustus ("Gus") Henderson was a businessman and captain of the Confederate army from Gainers Store, Alabama.  His sons include Charles Henderson, former governor of Alabama, and Fox Henderson, a successful banking and business entrepreneur.

Early life
Jeremiah Augustus ("Gus") Henderson was born June 12, 1832, in Gainers Store, Alabama (now Henderson, Alabama).  He spent his childhood and teenage years helping out in the store owned by his parents, Eli and Mary Darby Henderson.  This early exposure to business would have a profound effect on his adulthood:  As Henderson grew up, he expanded his businesses and gained a reputation for both his leadership skills and his business savvy.

The Civil War
As tensions built between the North and the South, Henderson was chosen as one of three delegates to represent Pike County at Alabama's state secession convention.  Henderson, a member of the Whig party, was personally opposed to secession, but he acted in accordance with his constituents and voted in favor of secession from the Union.

Alabama officially seceded from the Union on January 11, 1861.  A few months later, the American Civil War began after Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina.  Unsure of the future, Henderson sold all of his businesses and invested the money in land before joining the Confederate Army.  Henderson was a captain in the 57th Alabama Infantry Unit, Company B; he remained in the Confederate Army throughout the duration of the war.

Return to Pike County
After the Civil War ended, Henderson returned home to Gainers Store.  He began farming on some of his land, and he opened a mercantile store with $550 of his father's money.  His business expanded rapidly, and Henderson found it difficult to transport and receive shipments by wagon.  In 1869, Henderson moved his mercantile business to the nearby city of Troy, Alabama to be closer to the Mobile and Girard Railroad.  Henderson quickly became one of the most successful (and wealthiest) businessmen in southeastern Alabama; his trade extended beyond Troy to other parts of Alabama and Florida.

Family life
Gus Henderson married Mildred Elizabeth ("Millie") Hill when he was 21 years old.  The couple had seven children, including future Alabama governor Charles Henderson and future Troy business leader Fox Henderson.

Jeremiah "Gus" Henderson died suddenly on April 6, 1877.  He was 46 years old.  He is buried with his wife, Mildred, in Oakwood Cemetery in Troy, Alabama.  Henderson's direct descendants living today include Jeremiah Augustus ("Jere") Henderson II and Jeremiah Augustus ("Jeremy") Henderson III.

References

1832 births
1877 deaths
19th-century American businesspeople
People from Pike County, Alabama
Confederate States Army officers
Alabama Secession Delegates of 1861
People of Alabama in the American Civil War

Jeremiah Augustus Henderson


Termitomyces umkowaan is a species of agaric fungus in the family Lyophyllaceae. Found in South Africa, it was described as new to science in 1889 by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke and George Edward Massee from collections made in Durban. Cooke noted that was "called Umkowaan by the natives, and is delicious when cooked, much superior to the common mushroom." Derek Reid transferred the fungus to the genus Termitomyces in 1975.

References

Lyophyllaceae
Edible fungi
Fungi described in 1889
Fungi of Africa
Taxa named by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke

Termitomyces umkowaan


The International Religious Freedom Report 2007, of U.S. Department of State, estimated that more than 8 million foreigners are living and working in Saudi Arabia, including Muslims and non-Muslims.

There are 400,000 Sri Lankans, as well as a few thousand Buddhist workers from East Asia, the majority of which are: Chinese, Vietnamese, and Taiwanese. There is also a possibility that a percentage of Nepalese immigrants also help make up the estimated 8 million foreign residents in Saudi Arabia.

This amount of foreign inhabitants makes about 1.5% of Saudi Arabia's population Buddhists, or around 400,000 nominal Buddhists, most likely giving Saudi Arabia the largest Buddhist community in the Middle East or Arab World.

See also
 Index of Buddhism-related articles

References

The US State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia
Religion in Saudi Arabia

Buddhism in Saudi Arabia


Agence France-Presse (AFP) is a French international news agency headquartered in Paris, France. Founded in 1835 as Havas, it is the world's oldest news agency.

With 2,400 employees of 100 nationalities, AFP has an editorial presence in 260 cities across 151 countries. Its main regional headquarters are based in Nicosia, Montevideo, Hong Kong and Washington, D.C. AFP publishes stories, videos, photos and graphics in French, English, Arabic, Portuguese, Spanish, and German. Two-thirds of its turnover comes from its own commercial activities, with the remaining one-third being provided by the French government (amounting to 113.3 million euros in 2022) as compensation for carrying out its mission of general interest.

History
Agence France-Presse has its origins in the Agence Havas, founded in 1835 in Paris by Charles-Louis Havas, making it the world's oldest news service. The agency pioneered the collection and dissemination of news as a commodity, and had established itself as a fully global concern by the late 19th century. Two Havas employees, Paul Julius Reuter and Bernhard Wolff, set up their own news agencies in London and Berlin respectively.

In 1940, when German forces occupied France during World War II, the news agency was taken over by the authorities and renamed "Office français d'information" (French Information Office); only the private advertising company retained the name Havas. On 20 August 1944, as Allied forces moved on Paris, a group of journalists in the French Resistance seized the offices of the FIO and issued the first news dispatch from the liberated city under the name of Agence France-Presse.

Established as a state enterprise, AFP devoted the post-war years to developing its network of international correspondents. One of them was the first Western journalist to report the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin on 6 March 1953.
AFP was keen to shake off its semi-official status, and on 10 January 1957, the French Parliament passed a law establishing its independence. Since that date, the proportion of the agency's revenues generated by subscriptions from government departments has steadily declined. Such subscriptions represented 115 million euros in 2011.

