Plate armour is a historical type of personal body armour made from bronze, iron, or steel plates, culminating in the iconic suit of armour entirely encasing the wearer. Full plate steel armour developed in Europe during the Late Middle Ages, especially in the context of the Hundred Years' War, from the coat of plates worn over mail suits during the 14th century.

In Europe, plate armour reached its peak in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The full suit of armour, also referred to as a panoply, is thus a feature of the very end of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period. Its popular association with the "medieval knight" is due to the specialised jousting armour which developed in the 16th century.

Full suits of Gothic plate armour were worn on the battlefields of the Burgundian and Italian Wars. The most heavily armoured troops of the period were heavy cavalry, such as the gendarmes and early cuirassiers, but the infantry troops of the Swiss mercenaries and the Landsknechts also took to wearing lighter suits of "three quarters" munition armour, leaving the lower legs unprotected.

The use of plate armour began to decline in the early 17th century, but it remained common both among the nobility and for the cuirassiers throughout the European wars of religion. After the mid-17th century, plate armour was mostly reduced to the simple breastplate or (cuirass), worn by cuirassiers. This was due to the development of the musket, which could penetrate armour at a considerable distance. For infantry, the breastplate gained renewed importance with the development of shrapnel in the late Napoleonic wars. The use of steel plates sewn into flak jackets dates to World War II, and was replaced by more modern materials such as fibre-reinforced plastic, since the mid-20th century.

Mail armour is a layer of protective clothing worn most commonly from the 9th to the 13th century, though it would continue to be worn under plate armour until the 15th century. Mail was made from hundreds of small interlinking iron or steel rings held together by rivets. It was made this way so that it would be able to follow the contour of the wearer's body, maximizing comfort. Mail armour was designed mainly to defend against thrusting and cutting weapons, rather than bludgeons.Typical clothing articles made of mail at the time would be hooded cloaks, gloves, trousers, and shoes. From the 10th to the 13th century, mail armour was so popular in Europe, that it was known as the age of mail.

Early history

Partial plate armour, made out of bronze, which protected the chest and the lower limbs, was used by the ancient Greeks, as early as the late Bronze Age. The Dendra panoply protected the entire torso on both sides and included shoulder and neck protections. Less restrictive and heavy armour would become more widespread in the form of the muscle cuirass during classic antiquity before being superseded by other types of armour. Parthian and Sassanian heavy cavalry known as Clibanarii used cuirasses made out of scales or mail and small, overlapping plates in the manner of the manica for the protection of arms and legs. Plate armour in the form of the Lorica segmentata was used by the Roman empire between the 1st century BC and 4th century AD.

Single plates of metal armour were again used from the late 13th century on, to protect joints and shins, and these were worn over a mail hauberk. Gradually the number of plate components of medieval armour increased, protecting further areas of the body, and in barding those of a cavalryman's horse. Armourers developed skills in articulating the lames or individual plates for parts of the body that needed to be flexible, and in fitting armour to the individual wearer like a tailor. The cost of a full suit of high quality fitted armour, as opposed to the cheaper munition armour (equivalent of ready-to-wear) was enormous, and inevitably restricted to the wealthy who were seriously committed to either soldiering or jousting. The rest of an army wore inconsistent mixtures of pieces, with mail still playing an important part.

Japan

In the Kofun period (250–538), iron plate cuirasses (tankō) and helmets were being made. Plate armour was used in Japan during the Nara period (646–793); both plate and lamellar armours have been found in burial mounds, and haniwa (ancient clay figures) have been found depicting warriors wearing full armour.

In Japan, the warfare of the Sengoku period (1467–1615) required large quantities of armour to be produced for the ever-growing armies of foot soldiers (ashigaru). Simple munition-quality<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8APyY3eIONcC&dq=samurai+Munitions+armor&pg=PA130 The Watanabe Art Museum Samurai Armour Collection, Volume I, Kabuto & Mengu, Trevor Absolon, page 130].</ref> chest armours (dō) and helmets (kabuto) were mass-produced.

In 1543, the Portuguese brought matchlock firearms (tanegashima) to Japan. As Japanese swordsmiths began mass-producing matchlock firearms and firearms became used in war, the use of Lamellar armour (ō-yoroi and dō-maru), previously used as samurai armour, gradually decreased. Japanese armour makers started to make new types of armour made of larger iron plate and plated leather. This new suit of armour is called tōsei gusoku (gusoku), which means modern armour.The Grove encyclopedia of decorative arts, Volume 1, Gordon Campbell, Oxford University Press US, 2006, page 36.Samurai: The Weapons and Spirit of the Japanese Warrior, Clive Sinclaire, Globe Pequot, 2004, page 49. The type of gusoku, which covered the front and back of the body with a single iron plate with a raised center and a V-shaped bottom like plate armour, was specifically called nanban dou gusoku ("Western style gusoku) and was used by some samurai. Japanese armour makers designed bulletproof plate armour called tameshi gusoku ("bullet tested"), which allowed soldiers to continue wearing armour despite the heavy use of firearms in the late 16th century.The Watanabe Art Museum Samurai Armour Collection, Volume I, Kabuto & Mengu, Trevor Absolon, page 78.

In the 17th century, warfare in Japan came to an end, but the samurai continued to use plate armour until the end of the samurai era in the 1860s, with the known last use of samurai armour occurring in 1877, during the Satsuma rebellion.

 Late Middle Ages

By about 1420, complete suits of plate armour had been developed in Europe. A full suit of plate armour would have consisted of a helmet, a gorget (or bevor), spaulders, pauldrons with gardbraces to cover the armpits as was seen in French armour,David Nicolle, Fornovo 1495:  France's bloody fighting retreat, Osprey Publishing, series Campaign #43, 1996. or besagews (also known as rondels) which were mostly used in Gothic Armour, rerebraces, couters, vambraces, gauntlets, a cuirass (breastplate and backplate) with a fauld, tassets and a culet, a mail skirt, cuisses, poleyns, greaves, and sabatons. The very fullest sets, known as garnitures, more often made for jousting than war, included pieces of exchange, alternate pieces suiting different purposes, so that the suit could be configured for a range of different uses, for example fighting on foot or on horse. By the Late Middle Ages even infantry could afford to wear several pieces of plate armour. Armour production was a profitable and pervasive industry during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

A complete suit of plate armour made from well-tempered steel would weigh around . The wearer remained highly agile and could jump, run and otherwise move freely as the weight of the armour was spread evenly throughout the body. The armour was articulated and covered a man's entire body completely from neck to toe. In the 15th and 16th centuries, plate-armoured soldiers were the nucleus of every army. Large bodies of men-at-arms numbering thousands, or even more than ten thousand men (approximately 60% to 70% of French armies were men-at-arms and the percentage was also high in other countries), were fighting on foot, wearing full plate next to archers and crossbowmen. This was commonly seen in the Western European armies, especially during the Hundred Years War, the Wars of the Roses or the Italian Wars.

European leaders in armouring techniques were Northern Italians, especially from Milan, and Southern Germans, who had somewhat different styles. But styles were diffused around Europe, often by the movement of armourers; the Renaissance Greenwich armour was made by a royal workshop near London that had imported Italian, Flemish and (mostly) German craftsmen, though it soon developed its own unique style. Ottoman Turkey also made wide use of plate armour, but incorporated large amounts of mail into their armour, which was widely used by shock troops such as the Janissary Corps.

 Effect on weapon development

Plate armour gave the wearer very good protection against sword cuts, as well against spear thrusts, and provided decent defense against blunt weapons.

The evolution of plate armour also triggered developments in the design of offensive weapons. While this armour was effective against cuts or strikes, their weak points could be exploited by thrusting weapons,
such as estocs, poleaxes, and halberds. The effect of arrows and bolts is still a point of contention with regard to plate armour. The evolution of the 14th-century plate armour also triggered the development of various polearms. They were designed to deliver a strong impact and concentrate energy on a small area and cause damage through the plate. Maces, war hammers, and pollaxes (poleaxes) were used to inflict blunt force trauma through armour. Strong blows to the head could result in concussion, even if the armour is not penetrated.

Fluted plate was not only decorative, but also reinforced the plate against bending under striking or blunt impact. This offsets against the tendency for flutes to catch piercing blows. In armoured techniques taught in the German school of swordsmanship, the attacker concentrates on these "weak spots", resulting in a fighting style very different from unarmoured sword-fighting. Because of this weakness, most warriors wore a mail shirt (haubergeon or hauberk) beneath their plate armour (or coat-of-plates). Later, full mail shirts were replaced with mail patches, called gussets, which were sewn onto a gambeson or arming jacket. Further protection for plate armour was the use of small round plates called besagews, that covered the armpit area and the addition of couters and poleyns with "wings" to protect the inside of the joint.

 Renaissance

German so-called Maximilian armour of the early 16th century is a style using heavy fluting and some decorative etching, as opposed to the plainer finish on 15th-century white armour. The shapes include influence from Italian styles. This era also saw the use of closed helms, as opposed to the 15th-century-style sallets and barbutes. During the early 16th century, the helmet and neckguard design was reformed to produce the so-called Nürnberg armour, many of them masterpieces of workmanship and design.

As firearms became better and more common on the battlefield, the utility of full armour gradually declined, and full suits became restricted to those made for jousting which continued to develop. The decoration of fine armour greatly increased in the period, using a range of techniques, and further greatly increasing the cost. Elaborately decorated plate armour for royalty and the very wealthy was being produced. Highly decorated armour is often called parade armour, a somewhat misleading term as such armour might well be worn on active military service. Steel plate armour for Henry II of France, made in 1555, is covered with meticulous embossing, which has been subjected to blueing, silvering and gilding.

Such work required armourers to either collaborate with artists or have artistic skill of their own; another alternative was to take designs from ornament prints and other prints, as was often done. Daniel Hopfer was an etcher of armour by training, who developed etching as a form of printmaking. Other artists such as Hans Holbein the Younger produced designs for armour. The Milanese armourer Filippo Negroli, from a leading dynasty of armourers, was the most famous modeller of figurative relief decoration on armour.

 Infantry

Reduced plate armour, typically consisting of a breastplate, a burgonet, morion or cabasset and gauntlets, however, also became popular among 16th-century mercenaries, and there are many references to so-called munition armour being ordered for infantrymen at a fraction of the cost of full plate armour. This mass-produced armour was often heavier and made of lower quality metal than fine armour for commanders.

