MapleStory () is a free-to-play, 2D, side-scrolling massively multiplayer online role-playing game, developed by South Korean company Wizet. Several versions of the game are available for specific countries or regions, published by various companies (such as Nexon).

Players travel the "Maple World", defeating monsters and developing their characters' skills and abilities as is typical in role-playing video games. Players can interact with others in many ways, including chatting and trading. Groups of players can band together in parties to hunt monsters and share rewards, and can also form guilds to interact more easily with each other. Players additionally have the option to visit the in-game "Cash Shop" to purchase a variety of character appearances or gameplay enhancements with real money.

In July 2010, the Korean version of the game was revised in a patch named the "Big Bang". Other versions followed suit and have since received the Big Bang update. Later in the year, the Korean version received the Chaos update which introduced player versus player (PvP) and professions to the game. Its sequel, MapleStory 2, was released in July 2015 and features updated 3D graphics and a similar storyline. , MapleStory has reached over  registered users worldwide and grossed over  in lifetime revenue.

Plot
The plot of MapleStory takes place across several different worlds, such as Maple World and Grandis. Created by these people with powers called the Overseers, they assigned each world with three guardians to look over both worlds: the Transcendent of Time, Transcendent of Life and the Transcendent of Light. The first major arc revolves around the antagonist of Maple World, the Black Mage. The Black Mage was once the Transcendent of Light and was called the White Mage until an experiment went wrong and his pure light core was corrupted. The six heroes managed to seal the Black Mage for the next few centuries at the cost of being sealed away themselves. In the present day, the Black Mage's forces called the Black Wings, began resurfacing and attempted to revive him. Fearing his resurrection, Empress Cygnus created the Cygnus Knights in order to stop the Black Wings and the Black Mage's Commanders. As the seal on the Black Mage began weakening, the heroes of legend began returning as well. After the Black Mage broke free of his seal, Cygnus created the Maple Alliance, which banded together the free-spirited Explorers, the Cygnus Knights, the Resistance against the Black Wings, the six Heroes of Maple, and several brave adventurers from other worlds.

The Alliance continued fighting the Black Wings and won a decisive victory in the battle of Black Heaven, during which time, a hero of the Alliance awakened as the Adversary, a champion imbued with divine energy. Soon after, the Black Mage created a dimension called the Arcane River in an attempt to destroy the world and recreate it in his image. The Adversary journeyed through the Arcane River and battled the last of the Black Mage's Commanders before the Alliance launched a final offensive to stop the Black Mage from ending their world. The Adversary successfully killed the Black Mage and saved Maple World from annihilation.

With the Black Mage's death, the second major arc began in the realm of Grandis, which had slowly fused with Maple World due to the Black Mage's machinations. The antagonist of Grandis, Gerand Darmoor, believed that his race, the High Flora, were superior to all others, and so he sought to remake all life in his image. In order to stop him, several factions of Grandis had joined the Maple Alliance. After the Black Mage's death, the Alliance sent its forces to battle Darmoor and his Apostles.

Gameplay
MapleStory is a 2D scrolling platform game. The controls for the game are executed using the keyboard and mouse. The keyboard is used for many game functions, and much of it can be rearranged to suit users' needs. The mouse is mainly used to trigger non-player characters and manipulate items. Gameplay centers on venturing into dungeons and combating monsters in real-time. The players combat monsters and complete quests, in the process acquiring in-game currency called "Mesos", experience points, and various items. Players are able to acquire in-game professions, allowing them to craft equipment, accessories or potions.

Players have a variety of options when interacting with others online: They can form parties where loot and experience are distributed from a monster; in-game marriages where the game will recognize the two players as a heterosexual couple; guilds which is indicated with a guild's name listed under their character name; or families, an architecture gathering of juniors and seniors. Players are able to raise or lower the in-game popularity stat entitled Fame of other players and compete with other players in minigames, such as Gomoku or Concentration. They may engage in trading activities for "Mesos" or other in-game items.

Characters
MapleStory characters exist in worlds or servers. Players are able to create multiple characters in each world, though the characters in different worlds can not interact with each other. Each world is similar in content with each other. The worlds are divided into channels, among which characters are allowed to freely switch. The ability to transfer entire characters between worlds was added in December 2007 to Global MapleStory, with restrictions placed on items. In May 2012, this option was removed as it caused a negative impact on character gameplay.

When creating a new character, there are eight branches of classes currently available to choose from with three classes that have no specific branches currently: Explorers, Cygnus Knights, Heroes, Resistance, Sengoku, Nova, Flora, and Anima. Beast Tamer, Child of God and Kinesis are classes that currently have no specific branches. Some classes are currently not available in other regions while others are only available at certain times of year.

Explorer characters start on Maple Island and begin as a Beginner class. The Beginner is able to advance into one of the five classes: Warrior, Bowmen, Magician, Thief, and Pirate. After choosing their class, further class progression is only allowed within the scope of the first class advancement with advancements at level 30, 60, 100, and 200. Three separate classes, under the adventurer branch, are created differently from normal Adventurers: Dual Blade (Thief), Kinesis (Magician) and Cannoneers (Pirate).

Cygnus Knight characters begin as Noblesse class and begin their journey on Ereve. At level 10, they are allowed to class advance into five Cygnus Knight classes, each one parallels to the Explorer class. Upon reaching the level limit of 120, Cygnus Knights are able to change into a level 50 explorer with benefits.

Six Hero classes are available: Aran, Evan, Mercedes, Phantom, Luminous and Shade. The Hero classes are characters with background stories related to the antagonist of the game, the Black Mage. Aran has the Combo System, a unique feature to the class, allowing them to generate combo counts by hitting monsters, giving them buffs and allowing them to cast combo-consuming skills. Evan is similar to Magicians, but uses a dragon, which fights alongside them. Mercedes is an elven archer who uses Dual Bowguns. Phantom is a Thief character with the ability to mimic skills from Adventurer characters. Luminous is a magician of light who can also use dark magic which they absorbed from the Black Mage. Shade is the sixth and forgotten hero, whose existence was erased during the sealing of the Black Mage. They use spirits to aid them in battle.

Resistance characters begin in Edelstein, a town taken over by the Black Mage's followers; the Black Wings. The characters created under the Resistance branch begin as Citizens and have four available job advancements: Battle Mage, Wild Hunter, Blaster and Mechanic. A Battle Mage uses a staff for physical attacks, a Wild Hunter rides a jaguar while wielding a crossbow,  a Blaster uses an arm cannon and a Mechanic uses a robotic suit to fight. Demon, a separate class, under the resistance branch, is created differently from the normal Resistance. A Demon character can become a Demon Slayer, who uses one-handed blunt weapons and axes, or the Demon Avenger, who uses a specialised weapon called the Desperado. Xenon, another separate resistance character, is a human-turned-cyborg who escaped from the Black Wings' laboratories who uses Whip Blades in combat.