In 1982, the agency began to decentralize its editorial decision-making by setting up the first of its five autonomous regional centres, in Hong Kong, then a British dependent territory. Each region has its own budget, administrative director and chief editor. In September 2007, the AFP Foundation was launched to promote higher standards of journalism worldwide.

The Mitrokhin Archive identified six agents and two confidential KGB contacts inside Agence France-Presse who were used in Soviet operations in France.

In 1991, AFP set up a joint venture with Extel to create a financial news service, AFX News. It was sold in 2006 to Thomson Financial.

In October 2008, the Government of France announced moves to change AFP's status, including the involvement of outside investors. On 27 November of that year, the main trade unions represented in the company's home base of France – the CGT, Force Ouvrière, Syndicat national des journalistes, Union syndicale des journalistes CFDT and
SUD, launched an online petition to oppose what they saw as an attempt to privatise the agency.

On 10 December 2009, the French Culture Minister Frédéric Mitterrand announced that he was setting up a Committee of Experts under former AFP CEO Henri Pigeat to study plans for the agency's future status. On February 24, 2010, Pierre Louette unexpectedly announced his intention to resign as CEO by the end of March, and move to a job with France Télécom.

In November 2013, AFP and Getty Images were ordered to pay $1.2 million compensation to freelance photojournalist Daniel Morel for using his images posted on Twitter related to the 2010 Haiti earthquake without his permission, in violation of copyright and Twitter's terms of service.

AFP's statute was changed in 2015 to bring it into line with European legislation through Law No. 2015-433 of 17 April 2015. The State's financing of AFP was thus modified and was structured into two components:
 Financial compensation for the Agency's missions of general interest
 Commercial subscriptions from the State

The current CEO and chairman is Fabrice Fries and the Global News Director is Phil Chetwynd.

Notable journalists

 Arman Soldin (1991–2023), Franco-Bosnia video journalist, killed during a rocket strike in Ukraine
 Massoud Hossaini (1981–), 2012 Pulitzer Prize winner
 Javier Manzano (1975–), 2013 Pulitzer Prize winner
 Shah Marai (1977–2018), Afghan photojournalist based in Kabul, killed during a bombing attack

Distinctions
AFP was voted "Best News Agency" in 2021 and 2020 by the AIB (Association of International Broadcasters).

Two photographers won the Pulitzer Prize for an AFP photo: Massoud Hossaini for his photo of a young girl in tears after a suicide bombing in Kaboul (1st place in the category Breaking News), and Javier Manzano in 2013 for his photo of two Syrian rebel soldiers in a room lit by rays of sunlight shining through bullet holes in the wall (1st place in the category Photo Magazine).

The World Press photo of the year has been awarded on three occasions to AFP photographers: Hocine Zaourar in 1998 for his photo of a woman in tears in front of a hospital in Algiers, Ronaldo Schemidt in 2018 for his photo of a man running while on fire during a series of riots in Caracas, and Yasuyoshi Chiba in 2020 for his photo of young protesters in Khartoum.

The Albert Londres Prize has been awarded to AFP journalists on five occasions: Patrick Meney in 1983, Sammy Ketz in 1988, AFP's Moscow office in 1995, Michel Moutot in 1999, and Emmanuel Duparcq in 2011.

Five AFP collaborators have won the Rory Peck Prize: Pacôme Pabandji in 2014, Zein Al-Rifai in 2015, Will Vassilopoulos in 2016, Luis Sequeira in 2019, and Solan Kolli in 2021.

The Visa d'Or (in the category News) has been awarded on four occasions to AFP photographers (Georges Gobet in 2003, Bülent Kilic in 2015, Aris Messinis in 2016, Guillermo Arias in 2019), as well as Sameer Al-Doumy who won the Visa d'Or Humanitaire in 2022.

Furthermore, AFP was distinguished by the "Covering Climate Now Journalism Awards" in 2021 for photos taken by Josh Edelson and in 2022 (in the category "Video – Short Feature").

Prizes and awards
In 1983, the Albert Londres Prize was awarded to Patrick Meney, who wrote a series of articles about 600 French people forcibly detained in the Gulag after World War II. In 1984, his book Les Mains coupées de la Taïga was published.

In 1988, Sammy Ketz received the next Albert Londres Prize. Together with his colleague from the liberation movement, Serge Chalandon, he covered the events of the Libyan Civil War for 6 years.

On October 17, 2014, AFP international director Michèle Léridon received the Investigation and Reporting Award at the International Congress of Journalism and Information. Michèle Léridon sat the author of the article "Covering ISIS", which was posted on the agency's blog.

In December 2014, Bülent Kiliç was named Time magazine Photojournalist of the Year for his coverage of events in the Middle East and Europe. The photographer received the same acknowledgement from The Guardian newspaper.

AFP projects
AFP Graphics

In 1988, the agency has its own department of infographics – AFP Graphics, which today creates about 70 graphics per day. According to the information provided by the agency's website, thematically infographics have the following distribution: 31% – politics, 27% – economics, 18% – sports, 12% – society, 10% – general news, 2% – culture and media. Infographics are available in 6 languages: French, English, Arabic, Portuguese, Spanish and German.

AFP Forum

In 2014, AFP launches a content platform that is available on all electronic media: computers, tablets and mobile phones. AFP Forum is divided into several sections, including homepage, text materials, photos, videos and graphics. News can be filtered by headings (news, business, sports, science), hashtags and by geographical regions (Africa, North America, Europe, etc.). All information is available in 6 languages: French, English, Arabic, Portuguese, Spanish, German, Traditional and Simplified Chinese. In total, there are about 1250 illustrated materials per day, available in XML, HTML, TXT, NewsML or WML formats.

