Sant'Antonio Abate is an ancient church of Naples, located at the beginning of the village of the same name: Borgo Sant'Antonio Abate.

Legend has it that the church, placed at the origin of the village of the same name, was founded at the behest of Queen Joanna I of Anjou, but a diploma of King Robert of Anjou, shows that, as early as March 1313, there were church and hospital and that in this place the sick were cured of the disease called "sacred fire" or shingles, a product derived from pig fat.

This church was the site of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George.

In this church there are two most important paintings by Luca Giordano.

External links

Roman Catholic churches in Naples

Sant'Antonio Abate, Naples


General elections were held in Malta on 22 February 1992. The Nationalist Party remained the largest party, winning 34 of the 65 seats.

The Labour party performed very poorly in the 1992 election, losing by nearly 13,000 votes. Mifsud Bonnici resigned due to deteriorating health and on the 26 March Labour elected Alfred Sant as the new leader.

Results

References

General elections in Malta
General
Malta
Malta

1992 Maltese general election


The substantive and procedural laws of Cuba were based on Spanish Civil laws and influenced by the principles of Marxism-Leninism after that philosophy became the government's guiding force. Cuba's most recent Constitution was enacted in 2019.

Principle of equality
Cuban law is dedicated to advancing equality among the Cuban population, according to state sources.

The Family Code

The Family Code covers marriage, divorce, marital property relationships, recognition of children, obligations for children's care and education, adoption, and tutelage. The following are Clauses 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28 of the Cuban Family Code:

24. Marriage is constituted on the basis of equal rights and duties of both partners.

25. The spouses must share the same home, be faithful to one another, help, consider and respect each other. The rights and duties established by this code will subsist in their entirety as long as the marriage has not been legally terminated, in spite of the fact that for justifiable reasons a common household cannot be maintained.

26. Both spouses are obligated to care for the family they have created and cooperate with each other in the education, formation and guidance of their children in line with the principles of socialist morality. As well, each to the extent of his or her capabilities and possibilities must participate in governing the home and cooperate toward its best possible care.

27. The spouses are obligated to contribute toward satisfying the needs of faculties and economic capacities. Nevertheless, if one of the spouses contributes only through his or her work in the home and child-care, the other spouse must provide full economic support without this meaning that he or she be relieved of the obligations of cooperating with the housework and child-care.

28. Both spouses have the right to exercise their professions or crafts and must lend each other reciprocal cooperation and aid to this effect, as well as in order to carry out studies or perfect their training, but in all cases they will take care to organize their home life so that such activities be coordinated with fulfillment of the obligations imposed by this code."

The Cuban people began to discuss the Family Code in the early 1974; they wanted it to become law in time for the FMC Congress. The Family Code was so important to the Cuban people that they deemed it vital to have a complete, "far-reaching" discussion about it. People as young as junior high school students got enthusiastically interested in the Code, and had debates and discussions about it as the first law to have tremendous importance for their future. The plan for the discussion of the code was announced by Blas Roca at the Women's Congress. Roca was a very active member of the Orthodox party, and Secretariat and head of the committee to draft new laws. He is now president of the national People's Assembly. Like all of Cuba's most important laws, the Family Code had been published in a tabloid edition to reach every Cuban; virtually everyone who wanted to read and study it could do so. Cuban people quickly mastered the new code in meetings through trade unions, CDRs, the FMC, and schools. Most Cubans attend more than one of these meetings, until they digest all the information they need to know. Because the government wanted to ensure the Code favors all and not some, people were encouraged at these meetings to ask questions and suggest additions, amendments, and or deletions. "The way this process works is that a record is kept of each meeting, the results are sent through the respective organizations to their highest level, where they are tabulated, computed, and turned over to the original committee (adjacent, at the time, to the party's Central Committee, now adjacent to the National Assembly)." The Family Code was officially given to the Cuban people on March 8, 1975, which marks International Women's Day in Cuba.

Substantive and procedural law

Criminal law
Cuba's criminal code was based on Spanish law until 1956.

Controversial portions of Cuba's criminal code include vague provisions providing for the arrest of persons committing anti-revolutionary acts.

The Cuban criminal code does not cover international law.

Private property

Cuban law has been criticized as offering little to no protection for private property.

In 1992, in response to the Special Period, the Cuban constitution was changed to authorize the limited existence of joint ventures and corporations.

Cuban law also permits the collective ownership of agricultural cooperatives.

In 2010, Cuban leaders Fidel and Raul Castro abandoned the Soviet model of centralized planning. In 2011, new laws where enacted to expand the right to private property. In 2019, a new constitution was approved that recognizes the right to private property, while also asserting the central government's authority over the regulation of production and land.

Economic regulation
Cuba's laws provide for strong government regulation of the economy in almost all of its facets.

History

Pre-1959 legal history
Cuba was a colony of Spain until its independence was won in 1899, following military intervention by the United States (known in the U.S. as the Spanish–American War). It remained under a U.S. military government until 1902, when the U.S. oversaw the creation of a new government. The Diario de sesiones del Congreso de la Republica de Cuba (Daily sessions of the Congress of the Republic of Cuba) show how Cuban law was shaped during this period.

The influence of both U.S. and Spanish rule on Cuban law persisted for decades. For example, the Spanish Penal Code influenced the 1936 Civil Defense Code of Cuba, which remained in effect until 1979. The Spanish Civil Code of 1889 remained in effect (although modified) until 1987. U.S. influence appeared in the form of a supreme court of appeals and judicial review.

Revolutionary period (1959–mid-1970s)

Major laws and changes
After the Cuban Revolution, on January 1, 1959, much of the Constitution of 1940 was reinstated. This did not fulfill the promises in the Manifesto of Montecristi, since Castro's government did not restore the constitution in total and failed to call elections within the 18-month period the manifesto required.

In the revolution's aftermath, the Congress was supplanted by a Council of Ministers, consolidating greater power in the revolutionary government. In the following years, the revolutionary government enacted hundreds of laws and decrees to effect basic change in Cuba's socioeconomic system, such as the First Agrarian Reform Law of May 1959; the Urban Reform Law of October 1960; the Nationalization Law of October 1960; the Nationalization of Education Law of June 1961; and the Second Agrarian Reform Law of October 1963. New institutions, such as the National Institute of Agrarian Reform (INRA), were created to carry out these laws more efficiently.

Revolutionary courts
In February 1962, 45 Cuban Air Force officers were tried for genocide in the civilian courts and acquitted. Castro publicly denounced the acquittal as a miscarriage of justice. In response to the verdict, the Revolutionary Government established "Revolutionary Courts", whose purpose was to try those accused of collaboration with the deposed Batista regime, especially those accused of torture and assassination, and those engaged in counterrevolutionary activity. These courts were criticized for their summary procedures, which limited a defendant's ability to prepare for trial, as well as procedural safeguards, such as the right to appeal a verdict of guilt. It has been noted that these courts produced fast, certain, and severe results. Hundreds of people were found guilty in these proceedings and executed. Hostility toward the Batista regime led to widespread acceptance of these courts among the Cuban people. Supporters of the Revolutionary Courts note that their institution may have prevented "mob justice", as was seen after other periods of revolution and social unrest.

People's popular courts
In the early 1960s, People's Popular Courts were set up, whose goal, according to Castro, was to correct antisocial behavior "not with sanctions in the traditional style, but rather with measures that would have a profound educational spirit". First established in the rural areas of the country, more than 2,200 such courts existed by the end of the 1960s. These courts' proceedings were opened to the public in an effort to maximize their effect. The courts were criticized for overlapping with the jurisdiction of other courts and for inconsistent application of the law.

