A penguinarium is a vivarium for penguins intended to simulate aspects of their natural environment.

Penguinariums date back at least to 1968, when the Detroit Zoo opened the first in North America and possibly the world. The Detroit penguinarium was expanded in 2015 with a US$21 million overhaul funded in part by a US$10 million donation, the largest in the zoo's history, from a single donor. In April 2016, the Polk Penguin Conservation Center opened at the Detroit Zoo becoming the world's largest penguinarium. However, the exhibit temporarily closed in 2019 for waterproofing repairs as the penguins were moved back into the 1968 exhibit. The conservation center reopened on February 14, 2022.

As of 2005, the world's second largest penguinarium was located on the Spanish island of Tenerife, where twelve tons of artificial snow were generated daily for the penguins at Loro Parque aquarium.

References

Bird parks
Aquariums
Penguins

Penguinarium


Raffi Boghosian (born March 31, 1990) is an Arabic producer, writer, and television host of Armenian descent. He lives and works in Hollywood, California. Boghosian is the owner of Boghos Entertainment LLC, a Los Angeles-based production company that has produced a variety of shows for the Middle Eastern market. While he produces shows, he is also a writer for Al Arabiya English.

Early life and family
He was born in mousel-iraq to a large, well-known Arabic business family. He and his family moved from iraq to Syria when he was a young child, and the family later moved to Amman, Jordan. Later, Boghosian moved to Los Angeles. His passion for entertainment news began at the early age of 16 while attending Oxford Schools. Shortly into his career, he was voted Most Popular Youth Presenter in the Middle East in 2009. Boghosian earned his Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration, from the University of La Verne.

Career
Boghosian began his career in 2011 as a News Correspondent for Middle East Broadcasting Center, a Dubai-based satellite television network. Here, his stories and interviews were seen by an enormous Arabic-speaking audience. He worked for that network until 2015, when he began conducting interviews with Al Arabiya, an MBC sister company.

Currently, aside from producing shows for the Middle Eastern market, Boghosian is a Hollywood news correspondent for the Middle East Network/Al-Arabiya. His stories and interviews reach a large, worldwide Arabic-speaking audience. In this role, he primarily covers entertainment and celebrity news. During this career, he has the opportunity to interview stars as diverse as Cristiano Ronaldo, David Beckham, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Emma Stone, Al Pacino, Jean Claude van Damme, Steven Spielberg, James Franco, Gerrard Butler, and Larry King, among others.

Memberships
Outside of film and entertainment, Boghosian has been a member of the U.S. Department of State – Foreign Affairs Centers since 2014. He was also awarded the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives press badges. In addition, he is a member of the Los Angeles Press Club and the Motion Picture Association of America.

References

External links

American television journalists
Living people
1990 births
Iraqi emigrants to the United States

Raffi Boghosian


Bone marrow examination refers to the pathologic analysis of samples of bone marrow obtained by bone marrow biopsy (often called trephine biopsy) and bone marrow aspiration. Bone marrow examination is used in the diagnosis of a number of conditions, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, lymphoma, anemia, and pancytopenia.  The bone marrow produces the cellular elements of the blood, including platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. While much information can be gleaned by testing the blood itself (drawn from a vein by phlebotomy), it is sometimes necessary to examine the source of the blood cells in the bone marrow to obtain more information on hematopoiesis; this is the role of bone marrow aspiration and biopsy.

Components of the procedure

Bone marrow samples can be obtained by aspiration and trephine biopsy.  Sometimes, a bone marrow examination will include both an aspirate and a biopsy.  The aspirate yields semi-liquid bone marrow, which can be examined by a pathologist under a light microscope and analyzed by flow cytometry, chromosome analysis, or polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Frequently, a trephine biopsy is also obtained, which yields a narrow, cylindrically shaped solid piece of bone marrow, 2 mm wide and 2 cm long (80 μL), which is examined microscopically (sometimes with the aid of immunohistochemistry) for cellularity and infiltrative processes. An aspiration, using a 20 mL syringe, yields approximately 300 μL of bone marrow. A volume greater than 300 μL is not recommended, since it may dilute the sample with peripheral blood.

Aspiration does not always represent all cells since some such as lymphoma stick to the trabecula, and would thus be missed by a simple aspiration.

Site of procedure

Bone marrow aspiration and trephine biopsy are usually performed on the back of the hipbone, or posterior iliac crest.  An aspirate can also be obtained from the sternum (breastbone).  For the sternal aspirate, the patient lies on their back, with a pillow under the shoulder to raise the chest. A trephine biopsy should never be performed on the sternum, due to the risk of injury to blood vessels, lungs or the heart.  Bone marrow aspiration may also be performed on the tibial (shinbone) site in children up to 2 years of age while spinous process aspiration is frequently done in a lumbar puncture position and on the L3-L4 vertebrae.

Anesthesia is used to reduce surface pain at the spot where the needle is inserted.  Pain may result from the procedure's insult to the marrow, which cannot be anesthetized, as well as short periods of pain from the anesthetic process itself.  The experience is not uniform; different patients report different levels of pain, and some do not report any pain at certain expected points.

Test performance

A bone marrow biopsy may be done in a health care provider's office or in a hospital. Informed consent for the procedure is typically required. The patient is asked to lie on their abdomen (prone position) or on their side (lateral decubitus position). The skin is cleansed, and a local anesthetic such as lidocaine or procaine is injected to numb the area. Patients may also be pretreated with analgesics and/or anti-anxiety medications, although this is not a routine practice.

Typically, the aspirate is performed first. An aspirate needle is inserted through the skin using manual pressure and force until it abuts the bone. Then, with a twisting motion of clinician's hand and wrist, the needle is advanced through the bony cortex (the hard outer layer of the bone) and into the marrow cavity. Once the needle is in the marrow cavity, a syringe is attached and used to aspirate ("suck out") liquid bone marrow. A twisting motion is performed during the aspiration to avoid excess content of blood in the sample, which might be the case if an excessively large sample from one single point is taken. Subsequently, the biopsy is performed if indicated.  A different, larger trephine needle is inserted and anchored in the bony cortex. The needle is then advanced with a twisting motion and rotated to obtain a solid piece of bone marrow. This piece is then removed along with the needle. The entire procedure, once preparation is complete, typically takes 10–15 minutes.

If several samples are taken, the needle is removed between the samples to avoid blood coagulation.

After the procedure is complete, the patient is typically asked to lie flat for 5–10 minutes to provide pressure over the procedure site. After that, assuming no bleeding is observed, the patient can get up and go about their normal activities. Paracetamol (aka acetaminophen) or other simple analgesics can be used to ease soreness, which is common for 2–3 days after the procedure. Any worsening pain, redness, fever, bleeding or swelling may suggest a complication. Patients are also advised to avoid washing the procedure site for at least 24 hours after the procedure is completed.

Contraindications

There are few contraindications to bone marrow examination. It is important to note that thrombocytopenia or bleeding disorders are not contraindications as long as the procedure is performed by a skilled clinician. Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy can be safely performed even in the setting of extreme thrombocytopenia (low platelet count). If there is a skin or soft tissue infection over the hip, a different site should be chosen for bone marrow examination.

Complications

While mild soreness lasting 12–24 hours is common after a bone marrow examination, serious complications are extremely rare. In a large review, an estimated 55,000 bone marrow examinations were performed, with 26 serious adverse events (0.05%), including one fatality. The same author collected data on over 19,000 bone marrow examinations performed in the United Kingdom in 2003, and found 16 adverse events (0.08% of total procedures), the most common of which was bleeding. In this report, complications, while rare, were serious in individual cases.

Reference ranges for white blood cells in bone marrow

See also
 Bone biopsy
 Biopsy
 Fine-needle aspiration

References

External links
 MedlinePlus: Bone marrow biopsy
 eMedicine: Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy

Medical tests
Hematology
Biopsy

Bone marrow examination


The Magpie's Nest is an English fairy tale collected by Joseph Jacobs in English Fairy Tales.

Synopsis
All the birds came to the magpie, because it was the wisest, and asked it to teach them how to build nests.  The magpie started to demonstrate, but each time she did something, another bird concluded that was all there was to it.  By the time she was done, only the turtle-dove was left, and it had been paying no attention, but singing "Take two".  The magpie said that one was enough but looked up and saw that every bird had left.  She became angry and would not teach any more.

That is why birds build their nests differently.

External links
The Magpie's Nest

English fairy tales
Fictional birds
Joseph Jacobs

The Magpie's Nest


Alexander Russel (or sometimes Russell) FRSE (1814–1876) was a Scottish newspaper editor, who spent nearly 30 years as the editor of The Scotsman.

Early life
Russel was born on 10 December 1814 in Edinburgh; his father, a solicitor and a liberal in politics, died when he was still very young, whilst his mother, a daughter of John Somerville, clerk in the jury court, survived until Alexander was 50. After attending the classical school kept by the Rev. Ross Kennedy in St. James Square, Edinburgh, he was apprenticed in 1828 to a printer. John Johnstone, later editor of the Inverness Courier, was one of his fellow-apprentices, and his wife Christian Isobel Johnstone, who had a major role in editing Tait's Magazine, gave Russel the opportunity of contributing to that magazine.

In 1839 Russel was appointed editor of the Berwick Advertiser. While at Berwick-on-Tweed he made the acquaintance of David Robertson of Ladykirk, and with him took part in Northumbrian political contests. In 1842 he left Berwick for Cupar in Fife, where he edited the Fife Herald. There he met some influential liberals, including Admiral Wemyss, Edward Ellice the elder and his son.

The Scotsman
After two years in Cupar, Russell became editor of a new journal in Kilmarnock. John Ritchie, one of the founders of the biweekly Edinburgh paper The Scotsman, was impressed with his articles, and invited him to become assistant to Charles Maclaren, the editor of The Scotsman which Russel joined in March 1845. In 1848 he became its editor.

Russel's journalism became identified with The Scotsman. His editorial line supported the Anti-Corn-law League, and drew attention to the destitution of the Highlands. The Scotsmans support contributed to Thomas Babington Macaulay's re-election for Edinburgh in 1852; but in the same year Duncan McLaren successfully sued the paper for libel. From June 1855 The Scotsman became a daily paper. The Reform Club elected Russel an honorary member in 1875, "for distinguished public services".