 Jousting

Specialised jousting armour produced in the late 15th to 16th century was heavier, and could weigh as much as , as it was not intended for free combat, it did not need to permit free movement, the only limiting factor being the maximum weight that could be carried by a warhorse of the period.

The medieval joust has its origins in the military tactics of heavy cavalry during the High Middle Ages. Since the 15th century, jousting had become a sport (hastilude) with less direct relevance to warfare, for example using separate specialized armour and equipment.

During the 1490s, emperor Maximilian I invested a great deal of effort in perfecting the sport, for which he received his nickname of "The Last Knight".Rennen and Stechen were two sportive forms of the joust developed during the 15th century and practiced throughout the 16th century. The armours used for these two respective styles of the joust were known as Rennzeug and Stechzeug, respectively. The Stechzeug in particular developed into extremely heavy armour which completely inhibited the movement of the rider, in its latest forms resembling an armour-shaped cabin integrated into the horse armour more than a functional suit of armour. Such forms of sportive equipment during the final phase of the joust in 16th-century Germany gave rise to modern misconceptions about the heaviness or clumsiness of "medieval armour", as notably popularised by Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.

The extremely heavy helmets of the Stechzeug are explained by the fact that the aim was to detach the crest of the opponent's helmet, resulting in frequent full impact of the lance to the helmet.

By contrast, the Rennen was a type of joust with lighter contact. Here, the aim was to hit the opponent's shield. The specialised Rennzeug was developed on the request of Maximilian, who desired a return to a more agile form of joust compared to the heavily armoured "full contact" Stechen. In the Rennzeug, the shield was attached to the armour with a mechanism of springs and would detach itself upon contact.

 Early Modern period

Plate armour was widely used by most armies until the end of the 17th century for both foot and mounted troops such as the cuirassiers, dragoons, demi-lancers and Polish hussars. The infantry armour of the 16th century developed into the Savoyard type of three-quarters armour by 1600.

Full plate armour was expensive to produce and remained therefore restricted to the upper strata of society; lavishly decorated suits of armour remained the fashion with 18th-century nobles and generals long after they had ceased to be militarily useful on the battlefield due to the advent of inexpensive muskets.

The development of powerful firearms made all but the finest and heaviest armour obsolete. The increasing power and availability of firearms and the nature of large, state-supported infantry led to more portions of plate armour being cast off in favour of cheaper, more mobile troops. Leg protection was the first part to go, replaced by tall leather boots. By the beginning of the 18th century, only field marshals, commanders and royalty remained in full armour on the battlefield, more as a sign of rank than for practical considerations. It remained fashionable for monarchs to be portrayed in armour during the first half of the 18th century (late Baroque period), but even this tradition became obsolete. Thus, a portrait of Frederick the Great in 1739 still shows him in armour, while a later painting showing him as a commander in the Seven Years' War (c. 1760) depicts him without armour.

 Modern body armour

Body armour made a brief reappearance in the American Civil War with mixed success. During World War I, both sides experimented with shrapnel armour, and some soldiers used their own dedicated ballistic armour such as the American Brewster Body Shield, although none were widely produced. The heavy cavalry armour (cuirass) used by the German, British, and French empires during the Napoleonic Wars, were actively used until the first few months of World War I, when French cuirassiers went to meet the enemy dressed in armour outside of Paris. The cuirass represents the final stage of the tradition of plate armour descended from the Late Middle Ages. Meanwhile, makeshift steel armour for protection against shrapnel and early forms of ballistic vests began development from the mid-19th century to the present day.

Plate armour was also famously used in Australia by the Kelly Gang, a group of four bushrangers led by Edward "Ned" Kelly, who had constructed four suits of improvised armour from plough mouldboards and whose crime spree culminated with a violent shootout with police at the town of Glenrowan in 1880. The armour was reasonably effective against bullets and made Kelly seem almost invincible to the policemen, who likened him to an evil spirit or Bunyip with one constable reporting that "[I] fired at him point blank and hit him straight in the body. But there is no use firing at Ned Kelly; he can't be hurt", however it left sections of the groin and limbs exposed; during the infamous "Glenrowan Affair", gang member Joe Byrne was killed by a bullet to the groin, Kelly was captured after a fifteen-minute last stand against police (having sustained a total of 28 bullet wounds over his body), and the remaining two members are thought to have committed suicide shortly after. Although the recovered suits were almost immediately mismatched, they have since been reorganized and restored and today remain as a powerful symbol of the Australian outback.

In 1916, General Adrian of the French army provided an abdominal shield which was light in weight (approx. one kilogram) and easy to wear. A number of British officers recognised that many casualties could be avoided if effective armour were available.

The first usage of the term "flak jacket" refers to the armour originally developed by the Wilkinson Sword company during World War II to help protect Royal Air Force (RAF) air personnel from flying debris and shrapnel. The Red Army also made use of ballistic steel body armour, typically chestplates, for combat engineers and assault infantry.

After World War II, steel plates were soon replaced by vests made from synthetic fibre, in the 1950s, made of either boron carbide, silicon carbide, or aluminium oxide. They were issued to the crew of low-flying aircraft, such as the UH-1 and UC-123, during the Vietnam War. The synthetic fibre Kevlar was introduced in 1971, and most ballistic vests since the 1970s are based on kevlar, optionally with the addition of trauma plates to reduce the risk of blunt trauma injury. Such plates may be made of ceramic, metal (steel or titanium) or synthetic materials.

 See also
 Ballistic vest
 Components of medieval armour
 Mirror armour
 Plated mail
 Proofing of armour

 References

 Further reading
 R. E. Oakeshott, European weapons and armour: From the Renaissance to the industrial revolution (1980).
  (see index)
 Brian R. Price, Techniques of Medieval Armour Reproduction''. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, 2000.

External links

Body armor
Early Modern armour

Plate armour


Francis Simard, (June 2, 1946 – January 10, 2015) was a  Quebec nationalist and convicted murderer. Simard was a member of the Chenier Cell of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), a group dedicated to the creation of an independent Marxist state out of the Canadian province of Quebec. Members of the group were responsible for the events known as the October Crisis.

As a member of the Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale political party, he met Paul Rose and the two became involved in revolutionary activities in 1969 when Simard campaigned for the development of the French language in McGill University, one of Montreal's English-language universities. During what became known as the October Crisis, on October 5, 1970, members of the FLQ's Liberation Cell kidnapped the British Trade Commissioner James Cross from his Montreal home as part of a violent attempt to overthrow the elected government and to establish a Marxist Quebec state independent of Canada. On October 10, Francis Simard, along with Chenier Cell leader, Paul Rose and his brother, Jacques Rose and Bernard Lortie, kidnapped and then murdered Quebec vice premier and cabinet minister Pierre Laporte. Believing many others would follow in an uprising, their goal was to create an independent state based on the ideals of Fidel Castro's Cuba.  In 1982, Simard described the murder of Laporte as "a sincere gesture to show that what we were saying was not just words."

On May 20, 1971, Simard was sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of Pierre Laporte. He was given parole in 1982. Simard wrote a book published in 1982 about the October Crisis titled Pour en finir avec octobre. In 1994, Quebec film director Pierre Falardeau made a movie from it titled Octobre. Simard died of a ruptured aneurysm in Montreal on January 10, 2015.

References

Bibliography

Simard, Francis, Talking it out : the October Crisis from inside, Montreal, Guernica, 1987  (translated by David Homel)
Simard, Francis, Pour en finir avec Octobre, Stanké, Montreal, 1982.

1946 births
2015 deaths
Front de libération du Québec members
Criminals from Montreal
Canadian people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by Canada
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Canada
Canadian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
People paroled from life sentence
October Crisis
Canadian people convicted of kidnapping

Francis Simard


ITAD Subscriber Numbers, or ISNs, provide a way of interconnecting VOIP PBXs by adding a number to the internal phone number of the target phone. The ITAD number is added to the target phone number preceded by an asterisk. Therefore, only numbers and symbols which appear on a telephone keypad are used.

References

Telecommunications

ITAD Subscriber Numbers


The Kingsbury Breweries Company was founded in 1847, at which time it was the Kunz & Bleser Brewing Company. The main location was Manitowoc, Wisconsin, with other locations in Sheboygan, Wisconsin and St. Paul, Minnesota.  In 1926, the firm was sold to the Manitowoc Products Company and was known as the Gutsch Brewery.

Its corporate name was changed to Kingsbury Breweries Company in 1933. The Kingsbury name and label originated during the Depression as a near-beer because of the ban on alcohol during Prohibition.  Following the end of Prohibition, the brewery was issued U-Permit No. WIS-U-734, allowing the resumption of brewing operations.  In 1933, Kingsbury Pale and Kingsbury Ale began to be produced. Kingsbury's franchise brand was known as the "Aristocrat of Beer" and "Fit for a King."

Kingsbury's main offices remained in Manitowoc until 1963, when it merged with G. Heileman Brewing Company, which brewed and distributed Kingsbury label products until 1974.

The Geo. Wiedemann Brewing Company of Newport, Kentucky, brewed and sold Kingsbury Beer and Kingsbury Near Beer  between 1967 and  1983.  The Sioux City Brewing Company of Sioux City, Iowa, brewed and sold Kingsbury Beer from 1959 to 1960.  The Stroh Brewery Company later, after it bought the G. Heileman Brewing Company, brewed and distributed some Kingsbury labels.  Stroh's ceased operation in 1999-2000, and the Miller Brewing Company bought the Kingsbury Near Beer label, which is still brewed and distributed by Miller.

Products
Old Type Beer, 1934–1935
Kingsbury Holiday Bock, 1934–1961
Kingsbury Bock, 1934–1970
Kingsbury Beer, 1934–1973
Kingsbury Pale Near Beer, 1935–1940
Kingsbury Export Beer, 1935–1942
Kingsbury Brew Near Beer, 1938–1972
Diamond G Ale, 1939–1941
Zing Near Beer, 1958–1972
Reidenbach Beer, 1963–1968

See also
 List of defunct breweries in the United States

Notes

Defunct brewery companies of the United States
Sheboygan, Wisconsin
Defunct companies based in Wisconsin

Kingsbury Breweries Company


Eastern Obolo (or Obolo agan̄ Mbum-ura for dem natif Obolo langwej) ma one Local Gorment Area (LGA) for southern Naija. En headquarters dey for Okoroete. The place dey for Akwa Ibom State, and na local gorment wey dey near oshen. Na on 4th December, 1996 wey Federal Gorment of Naija tok sai mek Eastern Obolo no dey share gorment with Ikot Abasi LGA again; mek en stand by en self. Na so dem take give am en own local gorment. People wey live there plenty pass 30,000, and de area big reach 17,000 km². En get 16 villages, wey dem divided into two clans, wey bi Okoroete and Iko. En get ten political wards. All di villages wey dey Eastern Obolo na of di Obolo ethnic group, and dem get common ancestral lineage wey dey make dem live together peacefully.

