Maja Bošković-Stulli (9 November 1922 – 14 August 2012) was a Croatian slavicist and folklorist, literary historian, writer, publisher and an academic, noted for her extensive research of Croatian oral literature.

Early life

Bošković-Stulli was born in Osijek to a Jewish family of Dragutin and Ivanka Bošković. She joined the Young Communist League of Yugoslavia – SKOJ (from Serbo-Croatian: Savez komunističke omladine Jugoslavije) during Gymnasium education. In 1943, after the capitulation of Italy and liberation of the Rab concentration camp, she joined the Partisans. Many members of her family perished during the Holocaust, including her parents and sister Magda.

Education and later years
Bošković-Stulli finished elementary and secondary school in Zagreb. She graduated from the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb and received her PhD in 1961. She took part in many national and international conferences and symposiums, including the Inter-University Centre in Dubrovnik. For many years she was chief editor, and afterwards a regular member, of the editorial board for the journal Narodna umjetnost. She worked at the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, and from 1952 until her retirement in 1979 she worked at the Institute of Ethnology and Folklore Research in Zagreb. From 1963-73 she was the Director of the Institute.

Bošković-Stulli wrote around twenty books and a large number of papers in national and international academic journals. She has received a number of awards for her research work, the annual award in 1975 and the Croatian lifework award in 1990, the Herder Prize in Vienna 1991, and Pitre Salomone Marino prize in Palermo 1992. She was a regular member at the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.

In 2005 Bošković-Stulli was named among 35 Croatia's most important women in history. Bošković-Stulli died on 14 August 2012 in Zagreb and was buried at the Mirogoj Cemetery.

Works
 Istarske narodne priče, Zagreb 1959
 Narodne pripovijetke ("Pet stoljeća hrvatske književnosti"), Zagreb 1963
 Narodne epske pjesme, knj. 2 ("Pet stoljeća hrvatske književnosti"), Zagreb 1964
 Narodna predaja o vladarevoj tajni, Zagreb 1967
 Usmena književnost ("Povijest hrvatske književnosti" 1, pp. 7–353), Zagreb 1978
 Usmena književnost nekad i danas, Beograd 1983
 Usmeno pjesništvo u obzorju književnosti, Zagreb 1984;
 Zakopano zlato. Hrvatske usmene pripovijetke, predaje i legende iz Istre, Pula – Rijeka 1986
 U kralja od Norina. Priče, pjesme, zagonetke i poslovice s Neretve, Metković – Opuzen 1987
 Pjesme, priče, fantastika, Zagreb 1991;
 Žito posred mora. Usmene priče iz Dalmacije, Split 1993
 Priče i pričanje: stoljeća usmene hrvatske proze, Zagreb 1997
 Usmene pripovijetke i predaje ("Stoljeća hrvatske književnosti"), Zagreb 1997
 O usmenoj tradiciji i o životu, Zagreb 1999

References

Bibliography

External links
Bošković-Stulli's biography, at the Matica hrvatska's website

1922 births
2012 deaths
People from Osijek
Burials at Mirogoj Cemetery
Croatian communists
Croatian women writers
Croatian Jews
20th-century Croatian historians
Jewish historians
Jewish socialists
Jewish writers
Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb alumni
Members of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Rab concentration camp survivors
Yugoslav Partisans members
Yugoslav Jews
Yugoslav women writers
Yugoslav academics
Yugoslav historians
20th-century Croatian women writers
Herder Prize recipients
Women in the Yugoslav Partisans
Croatian women historians
Jews in the Yugoslav Partisans

Maja Bošković-Stulli


House of Representatives is the name of legislative bodies in many countries and sub-national entities.  In many countries, the House of Representatives is the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the corresponding upper house often called a "Senate". In some countries, the House of Representatives is the sole chamber of a unicameral legislature.

The functioning of a house of representatives can vary greatly from country to country, and depends on whether a country has a parliamentary or a presidential system. Members of a House of Representatives are typically apportioned according to population rather than geography.

National legislatures
The Indonesian People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR) is generally known in English as the "House of Representatives", as is the Dewan Rakyat of the Parliament of Malaysia and the Dáil Éireann of the Irish Oireachtas parliament.

"The House of Representatives" currently is the name of a house of the legislature in the following countries:

In the following countries it is the sole chamber in a unicameral system:

Subnational legislatures
House of Representatives is the title of most, but not all, of the lower houses of U.S. state legislatures, with the exceptions usually called "State Assembly", "General Assembly", or more rarely, "House of Delegates".

In Germany, the Landtag parliament of the city and state of Berlin, the Abgeordnetenhaus, is known in English as the House of Representatives.

In Tanzania, the semi-autonomous islands of Zanzibar has its own legislative body, the Zanzibar House of Representatives.

Defunct Houses of Representatives
From 1867 until 1918, in Cisleithania, the Austrian part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the lower house of the Imperial Council (Reichsrat) parliament, the Abgeordnetenhaus was generally known in English as "House of Representatives". Since 1855 the lower house in the Landtag assembly of Prussia was called Abgeordnetenhaus, as distinct from the upper House of Lords.

In 1934, the Nebraska voters approved a unicameral legislature dissolving the House of Representatives and transferring its powers to the Senate.

The Kenyan House of Representatives was combined with the Senate in 1966, to form an enlarged single chamber parliament, known as the National Assembly. The Senate was re-established as an upper house following the 2010 Kenyan constitutional referendum.

Under the First and Second Republics, the National Assembly of South Korea was officially bicameral, consisting of the House of Councillors and House of Representatives. In practice, however, the National Assembly was unicameral under the First Republic, as the first election of the House of Councillors was not held until the Second Republic was founded in 1960. Following a military coup the following year, the National Assembly was dissolved. Since its restoration in December 1963, the National Assembly has been unicameral.

The House of Representatives of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was the lower chamber of the parliament established in 1947 according to the Soulbury Constitution. The 1972 First Republican Constitution of Sri Lanka replaced it with the unicameral National State Assembly.

The Parliament of Sierra Leone, like its counterparts in other former British colonies, began as a Legislative Council. It was inaugurated in 1863 but was renamed the House of Representatives in 1954.

Following the surrender of South Vietnam to North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces in 1975, a Provisional Revolutionary Government established itself in Saigon and disbanded the bicameral National Assembly consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Under apartheid, the House of Representatives was the house for South Africa's mixed race 'Coloured' community, in the Tricameral Parliament of 1984 to 1994.

In 1994 the House of Representatives of the Gambia was dissolved in a coup d'état led by Yahya Jammeh. It was replaced as the legislature by the National Assembly according to the 1997 Constitution of The Gambia.

The House of Representatives of Fiji was the lower chamber of Fiji's Parliament from 1970 to 2006. It was suspended by the 2006 military coup. The 2013 Constitution abolished it and replaced it with a single chamber Parliament.

Notes

See also
List of legislatures by country
Chamber of Deputies
National Assembly
House of Commons

Legislatures

House of Representatives


Juan Rafael Mora Porras (8 February 1814, San José, Costa Rica – 30 September 1860) was President of Costa Rica from 1849 to 1859.

Life and career
Mora first assumed the presidency upon the resignation of his younger brother, Miguel Mora Porras. He was subsequently elected in his own right in 1853, and he was reelected in 1859.

He (along with the rest of his administration) focused on modifying the Costa Rican constitution, with one of his modifications being an increase in the requirements to hold Costa Rican citizenship—including a high yearly income. He therefore left the majority of the population without the rights to vote and run for office (Conversely, the previous electoral system required citizens to be male, born in the country, and of age to have electoral rights).

As Mora's dramatic change to Costa Rica's constitution coincided with the privatization of the country's commons, its landless peasants were now left helpless. As Mora altogether deprived the commons-dependent peasants, they no longer possessed constitutional rights to political representation or constitutional means of achieving it.

The Filibuster War

In 1856, Mora led his country's forces in Central America's Filibuster War against William Walker and his filibuster regime in Nicaragua.

(For Costa Rican historiography, the war is divided into three parts:  The First Campaign (March and April 1856), The Second (or Transit) Campaign (October 1856–May 1857), and The Third Campaign (August–December 1857)).

Mora, along with Bishop Anselmo Llorente, gave a series of speeches to arouse the people and prepare them for the upcoming war. In his speeches, he emphasized the threat posed by the Protestant filibusters to the country's Catholic identity.

He then moved to his brother José Joaquín Mora Porras the supreme command of the army, and his brother led three battles during the First Campaign. Specifically, he charged José Joaquin to lead the Battles of Santa Rosa, Sardinal, and Rivas (a  series of battles which managed to stop Walker's invasion to Guanacaste—at the time known as "Moracia" in the president's honour).

The Resulting 1856 Cholera Epidemic

During the Rivas Battle, both the filibuster forces and Costa Rican forces contracted cholera. Costa Ricans subsequently found themselves under the impression that cholera was acquired on "ill-aired" locations, and they therefore fled from Rivas. As a result of taking the water-borne disease with them, they inadvertently caused a tenth of Costariqueños to lose their lives in the 1856 cholera epidemic in Costa Rica.

For Costariqueños, the war was then postponed until October 1856, the starting point for The Second Campaign.

The Resumption of the War, And the War's Aftermath

Mora and his brother placed the emphasis of the Second Campaign on the Costariqueño armed forces cutting off Walker's supply route which used the San Juan River and the steamboats taken by the filibusters from the Accessory Transit Company.

There is, by contrast, no knowledge of what they did or what else happened during the Third Campaign.

There is still discussion on the intellectual authorship of the capture of the Rio San Juan.  Some Costa Ricans, like historian Rafael Obregón Loría, claim it was Mora who planned the capture.  However, Mora met on November 1856 with Silvanius Spencer, Cornelius Vanderbilt's agent, who offered his help on the capture of the San Juan river.

In spite of earning acclaim as a national hero for his efforts in that endeavor, he was overthrown in a coup d'état orchestrated by his opponent Jose Maria Montealegre in August 1859. He fled to El Salvador, where his supporters convinced him to launch an attack on Costa Rica and recoup the presidency. After initial victories, in which he succeeded in seizing the port of Puntarenas, he was defeated, captured, and, on 30 September 1860, brought before a firing squad.

Notable relatives
His nephew, who he helped to raise, was the writer Manuel Argüello Mora. His great-great-grandniece is the actress Madeleine Stowe, whom is also of a member Montealegre family.

