The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable border of endothelial cells that regulates the transfer of solutes and chemicals between the circulatory system and the central nervous system, thus protecting the brain from harmful or unwanted substances in the blood. The blood–brain barrier is formed by endothelial cells of the capillary wall, astrocyte end-feet ensheathing the capillary, and pericytes embedded in the capillary basement membrane. This system allows the passage of some small molecules by passive diffusion, as well as the selective and active transport of various nutrients, ions, organic anions, and macromolecules such as glucose and amino acids that are crucial to neural function.

The blood–brain barrier restricts the passage of pathogens, the diffusion of solutes in the blood, and large or hydrophilic molecules into the cerebrospinal fluid, while allowing the diffusion of hydrophobic molecules (O2, CO2, hormones) and small non-polar molecules. Cells of the barrier actively transport metabolic products such as glucose across the barrier using specific transport proteins. The barrier also restricts the passage of peripheral immune factors, like signaling molecules, antibodies, and immune cells, into the CNS, thus insulating the brain from damage due to peripheral immune events.

Specialized brain structures participating in sensory and secretory integration within brain neural circuits—the circumventricular organs and choroid plexus—have in contrast highly permeable capillaries.

Structure

The BBB results from the selectivity of the tight junctions between the endothelial cells of brain capillaries, restricting the passage of solutes.  At the interface between blood and the brain, endothelial cells are adjoined continuously by these tight junctions, which are composed of smaller subunits of transmembrane proteins, such as occludin, claudins (such as Claudin-5), junctional adhesion molecule (such as JAM-A). Each of these tight junction proteins is stabilized to the endothelial cell membrane by another protein complex that includes scaffolding proteins such as tight junction protein 1 (ZO1) and associated proteins.

The BBB is composed of endothelial cells restricting passage of substances from the blood more selectively than endothelial cells of capillaries elsewhere in the body. Astrocyte cell projections called astrocytic feet (also known as "glia limitans") surround the endothelial cells of the BBB, providing biochemical support to those cells. The BBB is distinct from the quite similar blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, which is a function of the choroidal cells of the choroid plexus, and from the blood-retinal barrier, which can be considered a part of the whole realm of such barriers.

Not all vessels in the human brain exhibit BBB properties. Some examples of this include the circumventricular organs, the roof of the third and fourth ventricles, capillaries in the pineal gland on the roof of the diencephalon and the pineal gland. The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin "directly into the systemic circulation", thus melatonin is not affected by the blood–brain barrier.

Development
The BBB appears to be functional by the time of birth. P-glycoprotein, a transporter, exists already in the embryonal endothelium.

Measurement of brain uptake of various blood-borne solutes showed that newborn endothelial cells were functionally similar to those in adults, indicating that a selective BBB is operative at birth.

In mice, Claudin-5 loss during development is lethal and results in size-selective loosening of the BBB.

Function

The blood–brain barrier acts effectively to protect brain tissue from circulating pathogens and other potentially toxic substances. Accordingly, blood-borne infections of the brain are rare. Infections of the brain that do occur are often difficult to treat. Antibodies are too large to cross the blood–brain barrier, and only certain antibiotics are able to pass. In some cases, a drug has to be administered directly into the cerebrospinal fluid where it can enter the brain by crossing the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier.

Circumventricular organs

Circumventricular organs (CVOs) are individual structures located adjacent to the fourth ventricle or third ventricle in the brain, and are characterized by dense capillary beds with permeable endothelial cells unlike those of the blood–brain barrier. Included among CVOs having highly permeable capillaries are the area postrema, subfornical organ, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, median eminence, pineal gland, and three lobes of the  pituitary gland.

Permeable capillaries of the sensory CVOs (area postrema, subfornical organ, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis) enable rapid detection of circulating signals in systemic blood, while those of the secretory CVOs (median eminence, pineal gland, pituitary lobes) facilitate transport of brain-derived signals into the circulating blood. Consequently, the CVO permeable capillaries are the point of bidirectional blood–brain communication for neuroendocrine function.

Specialized permeable zones
The border zones between brain tissue "behind" the blood–brain barrier and zones "open" to blood signals in certain CVOs contain specialized hybrid capillaries that are leakier than typical brain capillaries, but not as permeable as CVO capillaries. Such zones exist at the border of the area postrema—nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS), and median eminence—hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. These zones appear to function as rapid transit regions for brain structures involved in diverse neural circuits—like the NTS and arcuate nucleus—to receive blood signals which are then transmitted into neural output. The permeable capillary zone shared between the median eminence and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus is augmented by wide pericapillary spaces, facilitating bidirectional flow of solutes between the two structures, and indicating that the median eminence is not only a secretory organ, but may also be a sensory organ.

Therapeutic research

As a drug target
The blood–brain barrier is formed by the brain capillary endothelium and excludes from the brain 100% of large-molecule neurotherapeutics and more than 98% of all small-molecule drugs.  Overcoming the difficulty of delivering therapeutic agents to specific regions of the brain presents a major challenge to treatment of most brain disorders. In its neuroprotective role, the blood–brain barrier functions to hinder the delivery of many potentially important diagnostic and therapeutic agents to the brain. Therapeutic molecules and antibodies that might otherwise be effective in diagnosis and therapy do not cross the BBB in adequate amounts to be clinically effective. The BBB represents an obstacle to some drugs reaching the brain, thus to overcome this barrier some peptides able to naturally cross the BBB have been widely investigated as a drug delivery system.

Mechanisms for drug targeting in the brain involve going either "through" or "behind" the BBB. Modalities for drug delivery to the brain in unit doses through the BBB entail its disruption by osmotic means, or biochemically by the use of vasoactive substances, such as bradykinin, or even by localized exposure to high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU).