Eastern Obolo


A transfer case is a part of the drivetrain of four-wheel drive, all-wheel drive, and other multiple powered axle vehicles. Typically a transfer case is used to engage (and disengage) the four-wheel drive function. When disengaged, most four-wheel drive systems operate in two wheel drive (engaging just the rear axle and wheels). For that reason two-wheel drive vehicles do not need a transfer case.

The transfer case transfers the power from the transmission to the front and rear axles by means of drive shafts. The transfer case synchronizes the rotation of the front and rear wheels so they turn at exactly the same speed. It usually contains two or more sets of gears. It has a 1:1 ratio drive (usually called high range) for normal city and highway use. Then it contains a low range gear for off-road use. A common low range gear ratios is 2.72:1. That means for every 2.72 rotations of the transmission output shaft, the transfer case will turn both driveshafts 1 rotation. The Jeep Wrangler Rubicon model uses a 4:1 low range gearing.

Drive types
There are two different types of internal power-transfer mechanism found in most transfer cases.

Gear-driven
Gear-driven transfer cases use sets of gears to transmit power to the front and rear driveshafts. These are generally strong, heavy units that are used in large trucks. There are currently gear drive cases in production for light trucks and SUVs.

Chain-driven
Chain-driven transfer cases use a chain to transmit power to the axles. Chain-driven transfer cases are quieter,  lighter and less expensive to manufacture than gear-driven units.  They are used in vehicles such as compact trucks, full size trucks, Jeeps and SUVs.  Some off-road driving enthusiasts modify their vehicles to use gear-driven transfer casesto gain the extra strength they provide.

References

Automotive technologies

Transfer case


James Komack (August 3, 1924 – December 24, 1997) was an American television producer, director, screenwriter, and actor. He is best known for producing several hit television series, including The Courtship of Eddie's Father, Chico and the Man, and Welcome Back, Kotter.

Over the course of his career, Komack was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards and two Primetime Emmy Awards.

Career
Komack performed in both the film and the original Broadway cast of the musical Damn Yankees.  In both productions, he played the role of a baseball player performing the song "(You Gotta Have) Heart". Komack also appeared in Frank Capra's film A Hole in the Head as Julius Manetta, the inept son of Mario (Edward G. Robinson) and Sophie (Thelma Ritter).

Early in his career, Komack worked as a stand-up comedian and was cast in sixteen episodes over three seasons as United States Navy millionaire dentist Harvey Spencer Blair III, in the CBS military sitcom/drama, Hennesey, starring Jackie Cooper and Abby Dalton. The second season he began writing some of the scripts. From there he went on to directing, including episodes of the Dick Van Dyke Show, Gallant Men, Combat, 77 Sunset Strip, the Lloyd Bridges Show, and received an Emmy nomination for Dr. Kildare.

Komack's first hit of writing was topical night club material. In addition to writing for himself, he sold songs and patter to other performers, notably Eartha Kitt and Robert Clary. He recorded a gold hit record, "The Knickname Song". Komack made a record album of his comedy routine, James Komack at the Waldorf. He also recorded a music album on RCA Victor in 1957 titled Inside Me, under the orchestra direction of Dennis Farnon. In total, he made 8 albums and 14 singles, mostly comedy routines but also some songs.

Also in 1957, he guest starred as "Buck Pierce", a helpful & kind cowboy who was part of the crew heading west on Wagon Train (S1E14 - "The Julie Gage Story").

In December 1960, Komack appeared as Dr. Franklin in the episode "Emergency" of the CBS anthology series, The DuPont Show with June Allyson.

Komack was the guiding force behind several television hits. After directing "Some Tarzans" for TV in Mexico, he returned to Los Angeles in the late 1960s to create The Courtship of Eddie's Father and also appeared as "Uncle Norman" Tinker. He appeared in and created Me and Maxx, whose title character was inspired by and named after his daughter. He also appeared in Get Smart, created Chico and the Man (including directing the "Sammy Steps In" episode with Sammy Davis Jr.) and helped produce Welcome Back, Kotter. Komack is credited with discovering and launching the careers of John Travolta and Freddie Prinze.  He was director of the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "A Piece of the Action".

Komack was the creator and executive producer of the short-lived 1978 CBS situation comedy Another Day and directed the last of the original Porky's films, Porky's Revenge!, in 1985.

During his career peak years, he lived with his wife Cluny and daughter Maxine in Beverly Hills, where their lifestyle could easily serve as the premise for another TV comedy, "it is like open house 24 hours a day," he described it.

Death
Komack died of heart problems at Cedars-Sinai Hospital in Los Angeles, California on December 24, 1997, at the age of 73.

Awards and nominations

References

External links

1924 births
1997 deaths
American male screenwriters
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American television directors
Television producers from California
American television writers
Male actors from New York City
Male actors from Los Angeles
Screenwriters from Los Angeles
20th-century American male actors
American male television writers
20th-century American businesspeople
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
Screenwriters from New York (state)
Television producers from New York City
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American writers
20th-century American screenwriters

James Komack


Night sky is the sky in the nighttime or in the late twilight. Often, in that time  some astronomical objects appear on the sky that are not present in the daytime. Such astronomical objects as Moon, stars, planets. But you can see them only when the sky is clear.

Related pages

 Amateur astronomy
 Astronomical object
 Constellation
Darkness

Astronomy

Night sky


An artist's portfolio (sometimes referred to as a lookbook) is an edited collection of an artist's best artwork intended to showcase their style or method of work. A portfolio is used by artists to show employers their versatility by showing different samples of current work. Typically, the work reflects an artist's best work or a depth in one specific area of work.

Historically, portfolios were printed out and placed into a book. With the increased use of the internet and email, however, there are now websites that host online portfolios that are available to a wider audience.

Photography
A photography portfolio can focus on a single subject. It can be a collection of photographs taken with a certain type of camera, in one geographic area, of one person or a group of people, only black & white or sepia photos, a special event, etc.

Many photographers use portfolios to show their best work when looking for jobs in the photography industry. For example, wedding photographers may put together a book of their best wedding photos to show to engaged couples who are looking for a wedding photographer. Photojournalists may take a collection of their best freelance work with them when looking for a job.

Artist design book
An artist design book is a collection of photographs meant to show off a model, photographer, style, or clothing line.  Sometimes they are made to compile the looks of other people such as a celebrity, politician or socialite. This is an especially popular term with fashion bloggers.

Artist design books, or ADBs, in their online form, can be described as "fashion diaries" because bloggers are constantly updating them on a daily or weekly basis.

It is common for stores or clothing designers to use an ADB to show off products. They may include photos of multiple types of clothes, shoes and other accessories from a season or line.

Web design
A web designer portfolio depicts web projects made by the designer. This portfolio is usually made as a website and it shows a front end part of the websites made by the web designer as well as the entire web project made from web designer's website wireframe.

Common elements included in web designer portfolio are:

 Web designer's logo – to give recognition of web designer's brand.
 Projects created – to show web designer's skill and experience.
 Contact information – to help visitors to get in touch with a web designer.
 About me / about us page – to show web designer's expertise and team members involved in web development.
 Blog – to share web designer's expertise, to engage website visitors to comment blog articles, and for SEO of the web designer's portfolio.

References

Art

Artist's portfolio


The Bad Education Movie is a 2015 British comedy film directed by Elliot Hegarty and written by Freddy Syborn and Jack Whitehall.

The movie is based on Whitehall's sitcom of the same name, and follows a similar plot-line, with young teacher Alfie Wickers' (Jack Whitehall) ineptly trying to supervise and occasionally educate Form K.

Filming for The Bad Education Movie took place over five weeks in Cornwall and Pembrokeshire, commencing 23 February 2015. The film was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on 21 August 2015 by Entertainment Film Distributors.

Plot
Alfie Wickers (Jack Whitehall) has taken Class K on a school trip to Amsterdam. Unbeknownst to him, Mitchell (Charlie Wernham) has spiked his crepe with magic mushrooms, causing Alfie to hallucinate while in the Anne Frank Museum. He believes Jing (Kae Alexander) is a panda and is convinced that the Anne Frank dummy is alive, which leads to him stealing it from the museum (in a parody of E.T.) and ends up in a canal.

One year later, Alfie plans to take his class to Las Vegas, angering the parent–teacher association, who doubt the educational value of the trip. They demand that Alfie be sacked. Deputy Head and Alfie's father Martin Wickers (Harry Enfield), headmaster Shaquille Fraser (Mathew Horne) and teacher and Alfie's girlfriend Rosie Gulliver (Sarah Solemani) insist that Alfie is given another chance and that they conduct a surprise visit to his classroom. Meanwhile, Mitchell has been attempting to tattoo 'Class K Forever' onto Alfie's back, but Alfie passes out from pain before Mitchell can get any further than the letters 'CLA'. The classroom visit ends with the children's parents refusing to pay for the Las Vegas trip, after Susan, the overbearing mother of Class K student Joe (Ethan Lawrence) interrupted their "class wars" and accidentally shot the class hamster under her skirt. Alfie says he will pay for the trip, but upon realising the cost of this, decides on a trip to Cornwall. Joe is concerned his mother will not let him go on the trip, but Alfie creates a fake trip itinerary to fool the parents into thinking the trip is educational. Alfie also informs his class that his best friend from school, Atticus Hoye (Jeremy Irvine), is hosting a house party in Cornwall.

Susan, concerned about what the trip will involve, comes with the group to Cornwall, and implements Alfie's fake itinerary, starting with a trip to the Eden Project. While at the Eden Project, Alfie is forced to zip wire across the entire park with his trousers around his ankles and no underwear on. Also Mitchell picks a plant known as 'nature's laxative' which Alfie spikes Susan's drink with. The class continue to Penleven Castle where they see John the Baptist's foreskin. Susan, beginning to feel the effects of the laxative, goes to the toilet and leaves the group unattended. While she is away, Mitchell attempts to steal the foreskin, but loses it instead. Alfie retrieves it, but is unable to put it back before Susan returns. Alfie is forced to eat the foreskin to cover his tracks.