Legacy

His statue is erected in Ankara, Türkiye.

References

1814 births
1860 deaths
People from San José, Costa Rica
Costa Rican people of Spanish descent
Presidents of Costa Rica
Vice presidents of Costa Rica
Executed presidents
Executed Costa Rican people
People executed by Costa Rica by firing squad
19th-century executions by Costa Rica
19th-century Costa Rican people
Costa Rican liberals

Juan Rafael Mora Porras


Synodus intermedius, the common sand diver, is a species of fish in the lizardfish family, the Synodontidae, a basal ray-finned fish in the class Actinopterygii. Sand divers inhabit subtropical marine ecosystems, (37-17°N), including sandy- bottom areas on continental shelves, coral reefs, estuaries, bays, and reef structures.  They are demersal or benthic fish, which means they live on or close to the sea bed.  Distribution ranges from the northern Gulf of Mexico south to the Guianas, and western Atlantic north to North Carolina and Bermuda.  They are a common lizardfish in the West Indies.  They grow to about  total length, and weigh around .

The trunk of sand divers is a pallid color, ranging from gray to brownish gray with mottling on the head and trunk grading to a whitish underbelly.  They have variable markings, including a black patch on the shoulder girdle, reddish-brown vertical bars across the back, and thin yellow-gold striped lateral lines running from behind the gill flap or operculum to the base of the tail or caudal fin.  They are able to alter their color, becoming paler or darker to blend with the background.

Etymology
The etymology of Synodus is of Greek origin: syn, symphysis or grown together, and , which means teeth. The common English name for the species is "sand diver" and for the genus "lizardfishes". In French, the fish is named anoli de sable and in Spanish it is known under various names, such as chile manchado, doncella, guaripete, guavina, lagarto gigante, lagarto mato,  lagarto manchado, or manuelito.

Taxonomy and evolution

Lizardfishes are aulopiforms in the family Synodontidae, which is represented in the western Atlantic by three genera: Synodus, comprising six species, Saurida, comprising four species, and Trachinocephalus which includes a single species.

The fossil record indicates an evolutionary divergence of the Aulopidae dating back to the Early Cretaceous or Late Jurassic, with most extant families appearing by the Late Cretaceous to the Eocene.  Aulopoids are a small group of benthic fishes that inhabit coral reefs and continental shelves, including lizardfishes (Synodus, Saurida) and flagfin fishes (Aulopus).  Integrated studies regarding deep-sea evolutionary adaptations, simultaneous hermaphroditism, and tubular eyes suggest that the stem species of lizardfishes arose in a marine environment with separate sexes, and round eyes that were laterally directed.  The study also identified the suborder Alepisauroidei as the largest and oldest known vertebrae clade with the reproductive strategy of simultaneous hermaphroditism.

Description

Sand divers have an elongated body and can grow to  long. The dorsal (upper) surface is dappled brownish-gray and  a black patch occurs on the shoulder girdle at the upper end of the gill slits. About eight pairs of reddish-brown bars are on the top and sides of the body, broadest at the lateral line and narrowing towards the belly. Also, slender yellowish-gold longitudinal lines run along the body. The ventral (under) surface of the fish is pale. The tip of the lower jaw is rounded, without a fleshy knob, and the soft rays of the dorsal fin are relatively short, the tip of the front one lying on top of the origin of the hind one when depressed. These characteristics help to distinguish this species from the offshore lizardfish (S. poeyi). The anal fin of the sand diver has 10-12 soft rays which distinguish it from the otherwise similar diamond lizardfish (S. synodus) which has eight to 10. Another fish with which it might be confused is the Atlantic lizardfish (S. saurus), but that species is uncommon in the Caribbean and has slender, blue or turquoise longitudinal lines.

As is common among benthic and demersal fish, the cornea of the eye has an iridescent layer, the function of which may be to offer protection to the eye from very bright light. The mouth is wide and filled with numerous needlelike teeth.  Two rows of teeth are in the upper jaw; the inner row teeth are longer than the outer row.  Three rows of teeth are on the lower jaw; the outer row is covered by lips, the middle teeth increase in size.  Both jaws have posterior teeth that slant slightly toward the back.  Also, three or four rows of depressible teeth exist on the palate.  The tongue has five rows of teeth, the largest positioned closest to the anterior tip, slanting toward the back.

Distribution and habitat

Sand divers are found in the subtropical western Atlantic Ocean between 37 and 17°N, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Their range extends from North Carolina and Bermuda, southwards to Santa Catarina in Brazil, and includes the West Indies, Caribbean Sea and northern, eastern, and southern Gulf of Mexico. They have been reported from São Tomé and Príncipe in the eastern Atlantic, though that record is questionable, and are also known from the Philippines. Sand divers are usually found on or near the seabed in sandy areas among boulders or in sandy corridors in reefs, but they also rest on the tops of reef structures, propping themselves up on their pectoral fins.  They are found at depths down to , but they seldom occur near shore and most records are in the depth range .

Ecology

Sand divers are piscivorous ambush predators once thought to occupy a midtrophic position as a lie-in-wait predator.  They occupy a high trophic position as active hunters that feed on other predatory fishes.  In some systems, they are considered apex predators.   They can be found on top of the sand or on reef tops, and also bury themselves in the sand with only their heads exposed. Sand divers feed primarily on finfish and bony fish (such as bar jacks, wrasses, small grunts, and silversides), but also feed on benthic crustaceans, and cephalopods including squid and cuttlefish.

References

Further reading

 Russell, B. C. 2003: Synodontidae and Bathysauridae. pp. 923–932. In: Carpenter, 2003. The living marine resources of the Western Central Atlantic. Volume 2.
 Menezes, N. A., P. A. Buckup, J. L. de Figueiredo and R. L. de Moura. (Eds.) 2003: Catálogo das espécies de peixes marinhos do Brasil. Museu de Zoologia de Universidade de São Paulo: 1–160.

External links

Synodus
Fauna of the Southeastern United States
Fish of the Western Atlantic
Taxa named by Johann Baptist von Spix
Taxa named by Louis Agassiz
Fish described in 1829

Synodus intermedius


Wellington boot is a type of boot, popularized by Anglo-Irish soldier and general Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.

Wellington boot is waterproof and is made from rubber. These boots are usually worn in wet weather, especially in autumn time. They protect from puddles.
Boots

Wellington boot


Password is a television game show. It was hosted by Allen Ludden from October 2, 1961 to September 15, 1967 during daytime and was on primetime from January 2, 1962 to May 22, 1967 on CBS. A revival was made in 1971 and aired on ABC. The show spawned two revivals in 1979 and 1984 respectively, Password Plus and Super Password.

Game play
Two celebrities play with two civilians in two teams of two people each – a celebrity and a civilian. A "password" shown on the screen is given to the celebrities/civilians and they have to give the partners one-word clues to get it correctly. For example, if the password was "word", someone would give the clue "pass" and the civilian/celebrity would try to guess the password (e.g. "word"). If the password is guessed in one guess, they get 10 points. Each wrong guess removes a point (e.g. 1 wrong guess makes it 9, 2 wrong guesses makes it 8, etc.). Two word clues (e.g. "light sleeper") or "sounds" were not allowed, other wise a buzzer would sound and Allen Ludden would say "When you hear this sound it means your clue has not been accepted by our word authority (name of word authority)". The first person to get 25 points wins $250 and goes to the "Lightning Round" where they are given 60 seconds to guess 5 words worth $50. Each one correct will cost that amount and a second game is played where a new set of civilians comes in (Prior to November 1962, the civilians switched seats instead). At the end of the show, Allen Ludden would give a "password of the day" (e.g. "parties") and would make a sentence about the password ("Password is a great game to play at parties") before signing off.

The show was announced by Jack Clark and announced all the "passwords" on the screen. Sometimes Allen Ludden would take a vacation and Jack Clark would fill in for him and Bob Kennedy would be the announcer on those occasions.

The word authority for most of the CBS run was Dr. Reason A. Goodwin. He wrote the World Book Encyclopedia Dictionary which was released in 1963, two years after Password began.

In 1966 the show switched from black and white to color. On the first color show (September 12, 1966) Allen Ludden said "We're in color! Look at us-we're in color." This episode, along with many others are available on YouTube.

Theme music
From 1961 to 1963, the theme song was called Holiday Jaunt. From 1963 to 1967 the theme was called You Know The Password. In 1971 a song by Score Productions was used. In 1974 the theme song was changed to Bicentennial Funk. Password Plus and Super Password used different themes for both versions.

Revivals
In 1971, the show returned on ABC. In 1974, the show changed its name to Password All-Stars. The show was cancelled in 1975.

In 1979, a revival called Password Plus was made. After Allen Ludden died in 1981, Tom Kennedy took over as host. Password Plus was cancelled in March 1982.

In 1984, a new version called Super Password was made with Bert Convy as host. The show was cancelled in 1989.

Episode status
Every nighttime episode was recorded on videotape and has aired on GSN and Buzzr. All daytime episodes before September 12, 1966 (except one from January 14, 1966) is gone forever. Color daytime episodes from September 1966 to 1967 last aired on GSN in 2009 and are currently airing on Buzzr.

The 1971 version is almost gone except for a few episodes. The original tapes were reused for the 1976 version of Family Feud. These have aired on GSN in the past.

Password Plus and Super Password exists in their entirety and both have aired on GSN and Buzzr.

Popularity
The game is parodied in the Family Guy season 2 episode "Wasted Talent".

In 2013, a short movie called Subconscious Password was made where a man forgets the name of someone he met at a party and must remember from clues given by celebrities a la Password.

American television game shows
1960s American television series
1970s American television series
CBS network shows
Word games
Puzzles

Password (game show)


Jan Dara: The Finale or Jan Dara Patchimmabot is a 2013 Thai erotic-drama film starring Mario Maurer and Bongkot Kongmalai. This movie is a sequel to Jan Dara the Beginning which was released back in 2012. This installment came out on February 7, 2013 and was distributed by Sahamongkol Film International.

The plot is about Jan Dara sexual Awakening.