Other methods used to get through the BBB may entail the use of endogenous transport systems, including carrier-mediated transporters, such as glucose and amino acid carriers, receptor-mediated transcytosis for insulin or transferrin, and the blocking of active efflux transporters such as p-glycoprotein. Some studies have shown that vectors targeting BBB transporters, such as the transferrin receptor, have been found to remain entrapped in brain endothelial cells of capillaries, instead of being ferried across the BBB into the targeted area.

Nanoparticles

Nanotechnology is under preliminary research for its potential to facilitate the transfer of drugs across the BBB. Capillary endothelial cells and associated pericytes may be abnormal in tumors and the blood–brain barrier may not always be intact in brain tumors. Other factors, such as astrocytes, may contribute to the resistance of brain tumors to therapy using nanoparticles. Fat soluble molecules less than 400 daltons in mass can freely diffuse past the BBB through lipid mediated passive diffusion.

Damage in injury and disease
The blood–brain barrier may become damaged in select neurological diseases, as indicated by neuroimaging studies of Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, ischemic stroke, and brain trauma, and in systemic diseases, such as liver failure. Effects such as impaired glucose transport and endothelial degeneration may lead to metabolic dysfunction within the brain, and an increased permeability of the BBB to proinflammatory factors, potentially allowing antibiotics and phagocytes to move across the BBB.

Prediction
There have been many attempts to correlate the experimental blood brain barrier permeability, with physicochemical properties. The first QSAR study of brain–blood distribution was conducted in 1988, this study reported the in vivo values in rats for a large number of H2 receptor histamine agonists. The first papers trying to model blood brain barrier permeability, identified three properties, i.e., molecular volume, lipophilicity, and hydrogen bonding potential, as contributing significantly to the transport through the blood brain barrier. Two datasets, one with numerical logBB values (1058 molecules) and the one with categorical labels (7807 molecules with 4956 BBB+ and 2851 BBB-) have been published in 2021.
The categorical dataset has been used in 2022 to select four different classification models based on molecular fingerprints, MACCS166 keys and molecular descriptors.

History
In 1898, Arthur Biedl and R. Kraus observed that low-concentration "bile salts" failed to affect behavior when injected into the bloodstream of animals. Thus, in theory, they had failed to enter the brain.

Two years later, Max Lewandowsky may have been the first to coin the term "blood–brain barrier" in 1900, referring to the hypothesized semipermeable membrane. There is some debate over the creation of the term blood–brain barrier as it is often attributed to Lewandowsky, but it does not appear in his papers. The creator of the term may have been Lina Stern. Stern was a Russian scientist who published her work in Russian and French. Due to the language barrier between her publications and English-speaking scientists, this could have made her work a lesser-known origin of the term.

All the while, bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich was studying staining, a procedure that is used in many microscopy studies to make fine biological structures visible using chemical dyes. As Ehrlich injected some of these dyes (notably the aniline dyes that were then widely used), the dye stained all of the organs of some kinds of animals except for their brains. At that time, Ehrlich attributed this lack of staining to the brain simply not picking up as much of the dye.

However, in a later experiment in 1913, Edwin Goldmann (one of Ehrlich's students) injected the dye directly into the cerebrospinal fluid of animal brains. He found then the brains did become dyed, but the rest of the body did not, demonstrating the existence of a compartmentalization between the two. At that time, it was thought that the blood vessels themselves were responsible for the barrier, since no obvious membrane could be found.

See also

References

Central nervous system
Neurology
Animal physiology
Pharmacokinetics
Brain
Circulatory system

Blood–brain barrier


Underland  is a fictional location in the children's fantasy series The Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis. Described by Lewis as lying deep beneath the land of Narnia and high above the even deeper underworld of Bism. Underland appears mainly in The Silver Chair, where Eustace Scrubb, Jill Pole, and Puddleglum travel under the ground to reach it in their search for Prince Rilian. They find him in Underland and release him from his enchantment by The Lady of the Green Kirtle.

The Search for Rilian
Jill, Eustace, and Puddleglum meet The Lady of the Green Kirtle at the Giants' bridge. She tells them to go to the Giants' house far north. On the way the three cross a hill with a maze of strange trenches. From the high vantage of the Giants' house, they see that the trenches are in fact letters, and recognize the phrase "Under Me" as one of the signs given by Aslan to guide their quest for Rilian. They determine to follow the directions and find a passage leading under the ground.

Underground they encounter the Warden of the Marches of Underland, accompanied by a hundred Earthmen (Gnomes) "of all sizes, from little gnomes barely a foot high to stately figures taller than men." The Earthmen escort them through many natural caverns ("each lower than the last") to the Dark Castle of the Lady of the Green Kirtle, the Queen of Underland. They pass many dead or sleeping animals like dragons from the Overworld, who, it is said, "will wake at the end of the world."

After many miles of travel underground, they pass a recumbent sleeping giant called Father Time.  They are told that he was once a king in Overland, fallen into Underland, now dreaming of the Overworld; and like the animals they passed earlier, he too will waken at the end of the world.

The last stage of their journey takes them on board a ship, which is rowed across the vast underground Sunless Sea to the city where the Dark Castle lies. Many travellers from the Overworld have taken ship here, they are told, and few returns to sunlit lands. The recurring theme is that many unlucky inhabitants of Overland fall somehow into Underland, where they become trapped, and remain sleeping until the end of the world.  Underland is pervaded by silence; amongst the sleepers from above, the Earthmen work diligently but quietly.