The group then arrives at the fishing town of Port Jago, where their hotel is located. Alfie and the children manage to sneak out to the local pub without being caught by Susan. At the pub, the barman (Steve Speirs) and Pasco Trevelyan (Iain Glen) are discussing the Cornish Liberation Army, a terrorist organisation fighting for Cornish independence, which they are both members of. Alfie and the class arrive at the pub, where Alfie is mistaken for a CLA member because of the unfinished tattoo on his back. Pasco has a plan to assassinate the local Tory MP, Michael Hoye, who is also Atticus' father. Overhearing Alfie talking to Joe about going to the party at Atticus' house, Pasco reveals himself to be a smuggler and recruits Alfie to the CLA. Alfie and the class become involved in the frivolities at the pub, which get out of hand and end up with Joe being stabbed in the hand. Susan records the incident from outside through a window, but before she can send the recording to the other parents, Pasco (at Alfie's request) slips her some sleeping pills, packs her in a trunk, and abandons the trunk in Cherbourg, France. Pasco then takes the group to a strip club, where he asks Alfie to deliver some cannabis to Atticus Hoye's party the following evening on his behalf. Unbeknownst to Alfie, the truck he is to deliver the cannabis in is actually packed full of explosives. Meanwhile, Susan hitches a lift back to the UK from France with some illegal immigrants.

Back at school, the other teachers have lost contact with the Cornwall trip since Susan went missing. Martin, Fraser, and Rosie drive down to Cornwall in an attempt to find them. Alfie and the children arrive at the party, where Alfie is bullied by his so-called friends and made to teabag a swan. Feeling betrayed by everyone, including his class, he decides to call Pasco to be picked up from the party. Pasco takes this as a signal and detonates the truck, which blows up in the grounds of the Hoye house. Pasco drives Alfie and the children in his truck back to Port Jago and decides to make Alfie the leader of the Cornish rebellion. They are joined by many of the people from the pub and Port Jago itself, who all reveal themselves to be members of the CLA. Meanwhile, the other teachers, trying to find Alfie, have involved the police, who believe the situation to be so serious they call in Interpol, who in turn conclude that Alfie has been radicalised. They are joined at the operation's nerve centre by Susan and some other parents.

Pasco informs the group that the CLA is going to seize the means of production, which in Cornwall's case is its most important tourist attraction. The police believe this to be the Eden Project, and send troops there, but it soon transpires that the group are actually heading to Penleven Castle again (thanks to Susan placing a tracking chip in Joe's neck prior to the film). Alfie sabotages the rebellion, but expresses sympathy for Pasco's cause. Pasco turns violent and imprisons them. While the children escape thanks to a secret passage Joe finds in the castle which leads down to the beach, Alfie is forced into a sword fight with Pasco. Rosie and Fraser arrive in a helicopter and pull Alfie to safety, with Pasco being arrested.

Six weeks later, Michael Hoye has resigned as MP of Port Jago; and on results day, Mitchell again mixes magic mushrooms in some brownies which he gives to Alfie. Alfie once again loses his senses and hallucinates, before posing for an unusual 'Leavers Photograph'.

Cast

 Jack Whitehall as Alfie Wickers
 Ethan Lawrence as Joe Poulter
 Charlie Wernham as Mitchell Harper
 Kae Alexander as Jing Hua
 Layton Williams as Stephen Carmichael
 Nikki Runeckles as Chantelle Parsons
 Weruche Opia as Cleopatra Ofoedo
 Jack Binstead as Leslie "Rem Dogg" Remmington
 Iain Glen as Pasco Trevelyan
 Joanna Scanlan as Susan Poulter
 Sarah Solemani as Rosie Gulliver
 Mathew Horne as Shaquille Fraser
 Harry Enfield as Martin Wickers
 Clarke Peters as Commander Andrews
 Jeremy Irvine as Atticus Hoye
 Talulah Riley as Phoebe Mitchell
 Bruce Mackinnon as Grant Dodd
 Steve Speirs as Don the barman
 David Gant as Mick
 Sheila Reid as Margot
 Hilary Whitehall as Mrs Carmichael
 Marc Wootton as Officer Geoffrey
 Steve Oram as Officer Rowe
 Tony Maudsley as Yo Ho Ho Barman
 Tom Davis as Big Tom

Production
Principal photography for The Bad Education Movie took place over five weeks, commencing 23 February 2015. The scenes featuring Penvelen Castle were filmed in Pembroke Castle in Pembrokeshire, Wales.

Release
The film was theatrically released in the United Kingdom on 21 August 2015 by Entertainment Film Distributors. The film's first trailer was released on 12 July 2015.

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 63% based on 8 reviews.

Chris Tilly of IGN movies, wrote that "Hegarty directs in a style that transcends the show's small-screen roots, and ultimately there are enough good jokes to make the feature a worthwhile endeavor", awarding it 6.6/10. Henry Fitzherbert of the Daily Express, wrote "there are enough laughs to make this a hit with the target audience" and Fionnuala Halligan of Screen International described the film as "unexpectedly hilarious".

Negative reviews came from Matthew Turner of The List, writing "there's very little of any merit here, unless you're a Whitehall completist interested in seeing prosthetic recreations of his balls on multiple occasions" and Mike McCahill of the Guardian, writing "you sense Whitehall and co-writer Freddy Syborn egging one another on to see who can scrape the bottom of the barrel quickest and loudest". Guy Lodge, of Variety, stated "[it is] more extravagantly daft than a half-hour episode would permit, giving some peppy purpose to an otherwise low-rent cash-in."

British film critic Mark Kermode disliked the film, criticising its overuse of crude humour and portrayal of Cornwall and the Cornish people and saying that "after the first half an hour the [...] catastrophic level of boredom became so much that you just ceased to be bothered by it".

References

External links

2015 films
2010s coming-of-age comedy films
2010s comedy road movies
2010s teen comedy films
British coming-of-age comedy films
British comedy road movies
British teen comedy films
Films about educators
Films based on television series
Films shot in Cornwall
Films shot in Pembrokeshire
2015 comedy films
2010s English-language films
2010s British films

The Bad Education Movie


Francesco Balilla Pratella (Lugo, Italy February 1, 1880 – Ravenna, Italy May 17, 1955) was an Italian composer, musicologist and essayist. One of the leading advocates of Futurism in Italian music, much of Pratella's own music betrays little obvious connection to the views espoused in the manifestos he authored.

Biography
Born in Lugo, and deeply impressed by the folk-music he heard in his childhood in his native Romagna (now part of Emilia-Romagna), Pratella entered Pesaro Conservatory and studied with Vincenzo Cicognani and Pietro Mascagni. Pratella's professional career was largely centered in teaching and musicology; he served as director of the Liceo Musicale in Lugo from 1910 until 1927, when he accepted a post as director of the Istituto G. Verdi in Ravenna, where he remained until his retirement in 1945. His interest in collecting Romagna's folksongs began before his futurist period and continued after, intensifying later through Pratella's arrangements of folksongs and training of choruses. Pratella also made modern performance arrangements of early polyphonic music. From 1921 to 1925 Pratella headed the Bologna-based music publication Il Pensiero Musicale.

An early project drawn from Pratella's interest in indigenous folksong was the opera La Sina d'Varguõn (1909), which attracted the attention of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, the father of Italian futurism. Pratella joined the futurist group in 1910 and became one of its most ardent activists, publishing three tracts which were combined into the pamphlet Musica Futurista in 1912. Inspired by Pratella, Luigi Russolo created his Intonarumori (Noise Intoners) in 1913 and wrote his own manifesto, The Art of Noises (1913), introducing the futurist concept of introducing noise into music. Pratella was less than enthusiastic about the use of Intonarumori, but he agreed to utilize their resources in his opera L'aviatore Dro (1911–1914) which was written in close collaboration with Marinetti. At the end of World War I, Pratella broke with the futurists; L'aviatore Dro opened in 1920 and proved popular with critics and audiences alike, but its impracticality and odd storyline doomed it to certain obscurity.

In his later years, Pratella occasionally turned his attention to composing for films, notably in Mother Earth (1931) and L'argine (1938). He also worked on a proposed Raccolta nazionale delle musiche italiane (National Collection of Italian Music) with Gabriele D'Annunzio, but the project was interrupted by the poet's death.

Manifesti

According to Pratella, Italian music was inferior to music abroad.  He praised the "sublime genius" of Wagner and saw some value in the work of Richard Strauss, Debussy, Elgar, Mussorgsky, Glazunov and Sibelius.  By contrast, the Italian symphony was dominated by opera in an "absurd and anti-musical form".  The conservatories encouraged backwardness and mediocrity.  The publishers perpetuated mediocrity and the domination of music by the "rickety and vulgar" operas of Puccini and Umberto Giordano.  The only Italian Pratella could praise was his teacher Mascagni, because he had rebelled against the publishers and attempted innovation in opera, but even Mascagni was too traditional for Pratella's tastes.

In the face of this mediocrity and conservatism, Pratella unfurled "the red flag of Futurism, calling to its flaming symbol such young composers as have hearts to love and fight, minds to conceive, and brows free of cowardice". He did so via several short manifestos, a key example of which was Musica futurista (Manifesto of Futurist Musicians), published in 1910.

The main ideas of his musical manifestos were:
for the young to keep away from conservatories and to study independently;
the founding of a musical review, to be independent of academics and critics;
abstention from any competition that was not completely open;
liberation from the past and from "well-made" music;
for the domination of singers to end, so that they became like any other member of the orchestra;
for opera composers to write their own librettos, which were to be in free verse;
to end all period settings, ballads, "nauseating Neapolitan songs and sacred music"; and
to promote new work in preference to old.

Style and influence

The Italian futurist music manifestos, particularly Russolo's, have long been an inspiration to avant-garde musicians and continue to be so in the twenty-first century. However, mid-twentieth century scholars—among a small fraternity who had access to Pratella's long-forgotten compositions—were deeply critical of Pratella owing to a perceived streak of conservativism in his own music which, they felt, undermined the revolutionary spirit of his manifesti. As Benjamin  Thorn put it, "[Pratella]'s compositions never quite lived up to the rhethoric."  In Italy, however, Pratella's fortunes have been improving. Pianist Daniele Lombardi has recorded some of Pratella's futurist piano music, and in 1996 the La Scala opera house in Milan revived L'aviatore Dro for the first time in 75 years. The success of this production and other factors have helped to revitalize Pratella's futurist profile in his home country.