AFP Video services

In July 2001, the agency announced the launch of AFP Video services, a video graphics division. Already in 2007, the agency launches AFPTV – a project in which all news from 2011 appear in HD video format. As of 2015, 200 videos in 7 languages appear on the site every day.

Mobile services

In 2008, Mobile services appeared – a separate digital platform for mobile phones. News in Mobile services is available in 6 languages (French, English, Arabic, Portuguese, Spanish, German) and is divided into 22 thematic blocks: world news, world sports, football, top pages, Middle East, US news, Asia and Pacific news region, photos, videos, UK news, Africa, business, sports in the US, South African news, science, cricket, US politics, culture, Canada, lifestyle, technology and media, more. In addition to the section by headings, the news is divided into 100 categories (crime, energy, military conflicts, human rights, etc.), 43 countries, 70 cities and 100 hashtags. There is also a general search.

Statutes
AFP operates under a 1957 law as a commercial business independent of the French government. AFP is administered by a CEO and a board comprising 15 members:
 Eight representatives of the French press;
 Two representatives of AFP personnel;
 Two representatives of Public Services radio and television;
 Three representatives of the government. One is named by the prime minister, another by the minister of finance, and a third by the minister of foreign affairs.

The mission of AFP is defined in its statute:
 Agence France-Presse may under no circumstances take account of influences or considerations liable to compromise the exactitude or the objectivity of the information it provides; it may under no circumstances fall under the control, either de facto or de jure, of any ideological, political or economic grouping;
 Agence France-Presse must, to the full extent that its resources permit, develop and enhance its organisation so as to provide French and foreign users with exact, impartial and trustworthy information on a regular and uninterrupted basis;
 Agence France-Presse must, to the full extent that its resources permit, ensure the existence of a network of facilities giving it the status of a worldwide information service.

The board elects the CEO for a renewable term of three years. AFP also has a council charged with ensuring that the agency operates according to its statutes, which mandate absolute independence and neutrality. Editorially, AFP is governed by a network of senior journalists.

The primary client of AFP is the French government, which purchases subscriptions for its various services. In practice, those subscriptions are an indirect subsidy to AFP. The statutes of the agency prohibit direct government subsidies.

Number of employees
Based in Paris, AFP covers 151 countries, with 201 offices, 50 local correspondents and five regional centres:

Washington (North America)
Hong Kong (Asia-Pacific)
Montevideo (Latin America)
Nicosia (Middle East)
Paris (Europe and Africa)

AFP says it employs 2,400 people of 100 nationalities, including 1,700 journalists. It provides information in six languages (French, English, Spanish, German, Portuguese and Arabic), twenty-four hours a day.

Investments
Notable investments include:
 thAFP GmbH
 AFP GmbH is the subsidiary of AFP in Germany, producing German-language services for local press, internet and corporate clients.
 SID
 Sport-Informations-Dienst (SID) is producing a German-language sports service.
 Citizenside
 In 2007, AFP  purchased a 34% stake in Scooplive, a citizen news photo and video agency online. Established in France in 2006, Scooplive was renamed Citizenside after this investment, but AFP soon sold its shares to news aggregator Newzulu.

See also
 List of news agencies

References

External links

International organizations based in France
1835 establishments in France
Companies established in 1835
Mass media companies of France
Companies based in Paris
Mass media in Paris

Agence France-Presse


A magnetic field line or magnetic flux line shows the direction of a magnet's force and the strength of a magnet.

The idea of lines of force was invented by Michael Faraday. His theory is that all of reality is made up of force itself. His theory predicts that electricity, light, and gravity have finite propagation delays. Einstein's theory agrees with this.

One can make magnetic field lines show as if they were physical phenomena. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field line up to form lines that correspond to 'field lines'.

If there are a lot of lines through a magnet and not a great space between them, the magnet is strong. If the lines between a magnet are far apart and there aren't many lines, the magnet is weak. A way of determining the strength of a magnet is to do an experiment with iron filings. The iron filings will get attracted to the magnet and move into the shape of the flux lines. You then look at the shape of the iron filings and see the gap between the flux lines. This gives you an idea of the strength of the magnet.

The use of iron filings to display a field alters the magnetic field so that it is much larger along the "lines" of iron. This caused by the large permeability of iron relative to air. Magnetic fields' "lines" are also visually displayed in polar auroras, when particles cause visible streaks of light that line up with the local direction of Earth's magnetic field.

Magnetic field lines are like the contour lines (constant altitude) on a topographic map in that they represent something continuous, and a different mapping scale would show more or fewer lines. There is an advantage to using magnetic field lines as a representation. Many laws of magnetism (and electromagnetism) can be stated completely and concisely using simple concepts such as the 'number' of field lines through a surface. These concepts can be quickly 'translated' to their mathematical form.

The actual magnetic field itself does not have "lines" in it; the "lines" are solely the iron filings becoming polarized themselves, reacting to each other and the field, lining up N and S with respect to each other in the field. If you could see the actual fields of force, it would be shaded and gradient, with a heavier, thicker shade near the stronger part of the magnet, fading the further you get from the source. And in all 3 dimensions, which iron filing demonstrations cannot reproduce. Ferrofluids will react in all 3 dimensions and can more accurately reproduce a field, except for gravity creating a weight restriction. Holding a strong magnet in front of a CRT-type monitor with a white screen can also give a representation of the fields, without any "lines of force" visible. The issue with using ferro/magnetic materials to view a field is, the materials themselves become magnetized and change the original field to include their own influence.