In 1860 he oversaw the relocation of the Scotsman offices from the Royal Mile to Cockbirn Street in a building designed by Peddie & Kinnear.

Later life
In 1865  he was living at 2 Ramsay Gardens at the top of the Royal Mile.

Russel attended and described the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Serious illness in 1872 compelled him to winter in the south of France.

In 1870 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, his proposer being Archibald Campbell Swinton.

He lived his final years at 9 Chester Street in Edinburgh's fashionable West End.

He died suddenly, of angina pectoris, on 18 July 1876. Russel was noted as a conversationalist as well as a writer, but not as a public speaker, and he declined in 1872 an invitation to become a candidate for the lord-rectorship of Aberdeen.

His monument (a huge red granite obelisk by Stewart McGlashan) forms the centrepiece of the north section of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. His wife, Jessie MacWilliam (1821-1870) lies with him, as does his son, Charles MacLaren Russel, who was drowned in the Ettrick Water on 23 September 1869, aged only nine.

Works
Angling was Russel's favourite recreation, and his articles on it in The Scotsman, the Quarterly Review, and Blackwood's Magazine were collected in The Salmon (1864). An article by him on "Agricultural Complaints", which appeared in the Edinburgh Review for April 1850, was praised by Francis Jeffrey. His son was the cricketer John Russel.

Family
Russel was twice married with children by both marriages. His first wife was Jessie McWilliam. His second wife was a widow, Mrs Helen Evans (née Carter), one of the Edinburgh Seven, with whom he had three children including feminist and writer Helen Archdale.  Another daughter married Francis Dalzell Finlay the younger, proprietor of the Belfast newspaper the Northern Whig. A son, Patrick, was a first-class cricketer.

Publications (as author)

Jumps in Jura (1856)

NotesAttribution'

1814 births
1876 deaths
Journalists from Edinburgh
Scottish newspaper editors
19th-century British journalists
British male journalists
19th-century British male writers

Alexander Russel


Westergellersen is a municipality in the district of Lüneburg, in Lower Saxony, Germany.

Geographical Location

Westergellersen is a village approximately 10 km west of Lueneburg and together with Kirchgellersen, Suedergellersen and Reppenstedt forms the community of "Samtgemeinde Gellersen", whose administrative center is in Reppenstedt.

Coat of arms

The central feature in the coat of arms is a building which still exists in the center of the old part of the village.  The two-storey building was used originally as a storehouse for food and equipment and is the oldest building in the village.  It is not absolutely certain when it was built but 1603 is generally accepted.  In 1902 a nearby main farmhouse was set on fire by lightning.  In order to rebuild the destroyed farmhouse, the storehouse had to be put on rollers and moved to the other side of the street where it stands today.

References

Lüneburg (district)

Westergellersen


The Taijitu (太极图), more commonly referred to as Yin and yang, is a Chinese symbol from a belief system called Taoism. It is also stylized as Yinyang or Yin-Yang. It represents the idea that nature is made up of opposing, yet complementary forces and energy.

Colors
The traditional symbol has two opposite colors, White (Yang) and Black (Yin). Both sides contain the opposite color inside of itself to represent the main idea of dualism. Some examples of these balanced opposites are: Light and Dark, Male and Female, Expansion and Contraction, Up and Down, Sun and Moon, and Movement and Rest.

What they mean
Yin and Yang are interchangeable with one another, so Yang can become Yin. The Yin-Yang duality also applies to how people should live their lives. The belief is that we should not have too much or too little of something, such as food for example. While food is essential to life and survival, eating too much can cause health problems, while too little causes starvation.

Common applications
Alternative and holistic medicine includes the Yin–Yang dualism and has grown in popularity in the western world. The symbol and ideas of oftentimes portrayed in daily life, such as in movies or artwork.

Science includes that ideal of dualism in some areas as well. Magnets require both north and south poles for it to be functional and to move. In chemistry, protons can be represented by Yang and electrons can be represented by Yin.

References

Other websites

 Yin Yang meaning in Chinese educational video.
 Taijitu more deeply explained

Asian culture
Peace
Symbols
Taoism

Yin and yang


A percentage point or percent point is the unit for the arithmetic difference between two percentages. For example, moving up from 40 percent to 44 percent is an increase of 4 percentage points (although it is a 10-percent increase in the quantity being measured, if the total amount remains the same). In written text, the unit (the percentage point) is usually either written out, or abbreviated as pp, p.p., or %pt. to avoid confusion with percentage increase or decrease in the actual quantity. After the first occurrence, some writers abbreviate by using just "point" or "points".

Differences between percentages and percentage points

Consider the following hypothetical example: In 1980, 50 percent of the population smoked, and in 1990 only 40 percent of the population smoked. One can thus say that from 1980 to 1990, the prevalence of smoking decreased by 10 percentage points (or by 10 percent of the population) or by 20 percent when talking about smokers only – percentages indicate proportionate part of a total.

Percentage-point differences are one way to express a risk or probability. Consider a drug that cures a given disease in 70 percent of all cases, while without the drug, the disease heals spontaneously in only 50 percent of cases. The drug reduces absolute risk by 20 percentage points. Alternatives may be more meaningful to consumers of statistics, such as the  reciprocal, also known as the number needed to treat (NNT). In this case, the reciprocal transform of the percentage-point difference would be 1/(20pp) = 1/0.20 = 5. Thus if 5 patients are treated with the drug, one could expect to cure one more patient than would have occurred in the absence of the drug.

For measurements involving percentages as a unit, such as, growth, yield, or ejection fraction, statistical deviations and related descriptive statistics, including the standard deviation and root-mean-square error, the result should be expressed in units of percentage points instead of percentage.  Mistakenly using percentage as the unit for the standard deviation is confusing, since percentage is also used as a unit for the relative standard deviation, i.e. standard deviation divided by average value (coefficient of variation).

Related units
 Percentage (%) 1 part in 100
 Per mille (‰) 1 part in 1,000
Basis point (bp) difference of 1 part in 10,000
Permyriad (‱) 1 part in 10,000
 Per cent mille (pcm) 1 part in 100,000

See also
 Parts-per notation
 Per-unit system
 Percent point function
 Relative change and difference
 Baker percentage

References

Mathematical terminology
Probability assessment
Units of measurement
ru:Процент#Процентный пункт

Percentage point


Emil Clemens Horst (18 March 1867 – 24 May 1940) was a major figure in the cultivation, harvest and sale of hops in the United States. The founder of the Horst Company. He invented the mechanical hops separator in 1909 and was the largest hop grower in the world in 1912.

Early life
Horst emigrated to the United States as a child in 1871 from Tuttlingen, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire. He studied at City College of New York and Cooper Union.

In the mid 1880s he purchased a small plot of land along the Bear River, near Wheatland, California, and began cultivating hops. He soon bought out two other hop growers, Hugh Roddan and Joseph M.C. Jasper.

In 1893, he married Daisy Brown of Sacramento.

Horst hops ranch
By 1898, Horst's operation had grown to the point that ten hop drying kilns ran daily during the harvest and a company town, large enough to have its own post office, was started on the ranch to support the thousands of migrant workers who picked the mature hops each year. Given the significance of Horst's ranch, certain loamy floodplain soils found in the area were later named after him.

Horst married in 1898, and moved to San Francisco in 1902. By 1904 he was supplying Oregon hops to the Guinness Brewery in Ireland. By 1912, Horst owned the largest number of acres of hops under cultivation in the world with offices in Chicago, New York and London. Horst Company was headquartered at 150 Pine Street, San Francisco, California. Prior to World War II, Horst Company was the only exporter of hops to Germany.

Labor conditions
In 1886, labor shortages and threats of a strike by white workers had become serious; hop growers founded the California Hop Growers' Association, and hired Chinese workers. Simultaneously hop labor camp conditions had become "unspeakably bad throughout the state and the pay was equally abysmal" so that by 1899 the Horst Brothers neighboring Durst Ranch's 300 white and a number of Japanese employees quit and went on strike for more pay. To recruit workers Durst launched advertising campaigns not only by making false promises but advertised for at least twice as many workers than they actually needed, with the goal to play one group off against the other, as he admitted before the U.S. Immigration Commission.

Mechanization and unrest
Horst revolutionized the processing of hops with the invention of his mechanical hop separator, patented 1909 in Elk Grove, California. It picked the hops while discarding the bine and leaves. It produced 25 bales of hops in one day, while an experienced worker picked just two bales in a week, allowing him to bypass the hassles of hiring seasonal labor. Horst continuously invented new hop-related machinery (1884–1924) holding at least 14 patents. In the first season that Horst used the new machine, he advertised and kept hop pickers on hand, in case anything went wrong. When the separator proved itself and the pickers were told that there would be no work, the workers went on strike and blocked access to the kilns, halting the harvest.

The harvesting process was further developed in 1939 (US Patent #2139046) by his son-in-law, Edouard Thys, founder of Thys Company which, among other industrial parts, manufactured the parts for the portable hop picking machine.

Hop production peaked between 1912 and 1916 and plummeted thereafter. On 3 August 1913 the Durst Ranch became the site of the Wheatland Hop Riot. Until 2009, when Google released a digitized version of the 1916 Commission on Industrial Relations, the Horstville ranch was often confused with the neighboring Durst Ranch.

A film produced between 1900 and 1910 entitled Horst Hop Ranch, depicts the processing of hops and their shipment to market.

Death
He died 24 May 1940 in his home at 31 Presidio Terrace in San Francisco, and was buried at Olivet Memorial Park in Colma, California. He was survived by his wife Daisy (née Brown) and their 3 children.

References

External links

 Emil Clemens Horst on Google Patents

1867 births
1940 deaths
Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States
People from Tuttlingen
People from San Francisco
Cooper Union alumni
City College of New York alumni

Emil Clemens Horst


The Children's Civilization and Creativity Center is a children's museum in Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt, established in 1986. It was renovated twice in 1996 and in 2012. It is a large museum and cultural center covering 4,000 square meters in a 14 Feddan, 14.3 acre landscape. It was built by the Heliopolis Society for the benefit of all the children of Egypt. This work involved contributions from Egyptian and international museums and institutions.