Institutionalization (mid-1970s–late 1980s)

Need for new legal system
As the 1960s drew to a close, the most radical phase of the revolution had passed and internal counter-revolution had been suppressed. The Cuban government sought to institutionalize the Revolution. Key to this was the creation of a new legal system.

1973 Reforms
In 1973, the Cuban Council of Ministers approved a structure for the new legal system, abolishing the People's Popular Courts and the Revolutionary Courts. In the place of the old legal system, a court system was established with four levels of jurisdiction: Base, District, Provincial, and National (Supreme Court). The Supreme Court was given appellate jurisdiction over four distinct areas of law: civil/administrative, criminal, state security, and military. The reforms of 1973 also saw the end of private legal practice, and all lawyers who continued to provide legal services were required to join legal collectives, known as bufetes colectivos. Also included in the reforms was the creation of "lay judges", who served alongside professional judges and kept alive the popular spirit of the People's Courts. These reforms were criticized on the basis that many judges appointed to serve on these courts were incompetent and that the courts were not administered well.

Constitution of 1976 and socialist legality
In 1976, Cuba formally institutionalized the revolution with the adoption of a new constitution, which provided that the legal system be based on the principle of socialist legality. In constructing its legal system, Cuba looked to the countries of the Socialist Bloc for blueprints. The principle of socialist legality, as articulated by Cuban jurists, is that the role of the law is to create social stability while simultaneously furthering the development of the socialist society through change in Cuban political culture. As a guiding principle, socialist legality is explicitly transformative: its stated purpose is to transform society. This transformative principle penetrates to the heart of the law and has guided the development of Cuban Law since the mid-1970s. The explicit transformative principle of socialist legality sets it apart from the civil law and the common law legal systems, whose underlying principles are based on existing statute and custom, respectively.

Subsequent reforms
Successive reforms were instituted throughout the next 30 years to increase the autonomy of bufetes colectivos and the courts, adapt the courts to changing circumstances, and remedy other administrative problems.

Recent legal history (late 1980s–present)

Collapse of the Eastern Bloc
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the downfall of the Soviet Union, the laws of Cuba changed again to respond to the new conditions of the Special Period. The constitutional amendments of 1992 recognized forms of non-socialist property (joint ventures, corporations, other economic associations) and provided for non-discrimination based on religious belief. For example, persons with religious belief may now join the Cuban Communist Party, although Cuban priests have called this a token gesture, saying that in fact it is difficult for religious people to join the Party. Popular participation in government was expanded with the direct election of National and Provincial assemblies. These changes signify Cuba's abandonment of the Soviet legal model.

2002 Constitutional amendments
In 2002, the Constitution was again amended to make the socialist system permanent and irrevocable. This came at a time when the Varela Project called for greater political freedom in Cuba.

Creation of private property rights
On April 18, 2011, the Sixth Cuban Congress approved laws expanding the internal market and access to global markets. In February 2019, voters approved a new Constitution granting a right to private property and greater access to free markets, while also maintaining Cuba's status as a socialist state.

2019 Constitution
On February 24, 2019, voters approved a new constitution, which included reforms such as:
 The recognition of private property, and the creation of a freer market
 The restoration of the positions of President and Prime Minister of Cuba as posts separate from President of the Council of State and of Ministers
 The transfer of head of Council of State to the President of the National Assembly
 The position of mayor added to that of president of a municipal assembly
 The creation of a requirement for presidentially appointed provincial governors and deputy governors to be ratified by local municipal governments
 The acknowledgement of climate change and its threat
 The establishment of provincial councils made up of municipal leaders
 The creation of a two consecutive five-year term limit on the president
 Defining marriage as "a social and legal institution" and "one form of family organization"
 Extending the terms of municipal council delegates to five years
 Banning discrimination based on gender, race, ethnic origin, sexual orientation, gender identity or disability
 Restoring presumption of innocence in the justice system, last provided for in the 1940 constitution

The Constitution was proclaimed as scheduled on 10 April 2019. After being proclaimed, it was published in the Official Gazette of the Republic, ensuring its entry into force.

See also

Constitution of Cuba 2002, English language version
Cuban Legal System
Legal Profession (Cuba)
Agrarian Reform Laws of Cuba
Cuban civil code

Footnotes

 Aviva Chomsky, Barry Carr, and Pamela Maria Smorkaloff, The Cuba Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press, Durham and London. (2003)

References
Smith, Lois M., and Alfred Padula. Sex and Revolution: Women in Socialist Cuba. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

External links
 https://www.gacetaoficial.gob.cu/ – The homepage of the Ministry of Justice. Cuban legislation from 2000 onwards is available here in Spanish.
 http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/FE481 (Informative page on Agrarian Reform in Cuba after 1959)
 https://www.cubanet.org/ref/dis/const_92_e.htm  (Text of current Cuban Constitution).
 http://www.dloc.com/?b=UF00015180 (Diario de sesiones del Congreso de la Republica de Cuba / Daily sessions of the Congress of the Republic of Cuba 1902–1957 freely available in the Digital Library of the Caribbean with full page images and full text)
 https://law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Guide-to-Cuban-Law-and-Legal-Reseatch.pdf (GUIDE TO CUBAN LAW AND LEGAL RESEARCH, International Journal of Legal Information 45.2, 2017, pp. 76–188.)

Law of Cuba


Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe is a documentary television series produced by the television broadcaster Channel 4. The subject of the series is British theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking, known for his work on black holes, who is also the presenter of the series. The series includes interviews with astrophysicist Kim Weaver, Bernard Carr, a student of Hawking's, and three theoretical physicists: Michio Kaku, Edward Witten, known for his work on superstring theory, and Lisa Randall. The first episode premiered in 2008, twenty years after the publication of Hawking's bestselling popular science book A Brief History of Time. The title is derived from a Newsweek cover.

The series consisted of two episodes. The first describes Hawking's personal life, his challenges in overcoming his motor neurone disease, and his career in physics. It covers his childhood, education, marriage, family life, and his work on the Big Bang and black holes. The second episode discusses string theory and supersymmetry. Both episodes are 48 minutes long, and premiered as half-hour-long programmes. The series was released on CD by Channel 4 in the UK as a Region 2, one disc-DVD (B00140SGOM) on 18 March 2008.

Reception
The premiere of the first episode attracted 1.9 million viewers, and was considered a success. The second episode had 1.7 million viewers. James Walton of The Daily Telegraph wrote a positive review of the first episode, saying that it "hadn't done a bad job of trying to explain advanced physics to the science novice," even if it was "extremely difficult stuff." Philip Wakefield, a television critic for stuff.co.nz, listed the first episode in his "Top TV picks", calling it "the neatest illustration of Einstein's theory of relativity I've ever seen." Sam Wollastan of The Guardian was more critical of the series, but did praise it for showing "the little glimpses of Prof Hawking's private life, like sharing a takeaway curry with a group of adoring young disciples."

References

External links

2008 British television series debuts
2008 British television series endings
2000s British documentary television series
Channel 4 original programming
Science education television series
English-language television shows
Cultural depictions of Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe


Emma Millinda Gillett (July 30, 1852 – January 23, 1927) was an American lawyer and women's rights activist who played a pivotal role in the advancement of legal studies for women. After local law schools refused to admit her because of her sex, she was admitted by Howard University, an historically black university. Yet the Washington College of Law, which she founded in 1898, did not accept people of color until 1950.

Early background
Gillett was born on July 30, 1852, in Princeton, Wisconsin, to Wisconsin homesteaders. She was educated in Girard, Pennsylvania, where her family moved following the death of her father. In 1870, she graduated from Lake Erie College and taught for the following ten years in the Pennsylvania public school system. During her time as a teacher, she became frustrated with the meager wages paid to single women teachers.