References

Magnetism

Magnetic field line


Phumulani is a nonprofit organization dedicated to preventing domestic violence and sexual abuse in communities of color throughout Minnesota and globally.

History
Phumulani was founded by Comfort Dondo, a survivor of childhood sexual abuse and domestic violence. Born and raised in Zimbabwe and now residing in Minnesota, Comfort's struggle with domestic violence was compounded by the inability of women's shelters in America to provide the language, cultural and societal resources she and her children needed to feel safe and supported. Often, she found herself back in her abuser's home with no alternative.

Now free from the dangerous situation, Comfort wants to make sure women and children of African descent have the cultural resources they need to feel comfortable in sharing their stories and recovering from their experiences. She understands firsthand that individuals who have fled African countries to save their lives often have lasting trauma that needs to be acknowledged and treated holistically to ensure long-term progress.

Meaning of the name Phumulani
Comfort created Phumulani, named for a Zulu word meaning "lover of peace," as a way of helping African immigrants and refugees in Minnesota. It is truly a place where survivors of gender-based abuse and violence can find peace and recovery.

Mission of Phumulani

To stop violence and abuse of women and children. Phumulani is a non-profit organization dedicated to preventing domestic violence and sexual abuse in communities of color throughout Minnesota and the nation. By providing culturally-specific resources to women and girls of African descent, we hope to change the cycle of gender-based abuse in the vulnerable populations.

References

Non-profit organizations of the United States
Domestic violence

Phumulani


This is a list of prime ministers of New Zealand by place of birth. Of New Zealand's forty-one prime ministers, nineteen were born in New Zealand, nineteen in the United Kingdom (including one in what is now the Republic of Ireland, but was then part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland), two in Australia, and one in Portugal. Of those born in New Zealand, eleven were born in the North Island, and eight in the South Island. All prime ministers in office since 1960 have been born in New Zealand.

Australia (2)
 Joseph Ward – Melbourne, Victoria
 Michael Joseph Savage – Tatong, Victoria

New Zealand (19)

North Island (11)
 John Key – Auckland
 David Lange – Auckland
 Robert Muldoon – Auckland
 Jacinda Ardern – Hamilton, Waikato
 Helen Clark – Hamilton, Waikato
 Chris Hipkins – Hutt Valley, Wellington
 Gordon Coates – Kaipara Harbour
 Jim Bolger – Ōpunake, Taranaki
 Keith Holyoake – Mangamutu, Manawatū
 Jack Marshall – Wellington
 Mike Moore – Whakatāne, Bay of Plenty

South Island (8)
 Bill English – Lumsden, Southland
 Francis Bell – Nelson
 Geoffrey Palmer – Nelson
 George Forbes – Lyttelton, Canterbury
 Jenny Shipley – Gore, Southland
 Sidney Holland – Greendale, Canterbury
 Norman Kirk – Waimate, Canterbury
 Bill Rowling – Motueka, Tasman Region

Portugal (1)
 George Grey – Lisbon

United Kingdom (19)

England (12)
 Frederick Whitaker – Bampton, Oxfordshire
 Frederick Weld – Bridport, Dorset
 Harry Atkinson – Broxton, Cheshire
 Alfred Domett – Camberwell, Surrey
 Richard Seddon – Eccleston, Lancashire
 William Hall-Jones – Folkestone, Kent
 Walter Nash – Kidderminster, Worcestershire
 John Hall – Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire
 Julius Vogel – London
 Henry Sewell – Newport, Isle of Wight
 George Waterhouse – Penzance, Cornwall
 William Fox – South Shields, County Durham

Ireland (3)
 Daniel Pollen – Dublin, Leinster (now the Republic of Ireland)
 John Ballance – Glenavy, Ulster
 William Massey – Limavady, Ulster

Scotland (4)
 Thomas Mackenzie – Edinburgh
 Edward Stafford – Edinburgh
 Robert Stout – Lerwick, Shetland Islands
 Peter Fraser – Tain, Ross and Cromarty

See also
 Immigration to New Zealand
 List of prime ministers of New Zealand
 List of prime ministers of New Zealand by age

Place of birth
Prime
Birthplaces
New Zealand

List of prime ministers of New Zealand by place of birth


Digvijaya, (Sanskrit: दिग्विजय; Dig:"Direction" and Vijaya:"Victory"), in India was originally a Sanskrit term that meant conquest of the "four quarters", in a military or a moral context. In medieval times, it came to refer to the religious conquest by reputed founders of the major Hindu renunciate traditions, namely Madhva, Sankara, Chaitanya, and Vallabha.

Military and moral conquest
Digvijaya as a military conquest is often mentioned in Indian history and mythology, for example, the digvijaya of Bharata Chakravartin. It was followed by rituals confirming the divine grace and imperial authority of the conqueror. With his conquest, the Chakravartin unified India as a "moral empire" governed by a higher order.  The Buddhist Digha Nikaya (Chapter 26.6-7), also talks about a wheel-turning monarch (Cakravartin), who propagates Dharma in the four corners under his rulership.

Religious conquest
According to Sax, the religious connotation to the term digvijaya may have emerged as a response to the decline of the royal digvijaya, consequent to the Muslim conquest  of most of India.

Madhva Digvijayam
Sumadhva Vijaya, ("The story of the victory of Madhva,") also referred as Sri Madhva Vijaya, (or simply as Madhva Vijaya), is a 14th century hagiographical work of the Dvaita philosopher Sri Madhvacharya. It was composed by Sri Narayana Panditacharya, who was the son of Sri Trivikrama Panditacharya, a direct disciple of Madhvacharya and a famous Advaita exponent before his conversion to the Madhva faith.

