Hiddensee () is a car-free island in the Baltic Sea, located west of Germany's largest island, Rügen, on the German coast.

The island has about 1,000 inhabitants. It was a holiday destination for East German tourists during German Democratic Republic (GDR) times, and continues to attract tourists today. It is the location of the University of Greifswald's ornithological station. Gerhart Hauptmann and Walter Felsenstein are buried there.

Name
The name Hedinsey surfaces as early as the Prose Edda and the Gesta Danorum written by Saxo Grammaticus and means "Island of Hedin". The legendary Norwegian king, Hedin, was supposed to have fought here for a woman or even just for gold. Under Danish rule the name Hedins-Oe ("Hedin's Island") was common. Even in 1880 the island was shown in German maps as Hiddensjö and, in 1929, in German holiday guides as Hiddensöe. Its full Germanization to Hiddensee is thus relatively recent.

Geography

Hiddensee is about  long, about  wide at its narrowest point and about  wide at its broadest point. It is the largest island within the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park and belongs to the district of Vorpommern-Rügen in the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. It lies west of the island of Rügen and is divided into an undulating, over  northern part (Dornbusch, whose highest point is the Bakenberg at ), a dune and heath landscape in the central area (Dünenheide) and a flat, only few-metres-high southern part, the Gellen. In the northeast are the two  spits of Alter Bessin and Neuer Bessin. The island is bounded by the  Schaproder Bodden and Vitter Bodden to the east, the Gellenstrom (the shipping channel to Stralsund) to the south and the open Baltic Sea to the west and north.

Settlements
The following settlements are located on the island: Kloster, Vitte, Neuendorf, Grieben.

Grieben
Grieben is the northernmost place on the island. Its name is derived from the Slavic word for mushroom. Grieben was one of the two settlements on the island that existed in Slavic times before the arrival of the German monks in the 13th century. In the 14th century, eight cottages are documented for Grieben. The number of houses has hardly changed since then.

Kloster

The village was established around Kloster Hiddensee, founded at the end of the 13th century. At the end of the 19th century, there was only a church, a manor house, a rectory and schoolhouse, and two workers' houses. Only then did the village gradually grow to its present size. A number of artists, writers or even scientists settled in the village or on its outskirts; Kloster has become known as the place of residence of Gerhart Hauptmann, who was buried in the island cemetery there.

Vitte

Vitte was first mentioned in a document in 1513. The name comes from Low German and means settlement of herring fishermen. Vitte soon developed into the largest town on the island due to its central location on the narrow island.

Glambeck (deserted village)
Along with Grieben, Glambeck was one of the two settlements existing on the island in Slavic times, the name means deep place. Already before 1700 the place became deserted. In the 21st century a field name one kilometer north of Neuendorf reminds of the former place.

Neuendorf

The village was established around 1700, probably as a replacement for the abandoned village of Glambeck. Here the character of the old fishing village has been preserved the most on the island. Its development structure with houses on a common meadow area without constructed paths is considered unique, the village as a whole is under monument protection.

Plogshagen
Plogshagen is a foundation from times of colonization by German settlers after the foundation of the monastery. The name is said to be derived from the personal name Plog. Today Plogshagen has largely grown together with Neuendorf.

Geology

Overview

The island of Hiddensee is, from a geological perspective, a very young landscape and was formed during the last ice age about 12,000 years ago. The ice age left behind here a Young Drift landscape. As a result of thawing inland ice, the underlying land rose and the hollows filled with water; the predecessor of what became the Baltic Sea, Ancylus Lake emerged. As a result, only protruding ridges like the Dornbusch remained visible, as islands. The overall shape of the coast in the southern area of the Baltic Sea was formed during the Littorina Transgression about 7,000 to 2,500 years ago. Around 5,000 years ago, the sea level attained its present level and the Dornbusch and two older island cores became islands. 4,500 years ago the salt water currents from the North Sea were sharply reduced. The Baltic has slowly become less salty since. As a result of coastal erosion (land denudation, drift and deposition) the islands changed to their present shapes over the course of time. For example, the former three island cores were joined to one another by accretion. This process still carried sand away from the north of the Dornbusch. In 2000,  of till twice broke off from the northern tip of the Hiddensee in the area of the Toter Kerl and collapsed into the sea. On average the cliff edges of the Dornbusch recede about  per year. In mid-March 2004 another  collapsed into the sea. Geologically seen the Hiddensee is a region undergoing constant change. The landmasses carried away from its northern tip are washed up again at the southern end and on the east side of the Schaproder Bodden. This has caused the formation of two geologically recent spits at the southern end of the Gellen: the Alter Bessin und Neuer Bessin. The Alter Bessin began to appear about 300 to 400 years ago and was already over  long by the middle of the 19th century. Since then it has barely grown. On the other hand, the Neuer Bessin which appeared in 1900 is growing by  annually and is already  long. Meanwhile, a third Bessin is emerging. Even the southern tip is growing as a so-called windwatt into the Schaproder Bodden.

Hills, ravines and other natural forms
From the highlands in the north to the lowlands in the south, there are the following mountains, gorges and shapes (altitude above sea level in parentheses, rounded):

Climate

Hiddensee is dominated macro-climatically by the Baltic Sea coastal climate with frequent alternation between maritime and continental influences. Characteristically it has frequent, brisk and changeable winds and long periods of sunshine. This averages 1,850 hours per year. As a result, Hiddensee is one of the sunniest places in Germany. One special feature is so-called transperiod wind circulation, when there are weak, offshore wind conditions, and which is caused by the different temperatures over the sea and land. This produces a sea breeze in late morning that abates in the afternoon or evening.

The longstanding annual average temperature on the island is . The average wind speed in Kloster is . In comparison to the nearby island of Rügen, the average annual precipitation on Hiddensee is markedly less at .

In 2008, Hiddensee-Dornbusch was the sunniest place in Germany, as reported by the weather service, Meteomedia, with 2,168 hours of sunshine. The data was gathered by Meteomedia's own weather station (; ).

Storm flood
Again and again Hiddensee was hit by storm flood. For example, the island is said to have been separated from the island of Rügen by the All Saints' Flood in 1304, but this has not been proven with certainty. In 1864 and 1865 Hiddensee was breached three times by storm floods between Hohen Dünschen Garn and Peterbergschen Garn, a very shallow and thin area. The 1872 Baltic Sea flood flooded the island again near Plogshagen. There is still a threat of the island being divided into a southern and a northern part, which could only be prevented by extensive coastal protection measures so far.

Flora and Fauna

Hiddensee is the largest island in the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park and blends an old cultural landscape with the wood pastures of the original dune heathland. The large accumulations of new land in the northeast (Alter and Neuer Bessin) and south (at the Gellen) of Hiddensee offer habitats for numerous invertebrates, such as worms and mussels. These in turn provide nourishment for many migrating birds. For example, the area around the island is one of the most important  crane roosting areas in Germany. The southern tip of the island is, like the Neuer Bessin was therefore classified as conservation zone I of the national park und is out-of-bounds. On the island are two nature reserves, the  between Neuendorf and Vitte and the  in the north.

The Naturschutzgesellschaft Hiddensee und Boddenlandschaft maintains a national park house in Vitte, with a permanent exhibition of fauna and flora.

In 1936 the  was established on the island.

Population development
The population of Hiddensee has shrunk in recent years. While an estimated 1,261 people lived on Hiddensee in 1990, an estimate in 2001 put the number at only 1,173, and in 2011 the census revealed only 995 inhabitants. Since then, the exodus seems to have stopped; the 2021 estimate resulted in 994 inhabitants. More women (52.1%) than men live on the island. Of the 994 inhabitants, 124 are under the age of eighteen.

Subdivisions
The municipality of Insel Hiddensee ("Island of Hiddensee") has four subdivisions (from north to south):

Grieben
Grieben is the oldest, northernmost and smallest village on Hiddensee and lies on the eastern edge of the uplands of the island. Its name comes from the Slavic grib (for "mushroom"). Grieben has no harbour of its own.

Kloster

The parish of  Kloster gets its name from the former Cistercian abbey, which stood from 1296 to 1536 in the vicinity of the present harbour in Kloster. It was dissolved with the Reformation. Today Kloster with its Gerhart Hauptmann Haus, the island church and island cemetery with the graves of Gerhart Hauptmann, Walter Felsenstein and Gret Palucca is the cultural centre of Hiddensee. It lies on the edge of the uplands (Hochland), whose highest point is the Dornbusch. In Kloster are the Hiddensee Biological Station and the Hiddensee Bird Observatory, both branches of the  University of Greifswald, which were both formed out of the Hiddensee Biological Research Institute, founded in 1930.

Vitte

Vitte (pronounced: Fitte), first mentioned in 1513, is the main settlement and the largest and most central village on the island. The name is a derivation of vit; a word that was used to refer to places where fish was sold. In Vitte is the parish hall and council administration. In addition there is the ferry landing stage for the goods ferry that brings delivery and waste disposal vehicles from Schaprode on the island of Rügen. Goods are transferred to trailers that are pulled by electric tractors and distributed to the food markets and restaurants on the island. Sometimes smaller goods are still delivered by horse and cart. The heath landscape on Hiddensee, between Vitte and Neuendorf, is also part of Vitte. In Vitte is the oldest surviving house on the island, the Witch's House (), the old summer house for Adolf Reichwein. In addition there is the last tented cinema and the puppet theatre .

Neuendorf

Neuendorf is the southernmost settlement on Hiddensee. The inhabitants of Neuendorf are known by the rest of the island as the Southerners (). Although Neuendorf is only  from Vitte, its inhabitants speak a different dialect. Large parts of Neuendorf resemble a large pasture on which the houses are arranged like a piece of string. There are no paths in places, so that some addresses may only be reached by walking over the grass. Neuendorf has its own harbour.

Neuendorf consists of two originally independent villages: the older one, Plogshagen, existed as early as the 13th century and the actual Neuendorf, which was formed in 1700 by relocation of people from Glambek. Ruins of these settlements are still recognisable today northeast of Neuendorf parish.

South of Neuendorf lies the so-called Gellen, an important bird reserve that belongs to conservation zone I of the West Pomeranian Lagoon Area National Park and is thus out-of-bounds to the public.

History

From the Stone Age to the end of the 17th century
The first settlements on the island took place in the middle and younger Stone Age. After a large part of the Germanic population had left the southern Baltic region in the 6th century AD, the Rani (Slavs) took possession of the island. The Hiddensee treasure, as well as the name of the islet, testify that the area was then in the sphere of influence of the Vikings in the 9th/10th century. In 1168 the Rans were defeated by King Waldemar I of Denmark by conquering the fortress Jaromarsburg at Cape Arkona on Rügen, Christianized and brought under Danish feudal dependence. Hiddensee was thus under Danish sovereignty. On April 13, 1296, the prince of Rügen, Wizlaw II, donated the island of Hiddensee, "as it was surrounded by the salt sea", to the Neuenkamp Abbey. There, a Cistercian abbey named Nikolaikamp was founded, named after St. Nicholas as the patron saint of sailors. In fact, the monastery was called Kloster Hiddensee for the entire time of its existence.