After the death of her mother, Gillett's role in the settlement of her estate sparked an interest in law, as well as being a better paying profession. Encouraged by the news of Belva Lockwood, who had become the first female law student at National University in Washington, DC; Gillett moved to Washington in hopes of following in Lockwood's footsteps. Unfortunately, she found that National University had closed its doors to women. Gillette did gain admission at Howard University and graduated in 1882 with an LLB, followed in 1883 with an LLM. She passed the bar in the District of Columbia the same year. She also became first woman to be appointed a notary public by the president of the United States.

Early career

After admission to the bar, she formed a partnership with Watson J. Newton, which continued until the death of Newton in 1913. At one time she was connected with the District Title Insurance Company and was later Vice President of the Realty Appraisal & Title Company.

Educational career
During this time, her colleague and friend, Ellen Spencer Mussey, sought her assistance in the education of women in the field of law. Mussey had been approached in 1895 by Delia Sheldon Jackson, an aspiring attorney, to apprentice her as a student of law. Realizing both the scope of the task and the significance of the opportunity, Mussey sought out the assistance of Gillett. The two opened the first session of the Woman's Law Class on February 1, 1896. The class had an enrollment of three: Jackson and two other women, Nanette Paul and Helen Malcolm.

Within a few years, the program had expanded and several prominent Washington, D.C., attorneys were brought in for assistance. Although Mussey and Gillett had not initially aspired to establish an independent law school, when Columbian College (now George Washington University) refused their request to take on the women they had educated for their final year of education—on grounds that "women did not have the mentality for law"—the two decided to establish a co-educational law school specifically open to women.

Thus, in April 1898, the Washington College of Law– which merged with American University in 1949 – was incorporated in Washington, DC, as the first law school in the world founded by women.

Accomplishments
Gillett helped in the establishment of a women's club, "The Wimondaughsis", in Washington, D.C. With Ellen Spencer Mussey, her colleague and co-founder of the Washington College of Law, Gillett founded the Women's Bar Association of the District of Columbia. Responding to the written invitation issued by Mussey, calling an initial meeting of "an association of women lawyers in the District of Columbia" on May 17, 1917, 29 other women lawyers joined Gillett and Mussey as charter members of the Women's Bar Association of the District of Columbia. At that time, only New York City, Chicago, and Omaha had organized women's bar associations.

Gillett held many additional roles, including Vice President for the District of Columbia of the American Bar Association in 1922; President of the State Suffrage Association of the District; President of the Women's Bar Association in 1921, and at the time of her death was Dean Emeritus of the Washington College of Law and Chairman of the Legal Branch of the National Woman's Party.

Death
Gillett died on January 23, 1927, after contracting pneumonia while confined to her bed after breaking her hip the previous October.

References

1852 births
1927 deaths
American University people
Howard University School of Law alumni
People from Erie County, Pennsylvania
People from Princeton, Wisconsin
19th-century American women lawyers
19th-century American lawyers
Activists from Pennsylvania
Activists from Wisconsin

Emma Gillett


Henry Marie Brackenridge (May 11, 1786 – January 18, 1871) was an American writer, lawyer, judge, superintendent, and U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania.

Born in Pittsburgh in 1786, he was educated by his father, the writer and judge Hugh Henry Brackenridge, private tutors, and at the Pittsburgh Academy, now known as the University of Pittsburgh, before attending a French academy at Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. He studied law and was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar in 1806, then practiced in Somerset, Pennsylvania.

Brackenridge subsequently moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where he was a lawyer and journalist. In 1811, he became the first recorded tourist to present-day South Dakota, hosted by fur trader Manuel Lisa.

Henry was appointed deputy attorney general and district judge of Louisiana in 1812.  He played an intelligence role during the War of 1812, and in 1814 published a history of the war. In 1817 he was appointed secretary of a mission to South America.

He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1818. In 1821, Brackenridge entered the diplomatic service of General Andrew Jackson, who was the new commissioner of Florida.

His influence led him to serve as U.S. judge for Florida from 1821–1832.  When President John Quincy Adams established the Naval Live Oak Area on January 18, 1829, he lived on the property and experimented with cultivating live oak trees for shipbuilding as the first federal forester in America.

He returned to Pennsylvania in 1832 and became owner of a large tract of land upon which he founded the town of Tarentum near the Allegheny River, where Brackenridge honours his legacy.

He was elected as a Whig to the 26th United States Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Richard Biddle, and served from October 13, 184Ø–March 3, 1841. He was an perennial candidate in 184Ø.

After politics, Brackenridge pursued literature until his death in Pittsburgh on January 18, 1871. He is buried in Prospect Cemetery in Brackenridge, Pennsylvania.

References

 The Political Graveyard

1786 births
1871 deaths
Politicians from Pittsburgh
Pennsylvania lawyers
Pennsylvania state court judges
Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
People from Pennsylvania in the War of 1812
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
19th-century American legislators
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers
University of Pittsburgh alumni

Henry Marie Brackenridge


Independent monitoring boards (IMB) are statutory bodies established by the Prison Act 1952 to monitor the welfare of prisoners in the UK to ensure that they are properly cared for within Prison and Immigration Centre rules, whilst in custody and detention.  Their responsibilities were extended to Immigration Removal Centres by the Immigration and Asylum Act 1999 following an inspection in 1989 of what was then Harmondsworth Detention Centre.

Until April 2003, IMBs in prisons were known as Boards of Visitors and IMBs in immigration removal centres were known as Visiting Committees.

Boards consist of members of the public who are unpaid volunteers, appointed by the Minister of Justice to fulfil this task. Each Board reports annually to the Justice Minister with all their findings and at other times regarding matters of serious concern. Research suggests that there are a number of issues relating to the use of volunteers to ensure oversight of prisons and detention centres. The concerns relate to the information that boards are creating and communicating to the minister and within the annual reports they produce.

The success rate of applicants to be members of boards is about 50%. There are on average between 15 and 20 volunteers per institution.  Most members serve more than three years.

Board members can draw keys and have access at any time to every part of the prison or IRC concerned, and to all prisoners or detainees.

References

External links
 Independent Monitoring Boards website

Imprisonment and detention
Penal system in the United Kingdom

Independent monitoring board


Andreas Schelfhout (1787–1870) was a Dutch painter, etcher and lithographer, known for his landscape paintings.

Schelfhout belongs to the Romantic movement. His Dutch winter scenes and frozen canals with skaters were already famous during his lifetime. He became one of the most influential Dutch landscape artists of his century.

Biography
Schelfhout started as a house painter in the framing business of his father. He already started painting pictures in his spare time. After a well-received first exhibition in The Hague, his father sent him to receive proper training to Joannes Breckenheimer (1772–1856), a stage designer, in The Hague. He learned not only the technical aspects of painting, but also made detailed studies of the 17th-century Dutch landscape artists Meindert Hobbema and Jacob van Ruisdael.

In 1815, Schelfhout started his own workshop and became a member of the Pulchri studio. Through his technical excellence and sense of composition and his use of naturalistic colours, he soon became famous also outside The Hague. In 1819 he was awarded the Gold Medal at the exhibition in Antwerp. In 1818 he became a member of the Royal Academy for Visual Arts of Amsterdam. He reputation continued to grow and in 1822 he was given the rank of Fourth Class Correspondent of the Royal Dutch Institute. From then on, one exhibition followed after another.

Initially Schelfhout painted mainly summer scenes, beach scenes, and animal paintings. But as his initial winter scenes even had more success, he began to include them in his exhibitions. He was mainly a studio artist, relying on his sketches done en plein air. His sketchbook Liber Veritatis (Book of Truth) shows that he made about twenty paintings a year, among them a few foreign views. This indicated that he travelled abroad around 1825. In later years he visited France in 1833, England in 1835 (especially to study the works of John Constable) and Germany. In 1839 he was awarded the title Ridder in de orde van de Nederlandse Leeuw, and in 1844 he was awarded an honorary membership in Kunst zij ons doel.