The museum was designed by experts from Egypt, UK and the USA and built by museum specialists from all over the world who have contributed to the museum to assist children and young adults to learn through hands on exhibits, inter-actives, computer games, and a spectacular dome show exhibit that takes the visitor through the history of science in Egypt.

In May 2012 it won the UK's Museum and Heritage International Award.

Exterior
The entrance to the museum is from Sharia Abo Bakr El Seddik, opposite the tram station at Haroun El Rashid. The entrance is marked by the spectacular Space Pyramidion structure of planet spheres circling a pyramid that celebrates the cultures of Egypt ancient and modern. The visit to the museum begins with a journey down the Nile valley through time and space, it provides a living experience of how the Nile has changed and formed the landscape of modern Egypt. The journey begins at the fountain symbolic of the source of the Nile in Nubia, the rocks are carved with the dinosaurs and basilosaurus that once lived and swam where modern Egypt is today. Their descendants, the Hippo and the Crocodile, greet the visitors, as the journey continues down the Nile path into the early period of the Niles settlement by man, when the river banks were still humid jungle and elephants still wandered beside the Nile. Next the path leads onto the beginning of the drying out of the Nile Valley, savannah formed on either bank, and Lion, giraffe and gazelles appear along the river bank. Continuing, the Nile path reaches the Pharaonic period, the surrounding landscape becomes desert, an oasis forms a small side garden with a desert encampment, while along the Nile, an Egyptian garden with 'T' Basins filled with Lotus and Papyrus celebrates the diverse species cultivated. The path leads on past the medieval Nile village to the modern landscape of Heliopolis where the new Museum building and the cinema is situated. Finally, on passing the Museum the path finally leads to the Delta landscape, with the Alexandria seaside resort, and a covered Roman theatre for outdoor performances. The landscape path passes through a shady garden of mature trees, and both calms and stimulates the imagination of the visitor in anticipation for entering the new learning areas of the museum. The garden has a living displays, of birds, butterflies and fishes, and an outdoor excavation area. A large cafeteria allows for the schools, family groups and visitors to refresh themselves and so stay for the whole day. Outdoor classroom spaces provide for creativity and musical activities, while the Cinema provides a 3D learning films, and conference facilities, as well as book shop and learning materials supplies for the schools.

Interior
The Interior exhibition is divided into four, each on a separate floor connected by the central spiral staircase - the Time Stair - that provides a path from the roof to the basement.
The four themes are;

Where am I from? - explore the archaeology and history of Egypt, explores the pyramids, visits Tutankamen's tomb, and trains the visitor in mummy examination, modern excavation and underwater exploration in Alexandria

Who am I? - discover the development of Egyptian civilisation along the Nile divided into the three seasons of flood, sowing and harvest.

Why is Egypt like it is today? - examine the development of modern Egypt, in a panorama of Egyptian landscapes and their environmental issues, and how modern citizens can contribute today.

What is the future of Egypt? - Looks at the history of science in Egypt, through both a static hands on exhibition that looks at stars, ships, astrolabes, telescopes, airplanes and space travel, and also an immersive 4D experience dome show, in which the pioneers of Egypt appear to tell the history of science and encourage visitors to participate in the future.

The museum is open every day except Friday from 9 - 2.

References

External links

2012 establishments in Egypt
Museums established in 2012
Museums in Cairo
Science museums in Egypt
Children's museums
Child-related organisations in Egypt
Planetaria

Child Museum (Cairo)


Holes is a novel written by Louis Sachar. It was published on August 20, 1998 by Farrar, Straus and Giroux, with cover art by Vladimir Radunsky. It won the Newbery Medal in 1999.

The novel is about Stanley Yelnats, a 15-year old boy who is sent by mistake to a camp for young criminals. At the camp, boys must dig 5 foot wide and 5 foot deep holes in a dried up lake in the middle of a hot desert. Stanley starts to have suspicions that the camp's warden is looking for something. This story is told alongside two others stories: one about Stanley's great-great-grandfather, and another about the area where the camp is located. These side stories include links to the present including some of the characters ancestors.

In 2003, Disney released a movie also titled Holes which was based on this novel. Holes was directed by Andrew Davis and written by the author of Holes himself, Louis Sachar. In 2006, Sachar also published a companion novel called Small Steps, which is about two of the side characters from Holes. The movie is currently found on Disney+.

References

1998 books
20th-century American novels
Newbery Medal winning books
Texas in fiction
American young adult novels

Holes (novel)


Baebius Massa, (Gallia c. AD 40-45 – after 93) was a governor of Hispania Baetica in 92. He was an equestrian procurator of Africa in 70 and was promoted to the Senate by Vespasian as a reward for his part in the suppression of a revolt.

In 91 Baebius Massa was governor of Baetica (western Spain), his last recorded post. Two years later he was accused of plundering the province and maladministration of which he was condemned in 93; but he avoided punishment through the favour of the emperor Domitian, under whom he became a notorious informer.

Pliny the Younger and Herennius Senecio were chosen to prosecute, and Tacitus mentions the trial briefly at the end of the Agricola in such a way as to imply that Baebius Massa was still an active threat even after this case.

References

Roman governors of Hispania Baetica
1st-century Romans
Massa
Ancient Roman delatores

Baebius Massa


Tall: The American Skyscraper and Louis Sullivan is a 2006 documentary film by Manfred Kirchheimer that attempts to tell the story of how Louis Sullivan designed skyscrapers.  The film begins by placing the viewer in late 19th century Chicago just after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The film takes the viewer through the early development of skyscrapers with archival photos, music and narration.  It ends by focusing on the decline of Louis Sullivan.  The documentary met with mixed reviews that generally liked the artistry of the documentary but found the storytelling lacking.

Subject
Louis Sullivan was an architect from Chicago who achieved peak prominence as a designer of early skyscrapers during the end of the 19th century.  In the 1880s, with the development of the mass production of steel, it became possible to construct buildings on steel frames.  Previously, the height of buildings was limited by the load-bearing capacities of the outer walls of buildings.  With the mass production of steel, steel frames for buildings could be erected and buildings could be constructed by hanging them from steel frames, thereby eliminating the need for thick load-bearing outer walls.  This new construction technique allowed the construction of very tall buildings and Louis Sullivan was concerned with how to express this "newness" in design, capturing "good ol' American know-how" in the design of these new buildings.

In an 1896 essay, Sullivan revealed his fundamental law of design: "form ever follows function". For him, this law implied that the design of skyscrapers must express their tallness: "It must be in every inch a proud and soaring thing". The Wainwright Building in downtown St. Louis, Missouri and the Guaranty Building in Buffalo, New York are the most famous examples of his design from this perspective. However, the Panic of 1893 brought the construction of skyscrapers to a near stop and Sullivan met with financial ruin.  He continued to design some small buildings, especially banks but he died nearly penniless in 1924. Tall: The American Skyscraper and Louis Sullivan attempts to tell some of this story.

The opening scene of the film begins with a horse standing on empty street near a warehouse.  This was just after the Great Chicago Fire in 1871 that burned down much of Chicago.  The horse standing alone represents the transition from the pre-modern era to the modern era and its skyscrapers.  Kirchheimer attempts to capture this transition through a montage of images and music.  Kirchheimer also attempts to express the idea of form following function by how he uses the camera with archival photos.  For example, the first panning up shot in the film is used on the Woolworth Tower, which suddenly draws the viewer into the unprecedented immensity of these never before seen tall buildings.  For other archival photos, Kirchheimer uses camera movement and an evocative soundtrack to enhance the narrative.

The latter scenes of the documentary turn to Sullivan's decline, focusing more on him than his architecture.

Other architects discussed
Several other architects are given screen time, mostly in conjunction with Sullivan. Daniel Burnham, though praised for city planning and a few of his buildings, is mostly presented as a contrast—and almost a personal nemesis—to Sullivan in artistry and "careerist" kowtowing to clients. Following Sullivan's strong criticisms, Tall blames Burnham for short-circuiting Chicago architecture's original design sense in favor of East Coast architects' slavishly slapping historic European details all over tall buildings. Frank Lloyd Wright is presented as having reconciled with Sullivan, his first employer, and as being his true heir in brilliantly conceived tall buildings. Numerous other Chicago architects are mentioned, mostly in passing, such as Dankmar Adler, Sullivan's longtime partner until economic conditions forced a breakup; Sullivan proteges George Grant Elmslie and William Gray Purcell; William Le Baron Jenney, designer of the Home Insurance Building, which generally gets credit for its steel-skeleton innovation; John Wellborn Root, Burnham's partner until Root's early death; Holabird & Roche; and later some of the entrants to the Chicago Tribune Tower design competition.

The film gives New York architects and several of their "post-Sullivan" buildings mixed coverage. There is some praise for Burnham's Flatiron Building and Cass Gilbert's Woolworth Building, but Tall generally joins Sullivan and later Wright in decrying NY architecture's historicism as inappropriate for modern America. Art Deco skyscrapers are not highly regarded by the film inasmuch as they don't adhere to Sullivan's principles, and the International Style is wholly panned as technology stripped of art.

Critical reception
Following its DVD released, documentary did not receive many reviews and those it did receive were mixed.  Michael Mooradian Lupro, writing for Film & History thought the film was well done when it focused on architecture, but when it turned to Sullivan as a person towards the end of the film Lupro wrote: "The cinematic techniques that were so successful in rendering the architecture are less effective when the subject shifts to people." In the Chicago Reader, Fred Camper wrote: "The images here of standing and vanished buildings and the many wise quotes from Sullivan are valuable, but the music is intrusive, the narration bland, and the attempts to meld live-action footage and stills awkward."  Kent Williams, concluded the Kirchheimer largely failed to tell Sullivan's story in the film and wrote: "But the artistic touches, of which there are many, start to seem self-indulgent after a while." After its theatrical release, more than a decade later, the film received positive reviews, earning a score of 86 on review aggregator Metacritic.

References

External links
The Cinema Guild

2006 films
2000s English-language films


is a shoot 'em up photography game, and is the 12.5th official game in the Touhou Project by the dōjin circle Team Shanghai Alice. It was first released in the 7th Reitaisai on March 14, 2010. In English speaking circles, the game's title is often shortened to just Double Spoiler, and abbreviated to DS.