In the fall of 2008, archaeologists excavating under the direction of medieval archaeologist Felix Biermann discovered ten burials on the grounds of the former Cistercian monastery. Nine graves were found north of the monastery church and one in the cloister east of the west wing of the enclosure. Bettina Jungklaus anthropologically examined the skeletons of seven male and two female adults and one young girl. One 20- to 30-year-old male exhibited a healed slash wound to the right frontal bone. There was a joint burial of a 50-60-year-old man with a 14-15-year-old girl, where the man held the youth's left arm with his right hand. The disease burden was strikingly low. Tartar and periodontal disease were found most frequently. Caries was found on only one set of teeth, which was unusually low for medieval populations.

Simultaneously with the construction of the monastery, the Gellenkirche, a small beacon called Luchte, and the first harbor were built on the Gellen in the south of the island in the years 1302 to 1306. The foundations of these structures are located (today) west of the Gellen in the Baltic Sea.

In 1332, the consecration of the Island Church, intended for the farmers and fishermen of the island, took place in today's Kloster district outside the monastery walls. With the transfer of the baptismal font from the Gellenkirche to the new church, pastoral duties have been carried out from there ever since. The barrel vault, built in around 1781, received a painting with rose decoration by the Berlin painter Nikolaus Niemeier in 1922.

In the course of the Reformation, the monastery was dissolved in 1536. During the Thirty Years' War from 1618 to 1648, soldiers burned down the mixed oak forest on the Dornbusch on Wallenstein's orders in 1628, thus depriving the Danes of the opportunity to extract timber. Even in the 21st century, the ash layer from that time can still be seen on the roadsides near the lighthouse a few centimeters below the turf. In the years from 1648 to 1815, Hiddensee, like the whole of Western Pomerania, was under Swedish administration.

From 1754 to 1780, Joachim Ulrich Giese was the owner of the island and began mining clay for the Stralsunder Fayencenmanufaktur he founded.

From the 19th century to the end of the Second World War

From 1800 to 1836 the island belonged to captain and Knight Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig von Bagewitz (1777-1835) on Ralow. He increased the levies, drove the people of Hiddensee to 104 days of forced labor annually on his estates and prevented a school for the children. Under him, the free peasants in Grieben became serfs. Even when King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden abolished serfdom in 1806, nothing changed on Hiddensee.

From 1815, Hiddensee and Vorpommern belonged to Prussia until the end of World War II and was assigned to the district of Rügen (until 1939, the district of Rügen). In 1836, Stralsund's Holy Spirit Monastery acquired the island, and the first schools on the island were built in Plogshagen and Kloster in 1837 and 1840, respectively. In the years between 1854 and 1864, a reorganization of the land relations also took place on Hiddensee in the context of the redemption of the real burdens (liberation of farmers).

Until 1861, Hiddensee was virtually treeless for decades, except for the barren willow avenue between the monastery and Grieben and a few pines planted there around 1770, as well as a few trees at Schwedenhagen and Rübenberg. The dense oak tree population on Hiddensee, which still existed in the 13th century, had been almost completely decimated for firewood, house and ship building by the beginning of the 17th century. That the slash-and-burn in 1628 by Wallenstein would have destroyed the forest, as the legend would have it, is unlikely, because already on the map of Rügen by Eilhard Lubin from 1602 no tree symbol is drawn on Hiddensee anymore and the thorn bush is shown as bare hilly land. First in 1861 the Dornbusch between Bakenberg and Hucke was planted with pines, around 1900 also the Dornbusch north of Bakenberg, the coastal section from Hucke to the museum of local history as well as from there along the coast to Gellen (Karkensee). The section of coast in front of Vitte was excluded from this, because the Vitter rejected the government's offered reforestation for the reason that access to the beach for tourists would then be impeded.

In 1864 and 1872, the island was hit by severe storm floods. During the first flood, Hiddensee broke in two due to a complete flooding at the narrowest point of the island, south of Neuendorf, which could only be reversed by extensive reconstruction measures six years later. After the second storm flood, the Hiddensee treasure, a Viking work from the 10th century, is said to have been found. A replica of it can be seen in the Hiddensee Museum of Local History, the original is on display in the Stralsund Museum.

In 1874, the district of Hiddensee was formed in the German Empire. In 1875, the painter Gustav Schönleber "discovered" Hiddensee, which was difficult to access. In 1888 the lighthouse on the Dornbusch, the harbor and the sea rescue station were completed in Kloster. In 1887 the bulwark in Kloster was built, and in 1905 and 1907 the steamer landing bridges in Vitte and Neuendorf. From this time on, larger ships could dock directly on Hiddensee and the adventurous mooring or disembarking at the level of the ferry island was no longer necessary. From 1892 onwards, steamships operated regularly between Stralsund and Kloster for the first time. From 1905, with the founding of the medical association, the first doctor on Hiddensee received his license.

With the almost simultaneous construction of five large hotels in Kloster (Haus Hitthim in 1909, Zum Klausner in 1911, Wieseneck and Haus am Meer - the later Vogelwarte - both in 1913, and in the same year the Dornbusch, which had been expanded from an inn to a hotel), the number of tourists increased by leaps and bounds and Kloster became the island's main tourist resort.

With the founding of the Hiddensee Nature Conservation Association, the Fährinsel was declared a nature reserve in 1910 and Gellen and Gänsewerder in 1922 by the Prussian government. The status of a nature reserve was given to the Dornbusch, the Schwedenhagener Ufer and the Altbessin in 1937.

From 1916 to 1921, the photographer Elfriede Reichelt visited the island several times. Between 1922 and 1925, Max Taut built a house on Hiddensee every year. The most famous is the Karusel in Vitte, built in 1922, which the silent film actress Asta Nielsen bought as a residence in 1928 and for which Bruno Taut had designed the color concept of the house. Just near Karusel is another house by Max Taut, Haus Weidermann, built in 1923 for the Berlin merchant Karl Weidermann. In Kloster stand the Haus Pingel, built for the interior designer Walter Pingel in 1924 (significantly altered structurally in the 1960s), and right next to it the house built in 1925 for the Berlin publisher Max Gehlen, which has been on the grounds of the Biological Station of Hiddensee since 1930 and is used as a doctoral student house.

In 1927, a police regulation was issued prohibiting the use of motor vehicles on the island. Only the island doctor and the local police were allowed to use a motorcycle. In the same year the island was connected to the electricity grid and three years later the Biological Research Station was founded by Erich Leick from the University of Greifswald, which together with an ornithological station became the Biological Research Institute  of Hiddensee in 1936.

In 1937, work began on the large stone embankment with stone groynes in front of the Hucke. It was planned to protect the entire approximately four-kilometer-long break-off bank of the Dornbusch with a rampart. In addition to protecting the island, the intention was to limit sand drift in order to save the costs of constant dredging at the Gellen channel and in the Stralsund fairway. The outbreak of World War II put an end to the construction work, only four hundred meters were completed and remained so until today. After the construction of the Huckemauer, the beach at Kloster and Vitte deteriorated, suffering from a lack of sand.

Between 1937 and 1939, the three communities on the island merged to form the municipality of Hiddensee. Until before 1939, according to the last officially published Güter-Adressbuch Pommern, the family of Paul Wüstenberg was the tenant of the 239 ha Stadtgutes Kloster Hiddensee. According to genealogical sources of the Deutsches Geschlechterbuch, his family withdrew from the estate already around 1937. He was succeeded by Rüdiger von Hagen, brother of Albrecht von Hagen, who later became a short-time curator of the University of Greifswald. The family of Paul Wüstenberg was the tenant of the 239 ha town estate.

At the end of the 1930s, bunkers and anti-aircraft weapons were built at Enddorn for air defense during World War II, as well as a jetty at Schwedenhagen for material transport. The bunkers were blown up by the Soviet Army in 1945 (the debris was not removed until the 2000s) and the jetty was developed by VEB Erdöl-Erdgas Grimmen for experimental oil drilling in the 1960s. The pier was subsequently used, from 1974, by a pusher for island supply and demolished in 2010.

1945 until 1989
On May 4 and 5 in 1945 Soviet troops occupied the island. In the same year as in the following year, the Hiddensee estate was divided into 18 new farms as part of the land reform.

On July 28, 1946, Gerhart Hauptmann was buried in the cemetery in Kloster (Hiddensee Island). The memorial stone was unveiled exactly five years later, on July 28, 1951.

In 1952, the second ferry service between Seehof on Rügen and the ferry island had to be discontinued.

Between 1958 and 1959, the VEB Fahrzeug- und Jagdwaffenwerk "Ernst Thälmann" built a vacation village for its employees in Dünenheide. Right next to it, the Bau- und Montagekombinat Industrie- und Hafenbau Stralsund built another vacation village for its employees in 1980/81.

From 1952 to 1955, Hiddensee belonged administratively to the Bergen district. In 1953, during Aktion Rose, some hoteliers fled to the West, others were arrested. After this action, all hotels on the island were expropriated and handed over to the FDGB. In the fifties the local history museum and the Gerhart Hauptmann Haus opened; the LPG Dornbusch was founded.

In 1962, dike construction began between Kloster and Vitte. With the diking of the meadows and pastures along the Bodden coast, the largest transformation of Hiddensee began. In Vitte, the Bodden water previously went as far as the streets Wiesenweg, Norderende and Zum Seglerhafen. Large parts of today's harbor of Vitte as well as the whole area with today's sports field, the heliport and the sailing harbor Lange Ort were artificially washed up or drained. Also in Kloster parts of the Bodden were drained, which before the dike construction had still extended from the harbor to far behind Höhe Postweg.

The Weiße Flotte Stralsund took over the cooperative shipping company and the fishermen founded the FPG'n De Süder in Neuendorf and Swantevit in Vitte.

On April 10, 1967, petroleum exploration began as a result of seismic surveys in the north of the island of Hiddensee with the E Rügen 2/67 research well. This 4,602 m deep well, as well as the wells E Hiddensee 3/67, 4/68 and 5/68 that followed until December 1968, did not yield any exploitable oil deposits. The 5th well, which had already been prepared, was cancelled, and all wells were plugged in the summer of 1971. The crude oil produced up to that point was shipped by tanker from a temporary port near Kloster to the Soviet Union for examination and processing.