World
There are three main continents common to all versions in the MapleStory world: Maple Island, Victoria Island, and Ossyria. Maple Island is where adventurers start off their characters. Victoria Island contains eight cities, and is where most classes begin. Ossyria features seven distinct regions with varying environments: El Nath Mountains, Ludus Lake, Aqua Road, Minar Forest, Mu Lung Garden, Nihal Desert, and Temple of Time. Ereve and Rien are separated from another land which is the beginning of another job of the game.

Cash Shop
The Cash Shop is an in-game shop where players use real-life currency to purchase unique virtual goods such as avatars, digital pets and other in-game items. Most Cash Shop items expire after a period of time. The Cash Shop also offers a shop permit, allowing players to set up a store in the in-game market location called the Free Market.

Music
The current main composer for MapleStory is NECORD (ASTERIA). In 2016, Nexon established its own music production team, ASTERIA, and sound team, NECORD, and started producing music and releasing albums on its own. In 2017, they recorded music with an orchestra in Budapest, Hungary.

The game's music received positive reviews, and as the game has been on the service for a long time, it has stimulated memories for those who have stopped playing. Some music such as Lith Harbor village music, Eos Tower/Helios Tower of Ludibrium music, Blockbuster: Black Heaven music, Chu Chu Island music, Lachelein the Dreaming City music has been played in South Korean broadcast programs. The "Aquarium" music in the Aquarium which is a village of Aqua Road has been included in some South Korean music textbooks.

The music from 2006 to 2015 was composed by Studio EIM, and since 2014, official sound sources began to be released starting with FriendStory and Blockbuster: Black Heaven. At this time, , who was outsourced from Studio EIM, composed Ariant Coliseum music and Ereve music.

In 2010,  who is in the top 6 of Superstar K 2, she became a Maple Girl, a promotional model for MapleStory, and unlike other Maple Girls, she released a song called I'm My Fan. In 2015, incumbent professional singer  sang a song, and from 2017, Second Moon began to play songs in offline events related to MapleStory, it was because they were in charge of music for the hologram musical Comic MapleStory in 2016. And from 2018, Ha Hyun-woo of Guckkasten and the Guckkasten band themselves began to sing songs related to that game. In 2021, Bewhy also sang a song.

 was composed some music such as MapleStory 8th anniversary event in 2011 the RED theme song in 2013, and the OST for FriendStory in 2014.

In 2015, SQUARE MUSIQ was composed some songs such as Violeta Over Flowers which is a promotion song and vocal of Promise of Heaven which is a song of Blockbuster: Black Heaven.

In 2020,  and  was composed some music such as some Yum Yum Island music, theme of Adel's music, some Ristonia music, some Grand Athenaeum Episode VI: Sharenian Knights music and some Hotel Arcs music.

Development
MapleStory was developed and released in South Korea and was localized to ten different regions as of 2010. As other publishers license the game for their region, proxy blocks are put in place (excluding the Korean version, it requires a KSSN), forcing players to play their localized version. On July 7, 2011, LevelUp! Games announced that they will not be renewing the contract for localization in Brazil.

An update entitled Big Bang was released in Korean MapleStory in July 2010 with other regional servers following suit soon after. Big Bang changed the game's core coding, and changed many aspects of the game. An update entitled Chaos features the introduction of professions, and PvP.

On March 4, 2015, Nexon announced a new update for Masters North American server, entitled Black Heaven. Players that registered prior to the update and before March 9 received a free Ignition Pack if they logged in before March 14 and after the update went live. Black Heaven was released on March 11, 2015.

On December 1, 2015, Nexon released the MapleStory Reboot update for its North American server, which allows access to the Reboot world. This world has disabled trading, increased Meso drop rates, and weapon/equipment drops that are specific to the player's class. Reboot has the same monsters as other worlds, but with increased stats and experience points awarded.

On December 14, 2016, MapleStory announced their latest update to the game, the 5th Job Advancement. When players reach Level 200 in the game, they would need to complete their job advancement quests before they are able to fully access their 5th Job skills. Different from the first four Job skills, the 5th Job skills come in three types of skills. The first one called the Shared Skills are skills that all characters share and have that they are able to use. The second one is called the Class-Specific, which are skills that only specific classes can use and the third one called the Job Skills which are skills that only that specific Job can use.

On July 20, 2022, Nexon released the Destiny: Remastered update for its North American server. This update revamped all the Explorer classes (excluding the newest Explorer class, Pathfinder) by updating their skills and adding new storyline content for them while streamlining their original storylines. A new boss, Kalos, was also added to the game.

Players and revenue
In Global MapleStory (GMS), more than a million players bought items in the Cash Shop, by 2010. In 2006, Nexon announced MapleStory had a combined total of 39 million user accounts worldwide. MapleStory Global had over 8 million users by 2011. As of 2014, it was among the top ten MMOs by worldwide revenue. , the game has reached over  registered users worldwide.

Up until 2011, the game grossed $1.8billion. Between 2013 and 2017, the game grossed $billion, including $326million in 2013, $240million in 2014, $253million in 2015, $83million in 2016, and $279million in 2017. , the game has grossed over  worldwide in lifetime revenue.

Related games

MapleStory DS

MapleStory DS is a game based on MapleStory and is a single-player game. The game was released for the Nintendo DS on April 15, 2010, in Korea.

MapleStory M
MapleStory M is a mobile game released for iOS and Android, in South Korea during October 2016 and then overseas on May 28, 2018.

MapleStory 2

The sequel, MapleStory 2, was released in Korea on July 7, 2015. Unlike its predecessor, MapleStory 2 takes place on a 3D voxel-based plane at an often isometric angle.

MapleStory R: Evolution
MapleStory R: Evolution is an idle-game mobile RPG game. It was officially released in Southeast Asia on July 28, 2023, and is a vertical screen RPG. Its launch was promoted with live events held in Malaysia and Vietnam.

Media adaptations
The Japanese anime entitled  was adapted of the game and produced by Madhouse. It was aired on TV Tokyo between October 7, 2007, and March 30, 2008, spanning 25 episodes. The plot revolves around a warrior as he journeys to revive the world tree.

The North American publisher of Nexon released a MapleStory trading card game on November 6, 2007. Nexon Korea and Japan have since released similar trading card games, while Nexon North America has discontinued this service.

Two adaptations of MapleStory have been released for iOS by Nexon Mobile: MapleStory: Thief Edition and MapleStory: Cygnus Knights Edition. The Thief Edition has only one job, Thief, while the other edition features two jobs: a Soul Master and a Fire Wizard. The games do not have multiplayer.

On July 27, 2011, Nexon released a public beta of a MapleStory Adventures as an adaptation for Facebook gaming format. The game consist of mainly single-player, but incorporates the main goals and themes of the full MapleStory game, which includes creating an avatar, fighting monsters and completing quests. This version has been discontinued as of July 31, 2013.