Schelfhout provided training to many painters who would become famous in their own right : Johan Jongkind (one of the forerunners of the Impressionists), Charles Leickert, Johannes Josephus Destree, Jan Willem van Borselen, Nicholas Roosenboom, his daughter Margaretha and her husband Johannes Gijsbert Vogel, Willem Troost, the American Hudson River School Painter Louis Rémy Mignot and his son-in-law Wijnand Nuyen. He also occasionally painted with his friend Hendrik van de Sande Bakhuyzen, a prominent Romantic landscape painter, including at least one joint canvas that bears both of their signatures.

Schelfhout advocated the use of watercolour in en plein air sketching. His watercolours greatly influenced Jongkind, Jan Hendrik Weissenbruch and Willem Roelofs, the latter pair associated with the Hague School of painting and students of Hendrik van de Sande Bakhuyzen.  Weissenbruch and Jongkind are especially recognized as masters of the technique. Schelfhout encouraged Weissenbruch and invited him to take lessons from him, but it is not clear whether Weissenbruch ever did.

At the end of his career Schelfhout put together a series of eighty landscape drawings, mainly recordings of previous paintings and watercolours. They were drawn in chalk and lightly coloured.

Schelfhout's death marked the end of the Romantic period in Holland. He is considered a precursor of the Hague School.

His paintings are on display in several leading museums :
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam
Dordrechts museum, Dordrecht
Teylers Museum, Haarlem,
, Oss
KMSK, Antwerp
MSK, Gent
Groeningemuseum, Brugge
National Gallery, London
The Wallace Collection, London
Tyne and Wear Museums

Gallery of Works

Bibliography
 Leeuw, Ronald de; Sillervis, John and Dumas, Charles (1983): The Hague School: Dutch Masters of the Nineteenth Century, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, .

References

External links

 Artist biography at Burlington Paintings
 biography facts and dates of A. Schelfhout, in the Dutch R.K.D. Archive, The Hague
 many free images of paintings, drawings and prints of A. Schelfhout, in the RijksStudio of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

1787 births
1870 deaths
19th-century Dutch painters
Dutch male painters
Dutch landscape painters
Artists from The Hague
Hague School
19th-century Dutch male artists

Andreas Schelfhout


Beyond Comics is an American independent comic book publishing company founded by comics writer/artist Graig Weich, through which Weich has published comics featuring his creations, including Code Name: Justice, Ravedactyl, Justice, Gekido, and Gekido vs. Code Name: Justice..

History
Beyond Comics was launched by Graig Weich, who began reading comic books as a child, finding in them a sense of hope and inspiration when he was bullied as a child. "When my friends and I were bullied, I thought, 'If we were superheroes, we could defend the kids being attacked.'"

After the September 11 attacks, Weich spoke with some children who informed him that they did not feel there were any heroes that they could identify with. In response, Weich created the superhero Justice, a man who, following the death of his girlfriend at the World Trade Center, wears an American flag as a mask, and takes it upon himself to confront terrorists. Weich created the character to symbolize hope and empowerment for civilians. The first year's proceeds from the first book featuring the character, titled Civilian Justice, were donated to the Restaurant Opportunities Center of New York, and the families from Windows on the World (ROC NY) HERE Fund, which aided victims and families of non-union workers who lost their lives in the attacks. At the New York City Comic Book Museum's first annual Golden Panel Awards in October 2002, which honors creators who legitimize the comics medium, Beyond Comics and Weich were awarded the Golden Panel Award. An original Civilian Justice piece was also displayed in the exhibit "Heroes Among Us: The Art of 9-11".

Media appearances

Weich appeared in the August 24, 2011 series premiere of the FOX reality television appraisal series Buried Treasure, episode "A Comic Book, a Violin and a Hoarder". In the episode Leigh and Leslie Keno of Antiques Roadshow appraise valuable items for their owners.

Weich appeared in "Baby Got Super Powers", the December 2, 2012 episode of the E! network's reality TV series Ice Loves Coco, in which Beyond Comics cast model Coco Austin as a superheroine character in the comic book Gekido. Coco appeared as the scantily-clad super heroine at the 2012 New York Comic Con to promote the comic.

Weich drew radio producer Gary Dell'Abate as a ninja in the comic book Gekido, along with Coco.

According to Weich, the character Gekido (whose name means "rage" in Japanese) is a centuries-old man wearing modern-day samurai-like body armor on a mission to confront the world's oldest ninja clan to stop their plans for world domination, using a mystical artifact that may destroy the world. Other celebrities whom Beyond Comics has cast as characters in their comics include Donald Faison, Adrianne Curry, and Cary Hiroyuki Tagawa.

Awards
2002 Honorary Golden Panel Award (for Civilian Justice)
2014 Best Short Film Animation

Further reading
Myricks, Dan (June 11, 2014). "Going Big! Focus Entrepreneur of the Month: Graig Weich - Focus of New York Swim 2014"]. Focus Magazine, pp. 94–95.

References

External links

Delaney, Magdaline (March 4, 2014). "EPN's Entrepreneur of the Month! Graig Weich". EPN.
Gambichler, Edward (June 27, 2013). "The Art of Graig Weich – at the Peter Louis Salon and Gallery". What'cha Reading?
Pineda, Juan Carlos  (May 10, 2013). "Comics and Beyond with Graig Weich!" . What'cha Reading?
Gurian, Jeffrey (October 20, 2012). "Adrianne Curry from America's Next Top Model at Comic Con". YouTube.
Angelo, Demetrius (December 6, 2014). "2014 UASE Cinemax VIP Welcome Reception at HBO". Urban Action Expo Film Festival. At: 8:10 mark.
"Baby Got Super Powers" Promo". Ice Loves Coco, YouTube, December 2, 2012.

Comic book publishing companies of the United States
Publishing companies based in New York City
Publishing companies established in 2001

2001 establishments in New York City

Beyond Comics


Suckling Airways was an airline that focused on ACMI (Aircraft, Crew, Maintenance and Insurance) work and ad hoc air charters for business and sporting organisations. It had its head office at Cambridge Airport, Cambridgeshire. In 2013 it was integrated into its parent company Loganair.

History
The airline was established in November 1984 and started operations in 1986. It was founded as Suckling Aviation by Roy and Merlyn Suckling, originally operating charter services from a grass runway in Ipswich. Roy Suckling had been a flying instructor at Ipswich Flying Club, and his wife Merlyn was a lawyer. Scheduled services began on 26 April 1986 from Ipswich Airport to Manchester and Amsterdam using a single 18-seat Dornier 228. The service was distinguished by the friendly 'family' atmosphere engendered by both flight and ground staff.

In the winter of 1987, higher than average rainfall began to cause problems at Ipswich Airport, with the grass runway reportedly being damaged by the Suckling Dornier. The damage was particularly acute at the ends of the runway where the aircraft would make its turn. Region Air, the airport operating company, complained vociferously that the Dornier was churning up the runway, and in February 1988, Suckling was forced to temporarily relocate to RAF Wattisham, before finding a more permanent home at Cambridge. Ipswich Airport has subsequently closed.

A prominent moment at this time was a lengthy feature about the airline on BBC television's "40 Minutes"  which showed the introduction of the Dornier 228, and the in-flight meals being prepared in a private home kitchen, although by a professional chef.

Modest expansion followed the airline's move to Cambridge, and the airline upgraded to the larger Dornier 328. Services to Edinburgh began, as well as a parallel service from Norwich to the Scottish city. By 1999 the airline was carrying 110,000 passengers on its fleet of Dorniers and had started services from London City Airport to Dundee and Glasgow.