Until 1971, the site of the 5. Technische Beobachtungskompanie Dornbusch of the NVA was built between the pension Zum Klausner and the Dornbusch lighthouse. Behind a double fence, with dog run in between, there was an ammunition bunker and other buildings. The facility was dismantled in 1993 and the bunker was covered with earth. Since then, the former access road, the plate road from Kloster, which forks shortly before Klausner, leads to the right into "nothingness".

In 1972/73, the connecting roads between the villages were paved with concrete slabs, except for a gap of about 500 m between Vitte and Kloster, which existed for many years due to an incipient shortage of building material, and which is still recognizable today as the only asphalted road section. In 1974, the domestic waste dumps on the outskirts of all localities were covered and a central waste dump was built for them near Swantiberges. This was exhausted in the early nineties. Since 1993, all garbage is collected in the port of Vitte and transported to Rügen.

On May 7, 1989, 4.7 percent of the votes cast in the GDR local elections on Hiddensee were against the government. Hiddensee was considered a niche for dissidents and dropouts, who often worked in hotels, restaurants or as lifeguards in the summer. On the small island, they were easy to control, and despite sometimes open Stasi surveillance, some incidents and meetings were accepted. An intellectual climate prevailed on Hiddensee, and artists, writers, actors, musicians and scientists retreated there, such as Jo Harbort, Christine Harbort, Günter Kunert, Kurt Böwe, Harry Kupfer, Inge Keller, Günther Fischer, Armin Mueller-Stahl, Christoph Hein, Robert Rompe or members of the punk band Feeling B.

The bodies of people who were shot during escape attempts across the Baltic Sea, mostly in a folding kayak, or who perished without outside interference, were also found again and again on the beaches of Hiddensee, such as those of 18-year-old Friedrich Klein and Ernst August Utpaddel (both in February 1962) and 21-year-old Uwe Richter (in August 1987). But Hiddensee was also the starting point for one of the most spectacular escapes from the GDR and the only one with a surfboard, in November 1986, by 30-year-old Karsten Klünder and 22-year-old Dirk Deckert one day later. In the early morning of each day, both of them sailed from Gellen to the Danish island of Møn, 70 kilometers away, in a good four hours with homemade surfboards and sails.

From 1989
After the reunification, a new pier for the cargo ferry was completed in Vitte. Some sailors then used the old concrete pier of the push boat in Kloster as a sailing harbor. From the 2010s, a yachting harbor with sanitary facilities was created during the largest harbor renovation project in Kloster.

In 1992, the research facilities at the Schwedenhagen test site of Central Institute for Electron Physics in Berlin and the Ferry Island test site of Central Institute for Microbiology and Experimental Therapy in Jena were abandoned.

Hiddensee was also the site of the large-scale electric vehicle test launched in 1992 by the Federal Ministry of Research and the automotive industry. In the course of the test, a large solar system was installed on the roof of a building at the port of Vitte, which still exists today.

In May 2010, the tent cinema in Vitte had to be closed after 46 years. After a transitional period at changing locations, a new tent cinema opened at Vitte harbor in 2012, with Jörg Mehrwald as its director until 2020.

Between 2010 and 2014, some roads were repaved or paved at all and the local roads were widened by a good 50 percent (Vitte-Neuendorf 2010 and Kloster-Vitte 2014). In Vitte, a helipad went into operation in 2012 for emergency patients and for a disaster situation.

In October 2019, a new island bus with electric drive was put into operation. The predecessor ran on diesel and was thus still one of the few combustion vehicles on the island, after the police had also switched to an electric car in September 2015.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the island was closed to tourists for some time in 2020.

At the beginning of 2021, it became known that the municipality of Hiddensee would like to expand the harbor in Vitte. Plans include a 135-place yachting harbor, a multipurpose hall, a 5590-square-meter photovoltaic system, a seawater desalination plant in a twelve-meter tower, two piers, an expansion of the ferry dock for cruise ships, and several other buildings. A citizens' initiative has been formed against the expansion plans.

Management

Economy
The inhabitants of the island live mainly from tourism. The majority of visitors are day tourists. Annually, Hiddensee has about 50,000 overnight guests, compared to about 250,000 day visitors.

Even before 1990, Hiddensee was a popular vacation spot. In the 1970s, up to 4,000 vacationers and 3,000 day trippers were on the island every day during the peak season. By the mid-1980s, the number of day visitors had risen to nearly 250,000 annually. Due to the desired naturalness, the tourism sector was hardly developed further, and the number of visitors has hardly changed since then. Today, Hiddensee has just under 3,300 guest beds.

A considerable part of Hiddensee's area is used for agricultural purposes.

Education
School children have been taught on the island since 1788. In the beginning this was done by the sexton. The first school in Vitte was founded on November 2, 1887. After the restructuring in connection with the German reunification in 1990, the Vitte school became a secondary school. Currently, 69 students are taught from first to tenth grade (as of 2019).

Transport

Private motor vehicle traffic is prohibited on the entire island, which has been regulated by law since 1927. Motor vehicles are allowed

in some exceptions, recently increasingly with electric drive. Horse-drawn carts are used for passenger transport and some goods traffic. Between the northern and southern parts of the municipality, an electric regular bus operated by Rügener Personennahverkehrs GmbH (RPNV) runs Monday through Friday. However, the most frequently used means of transportation is the bicycle.

Unlike pedelecs/e-bikes, e-scooters on Hiddensee require a special permit, which is rarely issued, like all vehicles powered by engine power.

The island can be reached via several ship connections both from Stralsund (seasonally limited) and from Schaprode on Rügen, operated by the Weiße Flotte "Reederei Hiddensee". Here, the free transportation of severely disabled persons applies. In the summer season, there are further connections with Ralswiek, Breege, Wiek and Zingst. There are also water taxi connections with the mainland and the island of Rügen.

Sights and museums

The "biggest" attraction on Hiddensee is the long sandy beach. It stretches practically the entire length of the island on the west side. Therefore, it has been known as a bathing resort since the late 19th century. Yet bathing attire (and also clothing etiquette in general) was very permissive even in the days of the Belle Époque. Ladies going barefoot and showing bare calves was possible everywhere on Hiddensee, where elsewhere it would have caused a scandal. In the interwar period, the island became a center of the Lebensreform and Naturism. In GDR times, due to complaints from indignant tourists, an attempt was made at times to ban skinny-dip, but this was hardly noticed. Today, there is no division into textile and nude beach sections on Hiddensee, and both are permitted and common throughout the beach.

Kloster

Dornbusch lighthouse

In the north of the island, on the Schluckswiek in the so-called highlands of Hiddensee, stands the landmark of the island, the Hiddensee Lighthouse. 102 steps lead up to the tower, which has been open to visitors since 1994. However, so that it doesn't get too crowded up there, only 15 visitors can climb the tower at a time. From wind force 6, the tower remains closed for safety reasons.

Gerhart Hauptmann House

In the former country house Modler and later house Seedorn the writer Gerhart Hauptmann was a summer guest already in 1926. Four years later he bought it from the municipality and added an annex. From 1930 to 1943 he spent the summer months here with his wife. In 1956, it became the Gerhart Hauptmann Museum, which also hosts readings and concerts. The literature pavilion, built in 2012 in a strikingly modern form on the property, serves as the entrance and houses the ticket office, museum store (bookstore) and a permanent exhibition Literaturlandschaft Hiddensee.

Hiddensee Island Church

Hiddensee Island Church was built in 1332 in front of the monastery, of which nothing is preserved today (the so-called Klostertor was built only after the monastery was abandoned). For centuries it served as a parish church for the inhabitants of the island. In 1781 it was rebuilt in the Baroque style - the pulpit altar, confessional, baptismal angel and baptismal font date from this period. The painted barrel vault, the so-called Hiddenseer Rosenhimmel, however, is only from 1922. Today, the island church is the seat of the Protestant parish of Hiddensee.

Lietzenburg

The Lietzenburg is a listed Art Nouveau villa built by the painter Oskar Kruse in 1904/1905. It is a brick building with natural stone foundation on a hill near the Dornbusch. For many years it has served as a boarding house for artists.

Museum of local history Hiddensee
The museum of local history Hiddensee is a simple plaster building in Kloster. It offers a permanent exhibition on the island's history with about 450 exhibits, a complete copy of Hiddensee treasure found on the island, files, about 2500 photographs, postcards and slides, and an extensive library. Some works by well-known representatives of the Hiddensee artists' colony are also in the museum's collection. The building itself dates back to 1890 and was a sea rescue station.

Doktorandenhaus
Only a few steps away from the Gerhart Hauptmann Museum, at Biologenweg 5, stands the Doktorandenhaus, built in 1925 by Max Taut for the Berlin publishing director Max Gehlen. In 1930, the island administration bought the building as a summer house for the Biological Station of Hiddensee. Since about 1990, it has served as a seminar and accommodation building for the University of Greifswald.

Eggert Gustavs Museum
In the settlement area Am Bau, the Alte Schmiede was converted into a museum and opened in 2019. It honors the life and work of the artist Eggert Gustavs, who died in 1996 and was the son of the island's long-time pastor Arnold Gustavs, and thus aims to make him known to wider circles.

Vitte

National Park House Hiddensee
The national park house was opened in 1998. The house in the north of Vitte is a thatched building with a trapezoidal ground plan. It contains a permanent exhibition about the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park with a focus on Hiddensee. The exhibition's motto is "Panta Rhei – Alles fließt".

Asta Nielsen House and surroundings

The round building, also called Karusel after the Danish word for carousel, was built in 1923 according to plans by Max Taut for the Müller family. In 1928, the daughter of silent film actress Asta Nielsen bought it and spent the summer months there with her mother and her husband until the 1930s. Frequent visitors were Joachim Ringelnatz with his wife, Heinrich George and Gerhart Hauptmann. In 1975, the local government listed the building under cultural heritage management; in 1989, the Nielsen heirs sold the house to the municipality. In 2015, a permanent exhibition about Asta Nielsen opened. The house was located directly on the Bodden until the 1960s (see History 1945 to 1989). Right next to the Asta Nielsen House is another building by Max Taut, built in 1924 for the commercial director Karl Weidermann.

The municipality uses the house for public events, but it was badly damaged in the meantime and had to be renovated. The Ministry of Agriculture of the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and the district of Western Pomerania provided around 500,000 euros for this purpose, and the municipality also had to make a small contribution. The renovation was completed in 2015, and since then wedding ceremonies can also be held in the balcony room. In addition, the house now serves as a museum and artists' residence, where, among other things, the cinematic work of the silent film actress and the life of Max Taut are shown in a permanent exhibition. Special exhibitions and seminars in adjoining rooms are added.

Blaue Scheune

In its original layout, the Blaue Scheune is a Low German half-timbered house from the beginning of the 19th century. Since the 1970s it has housed the gallery of the owner Günter Fink. He exhibited his paintings with island motifs here and also sold them.