References

External links

 Official MapleStory international website
 MapleStory global

2003 video games
Active massively multiplayer online games
Airships in fiction
Free online games
Free-to-play video games
IOS games
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
Nexon franchises
Nexon games
Side-scrolling video games
Video games developed in South Korea
Windows games
Windows-only games
Level Up! Games games
Asiasoft games
Gamania games

MapleStory


Derek Nathaniel Bell (born December 11, 1968) is an American professional baseball outfielder. He played in Major League Baseball for the Toronto Blue Jays, San Diego Padres, Houston Astros, New York Mets, and Pittsburgh Pirates from 1991 to 2001. With the Blue Jays, he was a member of the 1992 World Series champions.

Amateur and minor league career

Bell is one of only eleven players to play in both the Little League World Series and the Major League World Series. In 1980 and 1981 Bell played for Belmont Heights Little League in Tampa, Florida, winning the US championship and losing to Taiwan in the world championship game both years. (Bell is also the only player to appear in the LLWS twice and later in the big-league World Series.)

When he reached C. Leon King High School in Tampa, Bell attracted the attention of the Toronto Blue Jays. Toronto selected him in the second round of the 1987 June draft, with the 49th overall pick. Bell signed with Toronto, and made his debut that same year in the New York–Penn League. He emerged as a top prospect with the Myrtle Beach Blue Jays the next year, when he was named to the South Atlantic League All-Star team. Bell's .344 batting average earned him the league batting title, and he also displayed substantial power, hitting 29 doubles, five triples, and 12 home runs in only 352 at bats. His success helped him earn a late-season promotion to class AA.

Although he continued to advance, Bell struggled for the next two seasons, batting .242 at AA in 1989 and .261 at AAA the next year, but drawing walks at an extremely low rate. Despite being younger than most players in those leagues, he re-emerged as a top prospect in , repeating AAA with the Syracuse Chiefs. That year, Bell batted .346 with 22 doubles, 12 triples, 13 home runs, 57 walks, and 29 stolen bases. Bell made the International League All-Star team and won the International League Most Valuable Player Award, and Baseball America magazine named him the Minor League Player of the Year.

Major league career

Toronto
Bell made his Major League debut on June 28, 1991, starting in left field in a 3-1 loss to the Seattle Mariners. Bell was slated to be the Jays' starting left fielder in 1992, but broke his wrist in the second game of the year and ultimately appeared in only 61 games that year as the Blue Jays' fourth outfielder. Toronto won its division that year and advanced to the World Series, defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games to capture its first championship. On Fan Appreciation Day in , the team played a trick on Bell. During a break between innings, they announced that a vehicle would be given to a lucky fan, and then outfielder Joe Carter (accompanied by Dave Winfield) drove Bell's green Ford Explorer out onto the field.

San Diego
Shortly before the beginning of the  season, the Blue Jays traded Bell and Stoney Briggs to the San Diego Padres, in exchange for veteran outfielder Darrin Jackson.  It was in San Diego where Bell first established himself as an everyday player.  He was still somewhat unrefined as a player, batting .262 and striking out more than five times as often as he walked in , but he also displayed a good base of pure skills by hitting 21 home runs and stealing 26 bases.

Bell improved his batting average to .311 in 1994, despite off-the-field distractions.  On April 25, Bell and pitcher Scott Sanders were arrested in New York City before a game against the New York Mets, as police claimed that the pair had offered undercover policewomen $20 in exchange for oral sex.  The charges were ultimately dropped on October 25. In December, Bell was part of a 12-player trade between the Padres and the Houston Astros.  Along with Bell, the Padres sent Doug Brocail, Ricky Gutiérrez, Pedro A. Martínez, Phil Plantier, and Craig Shipley to Houston, receiving in return Ken Caminiti, Andújar Cedeño, Steve Finley, Roberto Petagine, Brian Williams, and Sean Fesh.

Houston
After Bell joined the Houston Astros, his last name, hitting skills and speed positioned him in Houston's vaunted lineup of "Killer B's", established by Jeff Bagwell and Craig Biggio.  This group of players helped lead the franchise to a new level of success that included a string of playoff appearances and second-place finishes that commenced in the 1990s.  Bell went on to enjoy one of the finest seasons of his career in 1995, with a .334 batting average that was fourth-highest in the league.  He drew consideration in the Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) voting, placing fourteenth place with 12 points.  The team won three straight National League Central division championships from 1997−99.  Bell's year-to-year performance varied considerably, but he peaked in 1998.  That season, he batted .314 with 41 doubles and 22 home runs, good for an OPS of .855 as the Astros won a franchise-record 102 games.

After the Killer B's had gained national attention, journalist Dayn Perry cheerfully noted in 1999 that the Astros, "in pursuit of arcane history, used eight players whose last names began with 'B.'" including Bagwell, Paul Bako, Glen Barker, Bell, Sean Bergman, Lance Berkman, Biggio, and Tim Bogar.  However, Bell's performance slipped substantially that year, and his .236 batting average and .656 OPS made him considered to be one of the worst everyday players in the league.  He compounded the problem in an ill-timed confrontation with manager Larry Dierker on July 22.  Dierker had returned to the field that day after having recovered from a near-fatal grand mal seizure during a game on June 13 and subsequent emergency brain surgery.  Bell was upset that Dierker had moved him from second to sixth in the batting order, ranting after the game that "it's a slap in the face to be dropped to the sixth spot.  I'm to the point now that I feel like I'm not wanted."  Many Astros fans were upset that Bell had chosen to criticize Dierker on a day honoring him, and Dierker ultimately pulled Bell from the starting lineup later that season.

At that point, the Astros viewed Bell as an expensive liability, and on December 23, they traded him and star pitcher Mike Hampton to the New York Mets for Roger Cedeño, Octavio Dotel, and Kyle Kessel.  When assembling this trade, the Astros let it be known that they would not trade Hampton unless a trade partner was willing to also take Bell in the deal.

New York
When informed that he'd been traded to the Mets, Bell said, "Christmas came early for me. I'm very happy. I told my agent I'm going to run, I'm so excited."  With Bell as their starting right fielder, the Mets made the playoffs as the National League Wild Card. On August 21, Bell got the opportunity to pitch the eighth inning of a blowout against the Padres. His first pitch, which Bell described as an eephus pitch, was clocked at 47 MPH, and he ultimately surrendered three hits and three walks, giving up four earned runs and one unearned run (resulting from an error by catcher Todd Pratt).

Bell sprained his ankle during the first game of the NLDS, and missed the remainder of the playoffs. Following the  season, Bell's contract with the Mets expired and the team made no effort to retain his services. He later signed a two-year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates in the offseason, following the World Series.