Sumadhva Vijaya is a Mahakavya, ('great poem'), a specific Sanskrit literary genre, containing sixteen "sargas" or cantos. It starts with a description of the first two Avatars of Vayu, namely Hanuman and Bhima. It then proceeds to describe the life of Sri Madhva, who is considered the third avatar, giving detailed descriptions of various incidents of Sri Madhva's life.

Several commentaries have been written on it, including one written by Sri Narayana Panditacharya, called Bhava Prakashika. The next oldest commentary  on Sumadhva Vijaya is by Sri Vedanga Tirtha, called Padartha Dipika. Another relevant commentary is the Padartha Dipikodbodhika by Sri Vishwapati Tirtha of Pejawara Matha. "Mandopakarini" of Sri Chalari Sheshacharya is also quite popular

Shankara Vijayams
Shankara Vijayams (IAST ) are traditional hagiographies of the Advaita Vedanta exegete Adi Shankara, describing his 'conquest of the four quarters'. In these hagiographies, Shankara is deified as a ruler-renunciate, bringing harmony to the four quarters. The genre may have been modelled on the digvijayas of Madhva, since the oldest Shankara-hagiography post-dates Madhva (1238-1317). The Shankara-digvijayams mimick the royal digvijayams, as his 'conquest of the four quarters' and the establishment of his kingdom is followed by his coronation with this ascent of the Throne of Omniscience (sarvajña-pīṭha), akin to the rajasuya rites.

The main Shankaravijayams are:
 Anandagirīya Shankaravijayam (of Anandagiri, not extant)
 Anantanadagiri Shankaravijayam (extant from 15th century, but controversial in nature)
 Cidvilāsīya Shankaravijayam (of Chidvilasa, c. between 15th century and 17th century
 Keralīya Shankaravijayam (extant in Kerala, c. 17th century)
 Madhavīya Shankara (Dig)vijayam (of Madhava). Usually attributed to Madhava-Vidyaranya, and dated to the 14th century. The attribution and dating is disputed; the author was a Madhavi, and the correct date seems to be the 17th or even 18th century.

See also
 Shiva Digvijaya

Notes

References

Sources

External links
Madhva
 Discourse on Sumadhva Vijaya (Kannada) by Vidwan Vyasanakere Prabhanjanacharya.
 Biographical links to Madhvacharya and other dvaita resources
 Madhva and other Dvaita saints text resource
 Complete Biography of Sriman Madhvacharya

 Madhwa Vijaya Audio

Shankara
The Sankaravijaya Literature—  a detailed discussion of the various Shankara Vijayams

Hinduism

Digvijaya (conquest)


Khayr Pūlād (Ḫayr-Pūlād) or Mīr Pūlād was khan of the Golden Horde in 1362–1364. He held the traditional capital Sarai during a period of civil war among rival contenders for the throne. Throughout his reign, the westernmost portion of the Golden Hode was under the control of the beglerbeg Mamai and his puppet khan ʿAbdallāh, while the easternmost portion was under the control of the heirs of Qara Nogai.

Origins
Khayr Pūlād or Mīr Pūlād has been identified with Pūlād, a descendant of Jochi's son Shiban. The Muʿizz al-ansāb and the Tawārīḫ-i guzīdah-i nuṣrat-nāmah give his descent as follows: Chinggis Khan - Jochi - Shiban - Bahadur - Jochi-Buqa - Bādāqūl - Ming-Tīmūr - Pūlād. The identification is plausible; more tentative are the proposed identifications with Pūlād Khwāja, who coined at Gülistan in 1365, and Pūlād Tīmūr or rather Ūljāy Tīmūr, who coined at Gülistan in 1368. Yet another Pūlād Tīmūr was the non-Jochid emir of Bolghar, who governed autonomously and at times issued coins in the name of the long-dead khan Jani Beg. Ūljāy Tīmūr appears to have been a Tuqa-Timurid and therefore a distinct individual.

Career
If Khayr Pūlād's ancestry is correctly identified, he was the first member of his branch of the Shibanids to take the throne of Sarai; the earlier khans Khiḍr, Tīmūr Khwāja, and Murād belonged to a different branch of the same family. Khayr Pūlād appears to have headed the Ulus of Shiban, which may have provided him with the manpower and resources to stake his own claim on the throne of the Golden Horde, disputed among several contenders. Khayr Pūlād may have exploited the struggle between his distant cousin Murād and first Kildi Beg, then Mamai, to seize Sarai in late 1362. Whether he took the city from Mamai's protégé ʿAbdallāh or from Murād remains unclear. While Murād, ensconced at Gülistan, and Mamai continued to fight each other, Khayr Pūlād attempted to suborn some of Mamai's emirs in the Crimea, for example issuing tax exemptions for a certain emir Ḥājjī Beg and his clan, the Shuraqul. This caused Mamai to prioritize fighting Khayr Pūlād rather than Murād. Mamai advanced on Sarai. He either defeated or weakened Khayr Pūlād, who lost possession of Sarai, apparently to another Shibanid, ʿAzīz Shaykh, in the autumn of 1364. Khayr Pūlād replaced Murād as ruler of Gülistan, although whether he is identical with the Pūlād Khwāja who issued coins there in 1365 remains unclear. Eventually, Gülistan also found itself under the rule of ʿAzīz Shaykh, by the fall of 1365. Whether Khayr Pūlād perished during these changes of fortune or returned to the Ulus of Shiban is unknown.

Descendants
Khayr Pūlād was eventually followed on the throne of Sarai by several members of his family, including a nephew,  Ḥasan Beg (1368–1369), a brother, Īl Beg (1374), and another nephew, Qāghān Beg (1375–1377). The last gave way to Khayr Pūlād's son ʿArab Shāh, who reigned in 1377–1380; he was an ancestor of the Shibanid khans of Khwarazm, later Khiva.