Henni Lehman Haus
The Landhaus Lehmann was used as the summer residence of the Henni Lehmann family from 1907 to 1937. The building was designed by the Schwerin architect Paul Ehmig. After a reconstruction, the building served as the town hall of Vitte between 1938 and 1991. Since June 5, 2000, the house is officially called Henni Lehmann House and is used for events and exhibitions as well as the local library.

Hexenhaus
Built in 1755 as a fisherman's cottage, it is considered the oldest house in Vitte. Since 1915 the painter Elisabeth Büttner lived in the house, from 1930 it was the summer residence of the Pallat family or the resistance fighter Adolf Reichwein, who was murdered in 1944, and is still owned by the family today. In 1981, the house in Süderende 105 was listed as a historical monument. A commemorative stumbling stone is located in front of the house. The building cannot be visited from the inside.

Humunkulus figure collection
The collection of figures and props in the matter-of-fact new building made of larch wood comes mainly from the neighboring puppet theater Seebühne by Karl Huck. On display, in addition to theater posters and brochures, are, for example, Doctor Faustus, Long John Silver, Ebenezer Scrooge, Hans Christian Andersen, Tolstoy, Kafka, Edgar Allan Poe, William Shakespeare, Goethe, Pinocchio, King Kong, Marilyn Monroe, Helena, and an extensive animal kingdom including a dronte chick.

Neuendorf

Gellen lighthouse

The 12.30 m high structure (height of fire 10 m), a sector and cross light, is located south of Neuendorf at the northern border of the Gellen. It has the lighthouse number C2586 and the coordinates ♁54° 30′ 29″ N, 13° 4′ 28″ E. The beacon bears the official designation "Leuchtfeuer Gellen/Hiddensee". The white steel tower with red gallery and conical roof stands on a natural stone base. It was built in 1904 by the company Julius Pintsch (Berlin) from cast segments (tubbings) and has been in trial operation since 1905, in continuous operation since 1907. The Ranzow and Kolliker Ort lighthouses (on the island of Rügen) and the Norddorf lighthouse (on the island of Amrum) were built in the same way at the same production plant (Fürstenwalde/Spree branch). The lighthouse Gellen/Hiddensee marks the northern entrance to the Gellenstrom, in the west the fairway of the Gellenstrom and leads in the east through the Schaproder Bodden. The lighthouse was depicted on a 5-million-mark emergency banknote issued by the district of Rügen in 1923. In the GDR's special stamp series "Leucht-, Leit- und Molenfeuer" from 1975, the Gellen beacon graced the 10 pfennig stamp as a motif.

Parish Hall Uns Tauflucht
So that church services could also be celebrated in Neuendorf, the parish hall Uns Tauflucht (Our Refuge) was built at the end of the 20th century. In addition to ecumenical services, it is also used for community events such as lectures and concerts.

Fishery Museum Lütt Partie

In 2006/2007, a brick-built former net and equipment shed from 1885 was converted into the Lütt Partie (Small Unit) Fishery Museum. The name is from times when it was still in its former purpose. At that time there was a large and a small net or equipment shed, one was popularly called Grod Partie, the smaller Lütt Partie. Since 2007, fishermen from the island have been presenting and explaining fishing equipment and telling stories about fishing history and everyday work in the past and present. The museum is run by the "Fischereipartie Neuendorf e. V." association, which is financed solely by donations.

Stolpersteine

Six Stolpersteine in Vitte commemorate Henni Lehmann and four other painters of Jewish origin as well as the pedagogue and politician Adolf Reichwein, who became victims of the National Socialist regime.

Culture

The island of Hiddensee enjoyed the reputation of an artists' colony from the beginning of the 20th century. Artists of all kinds spent the summer months there and recorded their impressions in their work.

From 1904, the painter Elisabeth Büchsel spent the summer months in Neuendorf. In the same year, Oskar Kruse built his Lietzenburg in Kloster, which became an artists' meeting place. Later, his sister-in-law, the doll maker Käthe Kruse, also lived there. In the Blaue Scheune in Vitte, the summer residence of Henni Lehmann, the Hiddensoer Künstlerinnenbund met from 1922 to 1933. Other artists closely associated with Hiddensee from the period after the First World War are Willy Jaeckel and Joachim Ringelnatz.

Even during the GDR era, numerous artists regularly stayed on Hiddensee and reflected on everyday life and the landscape in their paintings, prints and books, such as the writer Hanns Cibulka. The dancer and dance teacher Gret Palucca spent every summer on Hiddensee from 1948, was given a plot of land in Vitte by the GDR, on which she had a house built in 1961, which was demolished by an investor in 2009. Palucca was buried in the island cemetery in Kloster, where also lies artistic director Walter Felsenstein, who had a house built opposite the Lietzenburg, where he spent the summer months.

Felsenstein's neighbor, the painter Willi Berger (1922-2018), lived on Hiddensee since 1955. His catalog raisonné includes more than 4200 paintings, most of them with Hiddensee or people on Hiddensee as a motif. He also restored paintings of the painter Elisabeth Büchsel, but from 1955 to 1979 he was a full-time ornithologist and conservator at the ornithological station of Hiddensee. In his home and studio Schwalbennest on the Hügelweg in Kloster, a memorial exhibition was held in October 2019. Whether this will become a permanent exhibition is still uncertain.

Since 1987, the painter Torsten Schlüter celebrates his Hiddenseer Sommerausstellungen im Garten at various locations on the island such as the Schliekerschen Haus in Kloster. Currently, he owns an exhibition space in the former arts and crafts store of Irene Hasenberg at the Hotel Dornbusch and a studio in his house above the steep coast of Kloster (Biologist path), which he has named Anna Hucke and where he also exhibits in the garden in the summer. The exhibition is held in the garden.

Traditionally, a lot of carving art is made from driftwood and other dead wood on Hiddensee. In the 1970s and 1980s, mainly by the Schierk musician and artist Hanns Mehner (1927-2005), who at that time spent the summer months at his mother-in-law's house in Kloster. Mehner's owls, totem poles, and faces adorned the front gardens of Kloster (some to this day). After the fall of the Berlin Wall, Jo. Harbort continued this tradition. His wooden sculptures are placed among others at the playgrounds in Vitte and Neuendorf, at the harbors in Kloster and Neuendorf, at the church in Kloster and at the Inselblick. Together with the innkeepers Zum Klausner, he opened a sculpture park at the inn in 2005, which was created by students of the Theater Sculpture class at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts and is expanded annually by new works of the respective class. Harbort's sculptures are also displayed at the island view.

Furthermore, there is a tent cinema at the harbor of Vitte and the puppet theater Seebühne in Vitte as well as the galleries Am Seglerhafen in Vitte, Am Torbogen, Galerie am Hügel and Hedins Oe in Kloster.

Gallery

Others
The island of Hiddensee is also called "Sötes Länneken", sweet little land, by the locals.

Because many members of Berlin's bohemian scene spent their summer holidays on Hiddensee during the Weimar period, the island in the capital was also known as the Romanisches Café among the Baltic islands.

In 1974, Nina Hagen released the hit Du hast den Farbfilm vergessen, which says: "Hoch stand der Sanddorn am Strand von Hiddensee ...". The folk duo De Plattfööt also sang about "Hiddensee, Land zwischen Luv un Lee".

A missile fast patrol boat of the German Navy of the Tarantul class bore the name Hiddensee from 1990 until its decommissioning in 1996. It is now a museum ship at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Massachusetts (USA) and can be visited.

The German Maritime Search and Rescue Service (DGzRS) owns and operates a rescue station with a rescue boat in Vitte.

Culinary specialties
On the island grows sea buckthorn in large quantities. Its fruits are processed into alcoholic (sea buckthorn liqueur and sea buckthorn spirit) and non-alcoholic beverages (cold and hot sea buckthorn juice), vitamin-rich dishes (sea buckthorn cake and ice cream) and cosmetics, etc. In addition, the local products are dominated by fish, especially freshly caught and smoked. A speciality is the Hiddenseer Schmoraal, for which every old-established Hiddenseer family and every restaurant has its own recipe. Meanwhile, the Boddenzander has also proven its culinary quality. Little known, but all the more admired for its green bones, is the needlefish, which can be found on some menus.

House marks

Many houses on Hiddensee still have their traditional house marks on them today.

Films
The island has been the plot or location of numerous films:

 Das Mädchen von Fanö by Kurt Heuser based on the novel by Günter Weisenborn, music by Alois Melichar, directed by Hans Schweikart with Brigitte Horney, Joachim Gottschalk, Gustav Knuth, Paul Bildt a. o., 95 minutes, Bavaria-Film 1940/1941
 Der Augenzeuge 1946/14, DEFA-Wochenschau with footage of the transfer (Stralsund, town hall, harbor, steamship) and burial of Gerhart Hauptmann's mortal remains in Kloster
 Der Augenzeuge 1947/61, DEFA-Wochenschau with footage of the work of Hiddensee Fisher
 Vogelzugforschung auf Hiddensee mit Prof. Dr. Hans Schildmacher (1907-1976), Director: Manfred Ehrendt, Camera: Rudo Neubert, DEFA documentary, 1953
 Hiddensee, director: Jiří Jahn, camera: Heinz Thomas, composition: Hans-Hendrik Wehding, text: Erich Arendt, DEFA-Kulturfilm 1957, color, 15 minutes
 Der Augenzeuge 1959/B64, DEFA-Wochenschau, working people from VEB Simson Suhl fly from Erfurt to the Baltic Sea with Lufthansa to spend their vacation on Hiddensee.
 Gerhart Hauptmann zum 100. Geburtstag, camera and direction: Joop Huisken, composition: Gerhard Rosenfeld, narrator: Norbert Christian, DEFA documentary 1962, 17 min.
 Die Hochzeit von Länneken, Feature film, GDR 1963/64 (Director: Heiner Carow, Music: Günter Kochan).
 Lütt Matten und die weiße Muschel, children's film based on Benno Pludra, DEFA 1963/64 (director: Herrmann Zschoche, music: Georg Katzer).
 Schiffslacke unter der Wasserlinie, directed by Peter Ulbrich, about paints against barnacle growth etc., which are tested in a test station off Hiddensee. DEFA documentary 1964, color
 Der Augenzeuge 1968/23, DEFA-Wochenschau, Hiddensee awaits its vacation guests
 Der Augenzeuge 1970/34, DEFA-Wochenschau, workers from the Suhl vehicle and hunting weapons factory travel by Interflug charter plane via Erfurt-Barth to vacation bungalows on Hiddensee Heath.
 Den Wolken ein Stück näher, two-part television film based on Günter Görlich, directed by Christian Steinke, GDR television 1972/1973
 Polizeiruf 110: Kollision, by Claus-Ulrich Wiesner, directed by Manfred Mosblech, GDR television 1976/77
 Der Augenzeuge 1980/49, DEFA-Wochenschau, observations on Hiddensee in late autumn, a fisherman from Vitte talks about catching herring as well as advantages and disadvantages of each season
 Polizeiruf 110: Der Unfall by Eberhard Görner, directed by Manfred Mosblech, GDR television 1981/82
 Wanderungen durch die DDR – Hiddensee, television documentary by Werner Filmer and Dieter Storp, 45 minutes, WDR 1986
 Hiddensee – Insel der Berliner Bohème, television documentary by Dagmar Brendecke, 45 minutes, SFB/MDR 1993
 Hiddensee – Capri der Ostsee, television documentary by Frank Schleinstein, 29 minutes, Otonia/MDR 1994
 "Bilderbuch Deutschland" Hiddensee – Schönes Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, television documentary by Karin Reiss, BR/hr/ZDF 1998
 Karussell. Vier Tage auf Hiddensee. Reg. Jörg Mehrwald, DVD, Da Music/Deutsche Austrophon GmbH & Co. Kg/Diepholz