Rilian's escape
When Rilian is rescued and the Queen killed, Rilian and the others seek to find a way back to the Overworld.  Rilian knows of a new passage on this side of the Sunless Sea, that the Earthmen have dug recently in preparation for the Queen's intended invasion of Narnia. They fear being apprehended by the Earthmen, but commotion breaks through the silence, and they discover that the Earthmen too have been trapped in Underland by the Queen's magic.  Now that she is dead, the Earthmen are freed from their task of preparing her invasion, and they return gleefully to their own home, the land of Bism.

Bism, far beneath Underland, glows with volcanic heat. As Golg, their Earthman guide, leads them past the opening to Bism, the travelers look down into it and make out a river of fire where Salamanders swim, alongside groves and fields of many colors, not unlike a stained glass window. Lewis describes Bism as a place of beauty for the Gnomes, who desire to reach it as much as Rilian and his companions want to reach the Overland.  Golg describes the living riches of Bism as far outstripping the "dead" gold and jewels that Overlanders find in their shallow mines. Rilian is torn with the desire to see this land, but the rift between Underland and Bism is about to close, and the Gnomes hurry to be on the correct side. Rilian and his companions escape to the surface through the tunnel dug by the Earthmen.

Narnian Territory
After Caspian X's death, Rilian has been crowned the new king of Narnia, and the Narnians use their magic to lower the water to its original level, which becomes a tourist attraction.

Notes

See also
 List of characters in The Chronicles of Narnia
 The Silver Chair
 Narnia (world)

Fictional elements introduced in 1953
The Chronicles of Narnia countries
Fictional subterranea

Underland (Narnia)


Polites mystic, the long dash or long dash skipper, is a species of butterfly. The species is commonly found in north of North America and in mountains in the south of North America, in grassy habitats. The grassy areas include meadows, marshes, streamsides, wood edges, and prairie swales. On the top, the species has dark brown reddish to yellowish-orange markings. The forewing of the female has a broad black patch at the base. The forewing of the male has a long, slightly curved stigma which may be connected to the dash near the apex. Underneath the hindwing, the species is orange brown with a curved band of equal-sized yellow spots.

References

Hesperiini
Butterflies of North America
Butterflies described in 1863
Taxa named by William Henry Edwards

Polites mystic


The London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR was a railway company in England from 1846 to 1922. Its territory formed a rough triangle, with London at its apex, most of the coastline of Sussex as its base, and a large part of Surrey.  The LBSCR had the most direct routes from London to the south coast seaside resorts of Brighton, Eastbourne, Worthing, Littlehampton and Bognor Regis, and to the ports of Newhaven and Shoreham-by-Sea. It served the inland towns/cities of Chichester, Horsham, East Grinstead and Lewes, and jointly served Croydon, Tunbridge Wells, Dorking and Guildford. At the London end was a complicated suburban and outer-suburban network of lines emanating from London Bridge and Victoria, and shared interests in two cross-London lines.

The LBSCR was formed by a merger of five companies in 1846. On 1 January 1923, it became part of the Southern Railway under the  Railways Act 1921.

Pre-grouping British railway companies


The Fancy Pants Adventures is a series of free side-scrolling Flash games created by American developer Brad Borne. Four worlds have been released so far. World 1 was released on March 14, 2006 and World 2 was released on January 9, 2008. After the 2009 Comic-Con, Borne announced he would officially start working on World 3. It was released on April 5, 2012.  A console version developed by Borne and Over the Top Games was released by EA 2D for PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade on April 19 and April 20, 2011, respectively. An iOS version developed by Chillingo, Over the Top Games and Borne Games was released on the Apple App Store on March 4, 2012. Some years later, Brad Borne made a fourth entry, Super Fancy Pants Adventure, and it implies in its ending scene after defeating the final boss that it is "To be continued". Two years after the release of the game, Brad posted World 4 on Newgrounds. World 4 was Super Fancy Pants Adventures, just ported to Adobe Flash. Right now, there are three parts of the game available on Brad Borne's website and two on Newgrounds.

Gameplay
Fancy Pants Adventures features Fancy Pants Man as the playable character of the series. He is a two dimensional stick figure man with spiky, choppy hair, wearing only a pair of colored triangular-shaped pants, hence his name.  His gameplay is similar to the Sonic the Hedgehog franchise, in which it utilizes momentum-based platforming with running as a major gameplay mechanic. More references to the Sonic the Hedgehog series is how some the level design (like the "S-Tubes") is centered around momentum, increasing momentum by rolling down a slope, and how the collectables are essential to the player's health besides providing an extra life for every hundred collected. Similar to Sonic, collectables can be lost when damage is taken, but the loss is limited to 5% of total health and collectables. Another video game reference is from Nintendo's Mario video game series, with a box that can be jumped at from beneath to release several squiggles, and the source code referring to the squiggles as "coins". Fancy Pants Man's home is Squiggleville, a small country town run by the Mayor (first introduced in World 2). The mayor is introduced more in World 3. Players guide Fancy Pants Man through open levels which feature obstacles to overcome and enemies to avoid or defeat. These enemies include spiders, snails, and mice armed with guns. Enemies can be defeated by being jumped upon and crushed by Fancy Pants Man, who can also launch off them to perform an augmented leap. World 2 introduced the snail enemy, which retracts into its shell when jumped on, after which it can be kicked to stun other enemies. Originally the snail shell was merely a novelty feature in the World 2 demo; however, during development, beta testers made a game out of getting the snail shell to hard-to-reach spots.  Brad used this as inspiration to incorporate "Snail Shell Golf" which adds replayability to World 2 by allowing the player to gain access to different colored pants for the playable character. It is possible to earn a combo by keeping the snail shell in the air.  Both worlds of Fancy Pants Adventures contain different kinds of small trophies that can be collected while playing the game. At the end of each world of Fancy Pants Adventures players fight a boss. In World 1 the boss is an angry penguin, who Fancy Pants Man accidentally falls upon and wakes from sleeping. This is the extent of the story in World 1, while World 2 has a more significant plotline. In World 2, an angry rabbit steals Fancy Pants Man's ice cream. Players must pursue and ultimately defeat the rabbit in a confrontation at the end of the game in order to reclaim the ice cream. In World 3, his sister, Cutie Pants, is kidnapped by pirates because she defeats their captain. They then make her their new captain. The first time Fancy Pants tries to bring her back, she refuses to leave, and has assumed the role of "Princess Pirate". The second time, though, she agrees to come home, because she saw ninjas, and pirates hate ninjas.