Cast
Mario Maurer as Jan Dara
Sakarat Ritthumrong as Luang Vissanun-decha (Jan Dara's Father)
Bongkot Kongmalai as Aunt Waad
Rhatha Phongam as Boonlueang
Chaiyapol Julian Pupart as Ken Krating-thong
Sho Nishino as Khun Kaew
Nutt Devahastin as Khun Ka-jon

References

External links

Thai drama films

Jan Dara: The Finale


Vakkom Mohammed Abdul Khader Moulavi ( – ), popularly known as Vakkom Moulavi was a  social reformer, teacher, prolific writer, Muslim scholar, journalist, freedom fighter and newspaper proprietor in Travancore, a princely state of the present day Kerala, India. He was the founder and publisher of the newspaper Swadeshabhimani which was banned and confiscated by the Government of Travancore in 1910 due to its criticisms against the government and the Diwan of Travancore, P. Rajagopalachari. He was an avid reader of Rashid Rida's Islamic magazine, Al-Manar. Vakkom Moulavi is known as the father of Islamic renaissance in Kerala.

Early life and family
Moulavi was born in 1873 in Vakkom, Chirayinkil Taluk, Thiruvananthapuram in Travancore. He was born into a prominent Muslim Poonthran family was originally migrate from Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Its members have played a significant role in the history of Travancore since 19th century. The Poonthran genealogy starts with a prominent landlord Thoppil Thampi, who came from the south-western part of Travancore and settled in Vettoor, Varkala. Vakkom Moulavi's maternal ancestors were from Hyderabad and Anjengo. His maternal grandfather Fateh Khan was a high ranking police officer in Travancore. Fateh Khan's family was originally from Hyderabad.

His father, a prominent merchant, engaged a number of scholars from distant places, including an itinerant Arab savant, to teach him every subject he wished to learn. Moulavi made such rapid progress, that some of his teachers soon found that their stock of knowledge was exhausted and at least one of them admitted that had learnt from his student more than he could teach him. In a short time, Moulavi had learnt many languages including Arabic, Persian, Tamil, Urdu, Sanskrit and English. his ancestral background likewise contributed to his learning and growth in several ways. Muhammad Kannu argues that this family heritage helped Vakkom Moulavi to master the Tamil and Urdu languages.

In early 1900s, Moulavi was married to Haleema, daughter of Aliyar Kunju Poonthran Vilakom and Pathumma Kayalpuram. Moulavi - Haleema couple had one son Abdul Salam. Haleema died soon after the birth of their first child. A year later, Moulavi married Aamina Ummal. The couple had ten children, includes Abdul Hai, Abdul Vahab, Abdul Khader Jr. Abdul Haque, Obaidullah, Ameena, Yahiya, Sakeena, Mohammed Eeza and Mohammed Iqbal. His sons, Abdul Salam, Abdul Vahab and Mohammed Eeza were writers and scholars of Islamic studies, and Abdul Khader Jr was a writer, literary critic and journalist. One of his nephews, Vakkom Majeed, was an Indian freedom fighter and a former member of Travancore-Cochin State Assembly and another nephew, P.Habeeb Mohamed, was the first Muslim judge of the Travancore High Court of Kerala. His disciples included K.M Seethi Sahib, the former Speaker of Kerala Legislative Assembly and a social reformer among kerala Muslims.

Journalism and Swadeshabhimani

Maulavi started the Swadeshabhimani newspaper on 19 January 1905, declaring that "the paper will not hesitate to expose injustices to the people in any form", but on 26 September 1910, the newspaper and press were sealed and confiscated by the Indian Imperial Police, and the editor Ramakrishna Pillai was arrested and banished from Travancore to Thirunelveli.

After the confiscation of the press, Moulavi concentrated more on social and cultural activities, becoming a social leader, also writing several books. Daussabah and Islam Matha Sidantha Samgraham are original works, while Imam Ghazali's Keemiya-e- Saadat, Ahlu Sunnathuwal Jammath, Islamic Sandesam, Surat-ul fathiha are translations.

Social Reformation

Vakkom Moulavi defined religious reform as the endeavour to purify Islam and bring it back to its original form as it was practiced by the Salaf al-Salih (pious ancestors), based on Qur'an and Hadith as the fundamental authorities that decided religious and moral issues. Moulavi distinguished between two terms: Islah al-din and al-Islah al-dini, to articulate his vision of religious reform. The first term, Islah al-din ("reforming religion") implies that Islam needs further reform because its principles are archaic. The latter term, al-Islah al-dini ("religiously based reform") refers to the reformation that rectify the defects that have happened to religion in the course of history and to bring it back to its pure form, as was practiced by the Salaf al-Salih. Thus, according to Moulavi, religious reform is nothing but a revivalist activity aimed at purging Islam of bid'a (innovations) and shirk and re-establishing pristine Islamic teachings.

Explaining his vision of Islamic Renaissance, Moulavi wrote in his treatise "Islam Mata Navikaranam" (Islamic Religious Renewal):"Preach sermons, publish articles in newspapers and journals, distribute pamphlets, publish books, and as far as religious education at madrasas is concerned, depend only on the Qur'an and hadith, for its comprehension use only those books and interpretations written by free-thinking great souls (mahatmas), who are not biased towards any particular madhhab....Propagate among the people the teachings of the Qur'an, the words and actions of the Rasul, the practices of the predecessors (Salaf), and true principles related to Tawhid. Point out their beliefs and practices that contradict it and instruct them to reject it. Direct them to accept Kitab and Sunnah as the sole criterion for beliefs and practices."

Moulavi is considered one of the greatest reformers in the Kerala Muslim community, and widely considered as the "Father of Muslim Renaissance in Kerala". He emphasised the religious and socioeconomic aspects much more than the ritualistic aspects of religion. He also campaigned for the need for modern education, the education of women, and the elimination of potentially bad customs among the Muslim community. Influenced by the writings of Muhammad Abduh of Egypt and his reform movement, Moulavi started journals in Arabi-Malayalam and in Malayalam modelled on Al Manar. The Muslim was launched in January 1906 and was followed by Al-Islam(1918) and Deepika(1931). Through these publications, he tried to teach the Muslim community about the basic tenets of Islam. Al-Islam began publishing in April 1918 and played a pivotal role in Muslim renaissance in Kerala. It opposed Nerchas and Uroos festivals amongst the Muslim community, thereby attracting opposition from the orthodox ulema to the extent that they issued a fatwa declaring the reading of it as sacrilege. Financial troubles and lack of readership led to the closure of the journal within five issues, but it is regarded as the pioneer journal that attempted religious reform amongst the Mappilas of Kerala. While it was published in Malayalam language using Arabi-Malayalam script, Muslim and Deepika used Malayalam in script also.

Vakkom Moulavi believed that the Muslim Ummah had declined after the period of the Salaf al-Salih due to ignorance of Islamic teachings, the prevalence of Bid'ah (innovations) and practices of shirk (polytheism). He initiated a reform movement that aimed at purging Muslim culture from all the subsequent innovations, ritual accretions of shirk and revive Islam back to its pristine form. The reforms were based on Qur'an and Hadith, and Moulavi insisted that true Islamic beliefs and practices were in harmony with reason and science. Another reason of Muslim decline was the emergence of deviant doctrinal interpretations, that invented new opinions by misinterpreting the Scriptures. These deviations disfigured Islamic principles to such an extent that it obscured most people from recognizing Islam in its original form. Thus, Islamic religion was stripped of its vigor and vitality which weakened the Muslim mind, intelligence, and consciousness; hindering them from achieving worldly success. Moulavi believed that with the spread of deviant doctrines, the Muslim Ummah had been divided into numerous heretical sects and sub-sects. Like Sayyid Rashīd Ridā, Moulavi asserted that the decline of Muslims was the Divine punishment for their disagreement and disunity upon the truth.

As a result of the continuous campaigning of Moulavi throughout the State, the Maharaja's Government introduced the teaching of Arabic in all state schools where there were Muslim pupils, and offered them fee concessions and scholarships. Girls were totally exempted from payment of fees. Moulavi wrote text books for children to learn Arabic, and a manual for training Arabic instructors for primary schools. At the instance of Moulavi Abdul Qadir the State Government soon instituted qualifying examinations for Arabic teachers of which he was made the chief examiner.

There were many other dubious practices in the Muslim community of the time, such as the dowry system, extravagant expenditure on weddings, celebration of annual "urs" and Moharrum with bizarre unIslamic features bordering on idolatrous rituals. Moulavi launched his campaign against such practices with the help of his disciples, and with the co-operation of other learned men who shared his views and ideals. As the campaign developed into a powerful movement, opposition was mounted by the Mullahs. Some issued "fatwas" that he was a "kafir", others branded him as a "Wahhabi".

He also tried to create unity among Muslims, starting the All Travancore Muslim Mahajanasabha and Chirayinkil Taluk Muslim Samajam, and worked as the chairman of the Muslim Board of the Government of Travancore. His activities were further instrumental in the establishment of "Muslim Aikya Sangham", a united Muslim forum in Eriyad, Kodungalloor for all the Muslims of the Travancore, Cochin and Malabar regions,with K M Moulavi, K M Seethi Sahib, Manappat Kunju Mohammed Haji and helped guide the Lajnathul Mohammadiyya Association of Alappuzha, Dharma Bhoshini Sabha of Kollam amongst others. In 1931, he founded the Islamia Publishing House, with his eldest son Abdul Salam supervising the translation into Malayalam and publication of Allama Shibli's biography of Omar Farooq in two volumes under the title Al Farooq.

Death
'Abd al-Qadir Moulavi died on October 31, 1932 CE /1351 A.H. His funeral rites were conducted by his disciples strictly according to the Sunnah; without local superstitions and innovations. A few days later, Syrian-Egyptian Salafi scholar Mūhammād Rashīd Ridâ would publish a eulogy of the Moulavi in his Al-Manar journal. Introducing 'Abd al-Qadir as a reformer who was "his friend in Malabar"; Rida wrote: "As for his [Shaykh 'Abd al-Qadir's] Madh'hab of Tajdid [revival] and Islah [reform], he was a Salafi in it. He did not say to blindfollow any school which was not the Madh'hab of Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jama'ah, calling for the abandonment of all customs and actions of Shirk (polytheism), superstitions and religious innovations (bid'ah) by adhering to the Book and the Sunnah, and the biography of the Salaf us-Salih (may God be pleased with them). Although he was independent in research and thinking, in principles of Renewal (Tajdid) and Reform (Islah) he was in accordance with the guidance of Al-Manar magazine, loving it and its owner, Al-Sayyid Muhammad Rashid Rida... he also loved the wise men of Islam and the East, ... such as Shaykh Al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah and his disciples, Shaykh al-Islam, the Murshid of the people of Najd, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and defended them in his work Dau-us-Sabah (Morning Light) conveying in the language of Malabari peoples. He also loved the Imam of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 'Abdul Aziz bin Al-Saud.."