See also
List of islands of Germany

References

External links

 Overnight on Hiddensee Island - slideshow by The New York Times

German islands in the Baltic
Car-free zones in Europe
Islands of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Populated coastal places in Germany (Baltic Sea)

Hiddensee


The Douglas F4D Skyray (later redesignated F-6 Skyray) is an American carrier-based fighter/interceptor designed and produced by the Douglas Aircraft Company. It was the last fighter produced by the Douglas Aircraft Company prior to its merger with McDonnell Aircraft to become McDonnell Douglas.

Development of the Skyray was started by Douglas during the late 1940s as the D-571-1 design study. It was a delta wing interceptor capable of a high rate of climb as to permit the rapid interception of approaching hostile bombers. Douglas' proposal was selected by Navy officials to fulfil a formal requirement issued in 1948. The decision to adopt the Westinghouse J40 turbojet engine to power it would lead to considerable difficulties later on as this engine would be cancelled prior to entering production. Aerodynamic issues would also lead to a protracted development cycle, considerable design changes being made even after the maiden flight of a production standard Skyray having taken place in June 1954. The Skyray was declared ready for fleet introduction in April 1956, permitting its entry to service with both the United States Navy (USN) and United States Marine Corps (USMC) shortly thereafter.

The Skyray had a relatively brief service life, during which it never participated in actual combat. Despite this, it was the first carrier-launched aircraft to hold the world's absolute speed record, having attained a top speed of 752.943 mph, (1,211.744 km/h). It also set a new time-to-altitude record, flying from a standing start to  in two minutes and 36 seconds, all while flying at a 70° pitch angle. The last Skyrays were withdrawn from service in February 1964, although a handful continued to be flown for experimental purposes by National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) up to the end of the decade. The F5D Skylancer was an advanced development of the F4D Skyray that ultimately did not enter service.

Design and development
The Skyray originated within a design study, the D-571-1, performed by Douglas and funded by the United States Navy (USN). It was a fast-climbing pure interceptor that used a delta wing configuration and powered by a pair of Westinghouse J34 turbojet engines, which were equipped with afterburners for bursts of additional acceleration. The D-571-1 had a relatively thick wing with no conventional fuselage save for a pod-like cockpit in a forward position. A total of four 20mm cannons extended forward of the leading edge of the wing, alternative armaments consisted of spin-stabilized rockets. The design study had harnessed the designs and research of the German aerodynamicist Alexander Lippisch, who moved to the United States following the end of World War II; his work had been examined by several of Douglas' design team. In June 1947, the Navy issued a contract to Douglas to proceed with preliminary investigation and engineering works on the concept up to the mockup stage.

As the design was refined, it was decided to substantially reduce the wing's thickness to increase its high speed capabilities. The twin J34 engine arrangement was also swapped out for a single Westinghouse J40 engine. Only a single hydraulic system was incorporated, thus measures to permit manual reversion in the event of hydraulic failure were also included. Rockets also became the primary armament, which were housed in pylon-mounted pods underneath the wing. A formal operational requirement was issued by the Navy in 1948, however, according to aviation author Tommy H. Thomason, it was an apparently foregone conclusion that the contract would be awarded to Douglas from the onset. Specifics of this requirement included the ability to intercept and destroy an enemy aircraft at an altitude of 50,000 ft (15,240 m) within five minutes of the alarm being sounded. At the time, Navy planners were particularly concerned by the threat posed to its carrier battle groups by high altitude Soviet bomber aircraft; furthermore, as early jet aircraft were fuel hungry and had limited endurance, to maximise an interceptor aircraft time on station it was particularly desirable for such an aircraft to possess a relatively high rate of climb so that it could be launched and rapidly reach its operational altitude.

On account of the numerous design changes, the mockup review was delayed by almost one year, taking place in March 1949. One criticism produced at this stage was that the nose-up attitude was greater than had been anticipated, necessitating changes to the aircraft's nose and radome to improve the pilot's external visibility. A more pressing issue would be the J40 engine intended to power the aircraft. Douglas' design team had decided to make accommodations to facilitate the use of other engines as a contingency measure; this approach proved to be quite fortunate as the J40 had a particularly troubled development, being eventually cancelled with no production units ever being delivered. As a temporary measure, the prototype had to be outfitted with an Allison J35 engine instead.

The long-term replacement for the J40 on production aircraft was the Pratt & Whitney J57, a more powerful but considerably larger engine. As the original inlet design was not a good match for the J57, it had to be redesigned. The ensuing delays to the programme led to several other aircraft, such as the North American F-100 Super Sabre and the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19, beating it into operational service.

During June 1954, the first flight of a production standard Skyray occurred, after which an intense period of flight testing and remedial design work followed. The aft section needed to be reprofiled to eliminate undesirable buffeting as well as to reduce drag. In September 1955, initial carrier suitability trials were performed onboard USS Ticonderoga. No production aircraft were delivered until early 1956, it was declared ready for fleet introduction in April of that year. A total of 419 F4D-1 (later designated F-6 under the unified designation system) aircraft would be produced prior to the end of production in 1958.

The Skyray was a wide delta wing design with long, sharply swept, rounded wings. It was named for its resemblance to the manta ray. The thick wing roots contained the air intakes that fed its single turbojet engine. Fuel was contained both in the wings and the deep fuselage. Leading edge slats were fitted for increased lift during takeoff and landing while the trailing edges comprised mostly elevon control surfaces. Additional pitch trimmers were fitted inboard near the jet exhaust, and were locked upwards on takeoff and landing. It had a relatively unique design for the era, which was a key factor in the Skyray becoming one of the best-known early jet fighters. It was affectionately known as the "Ford" (after the "Four" and "D" of its designation). During 1953, Edward H. Heinemann was awarded the Collier Trophy in recognition of his design work on the F4D.

Operational history

During April 1956, VC-3 became the first squadron to attain operational status with the F4D-1. This unit was later redesignated VFAW-3 and assigned to NORAD, becoming the only United States Navy fighter squadron in what was predominantly a United States Air Force (USAF) and Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) organization. VFAW-3 was permanently based at NAS North Island in San Diego.

The United States Marine Corps (USMC) also operated the Skyray. When the Department of Defense adopted a uniform aircraft designation system patterned on the USAF's aircraft designation system during September 1962, the F4D was redesignated as the F-6A Skyray. The F4D (old designation) should not be confused with the F-4D (new designation) – the latter being the "D" variant of the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II operated by the USAF.

The Skyray was designed exclusively for the high-altitude interception role, with a high rate and angle of climb. It set a new time-to-altitude record, flying from a standing start to  in two minutes and 36 seconds, all while flying at a 70° pitch angle. As a dedicated interceptor, the F4D was unsuited to the multi-mission capabilities that became increasingly in demand, thus the type had a relatively short career in both USN and USMC service. In addition to multiple Navy and Marine Corps squadrons, Naval Air Reserve and Marine Air Reserve squadrons VF-881, VF-882 and VMF-215 also flew the Skyray. The last operational squadron was VMF(AW)-115, which flew the Skyray until February 1964. A total of four aircraft were used for experimental purposes by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) (which was later renamed NASA) until 1969.

F5D Skylancer

The F5D Skylancer was derived from the F4D and intended to be a Mach 2 capable successor to the Skyray. Although four prototypes were built and flown, the project was cancelled as being too similar in mission parameters to the F8U Crusader and also to reduce dependence upon Douglas Aircraft, which was also producing several other aircraft for the U.S. Navy. This decision effectively removed Douglas from active fighter development.

Variants

XF4D-1
Prototypes; redesignated YF-6A in 1962, two built.

F4D-1
Single-seat fighter aircraft, production model; redesignated F-6A in 1962, 420 built.

F4D-2
Re-engined F4D-1 with the J57-F-14, 100 on order cancelled.

F4D-2N
F4D-2 version with extended nose housing twin radar scanners, project only evolved into the F5D Skylancer.

Operators

 United States Navy
VFAW-3
VF-13
VF-21
VF-23
VF-51
VF-74
VF-101
VF-102
VF-141
VF-162
VF-213
VF-881
VF-882
 United States Marine Corps
VMF-113
VMF-114
VMF-115
VMF-215
VMF-314
VMF-513
VMFA-531
VMF(AW)-542
VX-3
 NACA/NASA

Aircraft on display

XF4D-1
124587 – U.S. Naval Museum of Armament and Technology at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, California. It is on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum, Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.

F4D-1 (F-6A)
 134748 – Pima Air and Space Museum adjacent to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona. It is on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum.
 134764 – Naval Air Station Patuxent River in St. Mary's County, Maryland. It is on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum.
 134806 – National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.
 134836 – Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York City. Originally on display at the New England Air Museum before relocating to Intrepid in 2021.
 134936 – Pueblo Weisbrod Aircraft Museum at Pueblo Memorial Airport, Colorado.
 134950 – Aviation Heritage Park at Naval Air Station Oceana in Virginia Beach, Virginia.  It is on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum.
 139177 – Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar in San Diego, California. It is on loan from the National Naval Aviation Museum.

Specifications (F4D-1)

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Encyclopédie illustrée de l'aviation n°196 - Editions Atlas

External links

 Douglas F4D Skyray
 Boeing history, F4D
 VFAW-3 photos and history

F4D Skyray
Douglas FD4 Skyray
Single-engined jet aircraft
Tailless delta-wing aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1951
Second-generation jet fighters

Douglas F4D Skyray


Joan Baehler Bauer (born July 12, 1951) is an American writer of young adult literature currently residing with her husband Evan Bauer in Brooklyn. Bauer was born in River Forest, Illinois. They are the parents of one daughter, Jean. Before becoming a famous author Joan spent years working for McGraw-Hill and the Chicago Tribune. She also did some work in advertising, marketing, and screenwriting.