A secret move, the wall jump, was obtainable in World 1, level 1 as a secret power-up from a pit that the player travels down through a cardboard box, and was noted by Borne that it was still a work in progress. Soon after obtaining the wall jump, the player had to employ the uses of it straight away to avoid an inevitable death from the slowly filling pit of ink. The wall jump became an official move available in World 2s increasing repertoire of moves. This was first shown in a demo that was made available by Borne on Newgrounds on March 13, 2007. In World 3, he gains Borne's pencil, which he uses like a sword.

In The Fancy Pants Adventures for consoles, there are a few new additions to the gameplay. These include the ability to swim, which includes being able to kick off flat surfaces while underwater, and the ability to use a weapon later on in the game, which features a chargeable attack. The game features a main story mode, in which the player must save his sister, Cutie Pants, who has been kidnapped by a band of pirates who make her their captain. Each level contains two bonus rooms, a 'Micro-Trial', in which players must quickly chase a line of yellow squiggles, and stars, which unlock extra content, including remakes of the first two worlds. The game also features local and online multiplayer for up to four players, as well as various challenges. Playing through the game allows the player to unlock hats, pants, and weapons to customize their character's appearance.

Menus
The menus for each game are interactive, i.e., users control Fancy Pants Man through themselves exactly like in-game levels. The menus contain boxes of which jumped on from beneath to change the pants colors, or to view collected trophies, as well as links to Brad Borne's site and Armor Games's site. They also serve as level selectors for the game.

The player starts World 1 in a dark corridor, then enters the menu through a door. In World 2, before the menu appears, the opening credits and the Armor Games logo scrolls up, with the option to skip the credits. The menu opens with instructions at the top-left hand corner of the screen. In  World 3 , it starts with Fancy Pants Man in his bed when suddenly the mayor comes and talks to him. Then Fancy Pants Man jumps out of bed and training starts. In Super FPA, there are actually no menus. Instead, it starts in Fancy Pants Man's room after a storm deforms the landscape around him. To ascend to different levels, players have to pause the game and click the map that unlocks after beating the second boss.

Development

The Fancy Pants Adventures series was created by Brad Borne, who had previously created games with the help of Mark Fleig, Jr. Fleig provided all of the computer graphics on their collaborations. The previous games provided experience and allowed for more complex designs. Before using Macromedia Flash, Borne had experimented with the TI-BASIC programming language on a TI-86 graphing calculator. His first involvement with Macromedia's software was stop motion animation. The stop motion experience was built upon with Flash's action script, used to create video games, which lead to further interest and ultimately Borne felt he "knew enough to make something that [he] thought was worth playing." Despite not having a background in art, Borne created the graphics for Fancy Pants Adventures himself, resulting in the "sketchy" graphical style. The World 1 penguin boss was originally named "Pauly Penguin," and was created by one of Borne's friends, Paul Downs.

After the release of World 1, Borne began freelancing, but stated in an interview that he views his own projects as a hobby, and that he does not "get as consumed by the process as much as [he] used to". According to Borne, "Trophies were [his] way of giving a nod to a few Flash artists whose work [he] really enjoyed." In World 1, these trophies are located within standard levels, or at the end of a simple level. Several trophies from World 1 represent Borne's own works in progress. In World 2, however, the developer worked directly with the artist that each trophy represented to design a unique level for obtaining that trophy.

Bornegames is the hub for Borne's work and blog, which quickly became an integral part of the beta testing process. New betas were released on a regular basis, and players visiting the site acted as beta testers and reported software bugs. It became the central hub for the latest bug-fixes and beta news. Borne also uses his blog to post question and answer videos to reply to questions sent in by fans and has posted a "Behind the Fancy Pants" video as well as an "Official Snailshell Golf Guide". In May 2008, Borne completed a Fancy Pants Man move set and character design for the fighting game Newgrounds Rumble. In Newgrounds Rumble, Fancy Pants Man was supposedly invited for free ice cream in the Newgrounds world until he finds out that it was a setup for revenge by the other characters in the Newgrounds universe. Newgrounds did not appreciate "kiddy" games unlike killing, shooting, violent, etc. games. Fancy later fights characters like S'asshole, Hank, P-bot, Nene, and the Newgrounds mascot Pico. During the Pico and Nene stage, Pico's rival Piconjo joins Fancy's side. Fancy later tries to find whose idea was the setup.

World 1
World 1 was the first installment in the Fancy Pants Adventure series. It was created by Brad Borne, and released March 14, 2006. It is a platforming game that is focused on speed and momentum. World 1 also introduces various trophies, side goals (squiggles and stars), and a variety of colors and styles of pants for the player to try on. The music in the game is composed by Geier Arnold. World 1 does not seem to have a plot, other than Fancy Pants Man running around the world and accidentally waking an angry penguin from his nap.