Gameplay
Double Spoiler inherited the system of its predecessor Shoot the Bullet, where the player cannot shoot projectiles at enemies; instead, the main character must shoot photographs to clear the screen of bullets and take down bosses. Scores are determined by the aesthetics of each photograph taken, such as colours and bullet density, and the risk taken to take these photos. For each "scene", the player is only given one life to complete the objective — to take a certain number of pictures of the boss without being hit in a limited amount of time.

To take pictures, the film must be fully loaded into the camera (100%). The player can move at three speeds, the normal speed, the focused speed, and a super-focused speed which also allows for high speed film loading. When taking pictures, the player can hold the shoot button to control the viewfinder while the picture frame shrinks — this can be used to zoom in on the boss. During this time, all bullets on screen are slowed down and the player cannot move. If the shoot button is held for too long, the film will get exposed and the player would have to reload the film. The player can also press the shoot button once without holding to take a snapshot around the player character. For every picture taken, the player will need to reload the film from 0% again before he can take another picture. Only photos that contain an image of the boss ("Success" pictures) will be taken into account when tallying up the score.

New to Double Spoiler over Shoot the Bullet is the option to change the orientation of the shot between landscape to portrait. The angle of the shot is automatically adjusted depending on where the player is in relation to the boss.

Characters

Aya Shameimaru: One of the main characters of Double Spoiler and boss of Level Spoiler. As the tengu reporter of the Gensokyo newspaper Bunbunmaru Shinbun, she goes to search for suitable news topics by taking pictures of bullet patterns with her analog camera. No one actually knows what she does with these pictures except herself.
Hatate Himekaidou: Second main character of Double Spoiler and boss of Level Spoiler. Hatate is a modern tengu reporter who makes a newspaper called Kakashi Nenpo. Unlike Aya, she never goes outside for her newspaper research, but instead uses her ability called "spirit photography". After reading Aya's Bunbunmaru Shinbun newspaper, she decided to observe Aya's way of gathering information for her articles.

The subjects: (all bosses from past Windows Touhou Project installments)
Level 1: Minoriko Aki, Shizuha Aki
Level 2: Parsee Mizuhashi, Hina Kagiyama
Level 3: Yamame Kurodani, Kogasa Tatara, Kisume
Level 4: Nitori Kawashiro, Momizi Inubashiri
Level 5: Ichirin Kumoi, Minamitsu Murasa
Level 6: Yugi Hoshiguma, Suika Ibuki
Level 7: Syou Toramaru, Nazrin
Level 8: Rin Kaenbyou, Utsuho Reiuzi
Level 9: Satori Komeiji, Koishi Komeiji
Level 10: Tenshi Hinanai, Iku Nagae
Level 11: Kanako Yasaka, Suwako Moriya
Level 12: Byakuren Hiziri, Nue Houjuu
Level Ex: Reimu Hakurei, Marisa Kirisame, Sanae Kotiya
Level Spoiler: Hatate Himekaidou, Aya Shameimaru

Reception
In the 7th Reitaisai dōjin convention on March 14, 2010 where the game was first released, ten thousand copies were sold by noon.

References

External links
Double Spoiler on ZUN's blog
Double Spoiler on Touhou Wiki

2010 video games
Photography games
Shoot 'em ups
Touhou Project games
Video games developed in Japan
Windows games
Windows-only games
Single-player video games

Double Spoiler


Robert II Archbishop of Rouen (989–1037) and Count of Évreux. He was an important and influential member of the clergy of Normandy. Robert was an advisor to five dukes of Normandy.

Career
Robert was the son of Richard I the Fearless by his wife Gunnora. He was a younger brother of duke Richard II and the uncle of duke Robert I. He was appointed the Archbishop of Rouen by his father . He was also given the countship of Évreux at the same time. Robert had always been involved in Norman politics and was a strong supporter of the Norman dukes. His nephew Richard III had a troubled and short reign of just over a year. When he was succeeded by his brother Robert I, as Duke of Normandy, Archbishop Robert had a great deal of trouble helping the new duke. In 1028 the duke attacked him and then made him leave Normandy. Duke Robert I then laid siege to Hugh d'Ivry, Bishop of Bayeux who also questioned his authority as duke. From exile in France, Archbishop Robert excommunicated his nephew Duke Robert and placed Normandy under an interdict.

The Archbishop and Duke finally came to an agreement. Archbishop Robert lifted the interdict and excommunication; Duke Robert restored the Archbishop to his see. He also gave back his countship of Evereux, and returned all his properties. Duke Robert also returned all the property that he or his vassals had taken from the church. By 1033 Duke Robert was starting a major campaign against his cousin Alan III, Duke of Brittany. He and Alan had been raiding back and forth but finally a peace was negotiated between them by Archbishop Robert, their mutual uncle. In 1035 Duke Robert had decided on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. After making his illegitimate son William (William the Conqueror) his heir he asked the archbishop to watch over and protect his young son. Duke Robert then set out on his pilgrimage to Jerusalem never to return to Normandy. He died on his return journey.

Archbishop Robert kept his promise and ruled Normandy as regent for William until his death in 1037. When Robert died it caused an increase in lawlessness in Normandy. Robert was a witness to at least fifteen ducal charters during his career. He influenced Norman politics for nearly fifty years.

Family
Robert married Herlevea  and they had the following children:

 Richard, Count of Évreux (d. 1067).
 Ralph de Gacé, Sire de Gace. He married Basilla, daughter of Gerard Flaitel.  They had one son, Robert, who died without heirs. Basilla

married secondly Hugh de Gournay.
 William d'Évreux, married Hawise de Echauffour, daughter of Giroie, Lord of Échauffour, and had a daughter, Judith, who married Roger I of Sicily.
 Herleva de Evereux (married Gerard Flaitel)

References

989 births
1037 deaths
French Christians
House of Normandy
Normans
Archbishops

Robert II, Archbishop of Rouen


Tadzio Müller (born 1976) is a German climate and LGBT activist; and political scientist. He works as a speaker on climate justice and international politics at the Center for International Dialogue and Cooperation of the Rosa Luxemburg Foundation.

Life
Müller first studied history and political science at the Ruprecht-Karls University in Heidelberg in 1996. From 1998 to 2000 he studied political science at the University of Massachusetts, Boston, and then from 2001 to 2002 Global Political Economy at the University of Sussex. In 2007, he received his doctorate in international relations and politics from the University of Sussex. He was a lecturer at the University of Kassel .

Müller was involved in protests critical of globalization.  He has been active in the environmental and climate movement since the 2000s. During his doctoral studies he participated in climate camps in England, and  helped to establish them in Germany. From autumn 2007, he was one of the organizers of the first German climate camp in Hamburg and was its spokesman.

Around 2010, he was instrumental in the protests against the transport of nuclear waste in Germany, and was one of the organizers of the "Castor? Gravel!".  He was spokesman for the climate alliance Climate Justice Action in protests against the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Copenhagen, and was arrested.

Tadzio Müller is HIV positive and works publicly against discrimination against people living with HIV. Since 2019, he has been campaigning for solidarity between the LGBT movement and the climate movement.

He warned of the similarities between the early media coverage of HIV / AIDS as a 'gay plague' during recent descriptions of monkeypox.

References

1976 births
Living people
German activists
German LGBT rights activists
German political scientists
People from Frankfurt
Climate activists

Tadzio Müller


Peter A. Freeman is the founding dean of Georgia Tech's College of Computing, a position he held from 1990 to 2002. Freeman was assistant director of the National Science Foundation from 2002 to 2007.

Freeman has been emeritus dean of the Georgia Tech College of Computing since 2007. He is currently the director of the Washington Advisory Group. Freeman is a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the Association for Computing Machinery, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Education
Freeman received a Bachelor of Arts in physics and mathematics from Rice University in 1963, a Master of Arts in mathematics and psychology from the University of Texas at Austin in 1965, and a Ph.D. in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University in 1970.

Early career
After graduation from Carnegie Mellon, Freeman was a researcher, professor, and administrator at the University of California, Irvine's Department of Information & Computer Science from 1971 to 1987, where he focused on artificial intelligence and software engineering research, funded primarily by the National Science Foundation. Freeman is one of the founders of software engineering education, starting a course on the subject in 1974. During the course of his career at UC Irvine, Freeman also administered the undergraduate and graduate programs and served as the department chair.

In 1987, Freeman became the director of the National Science Foundation's Division of Computer and Computation Research; in this post, he managed about $20 million in grants each year, and helped develop the High Performance Computing and Communications program.

For a year after his post at NSF, Freeman served as a Visiting Distinguished Professor at George Mason University (1989–1990) to assist in the creation of a computing program at that university.

Recent career
From 1992 to 1995, Freeman became the chief information officer of the Georgia Institute of Technology, and oversaw their Office of Information Technology (OIT) as it prepared for the 1996 Summer Olympics. At the time, OIT had an annual budget of $10 million.

When Georgia Tech was reorganized in 1988 under the administration of John Patrick Crecine (see History of Georgia Tech), the School of Information and Computer Science was promoted to college status, on the same administrative level as Georgia Tech's mainstay, the College of Engineering. Thus the Georgia Tech College of Computing was created. Freeman was selected as the college's founding dean and oversaw the program's transition and subsequent rapid growth; he would hold this post until 2002. Under his administration, the school added three research centers (including the Georgia Tech Information Security Center), increased research funding from $2 million annually to $10 million annually, hired 55 faculty members, and secured millions in funding for the construction of the College of Computing Building.

From 2002 to 2007 Freeman was held the position of Georgia Tech professor while he served as one of seven assistant directors of the National Science Foundation. At NSF, he led the $1 billion Information Technology Research program, helped form the GENI Project, led the Cyber-enabled Discovery and Innovation Initiative, and led initiatives to revitalize computer science education and attract minorities to computing.

In 2007, Freeman was named Emeritus Dean of the Georgia Tech College of Computing; in this position he consults with current administrators, faculty, and students; gives lectures and writes op-eds promoting issues in computer science.

Since 2007, Freeman has been the director of the Washington Advisory Group, where he advises on policy issues related to secondary education and research in STEM fields to companies, universities, governments, and non-profit organizations.