Themes
The main characters in her books are typically teenagers who are dealing with complicated family issues, such as alcoholism, abandonment, illness, and self-esteem issues. These issues are lightened up with a light touch and humor. Bauer is well known for her enjoyable young adult fiction novels, which always feature bright covers with her name in mismatched colored letters.

Awards
She has received multiple awards and recognition for her work including: Delacorte Prize for First Young Adult Novel, 1992, for Squashed; Top Ten Best Books for Young Adults selection, American Library Association, 1999, for Rules of the Road; Newbery Honor Medal; Los Angeles Times Book Prize; Christopher Award; Golden Kite Award, Society of Children's Book Writers and Illustrators; Michigan Thumbs-Up! Award for Children's Literature; New England Booksellers Award; Literary Light Award, Boston Public Library.

Notable works

Squashed
Bauer's first book, Squashed, was set in rural Iowa. The novel features a sixteen-year-old named Ellie Morgan, whose life "would be almost perfect if she could just get her potentially prize-winning pumpkin to put on about 200 more pounds—and if she could take off 20 herself ... in hopes of attracting Wes, the new boy in town." The novel was published in 1992 by Delacorte Press, a Dell Publishing imprint. According to Delacorte, Squashed won its annual Prize for an Outstanding First Young Adult Novel.

Hope Was Here
The novel Hope Was Here was published by G. P. Putnam's Sons in 2000. The novel  was one of four Newbery Honor Books, and runner-up for the 2001 Newbery Medal. The American Library Association award recognizes the year's most distinguished contribution to American children's literature; a distinct award for young-adult books had been introduced in 2000, the Michael L. Printz Award. Hope Was Here features Hope Yancey, a 16-year-old waitress in small-town Wisconsin. According to the Newbery Committee chair, "Bauer juggles story lines as well as Hope juggles plates, and the lessons of waitressing expand into lessons about the essentials of life."

Thwonk
Thwonk was published in 1996 by Bantam books. The novel features A.J. McCreary and her love interest Peter Terris. She encounters a real-life cupid who can only help her in one aspect of her life: either romantically, academically, or artistically. She knows she should use the wish to get into a prestigious art school but she has been obsessed with Peter for months which complicates her situation.

Peeled
Peeled was published in 2008 by Putnam Juvenile. The novel follows Hildy Biddle. She dreams of being a journalist. She writes for her school newspaper and is drawn to a haunted house in her town for a story. That is where her journey begins. There have been reported ghost sightings and the town is intrigued. Hidly is determined to get the big story no matter what the consequences.

Books

 Squashed (Delacorte Press, 1992)
 Thwonk (Delacorte, 1995) – a young-adult fantasy novel
 Sticks (Delacorte, 1996)
 Rules of the Road (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1998) – Golden Kite Award, LA Times Book Prize
 Backwater (Putnam, 1999)
 Hope Was Here (Putnam, 2000) – a Newbery Honor Book
 Stand Tall (Putnam, 2002)
 Best Foot Forward (Putnam, 2005)
 Peeled (Putnam, 2008)
 Close to Famous (Vikings, 2011)
 Almost Home (Viking, 2012)
 Soar ( Jan, 2016)
 Tell Me (Viking, 2014) – forthcoming September

References

External links

1951 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American children's writers
American young adult novelists
Living people
Newbery Honor winners
Novelists from Illinois
American women novelists
Women writers of young adult literature
People from River Forest, Illinois
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers

Joan Bauer (novelist)


Elisabeth von Matsch (also von Mätsch, Mazzo, von Toggenburg, date of birth unknown; † after 20 June 1442, assumably on 24 November 1446, probably in the Rüti Abbey) was the last countess of the Swiss noble House of Toggenburg from 1436. She was the spouse of Friedrich VII, count of Toggenburg.

Early life

Elisabeth was the daughter of Ulrich IV, Vogt of Matsch, Count of Kirchberg (1349–1402) and Landeshauptmann of Tirol (1361–1363), and Agnes Countess of Kirchberg († 1401). There are no sources about her early years, and her life as Countess of Toggenburg is sparsely documented. Intentionally to end the long year territorial disputes between the Matsch family and the House of Toggenburg as the Matsch family's opponent in the present Swiss cantons of Graubünden and St. Gallen, Elisabeth married Friedrich VII von Toggenburg in 1391.

The archives of the city republic of Zürich keeps a document, sealed by the city council and citizenry of Zürich on 7 September 1433, that Graf Fridrich von Toggenburg, Herr zu Utznach, zu Meygenfeld, im Brettengoew [Prättigau] und auf Dafaus [Davos] appointed his wife Gräfin Elssbeth von Toggenburg, geborene von Maetsch to his sole heiress, and that the Burgrecht was renewed and also included Countess Elisabeth, on occasion of a meeting with Zürich officials in Rapreswil. Elisabeth and Friedrich had no children, and the count died in 1436 being the last Count of Toggenburg. Friedrich VII was buried in the so-called Toggenburg chapel which was given by Countess Elisabeth to be built adjoint to the church of the Rüti Abbey.

Last countess of Toggenburg

Exile in Zürich and sole heir of Toggenburg
When Friedrich VII died on 30 April 1436, Countess Elisabeth initially was hold as sole heir, but she searched protection – in the face of pledge claims by the Dukes of Habsburg-Austria together with magnificent claims of the King of the Holy Roman Empire and inheritance claims by local landlords, and by the Old Swiss Confiderancy – by claiming ius burgense (German: Burgrecht) of the city republic of Zürich; on 31 October 1436 the so-called Burgrecht was prolonged from five years to Elisabeth's lifetime. Elisabeth and Fridrich von Hewen, her oncle and legal advisor, also confirmed that Graf Fridrich von Toggenburg appointed Elisabeth to sole heiress.

Gräfin Elssbeth von Toggenburg, née von Maetsch, was mentioned as sole heir in two documents of the city council of Zürich, and she certified on 31 October 1436, in view of the diverse services by Zürich for Fridrich, and given the fact that a widow requires special protection, with help of her uncle and legal counsel, Fridrich von Hewen, that she gave over the towns Utznang, Schmerikon and Utznangerberg (a castle on the Uznach mountain at the former Tuggen lake) including all rights to the city of Zürich as property. The transfer was valid "zuo stund" (now), and the inhabitants of the territories had to swear to the people of Zürich until Hilariustag (13 January 1437); the Countess maintained all servitudes by lifetime. The document also secured the privileges and the tradition of the (Toggenburg) residents, notably with regard to the so-called third penny in inheritances and the so-called Kirchsatz; Zürich declared also not to impose any taxes. The commitment, Count Fridrich VII has concluded with Schwyz, related to the tower at Grinow also should be complyed by Elisabeth. Countess Elisabeth and Baron Fridrich von Hewen seal as her legal counsel on 31 October 1436.

Toggenburg lands and rights
To secure the rights and lands of the County of Toggenburg, Countess Elisabeth also supported the so-called Zehngerichtenbund (literally: League of the ten jurisdictions) which included the then Toggenburg properties, the valleys of Prättigau, upper Albula-Belfort, Churwalden, Schanfigg and Maienfeld – the communities would either be split among other nobles, or the entire County of Toggenburg would be inherited by the House of Habsburg. On 8 June 1436 the former Toggenburg lands formed a pact which was supported by Elisabeth. On 16 February 1437 Elisabeth von Matsch granted the mayor and council of the city of Zurich or their representatives the authority to act on their behalf at the conciliation proceedings which were held immediately after the usurpations of Utznang and Schmerikon, Utznangerberg, Liechtensteig, Turtall and Neckertall by the cantons of Schwyz and Glarus, as well to lock Grynow, and to secure the recording of the land law in favour of the Toggenburg residents. The contract was signed by Elisabeth, and at her request, sealed by her nephew Vogt Uolrich von Mätsch, Graf zu Kirchberg, on 23 February 1437.

Rüti Abbey

Toggenburg chapel

On 5 September 1439 Elisabeth von Mätsch instigated a parsonage for the purpose of a daily Mass to Friedrich's and her own salvation, and for this purpose she bequeathed the amount of 1,300 Rheinische Gulden in gold and precious gems with ornaments (pretiosa ornamenta) to the Rüti Abbey. In the abbey 14 members of the Toggenburg family were buried in the so-called Toggenburggruft, a burial vault, and Countess Elisabeth and Friedrich VII lived there before 1436, and probably Elisabeth in the late years of her exile. During her lifetime, Countess Elisabeth chose the priest who should hold the Mass in the new chapel (capella nova in latere monasterii de novo construxit) of the monastery church. After her death, the foundation provided that the abbot and his convent hold a daily Mass and the usual periodicals, and that to the priest in charge was given board and lodge, as well as ten Rheinische Gulden at Christmas, financed by Elisabeth's foundation. The abbot of Einsiedeln had to pay attention to the fulfillment of these obligations and received in this way influence on the life of the Rüti Abbey respectively the convent had the hermit pin to pay fifty Florins for non-compliance.

Late years, last will and burial

Elisabeth Countess of Toggenburg spent her last days in the Rüti Abbey, and she was mentioned on 20 June 1442 as inhabitant of the Rüti Abbey: Elisabeth von Toggemburg...Graf Ffriedrich von Toggenburg and many of his ancestors haven chosen to be buried in the Rüti Abbey, which is why she has retreated there ("unser wesen gentzlich in dasselbe gotzhus got zuo dienende gezogen haben") and elected her tomb to be with her husband after her death, attested that she had given to the monastery....in honor of God...a specifically named jewel, namely 1300 Rheinische Gulden for an eternal daily fair and for several seasons...[as per 5 September 1439]..., also a beaded ("berlachtes") chasuble, a gilded "tryenvass", the big monstrance with the mandrel the crown of Christ, the small monstrance with an attached closure ("Schlössli") heart-shaped, four chasubles made of velvet and damask, two silk decorative ceiling ("Golter") in green and red, and a silk tapestry ("uffschlag")... The document is sealed by Countess Elisabeth and knight Albrecht von Landemberg von Breitenlandemberg (Tösstal). On 11 June 1443 marauding troops of the Old Swiss Confederacy devastated the monastery and desecrated the bodies of the nobles – namely with Count Thierstein's bones the scavengers pelted like schoolboys with snowballs, and they desecrated the grave of Count Friedrich VII which they held responsible for the war with Zürich.

Probably for the last time, Ellsbetha, gräffin zu Togckenburg was mentioned in a document on 24 November 1446, sealed by Countess Elisabeth and certified by Schultheiss und Rat der Stadt Rapperswil: Elisabeth granted a benefice (Pfründe) in the amount of 800 Rheinische Gulden to the Stadtpfarrkirche Rapperswil.