See also
 Swadeshabhimani (newspaper)
 Justice Habeeb Mohamed
 Vakkom Majeed
 Ramakrishna Pillai

Further reading

See Also (social reformers of Kerala)

 Sree Narayana Guru
 Dr. Palpu
 Kumaranasan
 Rao Sahib Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan
 Brahmananda Swami Sivayogi
 Vaghbhatananda
 Mithavaadi Krishnan
 Moorkoth Kumaran
 Mahatma Ayyankali
 Ayya Vaikundar
 Pandit Karuppan

References

1873 births
1932 deaths
Journalists from Kerala
19th-century Indian Muslims
Indian social reformers
Indian newspaper publishers (people)
Malayalam-language writers
Muslim writers
People from the Kingdom of Travancore
19th-century Indian journalists
20th-century Indian journalists
Indian independence activists from Kerala
Social leaders

Vakkom Moulavi


Pictionary is an American children's game show based on the picture-drawing board game of the same name. This was the first of three game shows based on the board game, with later editions for adults launched in 1997 and 2022.

Pictionary ran from June 5, 1989 until September 8, 1989 in syndication and was a joint production of Barry & Enright Productions and QMI Television.  The program was distributed by MCA Television.

Gameplay
Two teams of three competed against each other, drawing pictures on a telestrator.

Round one
One player at a time drew a picture for his/her teammates to guess. Once the picture was guessed or 20 seconds had elapsed, the next player in line began to draw. Each team had 60 seconds to guess as many pictures as possible, and the high scorers received 10 points. If the round ended in a tie, both teams scored.

Round two
One player drew pictures for 60 seconds, attempting to get his/her teammates to guess up to seven words that were clues to a puzzle. If the team solved the puzzle once time was up, they scored 10 points; if not, the opposing team was given 30 seconds to draw more clues and could then offer a guess to steal the points. Both teams were given one turn.

Round three
Each team chose one player to draw for the entire round. These two players took turns, with a maximum of 20 seconds per picture, and the teammates of the drawing player could buzz in and respond. A correct guess scored the picture, but a miss allowed the opposing team to offer unlimited guesses for the remainder of the 20 seconds, based only on whatever had been drawn to that point. After 90 seconds, the team with more pictures scored 30 points; in the event of a tie, both teams scored.

Near the end of the run, guest stars from children's entertainment took over drawing duties during this round, and all three members of each team attempted to guess the pictures.

Winning
At the end of the three rounds, the team with the most points won the game and advanced to the Waterworks bonus round for a chance at the grand prize. If the game ended in a tie, one final picture was played and the first team to buzz in and solve it was declared the winner.

A team could score up to 60 points during the game by winning the first/third rounds and solving both puzzles in the second, and any team that did so won an additional prize.

Bonus Round (Waterworks)
The object of the bonus round was to guess a famous person depicted in a caricature drawing, which was hidden behind a tank filled with plastic balls and divided vertically into five compartments.

Each team member took on one of three roles. One member had to hold two hoses together so that water would flow from a pump into an overhead dispenser. A second member stood under the dispenser, holding a pitcher above his/her head to catch the water as it ran out through a spout in the bottom. The third member, wearing diving flippers, had to carry the filled pitcher across the stage and pour the water into the tank. As each compartment filled with water, the plastic balls would rise and spill out to reveal portions of the caricature.

The team had 90 seconds to reveal as much of the picture as possible, and then was given 10 seconds to study it and name the subject. A correct guess won the day's grand prize.

Personnel
Actor Brian Robbins, who at the time was starring on the sitcom Head of the Class, was the host of this edition of Pictionary. He was assisted by Julie Friedman, who was referred to on air as "Felicity" and whose duty consisted largely of keeping score, which she did using an apparatus resembling a faucet which dispensed colored balls into a tank.

Harry Stevens, who had just finished announcing for the syndicated version of the Nickelodeon game show Finders Keepers, filled the same role on Pictionary while arm wrestler Rick Zumwalt served as the game's rules enforcer and judge as the character of "Judge Mental".

External links
Rules for Kid's Pictionary

1989 American television series debuts
1989 American television series endings
Television series by Barry & Enright Productions
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Television series by Universal Television
Television series by Mattel Television
1980s American children's game shows
Television shows based on board games
Television shows based on Mattel toys

Pictionary (1989 game show)


Godwin Hall is a building on the campus of James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia, housing the School of Kinesiology, the School of Theatre and Dance, and the JMU Athletics department.  It is named after Virginia governor Mills E. Godwin, and his wife and JMU alumna Katherine Godwin.

The building is home to Sinclair Gymnasium, a 5,000 seat multi-purpose arena, named for Caroline Sinclair, who was the head of the physical education department at the time.  It was home to the James Madison Dukes basketball team until the James Madison University Convocation Center opened in 1982.  The building also houses Savage Natatorium, an Olympic-size swimming pool, with seats for 800 spectators.  The facility was named for Dorothy Savage, a former physical education instructor.

References

Further reading

Indoor arenas in Virginia
Defunct college basketball venues in the United States
Sports venues in Virginia
Basketball venues in Virginia
James Madison Dukes basketball

Godwin Hall


Nerijus Barasa (born 1 June 1978) is a Lithuanian former professional footballer. He played as a right-back or defensive midfielder.

Career
Barasa started his career with FBK Kaunas in 1994 before joining Atlantas Klaipėda the following season. After a year in Latvia with Baltika Liepāja, he returned to Lithuania with his family, then FBK Kaunas came in for him.

Kaunas beckoned for Barasa in 2001, where he spent the following five seasons; four in the Russian Premier League with FC Krylia Sovetov Samara and FC Alania Vladikavkaz and one in the Russian First Division with FC Lada Togliatti. During this period he was called up to the Lithuanian national team, earning his first cap in 2001.

At the end of the 2005 season, Barasa moved to Scotland, signing for FBK Kaunas, then being immediately loaned to Heart of Midlothian. He joined the Tynecastle side on 13 January 2006 and spent a total of 16 months with the Edinburgh club before moving back to Kaunas.

In October 2006, Barasa was at the centre of controversy when he and compatriot Saulius Mikoliūnas were booed by Hearts fans for perceived poor form in a game against Rangers. This prompted Hearts' Sporting Director Alex Kozlovski to suggest that the supporters had ulterior motives for booing them, expressly their nationality. This claim was contested by fans representative groups and Kozlovski later apologised and retracted it.

Barasa missed half of the 2006–07 season due to injury and left Hearts in the summer of 2007, before also rescinding his contract with Kaunas. After that he retired in order to pursue business interests in Samara, Russia, where he lives with his wife. His last game was against Celtic in the Scottish Premier League on 14 January 2007.

International goals
Scores and results list Lithuania's goal tally first.

Honours
National Team
 Baltic Cup
 2005

References

External links

Hearts appearances at londonhearts.com

1978 births
Living people
Lithuanian men's footballers
Lithuania men's international footballers
Lithuanian expatriate men's footballers
FBK Kaunas footballers
FC Spartak Vladikavkaz players
PFC Krylia Sovetov Samara players
Heart of Midlothian F.C. players
Russian Premier League players
Scottish Premier League players
Expatriate men's footballers in Scotland
Expatriate men's footballers in Russia
FC Lada-Tolyatti players
Barasa
FK Kareda Kaunas players
Men's association football fullbacks
Men's association football midfielders

Nerijus Barasa


Danske Lov (English: Danish Code) is the title of a Danish statute book from 1683 that previously formed the basis for the Danish legislation. Even though it was mainly a compilation of older, regional laws, it took seven different commissions over several decades under two different monarchs to put the Code together. In 1687, Norway received its Norwegian Code, which in form and content is about identical to the Danish Code. The Danish Code has been translated into English, Latin, German and Russian.

The statute should be viewed in connection with the European traditions of justice, which since the 12th century has moved towards an assembly of different practices. This tradition was encouraged by the Catholic Church. The majority of the statute has now been superseded by newer laws. However, parts of the Code are still in force, e.g. 3-19-2, which states that an employer is responsible for compensation for damages that an employee might cause during his/her employment.

Background

The historical book Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus, which is dated to the 13th century, describes the Danish kings' attempts at legislation. One of the first examples of Danish legislation was 'Vederloven' from the 1180s, that regulated the personal army of the king, also known as the Housecarls. This was superseded by a series of regional laws, first Scanian Law, later Jyske Lov and Sjællandske Lov. Generally, the regional laws are based on Casuistry. This means that they are based on concrete cases of breaches of the law, and describe how the conflict is to be solved. However, the rules of procedure are broad.

History

The two first Law Committees and Peder Lassen

Immediately after gaining absolute power King Frederick III appointed a commission to scrutinize the laws of the kingdom, to identify laws that were in conflict with the absolute power of the king and to work out a new procedure for the administration of justice. The Danish Code is seen as being born of necessity, as justice was at the time administered on the basis of a large number of somewhat contradictory laws.

Additionally, the division of Denmark into two judiciary areas, based on Jutland and Zealand respectively was seen as bothersome and anachronistic. On January 12, 1661, the State College (), a governing body overseeing the workings of the government, published a report suggesting to work out a comprehensive Danish Code. King Frederick III then established The First Law Committee consisting of 3 jurists (including Supreme Court Assessor Peder Lassen), 8 noblemen and 10 civilians. Work in the first Committee broke down, one of the causes being that the noblemen were unhappy with the suggested diminishing of their privileges.

On November 16, 1662, the King replaced the first Committee with the Second Law Committee consisting of the former Committee's four foremost legal experts, Peder Lassen, Heinrich Ernst, Otte Krag and Niels Trolle. The Committee drafted several completely new statutes, and especially Peder Lassens suggestions regarding inheritance were ahead of their time in Denmark. The committee's suggestions regarding laws of legal procedure were handed to the State College, which replied positively in July, 1664. To revise the suggestions, the Second Law Committee was expanded with four jurists from the State College, after which the work began to decline once again.