It was during that year that investment was secured from Brian Souter, founder and chairman of the Perth-based transport group Stagecoach and his sister Ann Gloag. Souter and Gloag purchased a 90% stake in the airline for £5m and announced its rebranding as ScotAirways. The Suckling family would remain in charge of the day-to-day management of the airline keeping the head office in Cambridge, while Souter became chairman. A rather ambitious expansion programme began, establishing a hub at London City with services to Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Inverness and Paris, and also from Inverness and Southampton to Amsterdam.

Shortly after the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, the airline found itself in the midst of the crisis surrounding the aviation industry. Cutbacks were required for ScotAirways' survival, and the services from Inverness, Aberdeen, Glasgow, Paris, Norwich and Cambridge were axed, some only a matter of months since their launch. With the abandonment of Cambridge Airport, Dundee effectively became the base for the carrier's reservations and maintenance, while the head office remained in Cambridge.

During 2004, the airline marked its recovery by recording its first profit in several years. Frequencies on the remaining routes were increased. The airline carried over 200,000 passengers in 2004, achieving a far higher figure on just three routes than the previous larger network. In the face of heavy competition from British Airways on the Edinburgh to London City route, ScotAirways introduced its first jet aircraft, an 80-seat British Aerospace 146, onto the route on 9 May 2005. Code share arrangements were put in place with Flybe on the Edinburgh service and KLM Cityhopper on the Amsterdam route.

On 18 September 2006 it was announced that Ann Gloag and Brian Souter had sold their combined stakes in the airline to Roy and Merlyn Suckling.

Between 26 March 2007 and 31 December 2010, ScotAirways operated as a partner airline to the brand new 'CityJet for Air France' concept which took to the skies from London City Airport. ScotAirways operated its existing services to Edinburgh and Dundee as codeshare services with Air France, and in addition launched new services to George Best Belfast City Airport, Strasbourg and Eindhoven from London City Airport on behalf of CityJet. On 10 August 2007 ScotAirways ceased operations on the Southampton-Amsterdam route, and the route to Belfast was discontinued in Spring of 2008.

By 2 September 2007 the airline stopped operating its own scheduled services, re-positioning the business to concentrate on ACMI lease work.

In November 2007 ScotAirways began providing ACMI services for Channel Islands airline  Blue Islands. One Dornier 328 was painted in the Blue Islands livery and operated routes from Jersey Airport to Geneva Airport and Zurich Airport.On 8 July 2011, it was announced that Glasgow based airline Loganair had agreed to buy Suckling Airways. The company continued to trade as a separate airline which held its own licences and approvals until April 2013 when it was fully integrated with Loganair. The airline dropped its trading name of ScotAirways and reverted to its registered name of Suckling Airways in July 2011. The re-brand was part of the deal with Loganair.

Due to the cessation of the London City to Edinburgh route by CityJet, it was announced Suckling Airways would close the London City base at the end of October 2013.

As of April 2013 Suckling Airways ceased to operate as an airline, with the aircraft being transferred to Loganair. Flight deck, engineering and cabin crew became full Loganair employees. Other staff were made redundant with headquarters functions transferred to Glasgow.

Fleet
Prior to ceasing operations, Suckling Airways operated six Dornier 328 turboprop aircraft. All were transferred to Loganair.

See also
 List of defunct airlines of the United Kingdom

References

External links

Suckling Airways - Official website
Suckling Airways aircraft

Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
Airlines established in 1984
Airlines disestablished in 2013
Transport in Dundee
British companies established in 1984

Suckling Airways


TOPPS is a research group at Datalogisk institut, Copenhagen University (DIKU). TOPPS is an abbreviation of the Danish "Teori Og Praksis for ProgrammeringsSprog", which roughly translates into "Theory and practice of programming languages". The group web site states that they are a group of researchers with interest in "Semantics-based Program Analysis and Manipulation".

References

University of Copenhagen

TOPPS (research group)


The Glidden-Austin Block is a historic commercial building at 52 Main Street in Newcastle, Maine. Built in 1845, it is a prominent local example of mid-19th century commercial architecture, occupying a prominent location in the community's downtown area.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on April 28, 1975.

Description and history
The Glidden-Austin Block occupies a prominent location at the junction of Academy Hill Street and Main Street (Business United States Route 1) in the center of Newcastle.  It is a -story brick building, with a gabled roof and granite foundation.  The ground floor is seven bays wide, with two three-bay storefronts flanking a central building entrance.  Each storefront consists of large fixed-pane display windows on either side of the store entrance, the elements divided and topped by rough granite lintels and posts. The second and third floors each have five windows, each with granite sills and lintels.  Three gabled dormers project from the roof, and chimneys rise from the side walls.

The block was built in 1845 by  William Taylor Glidden, a prominent local ship's captain and merchant.  Soon after building it, Glidden took on as a partner in the building Algernon S. Austin, a blacksmith who was involved in the locally prominent shipbuilding industry.  The building probably originally housed a chandler's shop on the ground floor and residences above.  It has seen a wide variety of uses, including as a garment factory, undertaker's shop, and tenement house.  It presently houses the Newcastle Publick House, a restaurant and bar.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Lincoln County, Maine

References

Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Commercial buildings completed in 1845
Buildings and structures in Lincoln County, Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Lincoln County, Maine

Glidden-Austin Block


The Trịnh lords (; Chữ Nôm: 主鄭; 1545–1787), formally titled as "Prince" of Trịnh (; ), also known as the House of Trịnh  or the Trịnh clan (Trịnh thị;  鄭氏), were a noble and feudal clan that ruled Northern Vietnam (then called Tonkin), during the Later Lê dynasty.

The Trịnh clan and their rivals, the Nguyễn clan, were both referred to by their subjects as "Chúa" (Lord) and controlled Đại Việt, reducing the Later Lê emperors to only titular authority. The title of "Chúa" in this context is therefore comparable to the office of Shogun in Japan. The Trịnh lords traced their descent from Trịnh Khả, a friend and advisor to the 15th-century Vietnamese Emperor Lê Lợi. The Trịnh clan produced 12 lords who dominated the royal court of the Later Lê dynasty and ruled northern Vietnam for more than two centuries.

Origins

Rise of the Trịnh family
After the death of emperor Lê Hiến Tông in 1504, the Lê dynasty began to decline. In 1527, the courtier Mạc Đăng Dung seized the throne from emperor Lê Cung Hoàng, and established the Mạc dynasty ruling the kingdom of Đại Việt. In 1533, the general and Lê royalist Nguyễn Kim revolted against the Mạc dynasty in Thanh Hóa and restored the Lê dynasty. Then he tried to find the Lê dynasty's successor, a son of emperor Lê Chiêu Tông. He found one such prince, Lê Ninh, and enthroned him as Lê Trang Tông. After five years of conflict, most of the southern region of Đại Việt was recaptured by the restored Lê dynasty, but not the capital city, Thăng Long.

The founder of the clan was Trịnh Kiểm, born in Vĩnh Lộc commune, Thanh Hóa province. Trịnh Kiểm was raised in a poor family. He often stole chickens from his neighbors because chicken was his mother's favorite food. When his neighbors found out, they were extremely angry. One day, when Trịnh Kiểm left home, his neighbors abducted his mother and threw her down an abyss. Trịnh Kiểm returned home and panicked due to the disappearance of his mother. When he finally found his mother's body, it was infested with maggots. After the death of his mother, he joined the army of the revived Lê dynasty led by Nguyễn Kim. Because of Trịnh Kiểm's talent, he was given the hand of Kim's daughter Ngọc Bảo, and became his son-in-law. In 1539, Trịnh Kiểm was promoted to general and received the title of Duke of Dực (Dực quận công). In 1545, after the assassination of Nguyễn Kim, Trịnh Kiểm replaced his father-in-law as the commander of the Lê dynasty's royal court and military.