Genealogy
Genghis Khan
Jochi
Shiban
Bahadur
Jochi-Buqa
Bādāqūl
Ming-Tīmūr
Khayr-Pūlād (Mīr-Pūlād)

See also
List of Khans of the Golden Horde

References

 Desmaisons, P. I. (transl.), Histoire des Mongols et des Tatares par Aboul-Ghâzi Béhâdour Khân, St Petersburg, 1871–1874.
 Gaev, A. G., "Genealogija i hronologija Džučidov," Numizmatičeskij sbornik 3 (2002) 9-55.
 Howorth, H. H., History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century. Part II.1, II.2. London, 1880.
 Judin, V. P., Utemiš-hadži, Čingiz-name, Alma-Ata, 1992.
 Počekaev, R. J., Cari ordynskie: Biografii hanov i pravitelej Zolotoj Ordy. Saint Petersburg, 2010a.
 Počekaev, R. J., Mamaj: Istorija "anti-geroja" v istorii, Sankt-Peterburg, 2010b.
 Sabitov, Ž. M., Genealogija "Tore", Astana, 2008.
 Safargaliev, M. G., Raspad Zolotoj Ordy. Saransk, 1960.
 Sagdeeva, R. Z., Serebrjannye monety hanov Zolotoj Ordy, Moscow, 2005.
 Seleznëv, J. V., Èlita Zolotoj Ordy, Kazan', 2009.
 Sidorenko, V. A., "Hronologija pravlenii zolotoordynskih hanov 1357-1380 gg.," Materialov po arheologii, istorii i ètnografii Tavrii 7 (2000) 267–288.
 Sorogin, E. I., "K voprosu o genealogii hanov Zolotoj Ordy v period Velikoj Zamjatni," https://ist-konkurs.ru/raboty/2007/965-k-voprosu-o-genealogii-khanov-zolotoj-ordy-v-period-velikoj-zamyatni
 Tizengauzen, V. G. (trans.), Sbornik materialov, otnosjaščihsja k istorii Zolotoj Ordy. Izvlečenija iz arabskih sočinenii, republished as Istorija Kazahstana v arabskih istočnikah. 1. Almaty, 2005.
 Tizengauzen, V. G. (trans.), Sbornik materialov otnosjaščihsja k istorii Zolotoj Ordy. Izvlečenija iz persidskih sočinenii, republished as Istorija Kazahstana v persidskih istočnikah. 4. Almaty, 2006.
 Vernadsky, G., The Mongols and Russia, New Haven, 1953.
 Vohidov, Š. H. (trans.), Istorija Kazahstana v persidskih istočnikah. 3. Muʿizz al-ansāb. Almaty, 2006.

14th-century Mongol khans
Year of birth unknown
Khans of the Golden Horde
Khans of the White Horde

Khayr Pulad


Chapter and verse divisions did not appear in the original texts of Judeo-Christian bibles; such divisions form part of the paratext of the Bible. Since the early 13th century, most copies and editions of the Bible have presented all but the shortest of the scriptural books with divisions into chapters, generally a page or so in length. Since the mid-16th century, editors have further subdivided each chapter into verses – each consisting of a few short lines or of one or more sentences. In the King James Version (KJV) Esther 8:9 is the longest verse and John 11:35 is the shortest. Sometimes a sentence spans more than one verse, as in the case of Ephesians 2:8–9, and sometimes there is more than one sentence in a single verse, as in the case of Genesis 1:2.

The Jewish divisions of the Hebrew text differ at various points from those used by Christians. For instance, Jewish tradition regards the ascriptions to many Psalms as independent verses or as parts of the subsequent verses, whereas established Christian practice treats each Psalm ascription as independent and unnumbered, resulting in 116 more verses in Jewish versions than in the Christian texts. Some chapter divisions also occur in different places, e.g. Hebrew Bibles have 1 Chronicles 5:27–41 where Christian translations have 1 Chronicles 6:1–15.

History

Chapters
Early manuscripts of the biblical texts did not contain the chapter and verse divisions in the numbered form familiar to modern readers. In antiquity Hebrew texts were divided into paragraphs (parashot) that were identified by two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Peh (פ) indicated an "open" paragraph that began on a new line, while Samekh (ס) indicated a "closed" paragraph that began on the same line after a small space. These two letters begin the Hebrew words open () and closed (), and are, themselves, open in shape (פ) and closed (ס). The earliest known copies of the Book of Isaiah from the Dead Sea Scrolls used parashot divisions, although they differ slightly from the Masoretic divisions.

The Hebrew Bible was also divided into some larger sections. In Israel, the Torah (its first five books) were divided into 154 sections so that they could be read through aloud in weekly worship over the course of three years. In Babylonia, it was divided into 53 or 54 sections (Parashat ha-Shavua) so it could be read through in one year. The New Testament was divided into topical sections known as kephalaia by the fourth century. Eusebius of Caesarea divided the gospels into parts that he listed in tables or canons. Neither of these systems corresponds with modern chapter divisions. (See fuller discussions below.)

Chapter divisions, with titles, are also found in the 9th-century Tours manuscript Paris Bibliothèque Nationale MS Lat. 3, the so-called Bible of Rorigo.

Cardinal archbishop Stephen Langton and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed different schemas for systematic division of the Bible in the early 13th century. It is the system of Archbishop Langton on which the modern chapter divisions are based.