References

Living people
Rice University alumni
University of Texas at Austin alumni
Carnegie Mellon University alumni
Georgia Tech faculty
University of California, Irvine faculty
United States National Science Foundation officials
George Mason University faculty
American computer scientists
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
1941 births
Chief information officers

Peter A. Freeman


Nynetjer (also known as Ninetjer and Banetjer) is the Horus name of the third pharaoh of the Second Dynasty of Egypt. The length of his reign is unknown. The Turin Canon suggests an improbable reign of 96 years and Egyptian historian Manetho suggested that Nynetjer's reign lasted 47 years. Egyptologists question both statements as misinterpretations or exaggerations. They generally credit Nynetjer with a reign of either 43 years or 45 years. Their estimation is based on the reconstructions of the well known Palermo Stone inscription reporting the years 7–21, the Cairo Stone inscription reporting the years 36–44. According to different authors, Nynetjer ruled Egypt from c. 2850 BC to 2760 BC or later from c. 2760 BC to 2715 BC.

Name sources

Nynetjer is one of the best archaeologically attested kings of the 2nd dynasty. His name appears in inscriptions on stone vessels and clay sealings in large numbers from his tomb at Sakkara. A large number of artifacts bearing his name were also found in the tomb of king Peribsen at Abydos and in the galleries beneath the step pyramid of king Djoser. However, the datings of some inscriptions, especially those made of black ink, caused some problems. Writing experts and archaeologists such as Ilona Regulski point out that the ink inscriptions are of a somewhat later date than the stone and seal inscriptions. She dates the ink markings to the reigns of kings such as Khasekhemwy and Djoser and assumes that the artifacts originated from Abydos. In fact, alabaster vessels and earthen jars with black ink inscriptions with very similar font design showing Nynetjer's name were found in Peribsen's tomb.

Nynetjer's name also appears on a rock inscription near Abu Handal in Lower Nubia. This might represent a clue that Nynetjer sent a military expedition into this region, though the inscription only provides limited information.

Identity
Nynetjer is commonly identified with the Ramesside cartouche names Banetjer from the Abydos King List, Banetjeru from the Sakkara table and Netjer-ren from the Royal Canon of Turin. The Palermo Stone inscription presents an unusual goldname of Nynetjer: Ren-nebu, meaning "golden offspring" or "golden calf". This name appears already on artefacts surviving from Nynetjer's lifetime and Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Toby Wilkinson think that it could be some kind of forerunner of the golden-Horus-name that was established in the royal titulature at the beginning of 3rd dynasty under king Djoser.

Reign

Most of the information known about Nynetjer's reign are found on the main fragments of the Annal Stone of the 5th dynasty. The Palermo Stone lists the following events:

 7th year: Escort of Horus (3rd cattle count)...(rest is missing)
 8th year: Appearance of the king; "stretching the cords" (a ceremony for a foundation) for "Hor-Ren". Flood level: 1.57 metres.
 9th year: Escort of Horus (4th cattle count). Flood level: 1.09 metres
 10th year: Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt; "Race of the Apis bull" (pḥrr Ḥp). Flood level: 1.09 metres.
 11th year: Escort of Horus (5th cattle count). Flood level: 1.98 metres.
 12th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; second celebration of the Sokar feast. Flood level: 1.92 metres.
 13th year: Escort of Horus (6th cattle count). Flood level: 0.52 metres.
 14th year: First celebration of "Hor-seba-pet" (Horus the star in heaven); Destruction/Foundation of the cities of "Schem-Re" (The sun has come) and "Ha" (The northern city)(The reading of this text passage is the subject of much discussion, since the hieroglyphic sign of a hoe as used here can mean either 'Destruction' or 'Foundation'.) Flood level: 2.15 metres.
 15th year: Escort of Horus (7th cattle count). Flood level: 2.15 metres.
 16th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; second "Race of the Apis bull" (pḥrr Ḥp). Flood level: 1.92 metres.
 17th year: Escort of Horus (8th cattle count). Flood level: 2.40 metres.
 18th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; third celebration of the Sokar feast. Flood level: 2.21 metres.
 19th year: Escort of Horus (9th cattle count). Flood level: 2.25 metres.
 20th year: Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt; offering for the king's mother; celebrating of the "Feast of eternity" (a burial ceremony) Flood level 1.92 metres.
 21st year: Escort of Horus (10th cattle count)...(rest is missing).

The Cairo Stone gives the years 36–44. The surface of the stone slab is damaged. Therefore, most of the events are illegible, except for the "birth" (creation) of an Anubis fetish and parts of a "Appearance of the king of Lower- and Upper Egypt".

The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho, over 2000 years later, called Nynetjer Binôthrís and said that during this ruler's reign "women received the right to gain royal dignity", meaning that women were allowed to reign like a king. Egyptologists such as Walter Bryan Emery assume that this reference was an obituary to the queens Meritneith and Neithhotep from the early 1st dynasty, both of whom are believed to have held the Egyptian throne for several years because their sons were too young to rule. During the reign of Nynetjer the yearly event 'Escort of Horus' was replenished by an event called 'cattle count' which was of highest economic importance to the Egyptian realm, because it was the official implementation of the yearly tax collections. This new state sourcing was held for all times from then on. The event 'Escort of Horus' was abandoned at the beginning of 3rd dynasty.

End of reign

Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck, Nicolas Grimal, Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that Nynetjer left a realm that was suffering from an overly complex state administration and that Nynetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to his two sons (or, at least, to two successors) who would rule two separate kingdoms, in the hope that the two rulers could better administer the states.

In contrast, Egyptologists such as Barbara Bell believe that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long lasting drought affected Egypt around this time. Therefore, to address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population, Nynetjer split the realm into two and his successors ruled two independent states until the famine came to an end. Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone, where, in her opinion, the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period. Bell's theory is now refuted by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer, who corrected Bell's calculations. Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at their usual levels at Nynetjer's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom. Bell had overlooked that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo Stone inscriptions only takes into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis, but not elsewhere along the river. Any long-lasting drought is therefore less likely to be an explanation.

It is also unclear if Nynetjer's successor already shared his throne with another ruler, or if the Egyptian state was split at the time of his death. All known king lists such as the Sakkara list, the Turin Canon and the Abydos table list a king Wadjenes as Nynetjer's immediate successor and as the predecessor of a king called Senedj. After Senedj, the kinglists differ from each other regarding successors. While the Sakkara list and the Turin canon mention the kings Neferka(ra) I, Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I as immediate successors, the Abydos list skips them and lists a king Djadjay (identical with king Khasekhemwy). If Egypt was already divided when Senedj gained the throne, kings like Sekhemib and Peribsen would have ruled Upper Egypt, whilst Senedj and his successors, Neferka(ra) and Hudjefa I, would have ruled Lower Egypt. The division of Egypt was brought to an end by king Khasekhemwy.

Tomb

The unusually large mastaba tomb of the high official Ruaben (or Ni-Ruab), mastaba S2302, was once thought to be Nynetjer's tomb, until the true burial site of the king was found. The earlier misinterpretations were caused by the large amount of clay seals with Nynetjer's serekh name that were found in Ruaben's mastaba. Therefore, Mastaba S2302 belongs to Ruaben and Ruaben held his office during the reign of Nynetjer.

Nynetjer's tomb, Gallery Tomb B, lies beneath the cortege passage of the Unas-necropolis at Sakkara and measures 94x106 metres. The entrance ramp leads 25 metres deep into three galleries heading East-West, extending into a maze-like system of doorways, vestibules and corridors. The Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) accomplished five excavations and found that Nynetjer's tomb shows great architectural similarities to the Gallery Tomb A, which is thought to be either Raneb's or Hotepsekhemwy's burial site. This led the DAI to the conclusion that Nynetjer was inspired by his predecessor's tombs. 56 flint knives, 44 razors, 44 further blades and wine and beer jars were found. The southern gallery surprisingly was nearly undisturbed and contained many royal objects surviving from Nynetjer's lifetime, such as more than 50 sealed wine jars, carrying nets, storage boxes made of wood and decorated alabaster bottles. Some of the wine jars originated from the tombs of the late 1st Dynasty. In another gallery the mummy masks and a woman's coffin of the Ramesside era were found. Nynetjer's tomb was therefore partially re-used in later times. The main burial chamber was located at the southern-west end of the tomb, but the whole burial site is highly unstable and is in danger of collapsing.

References

External links
 Francesco Raffaele: Ninetjer (nswt-bity Nynetjer)

29th-century BC Pharaohs
28th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt
3rd-millennium BC births
3rd-millennium BC deaths

Nynetjer


In quantum mechanics, the azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital.  The azimuthal quantum number is the second of a set of quantum numbers that describe the unique quantum state of an electron (the others being the principal quantum number , the magnetic quantum number , and the spin quantum number ).  It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number, subsidiary quantum number, or second quantum number, and is symbolized as  (pronounced ell).

Derivation
Connected with the energy states of the atom's electrons are four quantum numbers: n, ℓ, mℓ, and ms. These specify the complete, unique quantum state of a single electron in an atom, and make up its wavefunction or orbital. When solving to obtain the wave function, the Schrödinger equation reduces to three equations that lead to the first three quantum numbers. Therefore, the equations for the first three quantum numbers are all interrelated. The azimuthal quantum number arose in the solution of the polar part of the wave equation as shown below , reliant on the spherical coordinate system, which generally works best with models having some glimpse of spherical symmetry.

An atomic electron's angular momentum, , is related to its quantum number  by the following equation:

where  is the reduced Planck's constant,  is the orbital angular momentum operator and  is the wavefunction of the electron. The quantum number  is always a non-negative integer: 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.  has no real meaning except in its use as the angular momentum operator. When referring to angular momentum, it is better to simply use the quantum number .

Atomic orbitals have distinctive shapes denoted by letters. In the illustration, the letters s, p, and d (a convention originating in spectroscopy) describe the shape of the atomic orbital.