Pittsburgh and "Operation Shutdown"
In 2001, Bell was the Pirates starting right fielder, but he struggled at the plate; by mid-May, he was batting only .136. Bell was sent down to AAA Nashville, but didn't do much there either: .162 with a home run in 68 at-bats. Nevertheless, he came back to Pittsburgh in mid-June and did fairly well over the next fifteen games, hitting .261 with four homers in 46 at-bats. Still, this only raised his 2001 big-league average to .173, and Bell did not play an MLB game after July 3, when he managed a hit and two walks in a win over Cincinnati; this would turn out to be his last major league appearance.

In spring training , Bell learned that he would have to compete for the Pirates' starting right field job. Despite his poor 2001 season (and the fact he was hitting just .148 that spring), Bell did not feel that he needed to prove he was worthy of being a starter.

On March 18, Bell told reporters:

Nobody told me I was in competition.  If there is competition, somebody better let me know. If there is competition, they better eliminate me out of the race and go ahead and do what they're going to do with me. I ain't never hit in spring training and I never will.  If it ain't settled with me out there, then they can trade me. I ain't going out there to hurt myself in spring training battling for a job. If it is [a competition], then I'm going into 'Operation Shutdown.' Tell them exactly what I said. I haven't competed for a job since 1991.

Bell left the team on March 29, was released two days later, and never played pro baseball again. Still on the hook for Bell's guaranteed two-year, ten-million dollar contract, the Pirates paid him his $4.5 million though he did not play for them. Bell moved onto his yacht, Bell 14 (his name and uniform number), a  Sea Ray 580.  New York Post writer Tom Keegan described the incident by calling Bell "the perfect Pirate given that he lives on a boat and steals money."

Alleged drug use
On April 20, 2006, Bell was charged with felony cocaine possession and possession of drug paraphernalia, after police found a warm crack pipe in the back seat of his car during a traffic stop. He was arrested again on December 2, 2008, facing three counts of possession of drug paraphernalia and one count of failure to appear in court on another charge of possession of drug paraphernalia from earlier in the year.
Bell was arrested again on November 16, 2022, charged with possessing crack cocaine in Brooksville, Florida.

References

External links
, or Retrosheet

1968 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Baseball players from Tampa, Florida
Cardenales de Lara players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
C. Leon King High School alumni
Dunedin Blue Jays players
Houston Astros players
International League MVP award winners
Knoxville Blue Jays players
Major League Baseball center fielders
Major League Baseball right fielders
Myrtle Beach Blue Jays players
Nashville Sounds players
New Orleans Zephyrs players
New York Mets players
Pittsburgh Pirates players
San Diego Padres players
St. Catharines Blue Jays players
Syracuse Chiefs players
Toronto Blue Jays players
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Derek Bell (baseball)


The Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) has seven subject-based environmental data centres (EDCs) to store and distribute data from its own research programmes and data that are of general use to the environmental research community. These data centres are sometimes called the NERC designated Data Centres.

The Data Centres

The NERC Environmental Data Centres and their areas of responsibility are as follows:
 British Oceanographic Data Centre - Marine Science
 Centre for Environmental Data Analysis (CEDA), joint responsibility with Science and Technology Facilities Council which include:
 British Atmospheric Data Centre - Atmospheric Science
 NERC Earth Observation Data Centre - Earth Observation
 UK Solar System Data Centre - Solar terrestrial physics (Earth Orientated)
 Environmental Information Data Centre - Terrestrial & Freshwater Science, part of the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology
 National Geoscience Data Centre (NGDC) - Earth Sciences - part of British Geological Survey
 Polar Data Centre (UK PDC) - Polar Science - British Antarctic Survey

The data centres hold data from environmental scientists working in the UK and around the world.
They provide access to a comprehensive data and information resource about our environment, through the NERC Data Catalog Service.   CEDA hosts the NERC Data Catalog Service, data may also be cataloged from certain NERC Data Centres and also at data.gov.uk.
Access to these data is freely available to students, researchers and stakeholders, as well as business users and policy makers, to help them understand the environment in which we live.

Each data centre works to build user confidence, using common data formats and noting sources, contexts, and degrees of accuracy. They combine expertise in the scientific collection of information, state-of-the-art data management and preservation techniques, making them an important national asset.

NERC Data Policy

The NERC Data Policy is commitment to support the long-term management of environmental data and also outlines the roles and responsibilities of all those involved in collecting and managing environmental data. The NERC Data Centres provide support and guidance in data management to those funded by NERC, are responsible for the long-term management of data and provide access to NERC's holdings of environmental data.

The data policy is consistent with legal frameworks, such as the Environmental Information Regulations 2004, the INSPIRE Regulations 2009 and contractual arrangements with other bodies where, for example, NERC holds data on their behalf but does not own the intellectual property rights.

To reflect NERC's continuing commitment to openness and transparency in the research process, and in support of the government's developing agenda on open access to public data, the NERC Data Policy has been substantially revised, and this new version of NERC's Data Policy came into force in January 2011.

Charging Policy

The NERC charging regime recognises two classes of data:

 Raw or unrefined - these are data collected (or held) by NERC, with any necessary quality assurance or post processing applied, and used to deliver NERC's public function;
 Value added or refined - these are data where an extra level of intellectual input has been added, for example, by combining a number of data sets together, or producing an information product by the interpretation of a number of data sets, and crucially, is above and beyond what is required to deliver NERC's public function.

The licence charges that NERC can levy for the supply of data and information are governed by HM Treasury guidance and Government regulations.
During 2010 NERC aimed to move to a position where it will supply its data for free for all teaching and research activities, apart from large or complex requests where they may make a nominal handling charge.

Science Information Strategy

The NERC Science Information Strategy (SIS) was created to provide the framework for NERC to work more closely and effectively with its scientific communities, both internal and external, in delivering data and information management services to support its five-year science strategy, the Next Generation Science for Planet Earth 2007-2012.

The Science Information Strategy is being implemented in three phases, beginning April 2010. Each of these phases will be made up of a number of smaller projects. Project/Phase 1 will concentrate on determining user requirements, documenting existing holdings, agreeing an information architecture, updating the NERC Data Policy and improving the data discovery tools.

The benefits of the SIS implementation for science include the increased competence of data centre staff to inform the science community, policy and decision makers nationally and internationally on best practice, standards development and the establishment of new projects and initiatives (e.g. EU Framework projects):enhancing NERC's national and international reputation and increased capability to conduct multi-disciplinary, integrated science.