Although he composed seven operas, Pratella was not a particularly prolific composer. In addition to his futurist works, operas and folk choruses, he left a small but respectable output of chamber music, piano music, sacred music and songs. Pratella' s cycle of symphonic poems based on the folk music of Romagna are well respected in Italy, and place Pratella among Italy's "Generation of 1880," composers such as Ottorino Respighi, Gian Francesco Malipiero and Ildebrando Pizzetti who eschewed opera in favor of instrumental music.

Selective list of works

As the author:

Manifesto of Futurist Musicians (Manifesto dei musicisti futuristi) (1910)
 Technical Manifesto of Futurist Music (Manifesto tecnico della musica futurista) (1911)
 The Destruction of Squareness (Distruzione della quadratura), (1912)
 Shouts, Songs, Chants and Dances of the Italian People (1919)
 Etnofonia di Romagna (Udine, 1938)
 Primo documentario per la storia dell'etnofonia in Italia (1941)
 Saggio di comparazione etnofonica (1943)
 Autobiografia (Milan, 1971)

As the composer:

 La Sina d'Varguõn, opera (1909)
 Suite per Organo, for organ (1912)
 Musica futurista, for orchestra, op. 30 (1912)
 L'aviatore Dro, opera (1911–1914)
 La guerra, for piano (1913)
 Trio, op. 28 (1919)
 Per un dramma orientale, incidental music for a Marinetti play (1922)
 Il rondo di Vittoria (1932; revision of La guerra)
 La ninna nanna della bambola, children's opera, op. 44
 Dono primaverile, children's opera, op. 48
 Il fabbricatore di Dio, op. 46
 Romagna, symphonic poem
 La chiesa di Polenta, symphonic poem
 I Paladini di Francia, sacred music
 Le canzoni del niente, chamber work
 Cante Romagnole, for chorus
 Giorno di festa, for piano

See also
Futurism (music)

References

 Rodney J. Payton, "The Music of Futurism: Concerts and Polemics." The Musical Quarterly, 62 (1976)
 Mark A. Radice, "Futurismo: Its Origins, Context, Repertory and Influence." The Musical Quarterly, 73 (1989)
 La biografia di Pratella Francesco B., Wuz.it

External links

 "Manifesto of Futurist Musicians" by Franceso Balilla Pratella in English translation from the original Italian, first published in Musica futurista di Balilla Pratella, 1912.
 "Manifeste des Musiciens futuristes" de Franceso Balilla Pratella en Français, published by Editions Lenka lente, 2014.
 Balilla Pratella and Musica Futurista at LTM

 Storia dell'Istituto Musicale "G. Verdi"
 La biografia di Pratella Francesco B., Wuz.it
 Giuda Albertario, "L'Aviatore Dro di Francesco Balilla Pratella," Rivista Italiana di Musicologia No. 48 (2013)
 Francesco Ruocchio, "Pratella Musica Futurista Op. 30"

1880 births
1955 deaths
Futurist composers
Italian classical composers
Italian male classical composers
Italian folk musicians
Italian Futurism
20th-century Italian musicians
People from Lugo, Emilia-Romagna
20th-century Italian musicologists
20th-century Italian male musicians
Italian composers

Francesco Balilla Pratella


Texas Terri (born Terri Laird; April 6, 1955) is an American punk rock singer, songwriter and actress, originally from Austin, Texas, United States.

Texas Terri has been compared to Wendy O. Williams and others by the music press. Like Williams, she has developed a reputation for wild, scantily clad stage antics including regular performances where she would rip off her shirt to only be censored by electrical tape reading 'TXT' (her preferred shortening of her name). She also performed in black underwear, and even on occasion early on completely nude.

Laird grew up in Fort Worth, Texas, and claims to have spent time in front of the mirror practicing to be a rock star from as young as six years old.

In Hollywood, California, in 1984 she formed the rock band The Killer Crows. After their break-up and a three-year break she formed Texas Terri & The Stiff Ones with Don "Demon Boy" Cilurso who became her song writing partner. They released one album in 1998 Eat Shit on the Burning Tree label. Eat Shit has subsequently been re-released twice as Eat Shit +1 and more recently Eat Shit +4, the + number signifying the number of bonus tracks on each re-release. The band achieved a sizable cult status in America and Europe over the course of their six years together.

When Cilurso left the band because of 'personal problems', Texas Terri chose to change the name to 'Texas Terri Bomb!'. Under this name she has released the Your Lips...My Ass! album which was produced by remounted rock producer Jack Douglas, and featured a guest appearance by Wayne Kramer of the MC5 (though she claims she originally wanted Lemmy Kilmister to appear on the track).

She occasionally is an actress and has played in 10 films to date including Hellbent in 2004 as Tattoo Shop Woman.

Sources
 Texas Terri's Myspace page
 Texas Terri's interview with SuicideGirls

External links
Vampire Junkies Featuring Texas Terri - Official Website

Living people
American actresses
Women punk rock singers
1955 births
The Flesh Eaters members
Singers from Austin, Texas

Texas Terri


The United American Indians of New England (UAINE) is a Native American activist organization founded by Frank James (1924-2001). Also known as Wamsutta, Frank James was the leader of the Wampanoag people. He founded the United American Indians of New England in 1970 after being "uninvited" to make a speech at a celebration hosted by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Commonwealth wanted to celebrate the friendly relations of their forefathers and the Wampanoag people; however, when the speech that James was going to give was reviewed, it was deemed inappropriate for the celebration because it focused on the negative ways the Wampanoag people had been treated by the Pilgrims at Plymouth and did not celebrate the brotherhood the planners wanted to show. When he was given a revised speech that was written by a person in public relations, James decided that he would not attend the celebration. Instead, he chose to protest the silencing of the Native Americans by gathering supporters, going to Cole's Hill overlooking Plymouth Harbor, and giving his speech there.

The supporters he gathered on that day became the United American Indians of New England; the group still leads the National Day of Mourning each year to continue what James started.

Today
Today UAINE is an organization of and led by Native people and their supporters. The goal of UAINE is to fight back against racism towards native people, the issues of the Pilgrim mythology perpetuated in Plymouth, and the United States' assault on poor people. They also are fighting for the freedom of Leonard Peltier as well as other political prisoners. They work to support Indigenous struggles in New England and throughout America. They also protest the use of racist terms used as team names and mascots in sports teams throughout the country. To get their message out, they speak to children at schools and at universities. They welcome the support of indigenous people from all parts of the Americas as well as the support from non-Native people. They hold a strong belief that it is their duty to support all those who struggle including the lesbian and gay community, the disabled, and other communities of color. UAINE receives no funding from the government and relies solely on the support of others any money that they may receive from speaking engagement go directly to UAINE coffers. There are no paid staff members of UAINE.

References

External links
UAINE

Plymouth Colony
Massachusetts culture
Organizations based in Massachusetts
Native American activists
Organizations established in 1970

United American Indians of New England


A Question of Honour () is a 1965 Italian comedy-drama film directed by Luigi Zampa. It was co-produced with France. The film was entered into the 16th Berlin International Film Festival.

Plot
Efisio Mulas is a meek laborer who lives with occasional work, especially in Don Leandro Sanna's salon, and rounds up the slim balance by betting with colleagues in strength with the game "head against head". In the village the Sanna and Porcu families' conflict has lasted over a century.

The normality of the events is broken by the release, for the amnesty wanted by the pope, of the beautiful Domenicangela Piras, the turbulent girlfriend of Efisio convicted for having hurt him with a billhook. At the same time the old man of honor, Agostino Sanna, is about to instigate his nephew Don Leandro to kill Alvaro Porcu. Don Leandro does not intend to support his uncle, so it takes time, insinuating that Alvaro Porcu has been hiding in Supramonte for fear of him.

Efisio marries Domenicangela having, finally, obtained the consent of her father required by the priest, the fugitive don Liberato. Meanwhile, Agostino Sanna decides to haunt down Alvaro to kill him, but succumbs. Leandro, walking to stop his uncle, attends to his death, and, disgusted, to avoid the continuation of the vendetta, decides to move into his estate, seeking for peace.

Efisio needs money and decides to steal sheep from the estate, but the watchdog pulls him out of his pants.

During the wedding celebrations of Efisio and Domenicangela, she gets rid of those pants, throwing them in the street.  The marshal of the carabinieri find them, and, having seen the bites of the dog and the blood left on them, immediately arrests him.
Efisio runs away and decides to flee in Milan.

Meanwhile, a new event is about to reopen the vendetta: Giovanni Sanna, Leandro's younger brother, challenges on public square Alvaro Porcu to take revenge for Uncle Agostino, hitting his face with a glove. Don Leandro is furious, because at this point he is under threat from the revenge of Egidio Porcu, brother of Alvaro and the last surviving adult male of the family. The family risks to remain with no males. He proposes then an exchange to Efisio: he will return to Sardinia to kill Egidio Porcu, and Don Leandro, in return, will witness his innocence in the murder of Uncle Agostino. Efisio agrees, but he is incapable of killing, and, when he is back in Sardinia decides to meet his wife only. At the same time Egidio Porcu is killed by an unknown hand.

At Efisio's trial, he is declared not guilty and then he can return in his village as a free man, but he finds a hostile atmosphere. Dominicangela, in fact, is pregnant and everyone is questioning the identity of the father. For Efisio there is then a tragic dilemma: to reveal that he is the father of the about to be born (and confess his presence in the village on the day of the murder of Egidio Porcu) or undergo social stigmatization.

When Don Leandro turns his back on him, Efisio turns to Don Liberato, who makes him understanding the name of the true assassin of Egidio Porcu. Efisio then attempts to involve a young carabiniere to make him witness the man's confession, and, during a country party, tries to tease him. But precisely at the crucial moment, the assassin of Egidio Porcu expresses itself in Sardinian. The carabiniere does not understand a word, and immediately after, the murder is killed by a rival. Efisio has no option than killing the innocent Domenicangela and end up in jail. Only in this way it is possible to end this endless conflict between families and regain the respect of the people of his village.

The film ends with the sad imprisonment of Efisio with the people of his village paying him the so sought-after respect.