While chapter divisions have become nearly universal, editions of the Bible have sometimes been published without them. Such editions, which typically use thematic or literary criteria to divide the biblical books instead, include John Locke's Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul (1707), Alexander Campbell's The Sacred Writings (1826), Daniel Berkeley Updike's fourteen-volume The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, Richard Moulton's The Modern Reader's Bible (1907), Ernest Sutherland Bates's The Bible Designed to Be Read as Living Literature (1936), The Books of the Bible (2007) from the International Bible Society (Biblica), Adam Lewis Greene's five-volume Bibliotheca (2014), and the six-volume ESV Reader's Bible (2016) from Crossway Books.

Verses

Since at least 916 the Tanakh has contained an extensive system of multiple levels of section, paragraph, and phrasal divisions that were indicated in Masoretic vocalization and cantillation markings. One of the most frequent of these was a special type of punctuation, the sof passuq, symbol for a period or sentence break, resembling the colon (:) of English and Latin orthography. With the advent of the printing press and the translation of the Hebrew Bible into English, versifications were made that correspond predominantly with the existing Hebrew sentence breaks, with a few isolated exceptions. Most attribute these to Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus's work for the first Hebrew Bible concordance around 1440.

The first person to divide New Testament chapters into verses was the Italian Dominican biblical scholar Santes Pagnino (1470–1541), but his system was never widely adopted. His verse divisions in the New Testament were far longer than those known today. The Parisian printer Robert Estienne created another numbering in his 1551 edition of the Greek New Testament, which was also used in his 1553 publication of the Bible in French. Estienne's system of division was widely adopted, and it is this system which is found in almost all modern Bibles. Estienne produced a 1555 Vulgate that is the first Bible to include the verse numbers integrated into the text. Before this work, they were printed in the margins.

The first English New Testament to use the verse divisions was a 1557 translation by William Whittingham (c. 1524–1579). The first Bible in English to use both chapters and verses was the Geneva Bible published shortly afterwards by Sir Rowland Hill in 1560. These verse divisions soon gained acceptance as a standard way to notate verses, and have since been used in nearly all English Bibles and the vast majority of those in other languages.

Jewish tradition

The Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible notes several different kinds of subdivisions within the biblical books:

Passukim
Most important are the verses, or passukim (MH spelling; now pronounced pesukim by all speakers). According to Talmudic tradition, the division of the text into verses is of ancient origin. In Masoretic versions of the Bible, the end of a verse, or sof passuk, is indicated by a small mark in its final word called a silluq (which means "stop"). Less formally, verse endings are usually also indicated by two horizontal dots following the word with a silluq.

Parashot
The Masoretic Text also contains sections, or portions, called parashot or parashiyot. The end of a parashah is usually indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section) or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the parashot is usually thematic. Unlike chapters, the parashot are not numbered, but some of them have special titles.

In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex), an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must always start at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections never start at the beginning of a new line.

Sedarim
Another division of the biblical books found in the Masoretic Text is the division into sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. For the Torah, this division reflects the triennial cycle of reading that was practiced by the Jews of the Land of Israel.

Christian versions
The Byzantines also introduced a concept roughly similar to chapter divisions, called kephalaia (singular kephalaion, literally meaning heading). This system, which was in place no later than the 5th century, is not identical to the present chapters. Unlike the modern chapters, which tend to be of roughly similar length, the distance from one kephalaion mark to the next varied greatly in length both within a book and from one book to the next. For example, the Sermon on the Mount, comprising three chapters in the modern system, has but one kephalaion mark, while the single modern chapter 8 of the Gospel of Matthew has several, one per miracle. Moreover, there were far fewer kephalaia in the Gospel of John than in the Gospel of Mark, even though the latter is the shorter text. In the manuscripts, the kephalaia with their numbers, their standard titles (titloi) and their page numbers would be listed at the beginning of each biblical book; in the book's main body, they would be marked only with arrow-shaped or asterisk-like symbols in the margin, not in the text itself.

The titles usually referred to the first event or the first theological point of the section only, and some kephalaia are manifestly incomplete if one stops reading at the point where the next kephalaion begins (for example, the combined accounts of the miracles of the Daughter of Jairus and of the healing of the woman with a haemorrhage gets two marked kephalaia, one titled of the daughter of the synagogue ruler at the beginning when the ruler approaches Jesus and one titled of the woman with the flow of blood where the woman enters the picture – well before the ruler's daughter is healed and the storyline of the previous kephalaion is thus properly concluded). Thus the kephalaia marks are rather more like a system of bookmarks or links into a continuous text, helping a reader to quickly find one of several well-known episodes, than like a true system of chapter divisions.

Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is often given credit for first dividing the Latin Vulgate into chapters in the real sense, but it is the arrangement of his contemporary and fellow cardinal Stephen Langton who in 1205 created the chapter divisions which are used today. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 16th century. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1553 (Hebrew Bible).

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has received criticism from some traditionalists and modern scholars. Critics state that the text is often divided in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context. Nevertheless, the chapter and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

Several modern publications of the Bible have eliminated numbering of chapters and verses. Biblica published such a version of the NIV in 2007 and 2011. In 2014, Crossway published the ESV Reader's Bible and Bibliotheca published a modified ASV. Projects such as Icthus also exist which strip chapter and verse numbers from existing translations.

Bible statistics
The number of words can vary depending upon aspects such as whether the Hebrew alphabet in Psalm 119, the superscriptions listed in some of the Psalms, and the subscripts traditionally found at the end of the Pauline epistles, are included.

Except where stated, the following apply to the King James Version of the Bible in its modern 66-book Protestant form including the New Testament and the protocanonical Old Testament, not the deuterocanonical books.