References

External links
 Natural Environment Research Council Official Website
 Natural Environment Research Council data centres
 Centre for Environmental Data Analysis Official Website
 British Oceanographic Data Centre	 Marine Science
 British Atmospheric Data Centre 	 Atmospheric Science
 NERC Earth Observation Data Centre	 Earth Observation
 UK Solar System Data Centre	 Solar terrestrial physics (Earth Orientated)
 Environmental Information Data Centre 	 Terrestrial & Freshwater Science
 National Geoscience Data Centre	 Earth Sciences
 Polar Data Centre Polar Science

Conservation in the United Kingdom
Data centers
Environmental data
Natural Environment Research Council

NERC Data Centres


Camili (original Georgian name ხერთვისი, Khertvisi) is a village in Borçka District of Artvin Province. Its population is 181 (2021). Camili is the official name given by Turkish authorities in 1925. It literally means "(the place) with the mosque". Camili is also the name of a vicinity which includes five villages: Düzenli (Zedvake), Efeler (Eprati), Kayalar (Kvabitavi), Maral (Mindieti), and Uğur (Akria). Camili and the other villages of the vicinity were settled in Machakheli valley, so this vicinity is also known as Machakheli.

References

Tao-Klarjeti
Villages in Borçka District

Camili, Borçka


Guadeloupe is part of France in the Caribbean Sea. It is made up of five islands. The capital is Basse-Terre.

Arawak native Americans first lived on the islands. Most died when Europeans came. Guadeloupe was first governed by the French Company of the American Islands. It was then taken over by England, given to Sweden, and given back to France.

Today, most of the people in Guadeloupe are Roman Catholic and are of African descent.

 71%: African or Multiracial (European, African, Chinese, East Indian, Amerindians, and others).
 15%: East Indian
 9%: European
 2%: Middle Easterns
 3%: Chinese

Related pages
 Martinique, French island in the Caribbean
 Saint Barthélemy, French island in the Caribbean
 Saint Martin, French island in the Caribbean

Other websites

 Guadeloupe Tourism Authority

Guadeloupe


Uhh Yeah Dude is a comedy podcast hosted by Seth Romatelli (born September 20, 1973) and Jonathan Larroquette (born August 7, 1977). Episodes have generally aired once a week since 2006, and run about an hour long. The podcast is described as "A weekly roundup of America through the eyes of two American-Americans".

Overview
Uhh Yeah Dude is a twice-weekly hour-long comedy podcast containing discussion about current events by hosts Seth Romatelli and Jonathan Larroquette. The original idea for the podcast came out of weekly phone conversations between the two where they would talk about personal experiences and items they had seen in the news. The two had joked about recording their conversations and, after a year or so, Larroquette suggested they record it and turn it into a podcast.

The exact content of each show varies but episodes typically include items from popular culture, "news of the weird" stories, results from scientific studies, personal anecdotes and a range of other material. Current events or major news stories are rarely discussed. Over time certain themes or topics have recurred (both intentionally and accidentally). The show also features its own unique vocabulary which has been described as "a combination of repurposed hip-hop patois and bro-speak".

The first episode of Uhh Yeah Dude aired on February 11, 2006. The duo typically record two episodes weekly in Romatelli's home in South Hollywood. The two have also done live shows in many cities including Los Angeles, Portland, Seattle, Brooklyn, Dallas, and Boston.

Some have credited the podcast's intimacy and the hosts' accessibility as part of its appeal. The two have spoken candidly about their neuroses and personal lives. At one point Larroquette gave out his personal phone number and answered calls and texts from fans. The show's listeners are also encouraged to call a dedicated 1-800 number and leave a voicemail which Romatelli monitors and often responds to personally.

The podcast is also somewhat unusual for not featuring guests. Romatelli described this as a conscious decision to not have a show involving "listening to this person get interviewed for the 35th time about how awesome and rich they are." The one guest the podcast has featured is Romatelli's mother who has hosted along with her son on several episodes.

An archive of old episodes is available on Patreon.

Reception

Uhh Yeah Dude has received positive reviews in a number of publications including Rolling Stone, Paste Magazine, IFC and Los Angeles Magazine. In July 2013 the show was featured in a segment on New Zealand's TV3 calling them "America's funniest podcast."

It has also been recognized by other podcasters as one of the original comedy podcasts. The duo were featured in an episode of WTF with Marc Maron where Maron called them "pioneers, godfathers; one of the original podcasts." Comedian Dave Anthony has cited them as an inspiration for his own Walking the Room podcast.

References

External links

Audio podcasts
Comedy podcasts
2006 podcast debuts
American podcasts

Uhh Yeah Dude


The Lyre River in the U.S. state of Washington flows out of Lake Crescent in the Olympic National Park and into the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Originally referred to as "singing waters" by the Indians living near it, the river was first named Rio de Cuesta by Europeans in 1790 by Gonzalo López de Haro, but was later called River Lyre after being charted by Captain Henry Kellett in 1847.

Course
The Lyre River flows roughly northwest out of Lake Crescent, first encountering June Creek, then turning north at the point that is joined by Boundary Creek on the left. At River Mile 2.7 () the river tumbles down the Lyre River Falls, which are impassable to fish migrating upstream. Continuing north, the river is joined by Susie Creek on the left, and finally Nelson Creek on the right before emptying into the Strait of Juan de Fuca at Low Point.

Ecology
The first few hundred feet of the river as it flows out of the lake provide spawning habitat for the Beardslee trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus f. beardsleei), which is found nowhere else. Below the falls that are  upriver from the mouth, the river supports stocks of coastal cutthroat trout, as well as winter and summer steelhead.

History
The Makah tribe considered the Lyre to be their eastern boundary, though members of the Elwha Klallam tribe had settlements along the river as well, including the fishing village of Kwahamish.

By the early 1890s, John Smith had taken up a claim at Piedmont; John Hanson and his wife Mary Laeger Hanson had homesteaded near the head of the Lyre River. From 1889 through the 1920s, there was a settlement named Gettysburg on the east side of the mouth of the river. Gettysburg was founded as a logging town by Robert Getty and had a population of 65 in 1910. It also had a post office.

The Lyre River Campground is administered by the Washington Department of Natural Resources near the mouth of the river.

See also
List of rivers of Washington

References

Rivers of Washington (state)
Rivers of Clallam County, Washington
Landforms of Olympic National Park

Lyre River


Aram is a 2002 French action drama film written and directed by Robert Kechichian. The film is set primarily in France between 1993 and 2001 around Aram, a young French-Armenian militant attempting to supply arms to Nagorno-Karabakh and dealing with the aftermath of assassinating a Turkish general. Aram was released in 2002 in theatres in France, and made its American debut in 2004 at the Armenian Film Festival in San Francisco.