Their wavefunctions take the form of spherical harmonics, and so are described by Legendre polynomials. The various orbitals relating to different values of ℓ are sometimes called sub-shells, and are referred to by lowercase Latin letters (chosen for historical reasons), as follows:

Each of the different angular momentum states can take 2(2ℓ + 1) electrons. This is because the third quantum number mℓ (which can be thought of loosely as the quantized projection of the angular momentum vector on the z-axis) runs from −ℓ to ℓ in integer units, and so there are 2ℓ + 1 possible states. Each distinct n, ℓ, mℓ orbital can be occupied by two electrons with opposing spins (given by the quantum number ms = ±), giving 2(2ℓ + 1) electrons overall. Orbitals with higher ℓ than given in the table are perfectly permissible, but these values cover all atoms so far discovered.

For a given value of the principal quantum number n, the possible values of ℓ range from 0 to ; therefore, the  shell only possesses an s subshell and can only take 2 electrons, the  shell possesses an s and a p subshell and can take 8 electrons overall, the  shell possesses s, p, and d subshells and has a maximum of 18 electrons, and so on.

A simplistic one-electron model results in energy levels depending on the principal number alone. In more complex atoms these energy levels split for all , placing states of higher ℓ above states of lower ℓ. For example, the energy of 2p is higher than of 2s, 3d occurs higher than 3p, which in turn is above 3s, etc. This effect eventually forms the block structure of the periodic table. No known atom possesses an electron having ℓ higher than three (f) in its ground state.

The angular momentum quantum number, ℓ, governs the number of planar nodes going through the nucleus. A planar node can be described in an electromagnetic wave as the midpoint between crest and trough, which has zero magnitudes. In an s orbital, no nodes go through the nucleus, therefore the corresponding azimuthal quantum number ℓ takes the value of 0. In a p orbital, one node traverses the nucleus and therefore ℓ has the value of 1.  has the value .

Depending on the value of n, there is an angular momentum quantum number ℓ and the following series. The wavelengths listed are for a hydrogen atom:

Addition of quantized angular momenta

Given a quantized total angular momentum  which is the sum of two individual quantized angular momenta  and ,

the quantum number  associated with its magnitude can range from  to  in integer steps
where  and  are quantum numbers corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta.

Total angular momentum of an electron in the atom

Due to the spin–orbit interaction in the atom, the orbital angular momentum no longer commutes with the Hamiltonian, nor does the spin. These therefore change over time. However the total angular momentum  does commute with the one-electron Hamiltonian and so is constant.  is defined through

 being the orbital angular momentum and  the spin. The total angular momentum satisfies the same commutation relations as orbital angular momentum, namely

from which follows

where  stand for , , and .

The quantum numbers describing the system, which are constant over time, are now  and , defined through the action of  on the wavefunction

So that  is related to the norm of the total angular momentum and  to its projection along a specified axis. The j number has a particular importance for relativistic quantum chemistry, often featuring in subscript in electron configuration of superheavy elements.

As with any angular momentum in quantum mechanics, the projection of  along other axes cannot be co-defined with , because they do not commute.

Relation between new and old quantum numbers

 and , together with the parity of the quantum state, replace the three quantum numbers ,  and  (the projection of the spin along the specified axis). The former quantum numbers can be related to the latter.

Furthermore, the eigenvectors of , ,  and parity, which are also eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian, are linear combinations of the eigenvectors of , ,  and .

List of angular momentum quantum numbers
 Intrinsic (or spin) angular momentum quantum number, or simply spin quantum number
 orbital angular momentum quantum number (the subject of this article)
 magnetic quantum number, related to the orbital momentum quantum number
 total angular momentum quantum number

History
The azimuthal quantum number was carried over from the Bohr model of the atom, and was posited by Arnold Sommerfeld. The Bohr model was derived from spectroscopic analysis of the atom in combination with the Rutherford atomic model.  The lowest quantum level was found to have an angular momentum of zero.  Orbits with zero angular momentum were considered as oscillating charges in one dimension and so described as "pendulum" orbits, but were not found in nature. In three-dimensions the orbits become spherical without any nodes crossing the nucleus, similar (in the lowest-energy state) to a skipping rope that oscillates in one large circle.

See also
 Angular momentum operator
 Introduction to quantum mechanics
 Particle in a spherically symmetric potential
 Angular momentum coupling
 Clebsch–Gordan coefficients

References

External links
 Development of the Bohr atom
 Detailed explanation of the Orbital Quantum Number l
 The azimuthal equation explained

Angular momentum
Atomic physics
Quantum numbers
Rotational symmetry

de:Nebenquantenzahl

Azimuthal quantum number


Byzantium () or Byzantion () was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name Byzantion and its Latinization Byzantium continued to be used as a name of Constantinople sporadically and to varying degrees during the thousand year existence of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium was colonized by Greeks from Megara in the 7th century BC and remained primarily Greek-speaking until its conquest by the Ottoman Empire in AD 1453.

Etymology

The etymology of Byzantium is unknown. It has been suggested that the name is of Thracian origin. It may be derived from the Thracian personal name Byzas which means "he-goat". Ancient Greek legend refers to the Greek king Byzas, the leader of the Megarian colonists and founder of the city. The name Lygos for the city, which likely corresponds to an earlier Thracian settlement, is mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History.

Byzántios, plural Byzántioi (, ; adjective the same) referred to Byzantion's inhabitants, also used as an ethnonym for the people of the city and as a family name. In the Middle Ages, Byzántion was also a synecdoche for the eastern Roman Empire. (An ellipsis of ). Byzantinós (, ) denoted an inhabitant of the empire. The Anglicization of Latin Byzantinus yielded "Byzantine", with 15th and 16th century forms including Byzantin, Bizantin(e), Bezantin(e), and Bysantin as well as Byzantian and Bizantian.

The name Byzantius and Byzantinus were applied from the 9th century to gold Byzantine coinage, reflected in the French besant (d'or), Italian bisante, and English besant, byzant, or bezant. The English usage, derived from Old French besan (pl. besanz), and relating to the coin, dates from the 12th century.

Later, the name Byzantium became common in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire, whose capital was Constantinople. As a term for the east Roman state as a whole, Byzantium was introduced by the historian Hieronymus Wolf only in 1555, a century after the last remnants of the empire, whose inhabitants continued to refer to their polity as the Roman Empire (), had ceased to exist.

Other places were historically known as Byzántion (Βυζάντιον) – a city in Libya mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium and another on the western coast of India referred to by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea; in both cases the names were probably adaptations of names in local languages. Faustus of Byzantium was from a city of that name in Cilicia.

History

The origins of Byzantium are shrouded in legend. Tradition says that Byzas of Megara (a city-state near Athens) founded the city when he sailed northeast across the Aegean Sea. The date is usually given as 667 BC on the authority of Herodotus, who states the city was founded 17 years after Chalcedon. Eusebius, who wrote almost 800 years later, dates the founding of Chalcedon to 685/4 BC, but he also dates the founding of Byzantium to 656 BC (or a few years earlier depending on the edition). Herodotus' dating was later favored by Constantine the Great, who celebrated Byzantium's 1000th anniversary between the years 333 and 334.

Byzantium was mainly a trading city due to its location at the Black Sea's only entrance. Byzantium later conquered Chalcedon, across the Bosphorus on the Asiatic side.

The city was taken by the Persian Empire at the time of the Scythian campaign (513 BC) of King Darius I (r. 522–486 BC), and was added to the administrative province of Skudra. Though Achaemenid control of the city was never as stable as compared to other cities in Thrace, it was considered, alongside Sestos, to be one of the foremost Achaemenid ports on the European coast of the Bosphorus and the Hellespont.

Byzantium was besieged by Greek forces during the Peloponnesian War. As part of Sparta's strategy for cutting off grain supplies to Athens during their siege of Athens, Sparta took control of the city in 411 BC, to bring the Athenians into submission. The Athenian military later retook the city in 408 BC, when the Spartans had withdrawn following their settlement.

After siding with Pescennius Niger against the victorious Septimius Severus, the city was besieged by Roman forces and suffered extensive damage in AD 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Septimius Severus, now emperor, and quickly regained its previous prosperity. It was bound to Perinthus during the period of Septimius Severus. The strategic and highly defensible (due to being surrounded by water on almost all sides) location of Byzantium attracted Roman Emperor Constantine I who, in AD 330, refounded it as an imperial residence inspired by Rome itself, known as Nova Roma. Later the city was called Constantinople (Greek Κωνσταντινούπολις, Konstantinoupolis, "city of Constantine").

This combination of imperialism and location would affect Constantinople's role as the nexus between the continents of Europe and Asia. It was a commercial, cultural, and diplomatic centre and for centuries formed the capital of the Byzantine Empire, which decorated the city with numerous monuments, some still standing today. With its strategic position, Constantinople controlled the major trade routes between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the Mediterranean Sea to the Black Sea. On May 29, 1453, the city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks, and again became the capital of a powerful state, the Ottoman Empire. The Turks called the city "Istanbul" (although it was not officially renamed until 1930); the name derives from the Greek phrase "στην πόλη", which means "to the city". To this day it remains the largest and most populous city in Turkey, although Ankara is now the national capital.

Emblem

By the late Hellenistic or early Roman period (1st century BC), the star and crescent motif was associated to some degree with Byzantium; even though it became more widely used as the royal emblem of Mithradates VI Eupator (who for a time incorporated the city into his empire).

Some Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the head of Artemis with bow and quiver, and feature a crescent with what appears to be an eight-rayed star on the reverse.
According to accounts which vary in some of the details, in 340 BC the Byzantines and their allies the Athenians were under siege by the troops of Philip of Macedon. On a particularly dark and wet night Philip attempted a surprise attack but was thwarted by the appearance of a bright light in the sky. This light is occasionally described by subsequent interpreters as a meteor, sometimes as the moon, and some accounts also mention the barking of dogs. However, the original accounts mention only a bright light in the sky, without specifying the moon. To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of Hecate lampadephoros (light-bearer or bringer). This story survived in the works of Hesychius of Miletus, who in all probability lived in the time of Justinian I. His works survive only in fragments preserved in Photius and the tenth century lexicographer Suidas. The tale is also related by Stephanus of Byzantium, and Eustathius.

Devotion to Hecate was especially favored by the Byzantines for her aid in having protected them from the incursions of Philip of Macedon. Her symbols were the crescent and star, and the walls of her city were her provenance. This contradicts claims that only the symbol of the crescent was meant to symbolize Hecate, whereas the star was only added later in order to symbolize the Virgin Mary, as Constantine I is said to have rededicated the city to her in the year 330.