Aftermath
While Count Friedrich VII did have at least one illegitimate son, Johannes, he died on 30 April 1436 and was buried at Rüti Abbey. The lords of Raron, Montfort-Tettnang, Sax-Misox, Brandis and Aarburg, they all had claims on the Toggenburg lands. When the city republic of Zürich, having documents sealed by Friedrich and Elisabeth von Toggenburg, also claimed the Toggenburg bailiwick, and the canton of Schwyz supported by Glarus also claimed lands and conquered the Toggenburg heartland, the Old Zürich War broke out.

See also

Literature
 Erwin Eugster: Adlige Territorialpolitik in der Ostschweiz. Kirchliche Stiftungen im Spannungsfeld früher landesherrlicher Verdrängungspolitik. Zürich 1991, .
 Roger Sablonier: Gründungszeit ohne Eidgenossen: Politik und Gesellschaft in der Innerschweiz um 1300. hier + jetzt, Baden 2008, .
 Christiane Benedikte Naubert, Sylvia Kolbe: Elisabeth, Erbin von Toggenburg. Oder Geschichte der Frauen von Sargans in der Schweiz. In einer Transkription von Sylvia Kolbe. Engelsdorfer Verlag. Leipzig 2015, .

References

External links

People from Toggenburg
People from Zürich
14th-century Swiss nobility
15th-century Swiss nobility
1442 deaths
Swiss countesses
14th-century Swiss women
14th-century Swiss people
Rüti, Zürich
15th-century Swiss women
15th-century Swiss people
House of Toggenburg
15th-century women rulers

Elisabeth von Matsch


Caspar Peter Hagerup (12 April 1777 – 28 August 1840) was a Norwegian civil servant.

He was born in Christiansand. He enrolled as a student in 1797, and finished the studies to be appointed town clerk (byskriver) in the Danish town of Kalundborg in 1801. In 1809 he was appointed district stipendiary magistrate (sorenskriver) in Flekkefjord, in 1820 in Nordre Hedemarken. From 1830 to his death in 1840 he was burgomaster of Trondhjem.

He married Ulrikke Eleonore Steffens, sister of philosopher Henrik Steffens. Their son Henrik Steffens Hagerup became a notable military officer and politician.

Hagerup was a member of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters from 1831. He was proclaimed Knight of the Swedish Order of Vasa.

References

1777 births
1840 deaths
Norwegian civil servants
Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters
Knights of the Order of Vasa

Caspar Peter Hagerup


"A Causal Theory of Knowing" is a philosophical essay written by Alvin Goldman in 1967, published in The Journal of Philosophy. It is based on existing theories of knowledge in the realm of epistemology, the study of philosophy through the scope of knowledge. The essay attempts to define knowledge by connecting facts, beliefs and knowledge through underlying and connective series called causal chains. It provides a causal theory of knowledge.

A causal chain is repeatedly described as a sequence of events for which one event in a chain causes the next. According to Goldman, these chains can only exist with the presence of an accepted fact, a belief in the fact, and a cause for the subject to believe the fact. The essay also explores the ideas of perception and memory through the use of the causal chains and the concept of knowledge.

Background
The essay is regarded as an improvement and rebuttal of Edmund Gettier's "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", which is one of many attempts to explain the necessary conditions for knowledge to develop. Goldman implements the causal connection to reiterate his own theory of knowledge. Knowledge exists, says Goldman, if and only if the belief is justified by a reaction to the accepted fact.

Goldman's theory later counters that of Michael Clark, stating that his own theory including figures and diagrams is more appropriate than Clark's. "A Causal Theory of Knowing" uses figures which make explicit references to causal beliefs. Clark's model does not utilize these arrows, and Goldman states that the lack of these arrows deems Clark's model deficient.

Author
Alvin Goldman, currently a professor of philosophy at Rutgers University, wrote "A Causal Theory of Knowing" when he was in his late twenties. Goldman received his Ph.D. from Princeton University, and has taught at numerous universities.

Goldman's research deals mainly with epistemology and other cognitive sciences. "A Causal Theory of Knowing" was Goldman's first published paper explaining his own views of epistemology. Currently, Goldman has written more than ten essays focusing on knowledge and cognitive science.

Contents
The essay starts with a definition of Gettier's theory, followed by multiple reiterations of the idea of causal connections, figures to explain knowledge through a visual perspective, and references to perception and memory through causal chains.

The essay tends to focus on examples in which knowledge or other sensations do not exist, rather than proving a certain fact to be known.  Goldman also states on multiple occasions that he does not wish to explain the causal process in detail, instead pointing out counterexamples. At numerous times in the essay, he also points out that he does not intend to give definitive answers to each of the propositions mentioned.

Goldman also refocuses the idea of perception, or knowledge through sensation (specifically sight) using his own theory of knowing. The concept of causal perception indicates that one observes something only if the object itself causes the sensation of sight to be accepted as known.  Thus, the object's existence must be factual and one must believe its existence. While all knowledge comes from facts, inferred knowledge emerges when physical object facts cause sense data which can be perceived as senses. The sense data can also be used to make conclusions, known as inferred knowledge, about certain physical object facts.

From "A Causal Theory of Knowing", Goldman constructs the idea that memory is also a causal process. Memory is explained as being an extension of knowledge into the future, and remembering is the act of recalling a fact that has already been known.  Further, the theory states that if knowledge is forgotten at one time, it cannot be considered a memory in the future. According to Goldman, if a fact is known at Time 1 but forgotten at Time 2, and then at Time 3 that the fact is perceived again but not known, at Time 3 the original fact is not a memory because there is no causal connection between the fact and the memory.

Footnotes

References

External links

Philosophy essays
Epistemological theories
Epistemology literature
Causality
Contemporary philosophical literature
1967 essays

A Causal Theory of Knowing


The norepinephrine transporter (NET), also known as noradrenaline transporter (NAT), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the solute carrier family 6 member 2 (SLC6A2) gene.

NET is a monoamine transporter and is responsible for the sodium-chloride (Na+/Cl−)-dependent reuptake of extracellular norepinephrine (NE), which is also known as noradrenaline. NET can also reuptake extracellular dopamine (DA). The reuptake of these two neurotransmitters is essential in regulating concentrations in the synaptic cleft. NETs, along with the other monoamine transporters, are the targets of many antidepressants and recreational drugs. In addition, an overabundance of NET is associated with ADHD. There is evidence that single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the NET gene (SLC6A2) may be an underlying factor in some of these disorders.

Gene
The norepinephrine transporter gene, SLC6A2 is located on human chromosome 16 locus 16q12.2. This gene is encoded by 14 exons. Based on the nucleotide and amino acid sequence, the NET transporter consists of 617 amino acids with 12 membrane-spanning domains. The structural organization of NET is highly homologous to other members of a sodium/chloride-dependent family of neurotransmitter transporters, including dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin and GABA transporters.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a genetic variation in which a genome sequence is altered by a single nucleotide (A, T, C or G). NET proteins with an altered amino acid sequence (more specifically, a missense mutation) could potentially be associated with various diseases that involve abnormally high or low plasma levels of norepinephrine due to altered NET function. NET SNPs and possible associations with various diseases are an area of focus for many research projects. There is evidence suggesting a relationship between NET SNPs and various disorders such as ADHD psychiatric disorders, postural tachycardia and orthostatic intolerance. The SNPs rs3785143 and rs11568324 have been related to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Thus far, however, the only confirmed direct association between a SNP and a clinical condition is that of the SNP, Ala457Pro, and orthostatic intolerance. Thirteen NET missense mutations have been discovered so far.

Abbreviations: TMD, transmembrane domain; n/a, non-applicable. For the table above, refer to this table of standard amino acid abbreviations. This notation for missense mutations, take Val69Ile for example, indicates that amino acid Val69 was changed to Ile.

Genetic variations
An epigenetic mechanism (hypermethylation of CpG islands in the NET gene promoter region) that results in reduced expression of the noradrenaline (norepinephrine) transporter and consequently a phenotype of impaired neuronal reuptake of norepinephrine has been implicated in both postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and panic disorder.

rs5569 is a variant of SLC6A2.

Structure

The norepinephrine transporter is composed of 12 transmembrane domains (TMDs). The intracellular portion contains an amino (-) group and carboxyl (-COOH) group. In addition, there is a large extracellular loop located between TMD 3 and 4. The protein is composed of 617 amino acids.

Function
NET functions to transport synaptically released norepinephrine back into the presynaptic neuron. As much as 90% of the norepinephrine released will be taken back up in the cell by NET. NET functions by coupling the influx of sodium and chloride (Na+/Cl−) with the transport of norepinephrine. This occurs at a fixed ratio of 1:1:1. Both the NET and the dopamine transporter (DAT) can transport norepinephrine and dopamine. The reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine is essential in regulating the concentration of monoamine neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. The transporter also helps maintain homeostatic balances of the presynaptic neuron.

Norepinephrine (NE) is released from noradrenergic neurons that innervate both the CNS and PNS. NE, also known as noradrenaline (NA), has an important role in controlling mood, arousal, memory, learning, and pain perception. NE is a part of the sympathetic nervous system. Dysregulation of the removal of norepinephrine by NET is associated with many neuropsychiatric diseases, discussed below. In addition, many antidepressants and recreational drugs compete for the binding of NET with NE.

Transport mechanisms
The transport of norepinephrine back into presynaptic cell is made possible by the cotransport with Na+ and Cl−. The sequential binding of the ions results in the eventual reuptake of norepinephrine. The ion gradients of Na+ and Cl− make this reuptake energetically favorable. The gradient is generated by the Na+/K+-ATPase which transports three sodium ions out and two potassium ions into the cell. NETs have conductances similar to those of ligand-gated ion channels. The expression of NET results in a leak-channel activity.

Location in the nervous system
NETs are restricted to noradrenergic neurons and are not present on neurons that release dopamine or epinephrine. The transporters can be found along the cell body, axons, and dendrites of the neuron. NETs are located away from the synapse, where norepinephrine is released. They are found closer to the plasma membrane of the cell. This requires norepinephrine to diffuse from the site it is released to the transporter for reuptake. Norepinephrine transporters are confined to the neurons of the sympathetic system, and those innervating the adrenal medulla, lung, and placenta.

Regulation
Regulation of NET function is complex and a focus of current research. NETs are regulated at both the cellular and molecular level post-translation. The most understood mechanisms include phosphorylation by the second messenger protein kinase C (PKC). PKC has been shown to inhibit NET function by sequestration of the transporter from the plasma membrane. The amino acid sequence of NET has shown multiple sites related to protein kinase phosphorylation. Post-translational modifications can have a wide range of effects on the function of the NET, including the rate of fusion of NET-containing vesicles with the plasma membrane, and transporter turnover.