World 2
This is the second installment to the Fancy Pants Adventure series. It was released on January 9, 2008. This installment included new moves along with more trophies, pant colors, and bonus stages for the player to discover.Story'''

The story begins with Fancy Pants Man playing a game of Snail Shell Golf. Upon completing the mini game, the Mayor of Squiggleville appears to reward Fancy Pants Man with an ice cream cone. Before he can enjoy his reward, an angry rabbit appears and steals the ice cream cone from Fancy Pants Man. The mayor informs Fancy Pants Man that he must retrieve the ice cream; "for the sake of humanity, justice, and so that World 2 will have a significant plot line,".  He then dives into the golf hole after the rabbit. After beating all 6 Levels and 6 Extra Levels (each dedicated to a person who helped Brad Borne in the game's making), Fancy Pants Man enters The Angry Rabbit's Rabbitty Hideout (a possible reference to the Parthenon). The two soon engage in a boss fight. During the fight, the angry Rabbit will sometimes drop down spiders and one snail.  The snail can be used as a method of attack to stun him. After the rabbit's defeat, Fancy Pants Man is finally able to retrieve his ice cream.

World 3
The third installment of The Fancy Pants Adventures was released on April 5, 2012. A beta edition was available before release at bornegames.com for anyone to test out. There also is a new character in this game and new enemies. In this installment, Fancy Pants Man's little sister, Cutie Pants Girl, is kidnapped and Fancy Pants Man has to save her. World 3 introduces new elements to the series including swimming, combat through the use of a sword-like pencil, improved animations, new moves like a wall kick and new enemies. World 3 was also released for iOS devices on March 4, 2012 and for Android on May 22, 2017.

 World 1 Remix
The remake of The Fancy Pants Adventures World 1, released on May 14, 2014, introduced the AS3 engine into the series. It adds a fourth level into the game, along with a new boss: The Pencil (or Brad Borne). It also added hats, from the console version, and pants patterns (also with colors). The game introduces purchasable keys, called Fancy Keys, to support the development of The Fancy Pants Adventures. A normal key will unlock all key doors in the Remix, while the Fancy Key and higher acts as a Season Pass and unlocks key doors in the Remix and any future worlds. Much like World 1, there is little plot. However, Brad Borne, in the form of a giant pencil, makes random appearances in the game. He appears in Level 3, where he destroys it after saying "Meh, no one ever liked Level 3...", and appears as the boss, using his pencil to try and defeat the player.

 The Fancy Pants Adventures (console)
On November 10, 2010, series creator Brad Borne released a video on his website and on YouTube announcing a home console version of The Fancy Pants Adventures for Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network. The game was a collaboration between Borne Games and development studio Over the Top Games, and was published by Electronic Arts, under the company's EA2D label. New features include a two to four player mode and a brand new set of levels, as well as World's 1 and 2. The game was released on April 19, 2011 for PlayStation Network and April 20, 2011 for Xbox Live Arcade.
Borne explained in an FAQ on his website that the console game is not World 3, but World 3 is something of a devolution of the console game.
He also included more combat in the game, the player earns a "pencil" for which the looks can be customized. The player can charge attacks, initiate combos, and compete in multiplayer challenges; unlike the free PC version.

 Super Fancy Pants Adventure
The fourth main installment of The Fancy Pants Adventures was announced on July 18, 2017 and was originally planned to release on Steam in August 2017; however, due to the late release in development, it was pushed back to September 2017. It was ultimately released on September 20, 2017. It features 56 levels, the most levels of any game in the series, and a new ink pen weapon that is a more advanced version of the pencil from World 3. On January 24, 2018, the game was released on iOS and Android as well. The game can be bought on the App Store for $4.99 and downloaded on the PC and Mac for $9.99.

 The Fancy Pants Adventures: Classic Pack
In 2021 it was announced that a collection of Fancy Pants Adventures games including Worlds 1, 2, and 3 (which includes the World 1 Remaster + Remix), and Fancy Snowboarding would be released on Steam in 2021 with modern enhancements such as widescreen support and controller support, published by 2 Left Thumbs.

Reception

The Fancy Pants Adventures games received a positive reaction from video game critics and "drew in crowds on sites like Newgrounds and Armor Games". Both worlds have featured on numerous "Best Games" articles; on sites including TechCult, ExtremeTech, and GamesRadar+.

As of May 2011, World 1 has been played about 7 million times on Armor Games, almost 7.8 million times on Addicting Games, and over 2.3 million times on Kongregate. World 2 has been played over 14.8 million times on Armor Games, over 17.8 million times on Addicting Games and over 5 million times on Kongregate. World 2 also won the 2008 Newgrounds Tank Award for Best Flash Game, and is the fifth most played Flash game of 2008 in the Mochi Media Flash game advertising network. The game was also nominated for Nick's Most Addicting Games Showdown.IGN gave The Fancy Pants Adventures'' a score of 7.5, praising its parkour style gameplay, but criticising the inclusion of weapons and the lack of drop in multiplayer.

References

External links
 BorneGames.com Brad Borne's Website
 Fancy Pants Adventures

2006 video games
2008 video games
2011 video games
Android (operating system) games
Flash games
Freeware games
Indie games
Google Chrome games
IOS games
MacOS games
Online games
Platformers
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation Network games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
Video games developed in the United States
Video game franchises introduced in 2006
Flash games ported to consoles
Windows games

The Fancy Pants Adventures


The Roman emperor was the ruler and monarchical head of state of the Roman Empire, starting with the granting of the title augustus to Octavian in 27 BC. The term "emperor" is a modern convention, and did not exist as such during the Empire. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming emperor in English, it reflects his taking of the title augustus and later basileus. Another title often used was imperator, originally a military honorific, and caesar, originally a surname. Early emperors also used the title princeps ("first one") alongside other Republican titles, notably consul and pontifex maximus.