Cast
 Ugo Tognazzi - Efisio Mulas
 Nicoletta Machiavelli - Domenicangela Piras
 Bernard Blier - Don Leandro Sanna
 Franco Fabrizi - Egidio Porcu
 Lucien Raimbourg - Liberato Piras
 Tecla Scarano - Efisio's mother
 Leopoldo Trieste - Advocate Mazzullo
 Sandro Merli - Marechal Vaccaro
 Franco Bucceri - A policeman
 Franco Gulà - Agostino Sanna
 Armando Malpede - Sergeant Capuano
 Giuseppe Grasso - Antonio Piras

External links

1965 films
Films set in Italy
French comedy-drama films
Italian comedy-drama films
1960s Italian-language films
1965 comedy-drama films
Commedia all'italiana
Films directed by Luigi Zampa
Films shot in Sardinia
Films scored by Luis Bacalov
Films set in Sardinia
1960s Italian films
1960s French films

A Question of Honour (film)


Peter Meyer Kass (April 28, 1923 – 4 August 2008) was an American theater actor and director who became a well-known teacher. His mentor Clifford Odets chose Kass to direct and develop The Country Girl before it opened on Broadway. Kass played the part of Larry.

Kass later directed four Broadway plays, including a   short-lived revival of Odets' Night Music and  Lorraine Hansberry's The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window, and he directed for television on Assignment: Manhunt and for films, including Time of the Heathen.

Kass taught at Boston University in the 1950s, then at New York University in the 1960s and 1970s before becoming a private instructor. Students included Olympia Dukakis, Faye Dunaway, John Cazale, Maureen Stapleton and Val Kilmer.

Kass was born in Brooklyn and was a lifelong resident. He died of heart failure in Manhattan.

References

External links

American male actors
1923 births
2008 deaths
Male actors from Brooklyn
Boston University faculty
New York University faculty

Peter Kass


A cuboid is a 3D shape. cuboids have six faces. These faces form a convex polyhedron. The faces of the cuboid can be any quadrilateral. The most common cuboids are the rectangular cuboids. They are made from 6 rectangles that are placed at right angles to each other. A cuboid that uses all square faces is a cube. The cuboid can also be called a right rectangular prism.

Properties
The properties of a cuboid include:
 cuboids have 12 edges
 They have 8 corners or vertices
 They have 6 faces.

The difference between a rectangle and a cuboid is that a rectangle  is a 2D shape and a cuboid is a 3D shape.

A cube is a cuboid where all six faces have the same height and widths. Each face of a cube is a  square.

Where L= length, w= width and h= height:
 Total Surface Area of Cuboid = 2( (L×w) + (w×h) + (h×L) )
 Volume of Cuboid = L * w * h

Polyhedra

Cuboid


The Soo Yuen Benevolent Association () was founded in 1846, in the 26th year of the Ching dynasty reign of Daoguang in Shuikou town in Kaiping County. Reflecting the common origin of the Louie, Fong, and Kwong/Fong(hoisanese) families, the Soo Yuen Benevolent Association is made up of members from the three families. The association chairmanship rotates between the three families. In 1880, the main association headquarters were founded in San Francisco and the association building was built in 1886. Today, Soo Yuen Benevolent Association halls are located in over a dozen cities in the United States and Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Singapore, Philippines, Malaysia, Fiji, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, Myanmar(Burma), Hoisan (Toishan, Taishan) China, and Hong Kong. Wherever there are Chinese communities with the Louie/Lui/Lei (雷), Fong/Fang (方), and Fong/Kwong/Kuang (鄺) surnames, Soo Yuen Benevolent Association halls have been established. The organization publishes a monthly journal and commits the majority of its resources to college scholarships, elderly support payments and financial aid programs to members of the three families.

External links
 Soo Yuen Benevolent Association Official Website
 Soo Yuen Benevolent Association of New England Website
 Soo Yuen Benevolent Association of Chicago Website

Chinatown, San Francisco
Chinese-American organizations
Organizations based in San Francisco
1880 establishments in California

Soo Yuen Benevolent Association


Rear Admiral Linda Jeanne Bird, SC, USN, was the first woman in the United States Navy Supply Corps promoted to flag rank.

Early life
Bird is a native of Auburn, Washington.

Education
Bird graduated from Green River Community College, Auburn, Washington, in 1971, then transferred to Western Washington University, where she earned a degree in secondary education in 1973.  She earned a master's degree in inventory management in 1984 from the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California.

Navy career
Bird received her navy commission through the Naval Officer Candidate School in June 1974. Her sea duty tours include stores officer and stock control officer of , and supply officer of .

Her shore duty tours include assignments as director of the Navy Supply Corps Museum; food service and stock control officer of Naval Air Station, Brunswick, Maine; material and logistics officer of U.S. Navy Public Works Center, Yokosuka, Japan; Aviation Consolidated Allowance List (AVCAL) and Consolidated Shipboard Allowance List (COSAL) inventory and financial manager, Commander Naval Air Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet; director of the Systems Integrity Department, Naval Supply Center, Norfolk, Virginia; and head of the Supply Policy Branch in the Supply Programs and Policy Division (N41), Office of the Chief of Naval Operations.

In 1994, Bird joined the Naval Supply Systems Command (NAVSUP) as director of Navy Defense Business Operations Fund Division, and then served as director of Supply Corps Assignment/Placement Branch, Office of Supply Corps Personnel, Bureau of Naval Personnel. In March 1998, she returned to NAVSUP Headquarters as deputy commander for financial management/comptroller. In 1999, Bird was promoted to rear admiral (lower half) as the first female flag officer in the Supply Corps and was assigned as the vice commander of Naval Supply Systems Command.  Bird served as director of Supply, Ordnance and Logistics Operations Division, N41, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., and was nominated for the rank of rear admiral (upper half) in July 2002.

Bird became commander of Defense Supply Center, Columbus in Columbus, Ohio, on July 18, 2003.  As DSCC's commander, oversaw an operating budget of $2.8 billion. She also directed the functions of 2,300 associates involved in purchasing materiel, monitoring inventory levels, maintaining technical data and assuring quality conformance of more than 1.6 million spare and repair parts used by over 24,000 military units and civilian federal agencies.

Bird retired November 1, 2005, after more than 31 years of service.

Awards and decorations
Her personal awards include the Defense Superior Service Medal, Legion of Merit, Meritorious Service Medal, Navy Achievement Medal, and various campaign and unit awards.

  Defense Superior Service Medal
  Legion of Merit
  Meritorious Service Medal
  Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal

See also
Women in the United States Navy

References

1951 births
Living people
People from Auburn, Washington
Western Washington University alumni
Naval Postgraduate School alumni
Female admirals of the United States Navy
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
21st-century American women

Linda J. Bird


Shroud usually refers to an item, such as a cloth, that covers or protects some other object. The term is most often used in reference to burial sheets, mound shroud, grave clothes, winding-cloths or winding-sheets, such as the famous Shroud of Turin, tachrichim (burial shrouds) that Jews are dressed in for burial, or the white cotton kaffan sheets Muslims are wrapped in for burial.

A traditional Orthodox Jewish shroud consists of a tunic; a hood; pants that are extra-long and sewn shut at the bottom, so that separate foot coverings are not required; and a belt, which is tied in a knot shaped like the Hebrew letter shin, mnemonic of one of God's names, Shaddai. Traditionally, mound shrouds are made of white cotton, wool or linen, though any material can be used so long as it is made of natural fibre. Intermixture of two or more such fibres is forbidden, a proscription that ultimately derives from the Torah, viz., Deut. 22:11. An especially pious Jewish man may next be enwrapped in either his kittel or his tallit, one tassel of which is defaced to render the garment ritually unfit, symbolizing the fact that the decedent is free from the stringent requirements of the 613 mitzvot (commandments). The shrouded body is wrapped in a winding sheet, termed a sovev in Hebrew (a cognate of svivon, the spinning Hanukkah toy that is familiar under its Yiddish name, dreidel), before being placed either in a plain coffin of soft wood (where required by governing health codes) or directly in the earth.

The Early Christian Church also strongly encouraged the use of winding-sheets, except for monarchs and bishops. The rich were wrapped in cerecloths, which are fine fabrics soaked or painted in wax to hold the fabric close to the flesh. Early Christian shrouds incorporated a cloth, the sudarium, that covered the face, as depicted in traditional artistic representations of the entombed Jesus or his friend, Lazarus (John 11, q.v.). An account of the opening of the coffin of Edward I says that the "innermost covering seems to have been a very fine linen cerecloth, dressed close to every part of the body". The use of burial shrouds was general until at least the Renaissance – for much of history, a new set of clothing was an expensive purchase, so preparing the deceased in this manner ensured that a good set of clothes could be retained for further use by the family.
In Europe in the Middle Ages, coarse linen shrouds were used to bury most poor without a coffin. In poetry shrouds have been described as of sable, and they were later embroidered in black, becoming more elaborate and cut like shirts or shifts.

Orthodox Christians still use a burial shroud, usually decorated with a cross and the Trisagion. The special shroud that is used during the Orthodox Holy Week services is called an Epitaphios. Some Christians also use the burial shroud, particularly the Eastern Catholics and traditionalist Roman Catholics, among others.

Muslims as well use burial shrouds that are made of white cotton or linen.  The Burying in Woollen Acts 1666–80 in England were meant to support the production of woollen cloth.

See also
 Sudarium of Oviedo
 Islamic funeral

References

External links

Eastern Christian liturgical objects
Catholic liturgy
Death customs
Religious practices

Shroud


Sattainathar temple, Sirkazhi (also called Brahmapureeswarar temple and Thoniappar temple) is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Sirkali, Tamil Nadu, India.  The temple is incarnated by the hymns of Thevaram and is classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam. It is an ancient temple complex with three different Shiva shrines in three stories.

The Bhramapureeswarar shrine is housed in the lower level. Brahmapureeswarar is accompanied by Ambal Sthira sundari/Thiripurasundari or Thirunilainayaki in Tamil. The second-level houses Periyanakar with Periyanayaki on a Thoni, hence the name Thoniappar. Sattainathar/Vatukanathar is also housed here. There are 22 water bodies associated with this shrine. Three different forms of Shiva are worshipped here, the Shivalingam (Bhrammapureeswarar), a colossal image of Uma Maheswarar (Toniappar) at the medium level, and Bhairavar (Sattanathar) at the upper level. The temple is associated with the legend of child Sambandar who is believed to have been fed by Parvathi on the banks of the temple tank. The child later went on to compose Tevaram, a Saiva canonic literature on Shiva and became one of the most revered Saiva poets in South India.