Clinical significance

Orthostatic intolerance

Orthostatic intolerance (OI) is a disorder of the autonomic nervous system (a subcategory of dysautonomia) characterized by the onset of symptoms upon standing. Symptoms include fatigue, lightheadedness, headache, weakness, increased heart rate/heart palpitations, anxiety, and altered vision. Often, patients have high plasma norepinephrine (NE) concentrations (at least 600 pg/ml) in relation to sympathetic outflow upon standing, suggesting OI is a hyperadrenergic condition.
The discovery of identical twin sisters who both had OI suggested a genetic basis for the disorder. A missense mutation on the NET gene (SLC6A2) was discovered in which an alanine residue was replaced with a proline residue (Ala457Pro) in a highly conserved region of the transporter. The patients' defective NET had only 2% of the activity of the wild-type version of the gene. The genetic defect in the NET protein results in decreased NET activity that could account for abnormally high NE plasma levels in OI. However, 40 other OI patients did not have the same missense mutation, indicating other factors contributed to the phenotype in the identical twins. This discovery of the linkage with NET mutations that results in decreased norepinephrine reuptake activity and orthostatic intolerance suggests faulty NE uptake mechanisms can contribute to cardiovascular disease.

Therapeutic uses
Inhibition of the norepinephrine transporter (NET) has potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance abuse, neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD)) and clinical depression.

Major depressive disorder

Certain antidepressant medications act to raise noradrenaline, such as serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs), norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs or NERIs) and the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). The mechanism by which these medications work is that the reuptake inhibitors prevent the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine by the presynaptic neuron, paralyzing the normal function of the NET. At the same time, higher levels of 5-HT are maintained in the synapse increasing the concentrations of the latter neurotransmitters. Since the noradrenaline transporter is responsible for most of the dopamine clearance in the prefrontal cortex, SNRIs block reuptake of dopamine too, accumulating the dopamine in the synapse. However, DAT, the primary way dopamine is transported out of the cell, can work to decrease dopamine concentration in the synapse when the NET is blocked. For many years, the number one choice in treating mood disorders like depression was through administration of TCAs, such as desipramine (Norpramin), nortriptyline (Arentyl, Pamelor), protriptyline (Vivactil), and amoxapine (Asendin). SSRIs, which mainly regulate serotonin, subsequently replaced tricyclics as the primary treatment option for depression because of their better tolerability and lower incidence of adverse effects.

ADHD

Many drugs exist in the treatment of ADHD. Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine, Dextrostat), Adderall, methylphenidate (Ritalin, Metadate, Concerta, Daytrana), and lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse) block reabsorption of the catecholamines dopamine and norepinephrine through monoamine transporters (including NET), thereby increasing levels of these neurotransmitters in the brain. The strong selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI), atomoxetine (Strattera), has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat ADHD in adults. The role of the NET in ADHD is similar to how it works to ease the symptoms of depression. The NET is blockaded by atomoxetine and increases NE levels in the brain. It can work to increase one's ability to focus, decrease any impulsiveness, and lessen hyperactivity in both children and adults with ADHD.

Psychostimulants

Cocaine

Cocaine is a powerful psychostimulant and known to be one of the most widely used substances recreationally. Cocaine is a nonselective, reuptake inhibitor of the norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine transporters. This thwarts the absorption of these chemicals into the presynaptic terminal and allows a large concentration of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine to build up in the synaptic cleft. The potential for cocaine addiction is thought to be a result of its effects on dopamine transporters in the CNS, while it has been suggested that the life-threatening cardiovascular effects of cocaine may involve the inhibition of NETs at sympathetic and CNS autonomic synapses.

Amphetamines

Amphetamines have an effect on norepinephrine levels similar to that of cocaine in that they both increase NE levels in the brain. Amphetamine-like drugs are substrates for monoamine transporters, include NET, that cause a reversal in the direction of neurotransmitter transport. Amphetamines cause a large accumulation of extracellular NE. High levels of NE in the brain account for most of the profound effects of amphetamines, including alertness and anorectic, locomotor and sympathomimetic effects. However, the effects that amphetamines have on the brain are slower but last longer than the effects cocaine has on the brain. MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine or "ecstasy") is an amphetamine with wide recreational use. A study reported that the NET inhibitor reboxetine reduced the stimulant effects of MDMA in humans, demonstrating the crucial role NET has in the cardiovascular and stimulant-like effects of MDMA.

Further research
The role of the NET in many brain disorders underlies the importance of understanding the (dys)regulation of the transporter. A complete model of the proteins that associate with the transporter will be useful in designing drug therapies for diseases such as schizophrenia, affective disorder, and autonomic disorders. Recently discovered mechanisms of the NET, including the ability to act reversibly and as an ion channel, provide other areas of research.

Schizophrenia

The role of NE in schizophrenia has not been fully understood, but has stimulated research into this topic. The only relationship that has been understood between researchers is that there is a positive correlation between increased NE levels in the brain and spinal fluid (CSF) and activity of schizophrenia. In one study, clonidine, a drug used to treat medical conditions such as ADHD and high blood pressure, was shown to produce a significant decrease in plasma level MHPG (3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol), a metabolite of NE, in the normal control group, but not in the group of schizophrenic patients. This suggests that in schizophrenia, the alpha-2 adrenergic receptor, a presynaptic inhibitory receptor, may be less sensitive compared to normally functioning alpha-2 receptors and thus relate to elevated NE levels in the disorder. In addition to increased NE levels in the brain and CSF, increased levels of MHPG has also been associated with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Impaired NE regulation in schizophrenia has been an area of interest for researchers and research on this topic is still ongoing.

Imaging
Via positron emission tomography imaging technique, NET has been selectively investigated. 11C ME@HAPTHI and 18F-MeNER are two NET selective radio tracers for PET imaging. Fluorescent substrates for the transporter can also be used to monitor the transporter rate in isolated organs or tissues, although these are not suitable for clinical imaging.

See also
 Neurotransmitter transporter
 Sodium:neurotransmitter symporter
 Solute carrier family
 Norepinephrine
 Monoamine transporter
 Orthostatic intolerance
 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms

References

External links

Amphetamine
Membrane proteins
Neurotransmitter transporters
Norepinephrine
Solute carrier family

Norepinephrine transporter


Private property is a concept used in law, which is defined as a certain type of thing which is owned and controlled by an individual or a group separate from the state. Private property differs from public property, where such property belongs to all. That way, a person may own a car, but the park in the city is only administered by the city, and belongs to all people (or to no one at all).

Different schools of thought have different ideas of how private property should be handled.

For instance, according to capitalism, private property is needed so that a society can work as it should. That way, trade can only be done using private property. As a secondary example, private property in Marxist theory refers to the means of production, such as mines, factories, burger joints, and so on. These are things communists want to be democratically owned by workers. This is different from personal property, such as a toothbrush.
Property

Private property


Anglo-Indian cuisine is the cuisine that developed during the British Raj in India. The cuisine introduced dishes such as curry, chutney, kedgeree, mulligatawny and pish pash to English palates.

Anglo-Indian cuisine was documented in detail by the English colonel Arthur Robert Kenney-Herbert, writing as "Wyvern" in 1885 to advise the British Raj's memsahibs what to instruct their Indian cooks to make. Many of its usages are described in the "wonderful" 1886 Anglo-Indian dictionary, Hobson-Jobson. More recently, the cuisine has been analysed by Jennifer Brennan in 1990 and David Burton in 1993.

History
During the British rule in India, local British officials began mixing Indian dishes with their British palates and creating Anglo-Indian cuisine, with dishes such as kedgeree (1790) and mulligatawny soup (1791). The first Indian restaurant in England, the Hindoostane Coffee House, opened in 1809 in London; as described in The Epicure's Almanack in 1815, "All the dishes were dressed with curry powder, rice, Cayenne, and the best spices of Arabia. A room was set apart for smoking hookahs with oriental herbs". Indian food was cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time, including the 1758 edition of Hannah Glasse's The Art of Cookery, attest.

Dishes

Well-known Anglo-Indian dishes include chutneys, salted beef tongue, kedgeree, ball curry, fish rissoles, and mulligatawny soup. Chutney, one of the few Indian dishes that has had a lasting influence on English cuisine according to the Oxford Companion to Food, is a cooked and sweetened but not highly spiced preparation of fruit, nuts or vegetables. It borrows from a tradition of jam making where an equal amount of sour fruit and refined sugar reacts with the pectin in the fruit such as sour apples or rhubarb, the sour note being provided by vinegar. Major Grey's Chutney is typical.

Pish pash was defined by Hobson-Jobson as "a slop of rice-soup with small pieces of meat in it, much used in the Anglo-Indian nursery". The term was first recorded by Augustus Prinsep in the mid 19th century. The name comes from the Persian pash-pash, from pashidan, to break. A version of the dish is given in The Cookery Book of Lady Clark of Tillypronie of 1909.

Restaurants

Some early restaurants in England, such as the Hindoostane Coffee House on George Street, London, which opened in 1810, served Anglo-Indian food.
Many Indian restaurants, however, have reverted to the standard mix-and-match Indian dishes that are better known to the British public.

References

Further reading

External links
 "Food Stories" — Explore a century of revolutionary change in UK food culture on the British Library's Food Stories website

 "Indian Food" —  Authentic Indian Cuisine in the UK.

 "Best Indian Restaurant in London" — Have a look to the best Indian food restaurants in London to the History_of_Indian_cuisine's Holy Cow website

British fusion cuisine
Indian fusion cuisine

Anglo-Indian cuisine


A Passage in Time is a compilation album by Australian musical act Dead Can Dance. It was originally released only in North America on 20 October 1991 by Rykodisc, and was later remastered and given a global release in 1998.

The album was titled after the song "A Passage in Time", which originally appeared on the group's eponymous debut album in 1984 but was not included in the collection.

Overview
As the title suggests, this album was "a passage in time" to enable the U.S. audience catch up with the band's previous albums, via selected songs.

The content of the compilation was predominantly taken from the band's most recent works at the time, their fourth (The Serpent's Egg) and fifth (Aion) albums. It also featured two songs from their third album (Within the Realm of a Dying Sun) and one from their second (Spleen and Ideal), but no selections from their debut or the Garden of the Arcane Delights EP. Two previously unreleased tracks were included, "Bird" and "Spirit" (both were later added to the double vinyl version of 1993's Into the Labyrinth).

Track listing

References

External links

Dead Can Dance albums
1991 compilation albums
Rykodisc compilation albums

A Passage in Time (Dead Can Dance album)