The legitimacy of an emperor's rule depended on his control of the Roman army and recognition by the Senate; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or by the Senate, or both. The first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-emperors to secure the succession or to divide the administration of the empire between them. The office of emperor was thought to be distinct from that of a rex ("king"). Augustus, the first emperor, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. For the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of the Republic, fearing any association with the kings who ruled Rome prior to the Republic.

From Diocletian, whose tetrarchic reforms divided the position into one emperor in the West and one in the East, emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style. Although succession was generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy, so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted, which often led to several claimants to the throne. Despite this, elements of the republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, and magistrates) were preserved even after the end of the Western Empire.

Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople, formerly known as Byzantium, in 330 AD. Roman emperors had always held high religious offices; under Constantine there arose the specifically Christian idea that the emperor was God's chosen ruler on earth, a special protector and leader of the Christian Church, a position later termed Caesaropapism. In practice, an emperor's authority on Church matters was frequently subject to challenge. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century after multiple invasions by Germanic barbarian tribes, with no recognised claimant to Emperor of the West remaining after the death of Julius Nepos in 480. Instead the Eastern emperor Zeno proclaimed himself as the sole emperor of a theoretically undivided Roman Empire (although in practice he had no authority in the West). The subsequent Eastern emperors ruling from Constantinople styled themselves as "Basileus of the Romans" (βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων, Basileus Romaíon, in Greek) but are often referred to in modern scholarship as Byzantine emperors.

The papacy and Germanic kingdoms of the West acknowledged the Eastern emperors until the accession of Empress Irene in 797. After this, the papacy created a rival lineage of Roman emperors in western Europe, the Holy Roman Emperors, which ruled the Holy Roman Empire for most of the period between 800 and 1806. These emperors were never recognized in Constantinople and their coronations resulted in the medieval problem of two emperors. The last Eastern emperor was Constantine XI Palaiologos, who died during the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. After conquering the city, Ottoman sultans adopted the title "Caesar of the Romans" (kayser-i Rûm). A Byzantine group of claimant emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461, although they had used a modified title since 1282.

Background and beginning

Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the first emperor, whereas Julius Caesar is considered the last dictator of the Roman Republic, a view that is shared by the Roman writers Plutarch, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio. Conversely, the majority of Roman writers, including Pliny the Younger, Suetonius and Appian, as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire, thought of Julius Caesar as the first emperor. Caesar did indeed rule the Roman state as an autocrat, but he failed to create a stable system to maintain himself in power. His rise to power was the result of a long and gradual decline in which the Republic fell under the influence of powerful generals such as Marius and Sulla.

At the end of the Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of the Latin , then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of the Caesar's civil wars, it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy, but that the period when several officials would fight one another had come to an end.

Julius Caesar, and then Augustus after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to those offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves. Julius Caesar had been pontifex maximus since 64 BC; held the offices of consul and dictator five times since 59 BC, and was appointed dictator in perpetuity in 44 BC, shortly before his assassination. He had also become the de facto sole ruler of Rome in 48 BC, when he defeated his last opposition at the Battle of Pharsalus. His killers proclaimed themselves as the liberatores ("liberators") and the restorers of the Republic, but their rule was cut short by Caesar's supporters, who almost immediately established a new dictatorship.

In his will, Caesar appointed his grandnephew Octavian as his heir and adopted son. He inherited his property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies, and — again through a formal process of senatorial consent — an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. In April 43 BC, Octavian defeated and killed the consuls of the year, marched to Rome and, in August, forced the Senate to elect him consul. He then formed the Second Triumvirate alongside Mark Antony and Lepidus, dividing the Roman world among them. Lepidus was sidelined in 36 BC, and relations between Octavian and Antony soon deteriorated. In 31 BC, Octavian's victory at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed his supremacy over Rome.

In 27 BC, Octavian and the Senate concluded the so-called "First settlement". Until then Octavian had been ruling the state as triumvir, even though the Triumvirate itself disappeared years earlier. He announced that he would return the power to the Senate and People of Rome, but this was only an act. The Senate confirmed Octavian as princeps, the "first among equals", and gave him control over almost all Roman provinces for a tenure of ten years. This limitation was only superficial, as he could renew his powers indefinitely. In addition, the Senate awarded him the appellation of augustus ("elevated"). The honorific itself held no legal meaning, but it denoted that Octavian (henceforth Augustus) now approached divinity, and its adoption by his successors made it the de facto main title of the emperor. He also received the civic crown alongside several other insignias in his honor. Augustus now held supreme and indisputable power, and even though he still received subsequent grants of powers, such as the granting of tribunicia potestas in 23 BC, these were only ratifications of the powers he already possessed.

Most modern historians use 27 BC as the start date of the Roman Empire. This is mostly a symbolic date, as the Republic had essentially disappeared many years earlier. Ancient writers often ignore the legal implications of Augustus' reforms and simply write that he "ruled" Rome following the murder of Caesar, or that he "ruled alone" after the death of Mark Antony. Most Romans thus simply saw the "emperor" as the individual that ruled the state, with no specific title or office attached to him.

Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit. After Augustus' death in AD 14, the Senate confirmed Tiberius as  and proclaimed him as the new augustus. Tiberius had already received imperium maius and tribunicia potestas in AD 4, becoming legally equal to Augustus but still subordinate to him in practice. The "imperial office" was thus not truly defined until the accession of Caligula, when all of Tiberius' powers were automatically transferred to him as a single, abstract position that was symbolized by his sacred title of augustus.