The third Law Committee and Rasmus Vinding
A third Committee was established on February 23, 1666, consisting of Peder Lassen, Vice Treasurer Holger Vind, State College Assessor Kristoffer Parsberg and Supreme Court judge Rasmus Vinding. The new Committee reflected the influence of statesman Peder Schumacher (Count Griffenfeld after his ennoblement), as both Parsberg and Vinding were his close friends. The third Committee started off a lengthy conflict between Lassen and Vinding regarding the Code, as Lassen was the professional jurist, while Vinding lacked legal training. A professor of history and geography, Vinding had a good reputation as a gifted judge, but lacked in-depth knowledge of the Danish laws.

Work in the Third Committee did not get under way, so on March 8, 1666, the King ordered each of the committee's four members to compile and revise their own set of laws, removing outdated statutes from the Danish system of legal writs. In practice, all earlier work was abandoned, which was a defeat for Lassen who had been the driving force so far, and perhaps a tactical move by the King to have him superseded by Vinding. Of the four submitted drafts, Vinding's so-called Codex Fredericus gained the best reception, after which legislative work dwindled down again. Meanwhile, Lassen kept his rejected draft at hand should Vinding's draft be turned down.

By the late 1660s, Vinding's friend Peder Schumacher was appointed as Assessor both to the State College and the Supreme Court. He used his influence with the King to get Vinding's draft approved, so Vinding by a secret order on March 11, 1669, was given the task of drafting the new body of laws, Corpus juris Danici. By the end of 1669, Vinding put forth his suggestions, which was an updated version of his earlier Codex Fredericus, but with a more systematic setup and fewer outdated or contradictory sections. The content of the text was mainly old laws coupled with new laws based on earlier verdicts (i.e. Common Law).

Revisions under Christian V

After the death of King Frederick III in 1670, legislative work slowed down again. Peder Schumacher's (now Count Griffenfeld) interest in the project also died down.

First Committee: After a long break, on September 24, 1672, a three-person Revision Committee was established to revise Rasmus Vindings draft. The three members were Peder Lassen, Attorney General Peder Lauridsen Scavenius and chancellor Peder Reedtz, who headed the committee. Bishop Hans Vandal was also connected to the work, revising the sections dealing with the clergy. Lassen criticized Vinding's division of the Code into five parts, suggesting only three parts instead. However, his criticism was not as vehement as previously, perhaps because he tired out – Lassen had been connected with the project since its beginning 11 years earlier. Lassen's revisions to the draft are mostly corrections of misunderstandings, with very few highly negative comments. Thus, Vinding and Griffenfeld (previously Schumacher) had won the battle over the layout of the text.

Second Committee: With the death of committee leader Reedz on July 10, 1674, Griffenfeld took over. He created the Second Revision Committee by including his brother-in-law, mayor of Copenhagen Jørgen Fogh and his friend Vinding in the committee. When Griffenfeld fell from power on March 11, 1676, work on the Danish Code stopped completely for four years.

Third Committee: On February 28, 1680, a royal missive was published establishing the Third Revision Committee. It consisted of 13 members, among these the three clergymen bishop Hans Bagger, Royal Confessor Hans Leth and professor in theology Kristian Nold. Work in the committee broke down, mainly because of the clergymen who unsuccessfully tried to demolish the committee. The sticking point was the rights of confession of foreigners living in Denmark, especially the exiled French Huguenots.

Fourth Committee: The drawn out arguments caused the King to appoint a Fourth Revision Committee on April 16, 1681, consisting of four people, among these Rasmus Vinding. They were selected to complete a final revision of the Code, and they made many minor changes and additions to the previous draft. The committee completed its work by the end of 1681, and the King approved the Danish Code on January 3, 1682. Small corrections continued to be made until June 23, where the Law was printed, even though it was officially completed on April 15, the King's birthday.

Contents
In addition to the oaths sworn by judges and witnesses, the Danish code contains six books:
1: Om Retten og Rettens Personer (The court and people at the court)
2: Om Religion og Geistligheden (Religion and the clergy)
3: Om Verdslig- og Huus-Stand (Temporal positions)
4: Om Søretten (The Maritime Court)
5: Om Adkomst, Gods og Gield (Inheritance, estate and debt)
6: Om Misgierninger (Misdeeds)

Implication and importance of the Code
The final Danish Code is first and foremost based on earlier Danish legislative work. Roman law, which held great influence in Europe at the time, can only be traced in a few places. This fits well with the main purpose, which since the Third Law Committee was to compile already existing laws into a more useful format. Thus, the Danish Code only treated new areas to a limited extent.

The enactment of the Danish law is a milestone in the history of law in Denmark and even in Northern Europe, marking the beginning of the evolution of the Danish legal system from medieval law to a modern legal system. The problem that plagued Danish economic development and centralization was resolved. The contradiction between the civil law represented by Scanian Law and the law of the Jyske Lov was solved by the Danish law of Christian V, and for centuries The law has also been systematically organized and improved. From the Supreme Court in Copenhagen to the countryside in Jutland, everyone benefits from the simplicity, clarity and rigor of Danish law. The Danish judicial area was previously divided into Jutland and Zealand, which triggered a series of confusing issues that were resolved after the Danish law was enacted. It is undeniable that the codification of Danish law has the purpose of establishing royal prestige by Frederick III and Christian V, but the progressive nature of Danish law cannot be denied. The Danish law is also the basis of modern Danish law. The idea that "punishment is based on crime prevention" has great progress in Europe at the time. The progressive nature of Danish law is also reflected in the law of inheritance,Peder Lassen's proposal made the Danish law ahead of the European countries in terms of inheritance regulations. And the legislative spirit of Danish law is also used in modern Danish law.

It outlawed crimes against nature (), a collective term for a group of sexual acts including sodomy and bestiality; the prescribed punishment was that of burning at the stake.

Later professors of law and history, notably Anders Sandøe Ørsted and Edvard Holm, have commented that the Danish Code was one particularly positive aspect of the absolute monarchy, although Stig Iuul holds that earlier legislation deserves the credit because the Danish Code is mostly a compilation.

The English envoy to Denmark at the time, Robert Molesworth, praises the Danish Code in his otherwise highly negative text, An account of Denmark as it was in the year 1692. He states that in justice, brevity and clarity, the Code surpasses all other legal texts he knows of. It is so clear and simple to understand, that any literate person can understand his case and is able to represent himself in Court if he so wishes.

References

Sources
 Stig Iuul, Kodifikation eller Kompilation? - Christian V's Danske Lov paa baggrund af ældre Ret, G.E.C. Gads Forlag, 1954.
 (Danish) History of Law at the Department of Law at University of Copenhagen

External links
 (Danish) The Danish Code on the website Retsinfo – see here which parts are still in force
 Forarbejderne til kong Kristian Vs Danske Lov (1893) (Danish) published by Vilhelm Adolf Secher and Chr. Størchel available online via Internet Archive

Germanic legal codes
17th century in Danish law
1683 books
1683 in law
1683 in Denmark

Danish Code


Clifford Lawrence Doan (April 27, 1905 – November 25, 1990) was a provincial level politician from Alberta, Canada. He served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1971 to 1979 sitting with the governing Progressive Conservative caucus.

Political career
Doan ran for a seat to the Alberta Legislature in the 1971 Alberta general election. He ran against Social Credit incumbent William Ure in the new electoral district of Innisfail. Doan won the straight fight defeating Ure by less than 300 votes.

Doan ran for re-election in the 1975 Alberta general election. He faced three other opposing candidates and increased his popular support. The opposition vote collapsed and he won the district with a near landslide. Doan retired from provincial politics at dissolution of the assembly in 1979.

References

External links
Legislative Assembly of Alberta Members Listing

Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta MLAs
1905 births
1990 deaths

Clifford Doan


Ski Dubai is an indoor ski resort with 22,500 square meters of indoor ski area. The park maintains a temperature of -1 degree to 2 degrees Celsius throughout the year. It is a part of the Mall of the Emirates, one of the largest shopping malls in the world, located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It was developed by Majid Al Futtaim Group, which also operates the Mall of the Emirates.

Opened in November 2005, the indoor resort features an 85-metre-high indoor mountain (equivalent to a 25-story building) with 5 slopes of varying steepness and difficulty, including a 400-metre-long run, the world's first indoor black diamond run, and various features (boxes, rails, kickers) that are changed on a regular basis. A chairlift and a tow lift carry skiers and snowboarders up the mountain. Equipment such as skis and jackets are provided with the ticket and one can buy equipment in the nearby stores.  Adjoining the slopes is a 3,000-square-metre Snow Park play area comprising sled and toboggan runs, an icy body slide, climbing towers, giant snowballs and an ice cave. Ski Dubai also houses a number of penguins who are let out of their enclosures several times a day. Penguin encounters can be booked, allowing the public to interact directly with the penguins.

In 2007 Ski Dubai was awarded the Thea Outstanding Achievement Award by the Themed Entertainment Association. Ski Dubai was designed by Acer Snowmec (part of the 360 Group and designers of the largest indoor ski centre in the world, Harbin Indoor Ski Centre). Acer Snowmec also provides the patented snow making technology to the centre. The Snow Play Area was designed and produced by Thinkwell Group.

See also
SnOasis
SSAWS
Tourist attractions in Dubai

References

External links

Indoor ski resorts
Ski areas and resorts in the United Arab Emirates
Buildings and structures completed in 2005
Resorts in Dubai

Ski Dubai


In the theory of formal languages, the interchange lemma states a necessary condition for a language to be context-free, just like the pumping lemma for context-free languages.

It states that for every context-free language  there is a  such that for all  for any collection of length  words  there is a  with , and decompositions  such that each of , ,  is independent of , moreover, , and the words  are in  for every  and .

The first application of the interchange lemma was to show that the set of repetitive strings (i.e., strings of the form  with ) over an alphabet of three or more characters is not context-free.

See also
 Pumping lemma for regular languages

References

Formal languages
Lemmas

Interchange lemma


A defined contribution (DC) plan is a type of retirement plan in which the employer, employee or both make contributions on a regular basis. Individual accounts are set up for participants and benefits are based on the amounts credited to these accounts (through employee contributions and, if applicable, employer contributions) plus any investment earnings on the money in the account. In defined contribution plans, future benefits fluctuate on the basis of investment earnings. The most common type of defined contribution plan is a savings and thrift plan. Under this type of plan, the employee contributes a predetermined portion of his or her earnings (usually pretax) to an individual account, all or part of which is matched by the employer.