Chapters
 There are 929 chapters in the Old Testament.
 187 chapters in the Pentateuch
 249 chapters in the Historical books
 243 chapters in the Poetic books ("Wisdom")
 183 chapters in the Major prophets
 67 chapters in the Minor prophets
 There are 260 chapters in the New Testament.
 89 chapters in the Gospels
 28 chapters in Acts
 87 chapters in the Pauline Epistles (excluding Hebrews)
 34 chapters in the General Epistles (including Hebrews)
 22 chapters in Revelation
 This gives a total of 1,189 chapters (on average, 18 per book).
 Psalm 117, the shortest chapter, is also the middle chapter of the Bible, being the 595th Chapter.
 Psalm 119 is the longest chapter of the Bible.
 Five books are a single chapter: Obadiah, Philemon, 2 & 3 John, Jude. In many printed editions, the chapter number is omitted for these books, and references just use the verse numbers.

Verses
 There are 23,145 verses in the Old Testament and 7,957 verses in the New Testament. This gives a total of 31,102 verses, which is an average of a little more than 26 verses per chapter and 471 verses per book.
 Psalm 103:1–2 being the 15,551st and 15,552nd verses is in the middle of the 31,102 verses of the Bible.
 John 11:35 ("Jesus wept") is the shortest verse in most English translations. Some translations—including the New International Version, New Living Translation, New Life Version, Holman Christian Standard Bible and New International Reader's Version—render Job 3:2 as "He said". However, that is a translators' condensation of the Hebrew which literally translated is: "And Job answered and said."

 The shortest verse in the Greek New Testament is Luke 20:30 ("και ο δευτερος", "And the second") with twelve letters, according to the Westcott and Hort text. In the Textus Receptus, the shortest verse is 1 Thessalonians 5:16 ("παντοτε χαιρετε", "Rejoice always") with fourteen letters, since Stephanus' rendering of Luke 20:30 includes some additional words.
 1 Chronicles 1:24 ("Σαλα", "Shelah") is the shortest verse in the Septuagint.
 1 Kings 12:24 is the longest verse in the Septuagint (1,017 words).
 Isaiah 10:8 ("", "For he shall say") is the shortest verse in the Latin Vulgate.
 Esther 8:9 is the longest verse in the Masoretic Text. The discovery of several manuscripts at Qumran (in the Dead Sea Scrolls) has reopened what is considered the most original text of 1 Samuel 11; if one believes that those manuscripts better preserve the text, several verses in 1 Samuel 11 surpass Esther 8:9 in length.
 Exodus 20:13,14,15 and Deuteronomy 5:17 are the shortest verses in the Masoretic Text.
 John 11:25 is the most read verse in funerals.

See also

 Bible
 Bible citation
 List of omitted Bible (New Testament) verses
 Parashah

References

External links
 How Many Words In Each Book of the Bible Sortable table of data about chapters, verses, words, and other info on each Bible book
 STEP Documentation
 OSIS Documentation

13th-century introductions

Referencing systems

Chapters and verses of the Bible


The Pensky–Martens closed-cup flash-point test is a test for the determination of the flash point of flammable liquids. It is standardized as ASTM D93, EN ISO 2719 and IP 34  The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has also published Method 1010A: Test Methods for Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester, part of Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods, which references the ASTM standard series D93. The Pensky-Martens test is a closed-cup method as opposed to the Cleveland open-cup method.

Test Procedure

A brass test cup is filled with a test specimen and closed with a lid, through which an ignition source can be introduced periodically. The sample is heated and stirred at specified rates depending on the material that is being tested. This allows the development of an equilibrium between the liquid and the air volume. The ignition source is directed into the cup at regular intervals with simultaneous interruption of stirring. The test concludes upon observation of a flash that spreads throughout the inside of the cup. The corresponding temperature is the liquid's flash point.

Critique of test method
The different flash point methods depend on the controlled conditions in the laboratory and do not determine an intrinsic property of the material tested. They are however useful to compare different substances and is therefore widely used in road transportation and environmental safety regulations.

Closed cup testers give lower values for the flashpoint than open-cup testers (typically 5–10 K) and are a better approximation to the temperature at which the vapour pressure reaches the "Lower flammable limit" (LFL).

References

Measuring instruments

Pensky–Martens closed-cup test


James Edward Ware (1846 – April 14, 1918) was an American architect, best known for devising the "dumbbell plan" for New York City tenement housing.

He was born in New York City in 1846, and studied at the City College of New York.  He began his practice in 1869.  His sons Franklin and Arthur were also architects and in 1900 formed the firm James E. Ware and Sons. His son Franklin B. Ware (1873–1945) served as New York State architect from 1907 to 1912.

Ware was an early designer of fireproof warehouses.  He also achieved distinction as a designer of multiple dwellings and is best known for devising the "dumbbell plan" of tenement design for which he received recognition in 1878.  He designed the Osborne Apartments in New York, as well as part of Mohonk Mountain House.  He also designed a number of private residences in New Jersey and New York City and the interior of the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church in 1891.  Among his finest extant buildings is the row of Romanesque Revival houses at 1285-1293 Madison Avenue, on the corner of East 92nd Street, in New York City.  Ware is buried in Maple Grove Cemetery in a gravesite he received in partial payment for designing the Administration Building and receiving vault.

While in practice with his sons, they designed City and Suburban Homes Company's First Avenue Estate, added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.  They also designed dwelling that contribute to the Sagaponack Historic District.

References

External links
Maple Grove Cemetery biography

19th-century American architects
City College of New York alumni
Architects from New York City
1846 births
1918 deaths

James E. Ware