It is unclear precisely how the symbol Hecate/Artemis, one of many goddesses would have been transferred to the city itself, but it seems likely to have been an effect of being credited with the intervention against Philip and the subsequent honors. This was a common process in ancient Greece, as in Athens where the city was named after Athena in honor of such an intervention in time of war.

Cities in the Roman Empire often continued to issue their own coinage. "Of the many themes that were used on local coinage, celestial and astral symbols often appeared, mostly stars or crescent moons." The wide variety of these issues, and the varying explanations for the significance of the star and crescent on Roman coinage precludes their discussion here. It is, however, apparent that by the time of the Romans, coins featuring a star or crescent in some combination were not at all rare.

People
Homerus, tragedian, lived in the early 3rd century BC
Philo, engineer, lived
Epigenes of Byzantium, astrologer, lived in the 3rd–2nd century BC
Aristophanes of Byzantium, a scholar who flourished in Alexandria, 3rd–2nd century BC
Myro, a Hellenistic female poet

See also
 Sarayburnu, which is the geographic location of ancient Byzantium
 Timeline of Istanbul history

Notes

References

Sources

 Harris, Jonathan, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon/Continuum, London, 2007).
Jeffreys, Elizabeth and Michael, and Moffatt, Ann, Byzantine Papers: Proceedings of the First Australian Byzantine Studies Conference, Canberra, 17–19 May 1978 (Australian National University, Canberra, 1979).
 Istanbul Historical Information – Istanbul Informative Guide To The City.  Retrieved January 6, 2005.
 The Useful Information about Istanbul . Retrieved January 6, 2005.
 The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991)
Yeats, William Butler, "Sailing to Byzantium",

External links
 Byzantine & Christian Museum at byzantinemuseum.gr
 Coins of the Byzantine empire at wegm.com
 History of money FAQs at galmarley.com – description of Byzantine monetary system, fifth century BC
 Society for the Promotion of Byzantine Studies at www.byzantium.ac.uk
 Vasilief, A History of the Byzantine Empire, at ellopos.net – hyperlinked with notes and more resources, at Elpenor

Megarian colonies in Thrace
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
667 BC
Populated places established in the 7th century BC

7th-century BC establishments
Members of the Delian League
Achaemenid ports
Greek city-states

Byzantium


A rungu (Swahili, plural marungu) is a wooden throwing club or baton bearing  special symbolism and significance in certain East African tribal cultures. It is especially associated with Maasai morans (male warriors) who have traditionally used it in warfare and for hunting. It is a commonly encountered  tourist souvenir in that part of the world.

Rungus are typically about 45–50 cm (18–20 inches) in length with a long narrow shaft for a handle and heavy knob or ball at the end in the manner of other indigenous cudgels such as the Irish shillelagh or South African knobkierie.

In Maasai culture, the rungu is an important emblem of warrior status for young males. A special one is held by the designated speaker at important tribal gatherings.  Although utilitarian examples are made of simple hard wood, ceremonial rungus may be elaborately carved or made of other materials. Local women are widely employed in sewing decorative beads onto the handles of those made for the tourist trade.

Former Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi was invariably seen at important public functions holding an elegant gold- or silver-tipped ivory rungu. He referred to it as his fimbo ya nyayo (Swahili, "Nyayo's staff- 'Nyayo' was a moniker that refers to President Moi") and would pound it on a table when angry, sometimes shattering the rungu.

References

External links

Primitive weapons
Throwing clubs
African weapons

Rungu (weapon)


The Emigrants is the collective name of a series of four novels by Swedish author Vilhelm Moberg. Written in the mid-twentieth century, they explore the large Swedish emigration to the United States that started about a century before. Many of the first immigrants settled in the Midwest, including the Minnesota Territory:

The Emigrants (Swedish: Utvandrarna), 1949
Unto a Good Land (title in Swedish: Invandrarna 'The Immigrants'), 1952
The Settlers (Swedish: Nybyggarna), 1956
The Last Letter Home (title in Swedish: Sista brevet till Sverige 'The Last Letter to Sweden'), 1959

All the books have been translated into English, in addition to numerous other languages. The novels are generally considered to be among the best works of Swedish literature.

Plot
The first novel describes conditions in Sweden that caused people to become emigrants, and make the long and strenuous journey. A party of assorted people living in the province of Småland, Sweden, is explored as they decide to emigrate to the United States in 1850. (Later novels deal with their journey and settling in the Minnesota Territory.) They are among the first significant wave of immigration to the United States from Sweden.

The novel focuses primarily on Karl Oskar Nilsson and his wife, Kristina Johansdotter, a young married couple who live with their four small children: Anna, Johan, Lill-Märta, and Harald, and Karl Oskar's parents and his rebellious younger brother Robert. The family lives on a small farm at Korpamoen, where the soil is thin and rocky, making growing crops extremely difficult. Robert works for a neighboring farm family who mistreat him. He, together with his friend Arvid, first come across accounts of going to America. When he talks with Karl Oskar about the idea, his brother says that he's also intrigued by pamphlets saying conditions in North America for farmers are much better. Also, they will be able to homestead to acquire land. Kristina, however, is adamantly against emigrating, not wanting to leave her homeland or risk the lives of her children by the journey.

In the winter of 1849, the family has very little food. To celebrate the christening of their youngest child, Harald, Kristina prepares a large bowl of barley porridge and puts it into the basement to cool. Although told to wait, their eldest child, four-year-old Anna, helps herself to so much porridge that she becomes ill. Her parents send for Beata, a healing woman, but she says the girl's stomach has burst and she can't be saved. After Anna dies, Kristina agrees to leave with her husband for America.

As they prepare to emigrate, the young Nilssons are joined by Kristina's uncle and aunt, Danjel and Inga-Lena Andreasson and their four children. Danjel Andreasson is the pastor of a local conventicle of the Radical Pietistic Åkianer sect. He has suffered severe persecution by the established, state-controlled Church of Sweden. Andreasson is seeking religious freedom in the United States. His family is joined by Ulrika of Västergöhl, a former prostitute and member of the conventicle, who wants to start a new life with her illegitimate teenage daughter Elin. Andreasson is paying for passage of Ulrika and Elin, and also for  Robert's friend Arvid, who worked for him as a farmhand. The last member of the party is Jonas Petter, a friend of Karl Oskar, who is fleeing an unhappy marriage.

The party sets off by wagon for the Swedish port city of Karlshamn, on the Baltic Sea, where they board the brig Charlotta, bound for New York City.

Honours
In a 1997 poll by Biblioteket i fokus ("Library in focus"), the series was ranked as the best Swedish book of the 20th century by 27,000 people.
In a 1998 poll by Sveriges television, the series was ranked as the most important Swedish book of all time by 17,000 people.

Recognition
By 2013 the four novels in total had sold nearly two million copies in Sweden and were translated into more than twenty languages.

Adaptations
In the late twentieth century, the series was adapted for other forms of representation: three films and musical theatre.

Two Swedish movies based on the books were released in the 1970s, starring Max Von Sydow and Liv Ullmann as Karl Oskar and Kristina:
The Emigrants (1971), adapted by Jan Troell, was based on the first two novels.
The New Land (1972) was a sequel based on the last two novels. Both were released in Swedish and subtitled in English.

A Swedish musical Kristina från Duvemåla (1990s) was based on the novels. It was created by former ABBA members Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson. It was successful in Sweden and abroad.

Another Swedish film adaptation was titled simply The Emigrants (2021). It starred Gustaf Skarsgård, Lisa Carlehed and Tove Lo. The screenplay was written by Siv Rajendram Eliassen and Anna Bache-Wiig, and it was directed by Erik Poppe. It was released on digital platforms in August 2023.

References

External links
Vilhelm Moberg - The Greatest Swedish Author

Novels by Vilhelm Moberg
Historical novels
Swedish migration to North America
Novel series
Novels set in Minnesota
Swedish-language novels
Novels about immigration to the United States
Works about Swedish-American culture
Book series introduced in 1949

The Emigrants (novel series)


A death mask is a likeness (typically in wax or plaster cast) of a person's face after their death, usually made by taking a cast or impression from the corpse. Death masks may be mementos of the dead or be used for creation of portraits.

The main purpose of the death mask from the Middle Ages until the 19th century was to serve as a model for sculptors in creating statues and busts of the deceased person. Not until the 1800s did such masks become valued for themselves.

In other cultures a death mask may be a funeral mask, an image placed on the face of the deceased before burial rites, and normally buried with them. The best known of these are the masks used in ancient Egypt as part of the mummification process, such as the mask of Tutankhamun, and those from Mycenaean Greece such as the Mask of Agamemnon.

In some European countries, it was common for death masks to be used as part of the effigy of the deceased, displayed at state funerals; the coffin portrait was an alternative. Mourning portraits were also painted, showing the subject lying in repose. During the 18th and 19th centuries masks were also used to permanently record the features of unknown corpses for purposes of identification. This function was later replaced by post-mortem photography.

When taken from a living subject, such a cast is called a life mask.

History

Sculptures
Masks of deceased people are part of traditions in many countries. The most important process of the funeral ceremony in ancient Egypt was the mummification of the body, which, after prayers and consecration, was put into a sarcophagus enameled and decorated with gold and gems. A special element of the rite was a sculpted mask, put on the face of the deceased. This mask was believed to strengthen the spirit of the mummy and guard the soul from evil spirits on its way to the afterworld. The best known mask is Tutankhamun's mask. Made of gold and gems, the mask conveys the highly stylized features of the ancient ruler. Such masks were not, however, made from casts of the features; rather, the mummification process itself preserved the features of the deceased.

In 1876 the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered in Mycenae six graves, which he was confident belonged to kings and ancient Greek heroes—Agamemnon, Cassandra, Evrimdon and their associates. To his surprise, the skulls were covered with gold masks. It is now thought most unlikely that the masks actually belonged to Agamemnon and other heroes of the Homeric epics; in fact they are several centuries older.

The lifelike character of Roman portrait sculptures has been attributed to the earlier Roman use of wax to preserve the features of deceased family members (the so-called imagines maiorum). The wax masks were subsequently reproduced in more durable stone.