In the United States,  specifies a defined contribution plan as a "plan which provides for an individual account for each participant and for benefits based solely on the amount contributed to the participant's account, and any income, expenses, gains and losses, and any forfeitures of accounts of other participants which may be allocated to such participant's account".

Overview
In a defined contribution plan, contributions are paid into an individual account by employers and employees. The contributions are then invested, for example in the stock market, and the returns on the investment (which may be positive or negative) are credited to the individual's account. On retirement, the member's account is used to provide retirement benefits, sometimes through the purchase of an annuity which then provides a regular income. Defined contribution plans have become widespread all over the world in recent years and are now the dominant form of plan in the private sector in many countries.

For example, the number of defined contribution plans in the US has been steadily increasing, as more and more employers see pension contributions as a large expense avoidable by disbanding the defined benefit plan and instead offering a defined contribution plan.

Money contributed can either be from employee salary deferral or from employer contributions. The portability of defined contribution plans is legally no different from the portability of defined benefit plans. However, because of the cost of administration and ease of determining the plan sponsor's liability for defined contribution plans (no actuary is needed to calculate the lump sum equivalent unlike for defined benefit plans), in practice, defined contribution plans have become generally portable.

In a defined contribution plan, investment risk and investment rewards are assumed by each individual/employee/retiree and not by the sponsor/employer. This risk could be substantial. Based on simulations from security returns over the twentieth century across 16 countries, there is considerable variation in retirement plan fund ratios across both time and country. Those countries keenest on individual DC accounts have the highest retirement plan fund ratios but all investors in all countries face considerable downside risk.

Some countries such as France, Italy and Spain face a ten percent probability of having a real replacement ratio of 0.25, 0.20 and 0.17 respectively. In addition, DC scheme participants do not necessarily purchase annuities with their savings upon retirement and bear the risk of outliving their assets.

The "cost" of a defined contribution plan is readily calculated, but the benefit from a defined contribution plan depends upon the account balance at the time an employee is looking to use the assets. So, for this arrangement, the contribution is known but the benefit is unknown (until calculated).

Despite the fact that the participant in a defined contribution plan typically has control over investment decisions, the plan sponsor retains a significant degree of fiduciary responsibility over investment of plan assets, including the selection of investment options and administrative providers.

By country
Defined contribution plans are common in the United States, and exist in various other countries, including: the UK's personal retirement plans and proposed National Employment Savings Trust (NEST), Germany's Riester plans, Australia's Superannuation system, and New Zealand's KiwiSaver scheme. Individual retirement savings plans also exist in Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Georgia, Greece, Finland, Ireland, Japan, Korea, Netherlands, Slovenia and Spain.

United States
In the United States, the legal definition of a defined contribution plan is a plan providing for an individual account for each participant, and for benefits based solely on the amount contributed to the account, plus or minus income, gains, expenses and losses allocated to the account (see ).  Examples of defined contribution plans in the US include  401(k) plans and Profit-sharing pension plans. The Thrift Savings Plan, open to all Federal employees and uniformed service members, is among the largest such plans.

In such plans, the employee is often responsible  for selecting the types of investments toward which the funds in the retirement plan are allocated. This may range from choosing one of a small number of pre-determined mutual funds to selecting individual stocks or other securities. Most defined contribution plans are characterized by certain tax advantages, and some provide for a portion of the employee's contributions to be matched by the employer, either automatically (in the case of safe harbor contributions) or at the employer's discretion. In exchange, the funds in such plans may not be withdrawn by the employee prior to reaching a certain age – typically the year the employee reaches 59.5 years old (with a small number of exceptions, such as retirement before that age) – without incurring a substantial penalty in addition to taxes.

Congress has limited the amount that may be contributed annually to defined contribution plans. For 2023, the total deferral limit (which includes employer contributions, employee contributions to employer sponsored plans, and IRA contributions both deductible and non-deductible) is $66,000 or 100% of compensation, whichever is less, with a separate employee-only limit to employer sponsored plans of $22,500.  Employees age 50 or over may contribute an additional $7,500 which is not subject to the total deferral or employee limits. The amounts are indexed to compensate for the effects of inflation but increase only in multiples of $500, which means that in some years the amounts do not increase.

United Kingdom
In the UK the shift from defined benefit to defined contribution retirement plans has elevated significantly, to the point where many large DB plans are no longer open to new employees. This momentum has been employer-driven and is considered a response to a combination of factors such as pension underfunding, declined long-term interest rates and the move to more market-based accounting. The focus is now on managing pension fund assets in relation to liabilities instead of market benchmarks. The Pensions Policy Institute estimates that in 2013 there were approximately 8 million private sector workers building up DC benefits, compared to approximately 1 million building up DB benefits. However, one point of concern with these schemes is that employers often contribute less than what they would under final salary plans. According to the National Association of Pension Funds (NAPF), employers contribute on average 11% of salary into final salary schemes, compared to only 6% to money purchase. This indicates that individuals will have to save more of their own income into a retirement fund in order to accomplish a satisfactory retirement income. Companies such as Aon Hewitt, Mercer and Aviva recognise these challenges and have identified the need to help new generations of workers with their retirement funding plans.

Budget 2014: All tax restrictions on retired people's access to their registered retirement pots are removed, ending the requirement to buy an annuity. The taxable part of the registered retirement pot is taken as cash on retirement to be charged at normal income tax rate(s). The increase in total registered retirement savings that people can take as a lump sum to £30,000.

Germany
Defined contribution plans were introduced in Germany as part of the "Law Strengthening Occupational Pensions" (Betriebsrentenstärkungsgesetz) in July 2017. Prior to the reform, defined contribution plans were illegal and any plan could ultimately trigger a liability for the employer if the plan went into default. These plans can be implemented only by collective bargaining agreements.

Japan
Defined contribution schemes have existed in Japan since October 2001, and as of March 2012 cover more than 4 million workers at about 16,400 companies.

Singapore
The Central Provident Fund (CPF) is Singapore's national pension fund. It is a defined contribution plan, contributed by employers and employees. With over 3 million members, it ranks among the world's largest defined contribution (DC) schemes. The CPF Board, a statutory authority established by legislation, runs this national pension fund.

India
Central Government employees in India who joined after January 1, 2004 participate in National Pension Scheme which is defined contribution plan run by Pension Fund Regulatory Authority of India. Earlier employees were under Defined Benefit Plan.

All Government and Private sector organizations had to offer Provident Fund (PF) which is a type of Defined Contribution Plan. The NPS which was started in 2004 is a recent option given to all Central Government employees. The 10% of contribution made by the employer and employees are mandated by the regulations. Additionally employees are given the ability to opt for an additional contribution if they so desire. All contributions are managed by the PF authority. PF authority choose the investment vehicle, however the beneficiaries are given a standard % of returns on their contribution. Some large private sector organizations have also formed their Trust to manage the contributions received from its employees.

See also
 Bureau of Labor Statistics
 Thrift Savings Plan
 Pension
 Cash balance plan
 Retirement
 Individual Retirement Accounts
 401(k) plans
 Collective trust fund

References

External links
 Defined contribution plan in glossary, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Division of Information Services
 Small-business retirement plans, Bankrate
 Not So Golden, Human Resource Executive Online
 Putnam chief Reynolds leads effort to fix DC plans, Investment News

Pensions
Investment

Defined contribution plan


Anopterus macleayanus, commonly known as  Queensland laurel or Macleay laurel, is a shrub or small tree in the family Escalloniaceae. It is native to Queensland and New South Wales in Australia.

The species was formally described in 1859 by botanist Ferdinand von Mueller, having been collected from the summit of Mt Lindesay. It was named in honour of Sir William Macleay. It is one of two species that belong to the genus Anopterus.

Anopterus macleayanus can grow up to 15 metres (50 ft) high and has oblanceolate (spear-shaped) leaves that are  and  with blunt serrated margins. The juvenile leaves may be considerably larger. The petioles and leaf bases are red-tinged. The white flowers occur in racemes between October and December (mid spring to early summer) in its native range.

Anopterus macleayanus is a plant of warm-temperate and subtropical rainforest from the Comboyne Plateau in New South Wales northwards into Queensland.

The thrips species Thrips setipennis was recovered from the flowers of Anopterus macleayanus, suggesting it may be a pollinator.

Its long leaves with wavy margins and red-pink highlights give it horticultural potential. Anopterus macleayanus grows best in part-shaded positions  in well-drained soil in the garden, with added water during the summer. As a rainforest floor plant, it requires a sheltered position when becoming established in the garden. It is resilient but can be slow-growing. It can be grown in containers, even as an indoor plant.

References

Asterids of Australia
Flora of New South Wales
Flora of Queensland
Trees of Australia
Escalloniaceae

Anopterus macleayanus


Diablo is an action role-playing video game developed by Blizzard North and released by Blizzard Entertainment in January 1997, and is the first installment in the video game series of the same name.

Set in the fictional Kingdom of Khanduras in the mortal realm, the player controls a lone hero battling to rid the world of Diablo, the Lord of Terror. Beneath the town of Tristram, the player journeys through sixteen randomly generated dungeon levels, ultimately entering Hell in order to face Diablo.

An expansion pack, Diablo: Hellfire, was released in November 1997 by Synergistic Software. In 1998, Electronic Arts released Diablo for the PlayStation. This version, developed by Climax Studios, featured direct control of the main character's direction using the PlayStation controller, as opposed to point-and-click movement. A Sega Saturn version was considered by Electronic Arts but never released. Diablo has been considered one of the greatest games of all time for its randomized assignment of quests and enemies on each playthrough, online multiplayer, and graphics. The game's success led to several sequels: Diablo II in 2000, Diablo III in 2012, and Diablo IV in 2023. In 2022 a mobile-device-oriented version, Diablo Immortal, was released.

Gameplay
Diablo is an action role-playing video game. The player moves and interacts with the environment primarily by way of a mouse. Other actions, such as casting a spell, are performed in response to keyboard inputs. The player can acquire items, learn spells, defeat enemies, and interact with non-player characters (NPCs) throughout the game.

The dungeon levels are procedurally generated with themes for each level; for instance, the catacombs tend to have long corridors and closed rooms, while the caves are more non-linear. The players are assigned a random number of quests from several tiers; these quests are optional but usually offer powerful unique items as rewards and help to level up the character and/or reveal more of the backstory. The final two quests are mandatory in order to finish the game.