Lê–Mạc Civil War

Government exiled to Lan Xang

In 1517, Mạc Đăng Dung overthrew the Lê dynasty. The Lê royalists under Lê Ninh, a descendant of the royal family, escaped to Laos. The Marquis of An Thanh Nguyễn Kim summoned the people who were still loyal to the Lê emperor and formed a new army to begin a revolt against Mạc Đăng Dung. His daughter then married Trịnh Kiểm. Within five years, all of the region south of the Red River was under the control of the Nguyễn–Trịnh army but the two families were unable to conquer Ha Noi until the fall of Mạc dynasty in 1592.

Lê emperor as a figurehead
In 1539 the armies of Nguyễn Kim and Trịnh Kiểm returned to Đại Việt, captured Thanh Hóa province, and crowned Lê Ninh as the emperor Lê Trang Tông. War raged back and forth with the Nguyễn–Trịnh army on one side and the Mạc on the other, until an official Ming delegation determined that Mạc Đăng Dung's usurpation of power was not justified. In 1537, a very large Ming army was sent to restore the Lê family. Although Mạc Đăng Dung managed to negotiate his way out of defeat by the Ming, he had to officially recognize the Lê emperor and Nguyễn–Trịnh rule over the southern part of Vietnam. But the Nguyễn–Trịnh alliance did not accept Mạc rule over the northern half of the country and so the war continued. In 1541, Mạc Đăng Dung died.

A Chinese man shipwrecked in Vietnam in 1688, Pan Dinggui, said in his book "Annan ji you" that the Trinh restored the Lê dynasty to power after Vietnam was struck by disease, thunder and winds when the Le was dethroned, and they initially could not find Lê and Tran dynasty royals to restore to the throne. Pan also said that only the Lê king was met by official diplomats from the Qing, not the Trịnh lord.

Trịnh military dictatorship

Elimination of the Nguyễn clan

Despite the fact that the Mạc dynasty remained at large in the north, Trịnh Kiểm now turned to eliminating the Nguyễn lords' power. Although the Lê dynasty was restored in 1533 with Lê Trang Tông as emperor, Nguyễn Kim was head of government and wielded real authority in the nation. , the Mạc-appointed mandarin governing Tây Đô fortress in Thanh Hoa province, decided to surrender to Lê authorities when Nguyễn Kim recaptured the province in 1543.

After seizing Tây Đô citadel and marching onward to attack Ninh Bình, on 20/5/1545, Dương Chấp Nhất invited Kim to visit his military camp. In the hot summer temperature, Dương Chấp Nhất treated Kim to watermelon. After returning for from the party, Kim felt ill and died the same day. Dương Chấp Nhất later pledged allegiance again to the Mạc dynasty.

The government fell into chaos after Kim's death. The successor as the head of government was Kim's eldest son, . However, Uông was secretly assassinated by his brother-in-law Trịnh Kiểm, who later took control of the imperial government.

Usurpation  conspiracy

In 1556, Emperor Lê Trung Tông died without an heir. Trịnh Kiểm wanted to seize the Lê dynasty throne but was still worried about public opinion. Therefore, he sought advice from the former mandarin Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm, who was living a secluded life. Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm advised that Trịnh Kiểm not to take the Lê dynasty's throne, although the Lê dynasty was just a puppet. Trịnh Kiểm decided to put on the Lê dynasty's throne Lê Duy Bang, a 6th-generation descendant of Lê Trừ , the older brother of emperor Lê Thái Tổ. Lê Duy Bang took the throne with the title Lê Anh Tông and the Trịnh lords continued to control the government with the emperor as the figurehead.

Legitimacy struggle

In 1570, Trịnh Kiểm died and there was a power struggle between his sons Trịnh Cối and Trịnh Tùng. Simultaneously, the Mạc dynasty army attacked the Lê dynasty from the north and Trịnh Cối was surrendered to the Mạc dynasty. The emperor Lê Anh Tông supported Trịnh Cối as the next Trịnh lord and co-operated with him to defeat Trịnh Tùng. Trịnh Tùng found out about this conspiracy, meaning that Emperor Lê Anh Tông and his four sons  had to flee. Later, Trịnh Tùng enthroned Emperor Lê Anh Tông's youngest son, prince Đàm, as the next emperor with title Lê Thế Tông. After that, Trịnh Tùng searched for, captured, and murdered Emperor Lê Anh Tông.

Trịnh–Nguyễn alliance against the Mạc dynasty
Both Trịnh and Nguyễn declared that the Lê dynasty was the legitimate government of Đại Việt. As the years passed, Nguyễn Hoàng became increasingly secure in his rule over the southern province and increasingly independent. While he cooperated with the Trịnh against the Mạc, he ruled the frontier lands as a governor. With the final conquest of the north, the independence of the Nguyễn was less and less tolerable to the Trịnh. In 1600, with the ascension of a new emperor, Lê Kính Tông, Hoàng broke relations with the Trịnh-dominated court, although he continued to acknowledge the Lê emperor. Matters continued like this until Hoàng's death in 1613. The historical victory of the Trịnh over the Mạc was a common theme in public Vietnamese theaters.

The Trịnh–Nguyễn War

In 1620, after the enthronement of another figurehead Lê emperor (Lê Thần Tông), the new Nguyễn leader, Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, refused to send tax money to the court in Đông Đô to protest the dictatorship of the Trịnh lords. In 1623, Trịnh Tung died, and he was succeeded by his oldest son, Trịnh Tráng. After five years of increasingly hostile talks, fighting broke out between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn in 1627. While the Trịnh ruled over much more populous territory, the Nguyễn had several advantages. First, they initially were on the defensive and rarely launched operations into the north. Second, the Nguyễn were able to take advantage of their contacts with the Europeans, specifically the Portuguese, to produce advanced cannons with the help of European engineers (for more details, see Artillery of the Nguyễn lords). Third, the geography was favorable to them, as the flat land suitable for large, organized armies is very narrow at the border between the Nguyễn lands and the Trinh territories – the mountains nearly reach to the sea. After the first offensive was beaten off after four months of battle, the Nguyễn built two massive, fortified lines that stretched a few miles from the sea to the hills. These walls were built north of Huế (between the Nhật Lệ River and the Sông Hương River). The walls were about 20 feet tall and seven miles long. The Nguyễn defended these lines against numerous Trịnh offensives that lasted (off and on) from 1631 till 1673, when Trịnh Tạc concluded a peace treaty with the Nguyễn lord, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, dividing Vietnam between the two ruling families. This division continued for the next 100 years.

The Long Peace

The Trịnh lords ruled reasonably well, maintaining the fiction that the Lê monarch was the emperor. However, they selected and replaced the emperor as they saw fit, having the hereditary right to appoint many of the top government officials. Unlike the Nguyễn lords, who engaged in frequent wars with the Khmer Empire and Siam, the Trịnh lords maintained fairly peaceable relations with neighboring states. In 1694, the Trịnh lords got involved in a war in Laos, which turned into a multi-sided war with several different Laotian factions as well as the Siamese army. A decade later, Laos had settled into an uneasy peace with three new Lao kingdoms paying tribute to both Vietnam and Siam. Trịnh Căn and Trịnh Cương made many reforms of the government, trying to make it better, but these reforms made the government more powerful and more of a burden to the people which increased their dislike of the government. During the wasteful and inept rule of Trịnh Giang, peasant revolts became more and more frequent. The key problem was a lack of land to farm, though Giang made the situation worse by his actions. The reign of his successor Trịnh Doanh was preoccupied with putting down peasant revolts and wiping out armed gangs which terrorized the countryside.