Powers under the Principate

The legal authority of the emperor derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic and developed under Augustus and later rulers, rather than from a new political office. Under the Republic, these powers would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself, and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed. The Republican offices endured and emperors were regularly elected to the most prominent of them: the consulship and censorship. This early period of the Empire is known as the "Principate", derived from the title princeps used by the early emperors.

The most important bases of the emperor's power were his supreme power of command (imperium maius) and tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) as personal qualities, separate from his public office. Originally, the powers of command where divided in consular imperium for Rome and proconsular imperium for the provinces. This division became obsolete in 19 BC, when Augustus was given consular imperium — despite leaving the consulship in 23 BC — and thus control over all troops. This overwhelming power was referred to as imperium maius to indicate its superiority to other holders of imperium, such as the proconsuls of the few senatorial provinces and allies such as Agrippa. The governors appointed to the imperial provinces only answered to the emperor himself, who could maintain or replace them at will.

The tribunician power (tribunicia potestas), first assumed by Augustus in 23 BC, gave him authority over the tribune of the plebs without having to actually hold the office — a tribune was by definition a plebeian, whereas Augustus, although born into a plebeian family, had become a patrician when he was adopted into the gens Julia. By adopting the role of a tribune, Augustus was presenting himself as the representative of the common man and the protector of democracy. As always, this was not a sudden grant of power; Augustus had been receiving several powers related to the tribunes, such as sacrosanctity, since 36 BC. With this powers, he could veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, propose laws and convoke the Senate. His sacrosanctity also made him untouchable, and any offence against him could be treated as a crime of treason. The tribunician power was arguably the most stable and important of the emperor's powers. Despite being a perpetual title, it was always renewed each year, which often coincided with the beginning of a new regnal year (although "regnal years" were not oficially adopted until Justinian I).

The office of censor was not fully absorbed into the imperial office until the reign of Domitian, who declared himself "perpetual censor" (censor perpetuus) in AD 85. Before this, the title had been only used by Claudius (47), Vespasian and Titus (both in 73).

The emperor also had power over religious affairs, which led to the creation of a worship cult. Augustus became pontifex maximus (the chief priest of the College of Pontiffs) in 12 BC, after the death of the former triumvir Lepidus. Emperors from the reign of Gratian (r. 375–383) onward used the style pontifex inclytus ("honorable pontiff"). The title of pontifex maximus was eventually adopted by the bishops of Rome during the Renaissance. The last known emperors to use the title were Valentinian III and Marcian, in the fifth century.

The only surviving document to directly refer to the emperor's power is the Lex de imperio Vespasiani, written shortly after Vespasian's formal accession in December 69. The text, of which only the second part survives, states that Vespasian is allowed to: make treaties; hold sessions and propose motions to the Senate; hold extraordinary sessions with legislative power; endorse candidates in elections; expand the pomerium; and use discretionary power whenever necessary. The text further states that the emperor is "not bound by laws", and that any act made before becoming emperor was retroactively considered legitimate. There is no mention of imperium nor tribunicia potestas, although these powers were probably given in the earlier clauses. This Lex sometimes related to the Lex regia ("royal law") mentioned in the Corpus Juris Civilis of Eastern emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565), who cites the early 3rd-century writer Ulpian. This was probably a later construct, as its very name, which derives from rex ("king"), would have been utterly rejected in the West. The Eastern Greek-speaking half of the Empire had always regarded the emperors as open monarchs (basileis), and called them as such.

Sucession and legitimacy
The weakest point of the imperial institution was its lack of a clear succession system. Formally announcing a successor would have revealed Augustus as a monarch, so he and subsequent emperors opted to adopt their best candidates as their sons and heirs. Primogeniture was not relevant in the early Empire, although emperors still attempted to maintain a familiar connection between them; Tiberius, for example, married Julia the Elder, making him Augustus' stepson.

Vespasian, who took power after the collapse of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors, was the first emperor to openly declare his sons, Titus and Domitian, as his sole heirs, giving them the title of caesar. The Senate still exercised some power during this period, as evidenced by his decision to declare Nero a "public enemy", and did influence in the succcession of emperors. Following the murder of Domitian in AD 96, the Senate declared Nerva, one of their own, as the new emperor. His "dynasty", the Antonine, continued the adoptive system until the reign of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180). Marcus was the first emperor to rule alongside other emperors, first with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus, who succeded jointly with him, and later with his son Commodus, who was proclaimed co-augustus in 177.

Despite being the son of a previous emperor and having nominally shared government with him, Commodus' rule ended with his murder at the hands of his own soldiers. From his death in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. During this period, very few emperors died of natural causes. Such problems persisted, to a lesser extent, in the later Eastern Empire, where emperors had to often appoint co-emperors to secure the throne. Despite often working as a hereditary monarchy, there was no law or single principle of succession.

Individuals who claimed imperial power "illegally" are referred to as "usupers" in modern scholarship. Ancient historians refer to these rival emperors as "tyrants". In reality, there was no distinction between emperors and usurpers, as many emperors started as rebels and were retroactively recognized as legitimate. The Lex de imperio Vespasiani explicitly states that all of Vespasian's actions are considered legal even if they happened before his formal recognition by the Senate. Ultimately, "legitimacy was a post factum phenomenon." Imperial propaganda was often used to legitimize or de-legitimize certain emperors. The Chronicon Paschale, for example, describes Licinius as having been killed like "those who had briefly been usurpers before him". In reality, Licinius was the legitimate emperor of the West (having been appointed by Galerius), while Constantine was the real "usurper" (having been proclaimed by his troops).