Etymology and origin

In ancient times, this town had twelve different names, including Brahmapuram, Venupuram, Thonipuram, Kazhumalam, Pugali, Sirkazhiswaram and Shri Kali. As per popular belief, Kali is believed to have worshipped the presiding deity, Brahmapureeswarar, and thus the place came to be known as Srikalipuram, which went on to become Shiyali.

According to Tamil legend, during one of the biggest deluges that submerged the planet earth, Tamil god Shiva is said to have carried the 64 arts on a raft (called Thoni in Tamil). The presiding deity in the temple, Shiva, is thus called "Thoniappar" (the one who carried the raft) and the region is called "Thonipuram". The Hindu god Brahma is believed to have worshiped Shiva here, giving the name "Bhramapureeswarar" (the one worshipped by Brahma) and so the region is also referred as "Bhramapureeswaram". The town is thus called "Sattainathapuram", which in modern times, is a suburb within Sirkazhi. The town was known as "Kalumalam" during the early Chola period. Thirugnanasambandar, the seventh century Saiva nayanar, as an infant is believed to have been fed with the milk of wisdom by the divine mother Parvati on the banks of the temple tank. The child Sambandar started singing the anthology of Tevaram hymns from then on, commencing with "Todudaiya Seviyan". Sambandar refers the town as "Kazhi" in his verses. It was called Shiyali during British rule, and after Independence, it was renamed "Sirkazhi".

The temple is maintained by Dharmapuram Adheenam, a Saivite mutt or monastic institution located in the town of Mayiladuthurai, India. As of 1987, there were a total of 27 Shiva temples under the control of the adheenam.

Architecture

The temple has a vast Prakarams(courtyards) with high walls of enclosure. There are two sets of seven-tiered gopurams on the outer walls of the enclosure. The porch on the entrance from the second to the first prakara date back to 10th to 11th century. The original shrine during the period of the Nayanmars included the shrine of Bhrammapureeswarar, on the southern bund of the temple tank; the Tonniappar shrine on a mound west of the central shrine, and the Sattanathar shrine in the second floor reached from the southern praharam(outer courtyard) of the Toniappar shrine by a flight of steps. The enlargement of the original temple happened during the period of Kulothunga Chola I, Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga Chola II and Kulothunga Chola III (as in Chidambaram - 11th through the 13th centuries). The temple is a holy site for Hinduism and thousands of devotees come to pay homage to the deities. The image of Parvathi in the form of Sthira Sundari is located in the basement in a separate shrine.

Tirugnana Sambandar

Sambandar was a young Saiva poet-saint of Tamil Nadu who lived around the 7th century CE. He is one of the most prominent of the sixty-three Nayanars, Tamil Saiva bhakti saints who lived between the sixth and the tenth centuries CE. Sambandar's hymns to Shiva were later collected to form the first three volumes of the Tirumurai, the religious canon of Tamil Saiva Siddhanta. He was a contemporary of Appar, another Saiva saint.

Sambandar was born to Sivapada Hrudiyar and his wife Bhagavathiar who lived in Sirkazhi in Tamil Nadu. They were a saivite Brahmins who at that point of time professed Rig veda. The group of servitors wore tuft on top of their head with a tilt towards right, as seen in all murals and statues of sambandar and also finds mention in the related hagiographies of that period and also of the later periods like that of arunagirinathar. According to legend, when Sambandar was three years old his parents took him to the Shiva temple where Shiva and his consort Parvati appeared before the child. The goddess nursed him at her breast. His father saw drops of milk on the child's mouth and asked who had fed him, whereupon the boy pointed to the sky and responded with the song Todudaya Seviyan - the first verse of the Tevaram. At his investiture with the sacred thread, at the age of seven, he is said to have expounded the Vedas with clarity. Sri Sankaracharya who lived in the subsequent century has also referred to sambandar in one hymn of Soundarya Lahari, praising him as a gifted Tamil child (Tamil sisu) who was fed with milk of divine gnosis by goddess Uma.

Festivals

The temple priests perform the pooja (rituals) during festivals and on a daily basis. Like other Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu, the priests belong to the Shaivaite community, a Brahmin sub-caste. The temple rituals are performed six times a day; Ushathkalam at 5:30 a.m., Kalasanthi at 8:00 a.m., Uchikalam at 10:00 a.m., Sayarakshai at 6:00 p.m., Irandamkalam at 8:00 p.m. and Ardha Jamam at 10:00 p.m. Each ritual comprises four steps: abhisheka (sacred bath), alangaram (decoration), neivethanam (food offering) and deepa aradanai (waving of lamps) for all the three Shiva shrines. The worship is held amidst music with nagaswaram (pipe instrument) and tavil (percussion instrument), religious instructions in the Vedas  read by priests and prostration by worshippers in front of the temple mast. There are weekly rituals like  and , fortnightly rituals like pradosham and monthly festivals like amavasai (new moon day), kiruthigai, pournami (full moon day) and sathurthi.

Religious importance
The temple is mentioned in the Saiva canonical work, Tevaram, by Thirugnana Sambanthar, Tirunavukkarasar and Sundarar, the foremost Saivite saints of 7th–eighth century CE and is classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam. There is a separate shrine for Sambandar celebrating the miracle of Parvathi suckling the child Sambandar when he was crying for milk. Shiva is worshipped in three different forms; the Shivalingam (Bhrammapureeswarar), Uma Maheswarar (Toniappar) at the middle level, and Bhairavar (Sattanathar) at the upper level. The original temple was enlarged during the period of Kulothunga Chola I, Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga Chola II and Kulothunga Chola III (as in Chidambaram – 11th through the 13th centuries). Every year in the Tamil month of Chithirai (April – May), a 10-day festival is celebrated.

According to a Hindu legend, Mahalingaswamy at Thiruvidaimarudur is the centre of all Shiva temples in the region and the Saptha Vigraha moorthis (seven prime consorts in all Shiva temples) are located at seven cardinal points around the temple, located in various parts of the state. The seven deities are Nataraja in Chidambaram Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram, Chandikeswarar temple at Tirucheingalur, Vinayagar in Vellai Vinayagar Temple at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Muruga in Swamimalai Murugan Temple at Swamimalai, Bhairava in Sattainathar Temple at Sirkali, Navagraha in Sooriyanar Temple at Suryanar Kovil and Dakshinamoorthy in Apatsahayesvarar Temple, Alangudi at Alangudi, Papanasam taluk.

Thoniappar, enshrined in Grivakostha in Thonimalai, is an aspect of Bhairava. The Ashtabhairavas (the eight Bhairava) are housed in the Valampuri mandapa in the temple. The images along with the inscriptions indicate Bhairava worship from the late 16th century. The eight Bhairavas in the group include Asitanga, Visalaksa, Marrtanda, Modakapriya, Svachanda, Vignasantusa, Khechera and Sarcaracara. The images are sported with trident, hand-drum, noose and sword.

Arunagirinathar was a 15th-century Tamil poet born in Tiruvannamalai. He spent his early years as a rioter and seducer of women. After ruining his health, he tried to commit suicide by throwing himself from the northern tower of Annamalaiyar Temple, but was saved by the grace of god Murugan. He became a staunch devotee and composed Tamil hymns glorifying Murugan, the most notable being Thirupugazh. Arunagirinathar visited various Murugan temples and on his way back to Tiruvannamalai, visited the temple and sung praises about Murugan in the temple.

Mayaka Kshetras are the places where Lord Brahma was reduced to ashes by Lord Shiva. Five such places are - Kasi (Varanasi) Mayanam, Kacchi (Kanchipuram) Mayanam; Kazhi (Sirkazhi) Mayanam, Nallur (Thirunallur) Mayanam and Kadavur (Thirukadaiyur) Mayanam.

Notes

References

 .

External links

Shiva temples in Mayiladuthurai district
Padal Petra Stalam

Sattainathar Temple, Sirkazhi


André Masséna, Prince of Essling, Duke of Rivoli (born Andrea Massena; 6 May 1758 – 4 April 1817), was a French military commander during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original 18 Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon I. He was nicknamed  (the Dear Child of Victory). He is often considered as one of the greatest generals of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

Although many of Napoleon's generals were trained at the finest French and European military academies, Masséna was among those who achieved greatness without the benefit of formal education. While those of noble rank acquired their education and promotions as a matter of privilege, Masséna rose from humble origins to such prominence that Napoleon referred to him as "the greatest name of my military empire".

In addition to his battlefield successes, Masséna's leadership aided the careers of many. A majority of the French marshals of the time served under his command at some point.

He was given the title Prince of Essling in 1809.

Early life
André Masséna was born in Nice, then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, on 6 May 1758. He was the son of shopkeeper Jules Masséna (Giulio Massena), who became a wine merchant, and his wife Marguerite Fabre. André's father died in 1764, and after his mother remarried, he was sent to live with his father's relatives.

At the age of thirteen, Masséna became a cabin boy aboard a merchant ship. He sailed in the Mediterranean Sea and on two extended voyages to French Guiana. In 1775, after four years at sea, he returned to Nice and enlisted in the French Royal Army as a private in the Royal Italian Regiment. By the time he left the service in 1789, Masséna had risen to the rank of warrant officer, the highest rank a non-nobleman could achieve. On 10 August that year, he married Anne Marie Rosalie Lamare, daughter of a surgeon in Antibes; they lived together in her home town. After a brief stint as a smuggler in Northern Italy, he rejoined the army in 1791 and was made an officer, rising to the rank of colonel by 1792.

Revolutionary Wars

When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in April 1792, Masséna and his battalion were deployed to Piedmont along the Italian border. Masséna prepared his battalion for battle in the hope that it would be incorporated into the regular army. That October, a month after the occupation of Nice, the battalion was one of four volunteer battalions that became part of the French .

Masséna distinguished himself in battle and was quickly promoted, attaining the rank of  (brigadier general) in August 1793 and  (divisional general) that December. He was prominent in every campaign on the Italian Riviera over the next two years, including the attack on Saorgio in 1794 and the Battle of Loano in 1795. When Napoleon Bonaparte took command in March 1796, Masséna was commanding the two divisions of the army's advance guard.

During the campaign in Italy from 1796-1797, Masséna became one of Bonaparte's most important subordinates. He played a significant role in the battles of Montenotte and Dego in the spring, and took a leading role at the battles of Lonato, Castiglione, Bassano, Caldiero and Arcola in the summer and fall, as well as the Battle of Rivoli and the fall of Mantua that winter.