Plot

Aram Sarkissian (Simon Abkarian) is a young French-Armenian member of AGJSA, an Armenian militant organization, who leaves his family in Paris to fight in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. In October 1993, Aram returns to France to live a "normal life" again, but finds his younger brother Levon (Mathieu Demy) preparing the assassination of Azbalan Djelik, a general of the Turkish Army visiting France. Aram opposes the assassination, claiming the Armenian struggle lies in Nagorno-Karabakh, however, Levon considers Aram to be a coward, who then reluctantly agrees. One evening, General Djelik is killed when his car is ambushed by 3 masked gunmen, who shoot and kill three of the four passengers. The survivor, Djelik's aide-de-camp Colonel Talaat Sonlez (Serge Avédikian), shoots Levon after he pretended to be dead. Levon is immobilized and enters a coma, and Sonlez is shot by the Armenians before they flee. AGJSA claims responsibility for the attack, justifying it as General Djelik was a high-ranking member of the Black Wolves, a Turkish ultranationalist organization. Talaat survives again, and searches for the assassins by asking Monsieur Paul (Gilles Arbona), a French counter-terrorism policeman monitoring the activities of AGJSA, who does not reveal their identities.

By January, 2001, Levon is paralyzed and reliant on a wheelchair. Their father, Mihran Sarkissian (Alan Motte), is bitter and blames Levon's disabilities on Aram, who has not been seen by the family since the attack. Additionally, their younger sister Meline (Ljubna Azabal) becomes engaged to Stephan, a French man, which their father approves reluctantly and is frowned upon by his friends. Meanwhile, in Germany, the leader of the AGJSA, Vartan, negotiates an arms deal with Kurdish militants to buy a large shipment sniper rifles to be used by Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh. The Kurds are represented by Midzametin, the head of the PKK in Europe, and his right-hand man Djalal, who is vocally against the deal. The Kurds change their deal, offering cheaper guns in exchange for support in assassinating Turkish diplomats if the Turkish Army launches a new offensive against the PKK, which Vartan accepts. Aram arrives back in France through Calais after returning from hiding in Karabakh, where he is photographed by Virgil, an agent of Paul. Aram reveals his reservations over Vartan's promises to the Kurds supporting assassinations of Turkish diplomats, believing they are ineffective and undesirable for the Armenian cause. En route to the weapons exchange Talaat and Djalal, who is working for the Turks, ambush the Kurds, and later shoot at the Armenians waiting the meeting point on a beach at night. Aram is wounded but kills Djalal without realizing his identity before escaping. Unaware of Djalal's betrayal, Aram first suspects Kervedjian, a diplomat of the Nagorono-Karabakh Republic in Paris, who he abducts and interrogates. Paul, knowing of Talaat's involvement, visits him at a Turkish bath and reminds him he was told in 1993 not to come back to France. Talaat states he is an attaché of the Turkish government as part of an official diplomatic mission, but Paul reveals his knowledge that Talaat is a member of the Black Wolves and is involved in the Turkish Mafia. Aram seeks the help of his friend, Fodil Boushaour, who provides him with handguns, a car, a fake driver's license, and backup from his friends, Saad and Mamad. In Paris, Mihran and Meline argue over Aram, with Mihran expressing his bitterness towards him, while Meline shows her sympathy. Kervedjian informs Aram of Djalal's betrayal and cooperation with the Turkish government, and that there is a new deal with the Kurds to deliver weapons. Aram is assigned to task of killing the Turks involved in the betrayal and to escort the new weapons to Karabakh. Aram tracks down Talaat and kills several of his men and his girlfriend, but fails to kill him and his aide Mehmet - furious, Talaat instructs Mehmet to find Aram and kill him. Meline invites Aram to her wedding in an attempt to reconcile with their father, while Kervedjian provides Aram details to collect the Kurdish weapons at the port in Dunkirk, and to escort the weapons to Karabakh via Athens.

Talaat meets with Paul and Virgil, offering information terrorist networks in exchange for the identity of the person trying to kill him. Paul declines the offer, but later Mehmet and his gang abduct Virgil. Aram visits his family in Paris where his father asks him to leave, striking him with his cane, and Aram leaves without explaining his side of the story. Upon leaving, Aram is chased by Paul and another agent who have been tracking him to positively identify him, as Aram was officially killed in action in Karabakh, but he manages to escape. At the counter-terrorism office, Paul receives a package from Talaat containing an amputated finger of Virgil, and he calls the Turkish embassy revealing the identities of Aram and his associates. Paul speaks privately with Fodil, who claims that the last he heard from Aram was 7 years ago, and that he is buried in Shahumian in Karabakh. Despite this, Paul informs Fodil that Talaat now knows about Aram's identity and is hunting him. Fodil warns Aram, who is riding with Saad and Mamad on the way to the party after Meline and Stephan's marriage. Talaat and Mehmet appear at the party, and the two ambush Mihran and Levon in the restroom, but Aram shoots Talaat and Mehmet. Aram rushes to Dunkirk to leave France to avoid murder charges, but cars of the secret police with Paul and Mihran pull up. Aram and his father say goodbye without words, quietly redeeming his son. Instead of arresting Aram, Paul asks him to leave and to never return to France.

Cast
 Simon Abkarian - Aram Sarkissian
 Lubna Azabal - Méliné Sarkissian
 Serge Avédikian - Talaat Sonlez
 Alain Mottet - Miran Sarkissian
 Mathieu Demy - Lévon Sarkissian
  - Monsieur Paul
 Isabelle Sadoyan - Aunt Anouche
  - Mehmet
  - Vartan Madarian
  - Lawyer Kavedjian
  - Virgil
 Samir Guesmi - Saad
 Albert Delpy - Nasar

Background
Aram is loosely based on Armenian nationalist militant activity committed by youth from the Armenian diaspora in mostly Western Europe and North America in the 1970s to the 1990s. The AGJSA is based on Armenian radical militant groups, the most notable being the Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide, that attacked representatives of the Republic of Turkey with the primary goal of official Turkish recognition of the Armenian genocide. The Black Wolves, the Turkish neo-fascist organization of which General Djelik and Talaat Sonlez are members, is a reference to the Grey Wolves, a Turkish ultranationalist organization with ties to the Turkish mafia, counter-insurgency movements within Turkey, and extrajudicial repression of the ASALA and the PKK. Talaat, the name of the lead Turkish character, is most likely a reference to Talaat Pasha, a leader in the Young Turk government and Minister of the Interior of the Ottoman Empire, often considered to be the key architect of the Armenian Genocide.

DVD release
The American debut of Aram featured English subtitles, there is no DVD being sold which contains English subtitles.

External links

 Aram at Real Movie News
 Aram at Z Review
 2004 Armenian Film Festival schedule

2002 films
2002 action drama films
2000s French-language films
Armenian-language films
Armenian independent films
French independent films
Films set in France
Films set in Paris
Films set in Calais
Films about assassinations
Films set in Germany
Films set in 1993
Films set in 2001
French action drama films
2002 independent films
2002 multilingual films
Armenian multilingual films
French multilingual films
2000s French films

Aram (film)


Continental climate is a climate that is characterized by winter temperatures cold enough to support a fixed period of snow cover each year, and is not arid or semi-arid. Summers are hot or warm.