Classes

Diablo has three character classes: the Warrior, the Rogue, and the Sorcerer. Each class has a different level of assigned attributes along with a unique skill. Each class is capable of using almost all of the same items and spells, in contrast to later titles in the Diablo series which have class-specific items and spells/skills. However, the limitations in the attributes for each class reward play that utilizes them efficiently; for instance the Warrior's low maximum level of Magic prevents him from learning the higher levels of powerful spells like the Sorcerer, instead the Warrior is best suited to melee with a faster weapon swing plus a "critical strike" for bonus damage.
 Warrior: The most physically able of the three classes. The Warrior is a close-quarters fighter and can generally take the most physical damage. The Warrior's primary character attribute is Strength. The Warrior starts with the skill to repair objects in his possession at the cost of overall durability.
 Rogue: A master of ranged weapons. While not as strong as the Warrior, the rogue is very effective at attacking enemies from a distance with the bow. A jack-of-all-trades class, the Rogue has higher Magic than the Warrior so she can better make use of spells, while she also fares better in melee than a Sorcerer. The Rogue's primary character attribute is Dexterity. The Rogue's unique starting skill is the ability to disarm traps.
 Sorcerer: A spellcaster being the most physically weak of the three classes, but can learn the most spells at the highest levels. The Sorcerer's primary character attribute is Magic. The Sorcerer's unique starting skill is the ability to recharge spell staves at the cost of lowering the maximum number of spell charges that the staff can hold.

In the expansion set, Diablo: Hellfire, the Monk was added. The Monk is proficient at melee combat with the staff. Two other classes, the Bard and Barbarian, were unfinished but remained hidden characters in Diablo: Hellfire, and could be enabled using a hack. Using the in-game sprites of the Rogue and Warrior, respectively, the Bard is capable of dual-wielding weapons while the Barbarian was a two-handed axe specialist.

Items
White-colored items are normal items, blue-colored items are magic items and gold-colored items are unique items. Any items that are not white in color must be identified to make use of their magical effects, although characters can use unidentified items as they would the base item. Magic items can have a maximum of 2 of these effects, but unique items can have as many as 6. Furthermore, Uniques can have special properties, or properties not found in the usual prefixes/suffixes for that item type; most uniques have a very rare chance of being dropped, although certain uniques are guaranteed quest rewards. Items wear down through use, and have fixed amounts of durability that decrease as they receive damage; when an item's durability reaches zero, it is destroyed. Players can return to the town and pay a fee to an NPC, Griswold the Blacksmith, to have the items restored, while the Warrior can repair objects in his possession at the cost of overall durability.

Bows are the ranged weapon of the game, best used by rogues. Staves, while capable of physical attacks, are mainly used for the spell charges that they contain, as casting from a staff does not require the player to learn the spell or use mana. A staff's spell can only be cast a certain number of times before it requires a recharge, usually returning to town and paying an NPC, Adria the Witch, while the Sorcerer can recharge the staff which lowers the maximum number of spell charges. Swords are typically one-handed (though two-handed varieties also exist), while axes are all two-handed. Maces and clubs add a 50% damage bonus against the undead. Two-handed melee weapons allow the player to inflict more damage.  Shields, when paired with single-handed weapons, allow attacks to be blocked. There are three classifications of armor: light, medium and heavy. Characters are also allowed to wear a helmet, two rings, and one amulet. Many higher-level weapons and armor can only be equipped if the player meets the minimum strength and/or dexterity requirements.

Books contain spell formulae and cannot be used more than once; reading the first book will place that particular spell in the character's repository while using multiple books of the same spell will increase the spell level, up to a maximum of 15. A character needs a minimum level of the magic attribute in order to read spell books, particularly in raising spells to higher levels, where they are more typically more powerful/effective while consuming less mana for each casting. Scrolls allow use of both spells not yet learned as well as and spells not available in book form, but vanish after one use. Many potions are available for use, including health and mana restoration, and elixirs that increase statistics.

Multiplayer
Multiplayer is available up to four players. Multiplayer characters' states are saved periodically. Players can either be aggressive towards, or play co-operatively with, other players. Players can connect direct connection, modem connection, Battle.net connection or IPX network connection. The game lacks the stronger anti-cheating methods of Blizzard's later games and as a result, many characters online have been altered in various ways by common third-party programs known as trainers and/or game editing programs such as Cheat Engine.

Plot

Setting
The setting of Diablo includes the mortal realm which is the world of Man as well as the High Heavens and the Burning Hells.:61, 62, 64 & 72 After eons of war between angels and demons, the ascension of man prompted the three Lords of Hell (including Diablo himself) to seek victory through influence, prompting their exile into the mortal realm. There, they sowed chaos, distrust, and hatred among men until a group of magi, called the Horadrim, trapped them in enchanted crystals called "Soulstones". Diablo's soulstone was buried deep in the earth and a monastery was built over the site.

Generations passed and the purpose of the monastery was forgotten. A small town named Tristram sprang up next to the monastery's ruins. When King Leoric rebuilt the monastery as a cathedral, Diablo manipulated its archbishop, Lazarus, to destroy his soulstone prison. Diablo briefly possessed the king, sending out his knights and priests to battle against peaceful kingdoms, and then possessed the king's son, Prince Albrecht, filling the caves and catacombs beneath the cathedral with creatures formed from Albrecht's nightmares.

Tristram became a town of fear and horror, where people were abducted in the night. With no king, no law, and no army left to defend them, many villagers fled.

Story
The game starts when the player's character arrives in Tristram. Several of the remaining townsfolk assist the player such as Deckard Cain the Elder. The labyrinth under the Cathedral descends from the dungeon/church, to the catacombs, followed by the caves, and finally Hell itself, each with a mixture of the undead, animals, and demons. King Leoric has been re-animated as the Skeleton King.

Late in the game, the hero must defeat Archbishop Lazarus, and eventually Diablo himself. At the end of the game, the hero kills Diablo's mortal form. The hero then takes the Soulstone out of Diablo's forehead after which Diablo transforms into a lifeless Prince Albrecht. The hero then drives the Soulstone into their own forehead, and they contain the essence of Diablo within themselves.

As told in the sequel Diablo II, canonically the warrior was the hero that defeated Diablo only to become possessed. The Rogue became Blood Raven while the Sorcerer became the False Summoner, both of them NPC enemies. Diablo III further retconned the story by establishing the nameless warrior as Prince Aidan, the eldest son of Leoric and older brother of Albrecht.

Development

Diablo was conceived by David Brevik during the development of the fighting game Justice League Task Force (1995), developed by Japanese studio Sunsoft with two American studios, Condor Games (later Blizzard North) on the Sega Genesis version and Silicon & Synapse on the SNES version, which by the end of Justice League Task Forces development, had renamed themselves Blizzard Entertainment. Brevik's concept was a personal computer game based heavily on the roguelike genre that featured turn-based gameplay, but he wanted to improve how quickly the player would be able to get into the game compared to typical role-playing games. Brevik was inspired by NHL '94 and similar sports games to make it so that players only had to select a pre-determined class and would be able to jump into the game with minimal interactions. Brevik also wanted these classes to be combinations of typical character classes so that players would be not overly restricted in what type of attacks or equipment they could use. A further departure from the roguelike approach was to make the loot system from felled monsters more expansive. According to Matt Barton, the game Telengard, released by Avalon Hill in 1982, influenced the development of Diablo. Barton and Bill Loguidice also cite The Legend of Zelda series as an influence on Diablo, particularly its move towards real-time action, away from the stat-heavy, turn-based gameplay of earlier computer RPGs. Brevik also wanted a "modern and cool" interface intended to bring the quick directness of console games as well as Doom (1993) to computer RPGs. He had named the game idea Diablo based on Mount Diablo, which was where Brevik lived when he conceived of the game idea.

Condor started development while pitching the game to publishers. Bill Roper said that the team's "initial pitch, in a nutshell, was to take the excitement and randomness of games like Moria, Nethack, and Rogue, and bring them into the 1990s with fantastic graphics and sound". Condor Games had tried to shop Brevik's idea to other publishers but was turned down on the grounds that "RPGs are dead".

While Condor sought a publisher for Brevik's idea, Blizzard had completed their next game, the real-time strategy Warcraft: Orcs & Humans (1994) for the personal computer. Condor Games saw Blizzard shared their same interest in personal computer games and pitched Brevik's idea to them. About three to four months into development, Blizzard offered to work with them on Diablo but requested two major changes, to make it real-time and to have multiplayer, having had done these steps during their work in creating Warcraft. Brevik did not want to change the turn-based nature of his game at first fearing that it would add extra time onto development, and Condor's development team put the idea to a vote, with the real-time approach winning out. Brevik prepared Blizzard for the potential added development time and to ask for extra development costs, and then on a Friday afternoon as everyone had left, started to toy around with converting the game from turn-based to real-time; within hours he had the basics of the system in place, and was able to show this to the rest of Condor by the following Monday. They kept this news from Blizzard for a short while but eventually revealed how fast they had come up with the change, which Blizzard readily accepted.

The game was also originally conceived to be made in claymation (much like ClayFighter), but they decided to have a 3D isometric style instead.

In 1996, as development on Diablo continued, Blizzard acquired Condor Games. Blizzard named their Irvine, California location to Blizzard South and Condor Games to Blizzard North to distinguish their studios. Around eight months before the planned release, Blizzard South were finishing up Warcraft II, and began focusing on the upcoming release of Diablo. Blizzard did not want to rely on existing online gaming services like Total Entertainment Network for matchmaking. While Blizzard North finished up Diablo, Blizzard South began development of the basis of Battle.net. According to Brevik, when Blizzard South came up to start to see how Diablos multiplayer code would incorporate with Battle.net, they discovered then that Diablo had no multiplayer code as Brevik nor others had any idea how to write such code. Blizzard South sent employees up to Blizzard North, including Mike O'Brien, at that point to incorporate multiplayer for Diablo and interface with Battle.net over the last six months of development.

Brevik revealed in 2018 that he initially hated the ending because it was the cinematic department's idea and did not follow the story outline he provided them, but after a few days he calmed down and decided the ending was pretty good after all.

Music
The music of Diablo was composed by Matt Uelmen. The soundtrack consists of six tracks. It was released after 15 years, in 2011.