When an Austrian relief army was sent to aid Mantua in January 1797, the French forces were overrun near Rivoli, while other enemy columns advanced on Verona and Mantua. At 5:00 P.M. on 13 January, Masséna was ordered to march from Verona to Rivoli, fifteen miles away. Following a forced night march across the snow-covered roads, the first of his troops reached the battlefield at 6:00 A.M. Bonaparte deployed them on the left flank when the battle began. They were shifted to strengthen the sagging center and then deployed to crush an Austrian flanking maneuver. Masséna's troops played a decisive role in the victory. The next day, with very little rest, Masséna and his troops marched 39 miles in 24 hours to intercept a second Austrian army advancing to relieve Mantua. At La Favorita, he closed the pincer on the Austrian army, forcing their surrender. In the space of five days, Masséna's division played a major role in an operation that left over 35,000 Austrian soldiers either dead or captured. Two weeks later, the 30,000-man garrison at Mantua surrendered. With his final victory complete, Napoleon praised Masséna with the name . The president of the Directory in Paris, Jean-François Rewbell, was also congratulatory: "The Executive Directory congratulates you, citizen general, for the new success that you have obtained against the enemies of the Republic. The brave division that you command has covered itself with glory in the three consecutive days that forced Mantua to capitulate, and the Directory is obliged to regard you among the most capable and useful generals of the Republic."

In 1799, Masséna was granted an important command in Switzerland, replacing General Charles Edward Jennings. As Russian reinforcements marched to support the Austrian armies in Italy and Switzerland, the Directory consolidated the remnants of the French armies under Masséna's command. With a force totaling approximately 90,000 men, Masséna was ordered to defend the entire frontier. He was defeated by Archduke Charles at the First Battle of Zurich over 4-6th June. After the Austrian night attack over 4/5 June, both sides rested on 5 June, but when the Austrians resumed their attack on 6 June, Masséna had abandoned the city and taken up positions in the surrounding mountains. Becoming aware of the advance of Russian Field Marshal  Alexander Suvorov toward St. Gotthard in September, Masséna had used his troops in the south of Switzerland: General Claude Jacques Lecourbe's division took the Gotthard Pass, which required Suvorov to retake it on 24 September, delaying his advance north towards Zurich. Suvorov then faced General Jean-de-Dieu Soult's French division blocking the route at Altdorf and then took the Teufelsbrücke in the Schöllenen Gorge. The same day, 25 September, Masséna defeated the Austro-Russian force under General Alexander Korsakov at the Second Battle of Zurich. Unable to break through the French lines and aware of Korsakov's disastrous defeat, the Russian general turned east through the high and difficult Pragel Pass to Glarus. Bagration's advance guard threw back the French under Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor, while Rosenberg's rear guard held off Masséna, before rejoining Suvorov at Glarus on 4 October. So, Suvarov decided that to evade the French forces awaiting him, he would march into the 9,000 foot high mountains of the Panikh range. After a difficult march, the Russian army reached Ilanz on October 8 and then crossed the treacherous Panix Pass, abandoning his baggage and artillery.  This, among other events, led to Russia's withdrawal from the Second Coalition.

In 1800, Masséna was besieged at Genoa in Italy by the Austrians, while Bonaparte marched with the Army of the Reserve to Milan. By the end of May, plague had spread throughout Genoa and the civilian population was in revolt. Negotiations were begun for the exchange of prisoners early in June, but the citizens and some of the garrison clamored for capitulation. Unknown to Masséna, the Austrian general Peter Ott had been ordered to raise the siege because Bonaparte had crossed Great St Bernard Pass and was now threatening the main Austrian army. Describing the situation at Genoa, Ott requested and received permission to continue the siege. On 4 June, with one day's rations remaining, Masséna's negotiator finally agreed to evacuate the French Army from Genoa. However, "if the word capitulation was mentioned or written", Masséna threatened to end all negotiations. Two days later, a few of the French left the city by sea, but the bulk of Masséna's starving and exhausted troops marched out of the city with all their equipment and followed the road along the coast toward France, ending the siege of almost 60 days. The siege was an astonishing demonstration of tenacity, ingenuity, courage, and daring that garnered additional laurels for Masséna and placed him in a category previously reserved for Bonaparte alone.

By forcing the Austrians to deploy vast forces against him at Genoa, Masséna made it possible for Bonaparte to cross Great St Bernard Pass, surprise the Austrians, and ultimately defeat General Michael von Melas's Austrian army at Marengo before sufficient reinforcements could be transferred from the siege site. Less than three weeks after the evacuation, Bonaparte wrote to Masséna, "I am not able to give you a greater mark of the confidence I have in you than by giving you command of the first army of the Republic Army of Italy." Even the Austrians recognized the significance of Masséna's defense; the Austrian chief of staff declared firmly, "You won the battle, not in front of Alessandria but in front of Genoa." Masséna was made commander of French forces in Italy, though he was later dismissed by Napoleon. Despite the praise, Napoleon also criticized Masséna for capitulating too early in his memoirs, contrasting his actions with those of the Gauls under Vercingetorix when besieged by Julius Caesar in the Battle of Alesia.

Napoleonic Wars

Not until 1804 did Masséna regain Napoleon's trust. That year, he was made a Marshal of the Empire in May. He led an independent army that captured Verona and fought the Austrians at Verona and later, on 30 October 1805, Caldiero. Masséna was given control of operations against the Kingdom of Naples, and commanded the right wing of the Grand Army in Poland in 1807. He was granted his first ducal victory title as Duke of Rivoli on 24 August 1808.

In 1804, he participated in the reorganization of French Freemasonry and became, in November, "grand representative of the grand master of the Supreme Council"; in this capacity, he was one of the negotiators of the concordat established between the Grand Orient de France and the Supreme Council. Under the Empire, he was a member of the Sainte Caroline lodge in Paris. He is also "worshipful of honor" in various Masonic lodges, such as "Les Frères Réunis" in Paris, "La Parfaite Amitié" in Toulon, "L'Étroite Union" in Thouars or "Les Vrais Amis Réunis" in Nice.

In 1808, Masséna was accidentally shot during a hunting expedition with the imperial suite. It is unclear as to whether he was shot by Napoleon himself or by Marshal Louis-Alexandre Berthier, but he lost the use of one eye as a result.

It was not until 1809 that he returned to active service, this time against the forces of the Fifth Coalition. At the beginning of the campaign, Masséna led the IV Corps at the battles of Eckmühl and Ebersberg. Later in the war, when Napoleon tried to cross to the north bank of the Danube at the Battle of Aspern-Essling, Masséna's troops hung onto the village of Aspern through two days of savage fighting. He was rewarded on 31 January 1810 with a second, now princely, victory title, Prince of Essling, for his efforts there and in the Battle of Wagram.

During the Peninsular War, Napoleon appointed Masséna as Commander of the Army of Portugal in 1810. Masséna captured Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida after successful sieges, but suffered a first setback at the hands of the Duke of Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese army at Buçaco on 27 September. He followed the retreating allies to the Lines of Torres Vedras, a scorched earth trap prepared by Wellington in absolute secrecy. After losing 21.000 men of 61.000 in several months of hunger, Masséna was forced to retreat due to lack of food and supplies, see also attrition warfare against Napoleon. Masséna withdrew to the Spanish frontier, allegedly prompting Napoleon to comment, "So, Prince of Essling, you are no longer Masséna." After suffering defeats at the battles of Sabugal and Fuentes de Oñoro, he was replaced by Marshal Auguste de Marmont and did not serve again, becoming a local commander at Marseille.

Retirement

Masséna retained briefly his command after the restoration of King Louis XVIII until he was removed for his background. When Napoleon returned from exile the following year, Masséna took Napoleon's side once again, and was awarded as a Peer of France but remained as a local commander. The day after Napoleon's second abdication on 22 June 1815, he was named head of the National Guard in Paris by the Provisional Government, but was soon replaced upon the return of the Bourbons. He was disinclined to prove his royalist loyalties after the defeat of Napoleon, and was also a member of the court-martial that refused to try Marshal Michel Ney. Masséna died in Paris in 1817 and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, in a tomb he shares with his son-in-law Honoré Charles Reille.

Family
Masséna's wife stayed at their home in Antibes during his campaigns. Their first child, Marie Anne Elisabeth, was born on 8 July 1790, but died only four years later. Their first son Jacques Prosper, born 25 June 1793, inherited his father's title as 2nd Prince of Essling on 3 July 1818. Victoire Thècle was born on 28 September 1794 and married Honoré Charles Reille on 12 September 1814. François Victor, born on 2 April 1799, became 2nd Duke of Rivoli, 3rd Prince of Essling, and married Anne Debelle on 19 April 1823.

Legacy
Masséna is the namesake of one of the Boulevards of the Marshals that circle Paris, having also a bridge named after him.

The village of Massena in New York was settled by French lumbermen in the early 19th century and named in Masséna's honor. Massena, Iowa, also in the United States and in turn named for the community in New York, honors Masséna with a portrait of him in Centennial Park. His birthplace, Nice, is the location of Place Masséna, also named after him. The palatial Museé Masséna in Nice houses memorabilia of Masséna's life but was constructed by his grandson and is named for him.

In literature
 Masséna is mentioned and/or appears in several of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard stories, including How the Brigadier Saved the Army (1902).
 Masséna appears as a minor character in Bernard Cornwell's novels Sharpe's Escape, detailing France's failed attempt to re-invade Portugal in 1810, including the Battle of Bussaco, and Sharpe's Battle, detailing the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro.

See also

 Suvorov's Swiss campaign

References

Bibliography

 Clausewitz, Carl von (2018). Napoleon's 1796 Italian Campaign. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
 Clausewitz, Carl von (2020). Napoleon Absent, Coalition Ascendant: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 1. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
 Clausewitz, Carl von (2021). The Coalition Crumbles, Napoleon Returns: The 1799 Campaign in Italy and Switzerland, Volume 2. Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.

External links

 Heraldry.prg - Napoleonic heraldry
 André Masséna, Prince D'Essling, in the Age of Revolution (1789-1815) by Donald D. Horward for the "Journal of the International Napoleonic Society"

1758 births
1817 deaths
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Dukes of Rivoli
Military governors of Paris
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
French people of Sardinian descent
French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Marshals of France
Marshals of the First French Empire
People from Nice
French Freemasons
Princes of Essling
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe

André Masséna