The Dutch East India Company ceased doing business with the Trịnh lords in 1700.

The Trịnh lords started employing eunuchs extensively in the Đàng Ngoài region of the northern Red river delta area of Vietnam as leaders of military units. Trịnh-ruled northern Vietnam used its eunuchs in the military and civilian bureaucracy. Many Buddhist temples had money and land donated by eunuchs who had gained wealth and influence. Field army units, secret police, customs duty taxes, finance, land deeds and military registers and tax harvesting in son Nam province (Binh phien) as well as the position of Thanh Hóa military governor were delegated to eunuchs. The supervisor services, military, civil service and court all had eunuchs appointed to work in them and they faithful followers of the Trịnh lords and a check on the power of civil and military officials. Eunuchs were employed as building project supervisors and provincial governors by Trịnh Cương.

Tây Sơn revolt and Southern Conquest

The long peace came to an end with the Tây Sơn revolt in the south against Trương Phúc Loan, the regent of the Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần (1765–1777). The Trịnh lord Trịnh Sâm saw the Tây Sơn rebellion as a chance to finally put an end to Nguyễn rule over the south of Vietnam. Inner struggle among the Nguyễn had put a 12-year-old boy in power. The real ruler was the corrupt regent Trương Phúc Loan. Using the popular rule of the regent as an excuse for intervention, in 1774, the hundred-year truce was ended and the Trịnh army led by Hoàng Ngũ Phúc attacked.

Trịnh Sâm's army did what no previous Trịnh army had done and conquered the Nguyễn capital, Phú Xuân (modern-day Huế), in early 1775. The Trịnh army advanced south, defeated the Tây Sơn and forced them to surrender. In the middle of 1775, the Trịnh army, include Hoàng Ngũ Phúc, were hit by a plague. The plagued forced them to withdraw and left the rest of the south to the Tây Sơn.

The Tây Sơn army continued to conquer the rest of the Nguyễn lands. The Nguyễn lords retreated to Saigon but even this city was captured in 1776 and the Nguyễn lords were nearly wiped out. Tây Sơn's leader Nguyễn Nhạc declared himself king in 1778.

End of the Trịnh Viceroy

Trịnh Tông, the eldest son of Trịnh Sâm, feared that the power would fall to his younger brother Trịnh Cán, who was favored by his father. In 1780, Trịnh Sâm became seriously ill, Trịnh Tông used this as a chance to stage a coup d'état. The plan was discovered, many high-ranking mandarins on Trịnh Tông's side were purged, Tông himself were imprisoned.

In 1782, Trịnh Sâm died and passed the power to Trịnh Cán. However, Cán was only five years old at the time, the real ruler was Hoàng Ngũ Phúc's adopted son Hoàng Đình Bảo, who was appointed by Sâm as Cán's assistant. A few weeks after Cán was crowned, Trịnh Tông conspired with the Three Prefectures Army (, ) to kill Hoàng Đình Bảo and overthrow Trịnh Cán. However, because Tông was indebted to the army, he could not control them. The army then released Lê Duy Kì, son of prince Lê Duy Vĩ who was killed by Trịnh Sâm in 1771, and forced Lê Hiển Tông to appoint Kì as the successor.

After Hoàng Đình Bảo's death, his subordinate in Nghệ An province Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh defected to Tây Sơn. He was welcomed by the king of Tây Sơn and became a commander in their army. In summer 1786, Nguyễn Nhạc, who wanted to reclaim the land of the Nguyễn lords taken by the Trịnh in 1775, ordered his brother Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh to attack Trịnh lords, but warned them not to advance further north. After taking Phú Xuân, Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh convinced Nguyễn Huệ to overthrow Trịnh lords under the banner "Destroy the Trịnh and Aid the Lê (, ) that would help them gain support from northern people. Trịnh army and the Three Prefectures Army were quickly defeated. Trịnh Tông committed suicide. Emperor Cảnh Hưng died of old age shortly after and passed the throne to Lê Duy Kì (emperor Chiêu Thống).

Nguyễn Nhạc, after having heard of Nguyễn Huệ's insubordination, hastily marched to Thăng Long and ordered all Tây Sơn troops to withdraw. They intentionally left Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh behind. Chỉnh chased after them and then stayed in his hometown in Nghệ An.

The Tây Sơn's invasion and sudden withdrawal caused a large power vacuum in the North. Trịnh Sâm's younger brother Trịnh Lệ with the support of Dương Trọng Tế marched into Thăng Long and forced Chiêu Thống to grant him the title Viceroy, which would make him a Trịnh lord. Emperor Chiêu Thống did not want to reinstall Trịnh lords, thus he rejected Lệ's request. At the same time, Trịnh Bồng, son of Trịnh Giang, also marched into Thăng Long. Dương Trọng Tế thought Trịnh Lệ was unpopular and defected to Bồng's side, helped him defeated Trịnh Lệ. Famous generals Hoàng Phùng Cơ and Đinh Tích Nhưỡng also joined Trịnh Bồng's faction and pressured Chiêu Thống to grant him the title prince, the emperor reluctantly agreed. He then sent a request to Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, who had raised a considerable army in his hometown, to come and aid the emperor once again. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh obeyed and marched north, he defeated Trịnh army in Thanh Hoa Province. Trịnh Bồng heard of the news and withdrew to Gia Lâm District with Dương Trọng Tế, Đinh Tích Nhưỡng and Hoàng Phùng Cơ withdrew to Hải Dương and Sơn Tây respectively. Chiêu Thống set Trịnh's palace on fire.

In the next months, Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh carried out several campaigns against Trịnh Bồng and his followers. He captured and executed Dương Trọng Tế and Hoàng Phùng Cơ, Trịnh Bồng then took refuge at Đinh Tích Nhưỡng's camp. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh organized a large assault and completely defeated Trịnh Bồng in fall 1787. Đinh Tích Nhưỡng and Trịnh Bồng ran away, officially ended over 200 of Trịnh lords rule.

Later, when the Qing army was occupying Thăng Long, Trịnh Bồng turned himself in to emperor Chiêu Thống. He was pardoned but was demoted to Duke of Huệ Địch (Huệ Địch công). After the Qing's defeat in early 1789, Bồng fled to the western region of the country, self-proclaimed to be a lord and built a resistance army against the Tây Sơn. He died in early 1791.

After Gia Long founded the Nguyễn dynasty in 1802, he pardoned the Trịnh clan and allowed their descendants to worship their ancestors.

Trịnh foreign relations

In 1620, the French Jesuit scholar Alexandre de Rhodes arrived in Trịnh-controlled Vietnam. He arrived at a mission which had been established at the court in Hanoi around 1615. The priest was a significant person regarding relations between Europe and Vietnam. He gained thousands of converts, created a script for writing Vietnamese using a modified version of the European alphabet, and built several churches. However, by 1630 the new Trịnh lord, Trịnh Tráng, decided that Father de Rhodes represented a threat to Vietnamese society and forced him to leave the country. From this point on, the Trịnh lords periodically tried to suppress Christianity in Vietnam, with moderate success. When the Nguyễn successfully used Portuguese cannon to defend their walls, the Trịnh made contact with the Dutch. The Dutch were willing to sell advanced cannons to the Trịnh. The Dutch, and later the Germans, set up trading posts in Hanoi. For a time, Dutch trade was profitable, but after the war with the Nguyễn ended in 1673, the demand for European weapons rapidly declined. By 1700, the Dutch and English trading posts had closed forever. The Trịnh were careful in their dealings with the Ming dynasty and Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. Unlike the Nguyễn lords who were happy to accept large numbers of Ming refugees into their lands, the Trịnh did not. When the Qing conquered the Ming and therefore extended the Qing Empire's borders to Northern Vietnam, the Trịnh treated them just like they had treated the Ming Emperors, sending tribute and formal acknowledgements of Qing authority. The Qing intervened twice during the rule of the Trịnh lords, once in 1537, and again in 1788. Both times, the Qing sent an army south because of a formal request for help from the Lê emperors – and both times the intervention was unsuccessful.