In the Köppen climate classification, this climate is split into Dfa (hot summer, no dry season), Dfb (warm summer, no dry season), Dwa (hot summer, dry winter), Dwb (warm summer, dry winter), Dsa (hot dry summer) and Dsb (warm dry summer).

Dfa cities include Chicago, Volgograd or Toronto.

Dfb cities include Warsaw, Moscow or Montreal.

Dsa cities include Salt Lake City or Bishkek.

Dsb cities include Helsinki or Spokane.

Dwa cities include Beijing or Seoul.

Dwb cities include Vladivostok or Calgary.

Köppen climate classifications

Continental climate


Textual criticism of the New Testament is the identification of textual variants, or different versions of the New Testament, whose goals include identification of transcription errors, analysis of versions, and attempts to reconstruct the original text. Its main focus is studying the textual variants in the New Testament.

The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. There are approximately 300,000 textual variants among the manuscripts, most of them being the changes of word order and other comparative trivialities.

Purpose
After stating that the Westcott and Hort 1881 critical edition was 'an attempt to present exactly the original words of the New Testament, so far as they can now be determined from surviving documents', Hort (1882) wrote the following on the purpose of textual criticism:

Again, textual criticism is always negative, because its final aim is virtually nothing more than the detection and rejection of error. Its progress consists not in the growing perfection of an ideal in the future, but in approximation towards complete ascertainment of definite facts of the past, that is, towards recovering an exact copy of what was actually written on parchment or papyrus by the author of the book or his amanuensis. Had all intervening transcriptions been perfectly accurate, there could be no error and no variation in existing documents. Where there is variation, there must be error in at least all variants but one; and the primary work of textual criticism is merely to discriminate the erroneous variants from the true.

Text-types

The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, chiefly in that it makes stemmatics in many cases impossible, because many copyists used two or more different manuscripts as sources. Consequently, New Testament textual critics have adopted eclecticism after sorting the witnesses into three major groups, called text-types (also styled unhyphenated: text types). The most common division today is as follows:

History of research

Classification of text-types (1734–1831)
18th-century German scholars were the first to discover the existence of textual families, and to suggest some were more reliable than others, although they did not yet question the authority of the Textus Receptus. In 1734, Johann Albrecht Bengel was the first scholar to propose classifying manuscripts into text-types (such as 'African' or 'Asiatic'), and to attempt to systematically analyse which ones were superior and inferior. Johann Jakob Wettstein applied textual criticism to the Greek New Testament edition he published in 1751–2, and introduced a system of symbols for manuscripts. From 1774 to 1807, Johann Jakob Griesbach adapted Bengel's text groups and established three text-types (later known as 'Western', 'Alexandrian', and 'Byzantine'), and defined the basic principles of textual criticism. In 1777, Griesbach produced a list of nine manuscripts which represent the Alexandrian text: C, L, K, 1, 13, 33, 69, 106, and 118. Codex Vaticanus was not on this list. In 1796, in the second edition of his Greek New Testament, Griesbach added Codex Vaticanus as witness to the Alexandrian text in Mark, Luke, and John. He still thought that the first half of Matthew represents the Western text-type. In 1808, Johann Leonhard Hug (1765–1846) suggested that the Alexandrian recension was to be dated about the middle of the 3rd century, and it was the purification of a wild text, which was similar to the text of Codex Bezae. In result of this recension interpolations were removed and some grammar refinements were made. The result was the text of the codices B, C, L, and the text of Athanasius and Cyril of Alexandria.

Development of critical texts (1831–1881)

Karl Lachmann became the first scholar to publish a critical edition of the Greek New Testament (1831) that was not simply based on the Textus Receptus anymore, but sought to reconstruct the original biblical text following scientific principles. Starting with Lachmann, manuscripts of the Alexandrian text-type have been the most influential in modern critical editions. In the decades thereafter, important contributions were made by Constantin von Tischendorf, who discovered numerous manuscripts including the Codex Sinaiticus (1844), published several critical editions that he updated several times, culminating in the 8th: Editio Octava Critica Maior (11 volumes, 1864–1894). The 1872 edition provided a critical apparatus listing all the known textual variants in uncials, minuscules, versions, and commentaries of the Church Fathers.

The critical method achieved widespread acceptance up until in the Westcott and Hort text (1881), a landmark publication that sparked a new era of New Testament textual criticism and translations. Hort rejected the primacy of the Byzantine text-type (which he called "Syrian") with three arguments:
 The Byzantine text-type contains readings combining elements found in earlier text-types.
 The variants unique to the Byzantine manuscripts are not found in Christian writings before the 4th century.
 When Byzantine and non-Byzantine readings are compared, the Byzantine can be demonstrated not to represent the original text.
Having diligently studied the early text-types and variants, Westcott and Hort concluded that the Egyptian texts (including Sinaiticus (א) and Vaticanus (B), which they called "Neutral") were the most reliable, since they seemed to preserve the original text with the least changes. Therefore, the Greek text of their critical edition was based on this "Neutral" text-type, unless internal evidence clearly rejected the reliability of particular verses of it.

Until the publication of the Introduction and Appendix of Westcott and Hort in 1882, scholarly opinion remained that the Alexandrian text was represented by the codices Vaticanus (B), Ephraemi Rescriptus (C), and Regius/Angelus (L). The Alexandrian text is one of the three ante-Nicene texts of the New Testament (Neutral and Western). The text of the Codex Vaticanus stays in closest affinity to the Neutral Text.

Modern scholarship (after 1881)
The Novum Testamentum Graece, first published in 1898 by Eberhard Nestle, later continued by his son Erwin Nestle and since 1952 co-edited by Kurt Aland, became the internationally leading critical text standard amongst scholars, and for translations produced by the United Bible Societies (UBS, formed in 1946). This series of critical editions, including extensive critical apparatuses, is therefore colloquially known as "Nestle-Aland", with particular editions abbreviated as "NA" with the number attached; for example, the 1993 update was the 27th edition, and is thus known as "NA27" (or "UBS4", namely, the 4th United Bible Societies edition based on the 27th Nestle-Aland edition). Puskas & Robbins (2012) noted that, despite significant advancements since 1881, the text of the NA27 differs much more from the Textus Receptus than from Westcott and Hort, stating that 'the contribution of these Cambridge scholars appears to be enduring.'

After discovering the manuscripts  (1952) and  (1950s), the Neutral text and Alexandrian text were unified.

Evaluations of text-types
Most textual critics of the New Testament favor the Alexandrian text-type as the closest representative of the autographs for many reasons. One reason is that Alexandrian manuscripts are the oldest found; some of the earliest Church Fathers used readings found in the Alexandrian text. Another is that the Alexandrian readings are adjudged more often to be the ones that can best explain the origin of all the variant readings found in other text-types.