Release
Diablo normally requires the original CD to play, however also included on the disk is a shareware version of the software that could be played without the CD called Diablo Spawn. This version of the game allows access to the first two areas of the dungeon, and locks out two of the three playable classes and many of the NPC townsfolk. It is playable in both single- and multiplayer with those restrictions. The demo is also downloadable.

In 2016, David Brevik stated that a dispute existed as to whether Diablo had been released in 1996 or 1997. In 1997 and 2000, Blizzard reported Diablos release date as January 1997, and issued a press release on January 3 to announce the game's availability in stores. At the time, CNET Gamecenter reported that Diablos wide release occurred on January 6. Conversely, Brevik argued in 2016 that the game was available in certain western U.S. retailers by December 31, 1996. Blizzard marked Diablos 20th anniversary on December 31, 2016.

In 2019 Diablo was released digitally on GOG.com with minor enhancements.

Reception

Sales
According to Max Schaefer, Blizzard's initial sales estimates for Diablo were modest. He remarked, "We were thinking that if everything went well, we would sell 100,000 copies." Following the game's positive press coverage before its release, estimates by the team were increased to roughly 500,000 copies, David Brevik later said. Pre-orders had surpassed 450,000 units globally by December 17, at which point the game was set to launch with a shipment of 500,000 units staggered across its initial days on shelves. Diablo debuted at #1 on PC Data's monthly computer game sales chart for January 1997. It held the position for another three months, before being displaced to #2 by X-Wing vs. TIE Fighter in May. Diablo remained in second place until September, when it dropped to fifth. It exited the top 10 that October.

In the United States, the game was the highest-selling computer title of the first six months of 1997. Its worldwide sales surpassed 500,000 units by April, 750,000 by June and 1 million by late November. By the end of 1997, Diablo had sold 670,155 copies in the United States alone. It was declared the country's fourth-best-selling computer game of the year by PC Data. Schaefer attributed the game's success in part to its December 27 shipment date, and noted that "there weren't any other games released after Christmas, so we were the only game in town for a long time."

After being absent from PC Data's charts during the final months of 1997, Diablo took 13th place in the rankings for February 1998. It remained in the top 20 for another month, dropped out in April and reappeared in June. It returned to the top 10 from July through October, rising to #3 in August. For the first half of 1998, it was the United States' 14th-best-selling computer release. At the time, Jason Ocampo of Computer Games Strategy Plus called Diablo one of the charts' " 'perennial' inhabitants", and compared its longevity to that of Myst and NASCAR Racing 2. The game's average sale price during the January–June period was $36; by October, it had fallen to $26. Diablo finished 11th for the year in the United States, with sales of 354,961 units and revenues of $9.57 million in the region. In August 1998, Diablo received a "Gold" sales award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD), indicating sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.

Diablos global sales reached almost 2 million units by September 1998. One year later, its sales in the United States alone had grown to 1.17 million copies, which made it the country's seventh-highest computer game seller since January 1993. This number rose to 1.3 million copies by March 2000. Remarking upon these sales, GameSpot's writer Desslock hailed Diablo as an "undisputed commercial blockbuster". The game returned in 2000 to PC Data's annual top 20 for the United States, with 260,020 copies sold.

Worldwide, Diablo broke 2 million sales by mid-2000 and reached 2.3 million by January of the next year. Ultimately, the game sold over 2.5 million units by mid-2001. According to GameSpot Japan, the game was a "big hit" among Japanese players.

Critical reviews

Diablo has received critical acclaim, with an average rating of 94/100 on Metacritic. Most praised the game's addictive gameplay, randomly generated dungeons, superior graphics, moody musical score, and great variety of possible magic items, enemies, levels, and quests. This last aspect was noted by GameSpot editor Trent Ward in his review: "Similarly, although a set number of monsters is included, only a few will be seen during each full game. This means that players going back for their second or third shot at the game will very likely fight opponents they haven't seen before. Talk about replay value."

Reviewers commonly cited the online multiplayer aspect as one of the strongest points of the game, with it being described as greatly extending its replay value. Columnist Bernard Yee commented that compared to contemporary online multiplayer games such as Quake, Diablo gives newcomers a much better chance of enjoying themselves, as they can either cooperate with other players or build their character so that they can hold their own against hostile players. Computer Games Magazines Cindy Yans said that "weapons, armor and items are so numerous that you're always acquiring something new to try... not to mention the game's multiplayer universe"; she went on to say that "for anyone who enjoys a good multiplayer dungeon crawl, Diablo can't be beat". Yans finished her review, "Despite the rather pale storyline, [...] watered-down quests and a fair amount of necessary repetition, Diablo is a must for anyone interested in 'just plain fun.'" Ward stated: "Diablo is the best game to come out in the past year, and you should own a copy. Period."

Macworlds Michael Gowan wrote, "The only downside to this role-playing game is that the adventure ends too soon." Steve Klett's review for PC Games, which was reprinted in sister magazine GamePro, commented that "Diablos definitely not your typical dungeon hackfest. ... In fact, its closest rivals are games like Gauntlet and Loaded on the PlayStation, but they really don't compare." Next Generation similarly remarked that Diablo is more of a modern incarnation of Gauntlet than an RPG, "but with enough changes and improvements to make it a completely new experience, and one of the best titles so far this year."

Reviews for the PlayStation version generally remarked that while it is clearly inferior to the PC original, it is a much better translation than might have been expected and carries over the essential elements that make the game enjoyable. Most agreed that the use of button combinations and menus was a sufficient solution to getting the complex controls to work intuitively on the PlayStation, and Next Generation went so far as to say that the controls are an improvement over the PC version's, particularly arguing that the auto-targeting makes attacking enemies less frustrating than it is with the PC version's point-and-click. They concluded that "If you were addicted to the PC version, you can experience it all over again on PlayStation. And if you haven't played Diablo at all, check this one out." However, IGNs Doug Perry was dissatisfied with the controls, saying they slow the game's pace. Perry also opined that the multiplayer should have used split screen or the PlayStation Link Cable rather than require the two player characters to stay on one screen, though he said the conversion improved on the PC version in some respects as well, such as the option to double the game's speed. GamePro remarked, "Diablo was graphically stunning on the PC, and some of that sparkle has understandably dulled; the smaller palette and lesser frame rate are PlayStation-port necessities. And while you can't play online, there's a good two-player mode ... If you enjoyed the PC version, there's nothing new here, but if this is your first Diablo experience, you're in for a Hell of a good time."

Diablo won the overall "Game of the Year" awards of Computer Gaming World, GameSpot and Computer Game Entertainment for 1996, and was a runner-up for Computer Games Strategy Pluss award in this category. The editors of Computer Gaming World wrote, "For this year, Diablo is the game that everyone will remember." It was also named 1996's best computer role-playing game by GameSpot, Computer Game Entertainment and Computer Games. While it was nominated for Computer Gaming Worlds "Role-Playing Game of the Year" award, the publication gave the honor to The Elder Scrolls II: Daggerfall.

Legacy
In 1998, PC Gamer declared it the 42nd-best computer game ever released, and the editors called it "a nearly flawless gaming experience". Akira Nishitani ranked it number 1 on his personal list of the greatest games of all time in 1997.

In 2005 GameSpot chose Diablo as one of "The Greatest Games of All Time". It was placed at No. 20 on Game Informers "Top 100 RPGs Of All Time" list.

Expansions, ports, re-releases
The expansion pack made for Diablo is Diablo: Hellfire, released in 1997. It was produced by Synergistic Software and published by Sierra Entertainment rather than an in-house Blizzard North development team. The multiplayer feature of the expansion pack was disabled with version 1.01. The added content included two additional dungeon segments located within a new side storyline, several unique items and magical item properties, spells, and a fourth class, the Monk. There are also two unfinished "test" classes (the Bard and Barbarian) and two quests which could be accessed through a configuration file modification.

Blizzard sold exclusive worldwide rights to develop, publish, and distribute console versions of the game to Electronic Arts in 1996. In 1998, a PlayStation version of Diablo was released, developed by Climax Studios and published by Electronic Arts. The game lacked online play, but featured a two-player cooperative mode. Notable differences to the PC version include new lighting effects, auto-aiming for range weapons and spells, and an option for increased game speed. Despite the original PC game being based around mouse control, it does not support the PlayStation Mouse. It features an option to learn the story through a narrator without having to find the books in the game. The European PAL version is translated and dubbed into French, German and Swedish in addition to the original English.

The game was re-released alongside Hellfire in a 1998 bundle, called Diablo + Hellfire. 1998's Blizzard's Game of the Year Collection contained copies of Diablo, StarCraft and Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness. The Blizzard Anthology (2000) contained Diablo, StarCraft, StarCraft: Brood War and WarCraft II: Battle.net Edition. The Diablo Gift Pack (2000) contained Diablo and Diablo II, but no expansions. The Diablo: Battle Chest (2001) contained Diablo, Diablo II and Diablo IIs expansion, Lord of Destruction. Later releases of the Diablo: Battle Chest also have a strategy guide for Diablo II and Lord of Destruction, though subsequent releases do not include the original game, instead featuring Diablo II, its expansion, and their respective strategy guides.

For Diablos 20th anniversary, it was announced during BlizzCon 2016 that Diablo III would receive a free patch called The Darkening of Tristram that recreates the original game. The patch contains a 16-level dungeon, four main bosses from the 1997 version and special graphics filters and 8-directions limited movement like the original game. The test patch was released on November 11, 2016, on the Public Test Realm server.

In March 2019, Diablo was made available for sale on GOG.com, which marked the first time Blizzard had released the game on a digital distribution platform. The release featured two versions of the game: the original 1996 version and a new DirectX-based version built in-house by GOG that features additional display and graphical options.

References

Notes

Citations

External links

1997 video games
Action role-playing video games
Blizzard games
Dark fantasy role-playing video games
Cancelled Sega Saturn games
Classic Mac OS games
Climax Group games
Cooperative video games
Diablo (series) video games
Hack and slash role-playing games
Multiplayer online games
PlayStation (console) games
Role-playing video games
Video games about demons
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Matt Uelmen
Video games scored by Matthew Simmonds
Video games set in hell
Video games with expansion packs
Video games with isometric graphics
Video games written by Chris Metzen
Video games using procedural generation
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Multiplayer and single-player video games

Diablo (video game)