Assessment
The Trịnh Lords were, for the most part, intelligent, able, industrious, and long-lived rulers. The unusual dual form of government they developed over two centuries was a creative response to the internal and external obstacles to their rule. They lacked, however, both the power and the moral authority to resolve the contradictions inherent in their system of ruling without reigning. (Encyclopedia of Asian History, "The Trịnh Lords").

It does seem the case that the Trịnh had lost nearly all popularity by the last half of the 18th century. While the Nguyễn lords, or at least Nguyễn Ánh, enjoyed a great deal of support – as his repeated attempts to regain power in the south show – there was no equivalent support for the Trịnh in the north after the Tây Sơn took power.

List of Trịnh lords

Traditionally, Trịnh Tùng is considered to be the first "lord", but the Trịnh family had held a great amount of power since Trịnh Kiểm.

See also
Trịnh (surname)
Trịnh Khả, progenitor of the Trịnh lords
List of Vietnamese dynasties
Nguyễn lords
Trịnh–Nguyễn War

References

External links
List of the Trịnh lords and the nominal Lê emperors
Encyclopedia of Asian History, Volumes 1–4. 1988. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. – "Trịnh Lords" Article by James M. Coyle, based on the work of Thomas Hodgkin.
The Encyclopedia of Military History by R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy. Harper & Row (New York).
Coins of Vietnam – with short historical notes
Southeast Asia to 1875 – by Sanderson Beck
World Statesmen.org – Vietnam
Tay Sơn Web Site by George Dutton (has a great bibliography)
A glimpse of Vietnamese history – contains some errors

1533 establishments in Vietnam
1787 disestablishments in Vietnam
Lords
Positions of authority
Titles of national or ethnic leadership

Trịnh lords


Rho GTPase activating protein 26 (ARHGAP26) also known as GTPase Regulator Associated with Focal Adhesion Kinase (GRAF) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ARHGAP26 gene.

Function
GRAF1 is a multidomain protein that is necessary for the CLIC/GEEC endocytic pathway.  By virtue of an N-terminal BAR domain, GRAF1 sculpts the endocytic membranes of this pathway into 40 nm diameter tubules and vesicles that allow uptake of extracellular fluid, GPI-linked proteins and certain bacterial exotoxins into cells.  The role of dynamin in the CLIC/GEEC pathway is controversial, but GRAF1 interacts strongly with this protein and acute inhibition of dynamin action abrogates CLIC/GEEC endocytosis.  There are several members of the GRAF family of proteins, including GRAF2, GRAF3, and oligophrenin, all of which likely playing similar roles during clathrin-independent endocytic events.  Mutations of both GRAF1 and oligophrenin are strongly implicated in causing human disease (leukaemia and mental retardation, respectively). Recently, autoantibodies to ARHGAP26 have been implicated in autoimmune cerebellar ataxia.

Interactions

ARHGAP26 has been shown to interact with PKN3.

References

Further reading

External links
ARHGAP26 Info with links in the Cell Migration Gateway

ARHGAP26


William Barclay (1546–1608) was a Scottish jurist.

Life

He was born in Aberdeenshire in 1546. Educated at the University of Aberdeen, he went to France by 1572, and studied law at the University of Bourges, where he took his doctor's degree. Charles III, Duke of Lorraine, appointed him professor of civil law in the newly founded university of Pont-à-Mousson, and also made him Counsellor of State and master of requests. Here, he was colleague to the French jurist Pierre Grégoire, with whom he entered into a dispute with the Jesuit faction in the university. In 1603 he was obliged to leave France, having incurred the enmity of the Jesuits, through his opposition to their proposal to admit his son John a member of their society.

Arriving in England, he was offered considerable preferment by James VI on condition of becoming a member of the Church of England. This offer he refused, and he returned to France in 1604, when he was appointed professor of civil law in the university of Angers. He died at Angers in 1608.

Works

His principal work was De Regno et Regali Potestate (1600), a strenuous defence of the rights of kings, in which he refutes the doctrines of those he terms monarchomachs: George Buchanan, "Junius Brutus" (Hubert Languet or Philippe de Mornay) and Jean Boucher, a leading member of the French Catholic League; he also wrote De potestate papae: an & quatenus in reges & principes seculares jus & imperium habeat (published in 1609, after his death), in opposition to the usurpation of temporal powers by the pope, which called forth the celebrated reply of Cardinal Bellarmine; also commentaries on some of the titles of the Pandects.

References

"William Barclay, Professor of Law at Pont-a-Mousson and Angers" by Andrew F Stewart in Stair Society Miscellany V, ed H L MacQueen, Edinburgh 2006
Andrew Pyle (editor), Dictionary of Seventeenth Century British Philosophers (2000), article pp. 59–62.

Further reading

 Ernest Dubois, Guillaume Barclay jurisconsulte écossais, professeur à Pont-à-Mousson et à Angers, 1546-1608 (Nancy/Paris, 1872)
 Claude Collot, L'école doctrinale de droit public de Pont-à-Mousson (Pierre Grégoire et Guillaume Barclay) fin du XVIe siècle (1965)
 David Baird Smith, 'William Barclay', Scottish Historical Review, 11 (1913–14): 136–63.
 S. Nicholls, 'Catholic resistance theory: William Barclay versus Jean Boucher', History of European Ideas, 44, 4 (2018): 404–418.

1546 births
1608 deaths
Scottish lawyers
Scottish legal professionals
People from Aberdeenshire
Scottish scholars and academics
University of Bourges
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Academic staff of the University of Angers (pre-1793)
Scottish Roman Catholic writers

William Barclay (jurist)


Trāṭaka (Sanskrit: त्राटक "look, gaze") is a yogic purification (a shatkarma) and a tantric method of meditation that involves staring at a single point such as a small object, black dot or candle flame.

Description
The practitioner may fix attention on a symbol or yantra, such as the Om symbol, a black dot, the image of some deity or guru, a flame, a mirror or any point, and stare at it. A candle should be three to four feet (1 metre plus) away, the flame level with the eyes. The practitioner relaxes but keeps the spine erect and remains wakeful and vigilant.

References

Further reading
 The Bihar School of Yoga, in India has published several books on meditation that discuss trataka. Dharana Darshan by Swami Niranjanananda Saraswati has an entire chapter devoted to the practice.

Buddhist meditation
Kriyas
Shatkarmas

Trāṭaka


G.723 is an ITU-T standard speech codec using extensions of G.721 providing voice quality covering 300 Hz to 3400 Hz using Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) to 24 and 40 kbit/s for digital circuit multiplication equipment (DCME) applications. The standard G.723 is obsolete and has been superseded by G.726.

Note that this is a completely different codec from G.723.1.

See also
 List of codecs
 G.723 [withdrawn] – Extensions of Recommendation G.721 adaptive differential pulse code modulation to 24 and 40 kbit/s for digital circuit multiplication equipment application. The content of the 1988 edition of ITU-T G.723 is now covered by ITU-T G.726.
 G.723.1 – Dual rate speech coder for multimedia communications transmitting at 5.3 and 6.3 kbit/s
 G.726 – 40, 32, 24, 16 kbit/s Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM). Corresponding ANSI-C code is available in the G.726 module of the ITU-T G.191 Software Tools Library.

External links
ITU-T page of G.723

References

Audio codecs
Speech codecs
ITU-T recommendations
ITU-T G Series Recommendations

G.723