Nevertheless, there are some dissenting voices to this consensus. A few textual critics, especially those in France, argue that the Western text-type, an old text from which the Vetus Latina or Old Latin versions of the New Testament are derived, is closer to the originals.

In the United States, some critics have a dissenting view that prefers the Byzantine text-type, such as Maurice A. Robinson and William Grover Pierpont. They assert that Egypt, almost alone, offers optimal climatic conditions favoring preservation of ancient manuscripts while, on the other hand, the papyri used in the east (Asia Minor and Greece) would not have survived due to the unfavourable climatic conditions. Thus, it is not surprising that ancient Biblical manuscripts that are found would come mostly from the Alexandrian geographical area and not from the Byzantine geographical area.

The argument for the authoritative nature of the latter is that the much greater number of Byzantine manuscripts copied in later centuries, in detriment to the Alexandrian manuscripts, indicates a superior understanding by scribes of those being closer to the autographs. Eldon Jay Epp argued that the manuscripts circulated in the Roman world and many documents from other parts of the Roman Empire were found in Egypt since the late 19th century.

The evidence of the papyri suggests that, in Egypt, at least, very different manuscript readings co-existed in the same area in the early Christian period. Thus, whereas the early 3rd century papyrus  witnesses a text in Luke and John that is very close to that found a century later in the Codex Vaticanus, the nearly contemporary  has a much freer text of John; with many unique variants; and others that are now considered distinctive to the Western and Byzantine text-types, albeit that the bulk of readings are Alexandrian. Most modern text critics therefore do not regard any one text-type as deriving in direct succession from autograph manuscripts, but rather, as the fruit of local exercises to compile the best New Testament text from a manuscript tradition that already displayed wide variations.

Textual criticism is also used by those who assert that the New Testament was written in Aramaic (see Aramaic primacy).

Alexandrian text versus Byzantine text

The New Testament portion of the English translation known as the King James Version was based on the Textus Receptus, a Greek text prepared by Erasmus based on a few late medieval Greek manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type (1, 1rK, 2e, 2ap, 4, 7, 817). For some books of the Bible, Erasmus used just single manuscripts, and for small sections made his own translations into Greek from the Vulgate. However, following Westcott and Hort, most modern New Testament textual critics have concluded that the Byzantine text-type was formalised at a later date than the Alexandrian and Western text-types. Among the other types, the Alexandrian text-type is viewed as more pure than the Western and Byzantine text-types, and so one of the central tenets in the current practice of New Testament textual criticism is that one should follow the readings of the Alexandrian texts unless those of the other types are clearly superior. Most modern New Testament translations now use an Eclectic Greek text (UBS5 and NA 28) that is closest to the Alexandrian text-type. The United Bible Societies's Greek New Testament (UBS5) and Nestle-Aland (NA 28) are accepted by most of the academic community as the best attempt at reconstructing the original texts of the Greek NT.

A minority position represented by The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text edition by Zane C. Hodges and Arthur L. Farstad argues that the Byzantine text-type represents an earlier text-type than the surviving Alexandrian texts. This position is also held by Maurice A. Robinson and William G. Pierpont in their The New Testament in the Original Greek: Byzantine Textform, and the King James Only Movement. The argument states that the far greater number of surviving late Byzantine manuscripts implies an equivalent preponderance of Byzantine texts amongst lost earlier manuscripts. Hence, a critical reconstruction of the predominant text of the Byzantine tradition would have a superior claim to being closest to the autographs.

Another position is that of the Neo-Byzantine School. The Neo-Byzantines (or new Byzantines) of the 16th and 17th centuries first formally compiled the New Testament Received Text under such textual analysts as Erasmus, Stephanus (Robert Estienne), Beza, and Elzevir. The early 21st century saw the rise of the first textual analyst of this school in over three centuries with Gavin McGrath (b. 1960). A religiously conservative Protestant from Australia, his Neo-Byzantine School principles maintain that the representative or majority Byzantine text, such as compiled by Hodges & Farstad (1985) or Robinson & Pierpont (2005), is to be upheld unless there is a "clear and obvious" textual problem with it. When this occurs, he adopts either a minority Byzantine reading, a reading from the ancient Vulgate, or a reading attested to in the writings of an ancient Church Father (in either Greek or Latin) by way of quotation. The Neo-Byzantine School considers that the doctrine of the Divine Preservation of Scripture means that God preserved the Byzantine Greek manuscripts, Latin manuscripts, and Greek and Latin church writers' citations of Scripture over time and through time. These are regarded as "a closed class of sources" i.e., non-Byzantine Greek manuscripts such as the Alexandrian texts, or manuscripts in other languages such as Armenian, Syriac, or Ethiopian, are regarded as "outside the closed class of sources" providentially protected over time, and so not used to compose the New Testament text.
Other scholars have criticized the current categorization of manuscripts into text-types and prefer either to subdivide the manuscripts in other ways or to discard the text-type taxonomy.

Interpolations

In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as interpolations. In modern translations of the Bible such as the New International Version, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. Previously, translations of the New Testament such as the King James Version had mostly been based on Erasmus's redaction of the New Testament in Greek, the Textus Receptus from the 16th century based on later manuscripts.

According to Bart D. Ehrman, "These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament, but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries," he adds. And because the King James Bible is based on later manuscripts, such verses "became part of the Bible tradition in English-speaking lands."

Most modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents.  Bible commentaries also discuss such passages, sometimes in great detail.

These possible later additions include the following:

 the longer ending of Mark, see Mark 16 ().
 Jesus sweating blood in Luke, Christ's agony at Gethsemane ().
 the story in John of the woman taken in adultery, the Pericope Adulterae ().
 an explicit reference to the Trinity in 1 John, the Comma Johanneum (1 John 5:7–8).

Other disputed NT passages

Opinions are divided on whether Jesus is referred to as "unique [or only-begotten: Gk. monogenes] Son" or "unique [monogenes] God", in

. Gordon Fee regards the instruction for women to be silent in churches as a later, non-Pauline addition to the Letter, more in keeping with the viewpoint of the Pastoral Epistles (see 1 Tim 2.11–12; Titus 2.5) than of the certainly Pauline Epistles. A few manuscripts place these verses after 40.

Various groups of highly conservative Christians believe that when Ps.12:6–7 speaks of the preservation of the words of God, that this nullifies the need for textual criticism, lower, and higher. Such people include Gail Riplinger, Peter Ruckman, and others. Many theological organisations, societies, newsletters, and churches also hold to this belief, including "AV Publications", Sword of The LORD Newsletter, The Antioch Bible Society and others. On the other hand, Reformation biblical scholars such as Martin Luther saw the academic analysis of biblical texts and their provenance as entirely in line with orthodox Christian faith.

See also
Novum Testamentum Graece
Institute for New Testament Textual Research

References

New Testament
Biblical criticism

Textual criticism of the New Testament