The use of masks in the ancestor cult is also attested in Etruria. Excavations of tombs in the area of the ancient city of Clusium (modern Chiusi, Tuscany) have yielded a number of sheet-bronze masks dating from the Etruscan late orientalizing period. In the 19th century it was thought that they were related to the Mycenaean examples, but whether they served as actual death masks cannot be proven. The most credited hypothesis holds that they were originally fixed to cinerary urns, to give them a human appearance. In Orientalising Clusium, the anthropomorphization of urns was a prevalent phenomenon that was strongly rooted in local religious beliefs.

Casts

The Roman élites used during the funerals "death masks" which were in fact casts made during life. These masks were displayed, after one's death in his family's atrium as a sign of social and political prominence. This usage was already established by the 2nd century BC and continued to be used into the 4th and perhaps as late as the 6th century AD. In the late Middle Ages, the masks were not interred with the deceased. Instead, they were used in funeral ceremonies and were later kept in libraries, museums, and universities. Death masks were taken not only of deceased royalty and nobility (Henry VIII, Sforza), but also of eminent people: composers, dramaturges, military and political leaders, philosophers, poets, and scientists, such as Dante Alighieri, Ludwig van Beethoven, Napoleon Bonaparte (whose death mask was taken on the island of Saint Helena), Filippo Brunelleschi, Frédéric Chopin, Oliver Cromwell (whose death mask is preserved at Warwick Castle), Joseph Haydn, John Keats, Franz Liszt, Blaise Pascal, Nikola Tesla (commissioned by his friend Hugo Gernsback and now displayed in the Nikola Tesla Museum), Torquato Tasso, Richard Wagner and Voltaire.

In Russia, the death mask tradition dates back to the times of Peter the Great, whose death mask was taken by Carlo Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Also well known are the death masks of Nicholas I, and Alexander I. Stalin's death mask is on display at the Stalin Museum in Gori, Georgia.

One of the first real Ukrainian death masks was that of the poet Taras Shevchenko, taken by Peter Clodt von Jürgensburg in St. Petersburg, Russia.

In early spring of 1860 and shortly before his death in April 1865, two life masks were created of President Abraham Lincoln.

Science

Death masks were increasingly used by scientists from the late 18th century onwards to record variations in human physiognomy. The life mask was also increasingly common at this time, taken from living people.

Forensic science

Before the widespread availability of photography, the facial features of unidentified bodies were sometimes preserved by creating death masks so that relatives of the deceased could recognize them if they were seeking a missing person.

One mask, known as , recorded the face of an unidentified young girl who, around the age of 16, according to one man's story, had been found drowned in the Seine River in Paris around the late 1880s. A cast of her face was made by a morgue worker who explained that "her beauty was breathtaking and showed few signs of distress at the time of passing. So bewitching that I knew beauty as such must be preserved." The cast was also compared to the Mona Lisa and other famous paintings and sculptures. Copies of the mask were fashionable in Parisian Bohemian society, and the face of Resusci Anne, the world's first CPR training mannequin, introduced in 1960, was modeled after the mask.

See also
 Plastered human skulls
 Portrait
 Sculpture

References

External links

 The International Life Cast Museum
 Laurence Hutton Collection of Life and Death Masks
 Collection of Death Masks History of death masks, Pictures of death masks and historical resources
 Episode of Radiolab discussing death masks (specifically L'Inconnue de la Seine)

Visual arts genres
Death customs
Funeral-related industry

Death mask


Rae Armantrout (born April 13, 1947) is an American poet generally associated with the Language poets. She has published more than two dozen books, including poetry and prose.

Armantrout was awarded the 2009 National Book Critics Circle Award for her book Versed which was also nominated for the National Book Award.<ref>"Faculty poet honored for new collection", Aricleant</ref> Versed later received the 2010 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry.

Armantrout is now retired from her long tenure teaching at the University of California, San Diego, where she was Professor of Poetry and Poetics.

Early life
Armantrout was born in Vallejo, California. An only child, she was raised among military communities on naval bases, predominantly in San Diego. In her autobiography True (1998), she describes herself as having endured an insular childhood, a sensitive child of working class, Methodist fundamentalist parents.

In 1965, while living in the Allied Gardens district with her parents, Armantrout attended San Diego State University, intending to major in anthropology. During her studies she transferred to English and American literature, later studying at the University of California, Berkeley.

At Berkeley, Armantrout studied with poet Denise Levertov and befriended Ron Silliman. The latter became an important friendship for both poets, as each of them would become associated with the "West Coast" contingent of the so-called Language poets of late 1980s San Francisco.

Literary career and recognition
Armantrout published poetry in Caterpillar in the early 1970s, and from this point began to view herself as a poet. She took a master's degree in creative writing from San Francisco State University, and wrote Extremities (1978), her first book of poetry.

Armantrout's poems have appeared in many anthologies, including In The American Tree (National Poetry Foundation), Language Poetries (New Directions), Postmodern American Poetry: A Norton Anthology, From the Other Side of the Century (Sun & Moon), Out of Everywhere (Reality Street), American Women Poets in the 21st Century: Where Language Meets the Lyric Tradition, (Wesleyan, 2002), The Oxford Book of American Poetry (Oxford, UP, 2006) and several appearances in the annually published The Best American Poetry, including 1988, 2001, 2002, 2004 and 2007.

Armantrout has twice received a Fund For Poetry Grant and was a California Arts Council Fellowship recipient in 1989. In 2007 she received a Grants to Artists Award from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts, and a Guggenheim Fellowship in 2008.

Armantrout was one of a group of ten poets who participated in The Grand Piano: An Experiment In Collective Autobiography.  Writing for these volumes began in 1998 and the first of its 10 volumes was published in November 2006.Wobble, published in November 2018, was a finalist for the 2018 National Book Award for Poetry.

Style
Armantrout was a member of the original West Coast Language group. Although Language poetry can be seen as advocating a poetics of nonreferentiality, Armantrout's work, focusing as it often does on the local and the domestic, resists such definitions. Unlike most of the group, her work is firmly grounded in experience of the local and domestic worlds and she is regarded by some as the most lyrical of the Language Poets.

Armantrout credits William Carlos Williams for developing her "sense of the line" and her understanding that "line breaks can create suspense and can destabilize meaning through delay." The basic unit of meaning in Armantrout's poetry is either the stanza or the section, and she writes both prose poetry and more traditional stanza-based poems.

In a published interview with poet and novelist Ben Lerner for BOMB Magazine, Armantrout said that she is more likely to write a prose poem "when [she] hear[s] the voice of a conventional narrator in [her] head."

Reception
Critic Stephanie Burt at the Boston Review commented:

Personal life
Armantrout graduated from University of California, Berkeley in 1970 and married Chuck Korkegian in 1971, whom she had dated since her first year at the university.

Selected bibliography
Poetry
Collections
 Extremities (The Figures, 1978)
 The invention of hunger (Tuumba, 1979)
 Precedence (Burning Deck, 1985)
 Necromance (Sun and Moon Press, 1991)
 Couverture (Les Cahiers de Royaumont, 1991) -  a selection in French translation
 Made To Seem (Sun and Moon Press, 1995)
 Veil: New and Selected Poems (Wesleyan University Press, 2001)
 The Pretext (Green Integer, 2001)
 Up to Speed (Wesleyan University Press, 2004)
 Next Life (Wesleyan University Press, 2007)Narrativ [English-German, Bilingual edition, translated by Uda Strätling and Martin Göritz] (Luxbooks, Wiesbaden, 2009) )
 Versed (Wesleyan University Press, 2009) - 2010 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
 Money Shot (Wesleyan University Press, 2011)
 Just Saying (Wesleyan University Press, 2013)
 Itself (Wesleyan University Press, 2015)
 Partly: New and Selected Poems, 2001-2015 (Wesleyan University Press, 2016)
 Wobble (Wesleyan University Press, 2018)
 Conjure (Wesleyan University Press, 2020)
 Finalists (Wesleyan University Press, 2022)

Chapbooks
 writing the plot about sets (Chax, 1998)
 Currency (Yale Union, 2016)
 Entanglements (Wesleyan University Press, 2020)

ProseTrue (Atelos, 1998) - memoir; republished in Collected ProseThe Grand Piano: An Experiment In Collective Autobiography (with Bob Perelman, Barrett Watten, Steve Benson, Carla Harryman, Tom Mandel, Ron Silliman, Kit Robinson, Lyn Hejinian, and Ted Pearson) (Mode A/This Press, 2007)Collected Prose (Singing Horse Press, 2007);

List of poems

References

Further readingA Wild Salience: the Writing of Rae Armantrout (Burning Press, 2000; ) — featuring essays and poems on or inspired by her work including pieces by Robert Creeley, Susan Wheeler, Hank Lazer, Bob Perelman, Lydia Davis, Lyn Hejinian, Rachel Blau DuPlessis, Ron Silliman, Brenda Hillman, Fanny Howe and othersA Suite of Poetic Voices: "Interview" (with Manuel Brito), (Santa Brigada, Spain: Kadle Books, 1994)

External links
Biography from the International Literature Festival Berlin
Rae Armantrout Papers at Stanford
The UCSD Register of Rae Armantrout Papers, 1954-2009
Rae Armantrout profile at the Academy of American Poets
Profile at Green Integer"Cosmology and Me", essay by Armantrout at Jacket)
Interview with Armantrout (Audio), PBS NewsHour, April 19, 2010. Includes poems and transcript.
Interview in BOMB Magazine. Winter 2011
Armantrout resources at PENNSound
Armantrout interviewed on Bookworm at KCRW, February 26, 2009
Armantrout at the University of Chicago gives a talk on the lyric poem (March 2011).
"The (Pulitzer-Winning) Poet is a Quilter. The Poet is a Collector. The Poet is 62", at Women's voices for change'' April 14, 2010
Interview in Spanish magazine Jot Down, March 2012
On Poetry and Complexity - Conversation with Madhur Anand, Roald Hoffman, and Sarah Tolmie On Poetry and Complexity

Living people
1947 births
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American poets
21st-century American women writers
American women poets
Language poets
Poets from California
Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners
The New Yorker people
University of California, San Diego faculty
San Francisco State University alumni
Writers from Vallejo, California

Rae Armantrout