There were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the Roman army, which was really the true basis of imperial power. Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as support of the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, distributing one's own coins or statues, and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors. Septimius Severus notably declared himself as the adoptive son of the long-deceased Marcus Aurelius, hence why he named Caracalla after him. Later Eastern imperial dynasties, such as the Doukai and Palaiologoi, claimed descent from Constantine the Great.

What turns a "usurper" into a "legitimate" emperor is typically that they managed to gain the recognition of a more senior, legitimate, emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power. Modern historiography has not yet defined clear legitimacy criteria for emperors, resulting in some emperors being included or excluded from different lists. The year 193 has traditionally been called the "Year of the Five Emperors", but modern scholarship now identifies Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger as usurpers because they were not recognized by the Roman Senate. Recognition by the Senate is often used to determine the legitimacy of an emperor, but this criteria is not always followed. Maxentius is sometimes called an usurper because he did not have the recognition of Tetrarchs, but he held Rome for several years, and thus had the recognition of the Senate. Other "usurpers" controlled, if briefly, the city of Rome, such as Nepotianus and Priscus Attalus. In the East, the possession of Constantinople was the essential element of legitimacy, yet some figures such as Procopius are treated as usurpers. Rival emperors who later gained recognition are not always considered legitimate either; Vetranio had the formal recognition by Constantius II yet he is still often regarded as a usurper, similarly to Magnus Maximus, who was briefly recognized by Theodosius I. Western emperors such as Magnentius, Eugenius and Magnus Maximus are sometimes called usurpers, but Romulus Augustulus is traditionally regarded as the last Western emperor, despite never receiving the recognition of the Eastern emperor Zeno.

Later developments

The period after the Principate is known as the Dominate, derived from the title dominus ("lord") adopted by Diocletian. During his rule, the emperor became an absolute ruler and the regime became even more monarchical. The emperors adopted the diadem crown as their supreme symbol of power, abandoning the subtleties of the early Empire.

Beginning in the late 2nd century, the Empire began to suffer a series of political and economic crises, partially because it had overexpanded so much. The Pax Romana ("Roman peace") is often said to have ended with the tyrannical reign of Commodus. His murder was followed by the accession of Septimius Severus, the victor of the Year of the Five Emperors. It was during his reign that the role of the army grew even more, and the emperors' power increasingly depended on it. The murder of his last relative, Severus Alexander, led to the Crisis of the Third Century (235–285), a 50-year period that almost saw the end of the Roman Empire. The last vestiges of Republicanism were lost in the ensuing anarchy. In 238, the Senate attempted to regain power by proclaiming Pupienus and Balbinus as their own emperors (the first time since Nerva). They managed to usurp power from Maximinus Thrax, but they were killed within 2 months. With the rise of the "soldier emperors", the city and Senate of Rome began to lose importance. Maximinus and Carus, for example, didn't even set foot on the city. Carus' successors Carinus and Numerian, the last of the Crisis emperors, did not bother to assume the tribunicia potestas either.

After reuniting the Roman Empire in 285, Diocletian began a series of reforms to restore stability. Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the Republic, Diocletian established at the top of this new structure the Tetrarchy ("rule of four") in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government. Under the Tetrarchy, Diocletian set in place a system of two emperors (augusti) and two subordinates that also served as heirs (caesares). When an emperor retired (as Diocletian and Maximian did in 305) or died, his caesar would succeed him and in turn appoint a new caesar. Each pair ruled over a half of the Empire, which led to the creation of a Western and Eastern Roman Empire, a division that eventually became permanent. This division had already a precedent in the joint rule of Valerian/Gallienus and Carus/Carinus.

Diocletian justified his rule not by military power, but by claiming divine right. He imitated Oriental divine kingship and encouraged the reverence of the emperor, making anything related to him sacer (sacred). He declared himself Jovius, the son of Jupiter, and his partner Maximian was declared Herculius, son of Hercules. This divine claim was maintained after the rise of Christianity, as emperors regarded themselves as the chosen rulers of God.

The emperor no longer needed the Senate to ratify his powers, so he became the sole source of law. These new laws were no longer shared publicly and were often given directly to the praetorian prefects — originally the emperor's bodyguard, but now the head of the new praetorian prefectures — or with private officials. The emperor's personal court and administration traveled alongside him, which further made the Senate's role redundant. Consuls continued to be appointed each year, but by this point, it was an office often occupied by the emperor himself, who now had complete control over the bureaucratic apparatus. Diocletian did preserve some Republican traditions, such as the tribunicia potestas. The last known emperor to have used it was Anastasius I, at the start of the 6th century. Anastasius was also the last attested emperor to use the traditional titles of proconsul and pater patriae. The last attested emperor to use the title of consul was Constans II, who was also the last Eastern emperor to visit Rome. It's possible that later emperors also used it as an honorary title, as the office of consul was not abolished until 892, during the reign of Leo VI.

During the Dominate it became increasingly common for emperors to raise their children directly to augustus (emperor) instead of caesar (heir), probably because of the failure of the Tetrarchy. This practice had first been applied by Septimius Severus, who proclaimed his 10-year-old son Caracalla as augustus. He was followed by Macrinus, who did the same with his 9-year-old son Diadumenian, and several other emperors during the Crisis. This became even more common from the 4th century onwards. Gratian was proclaimed emperor at the age of 8, and his co-ruler and successor Valentinian II was proclaimed emperor at the age of 4. Many child emperors such as Philip II or Diadumenian never succeeded their fathers. These co-emperors all had the same honors as their senior counterpart, but they did not share the actual government, hence why junior co-emperors are usually not counted as real emperors by modern or ancient historians. There was no title to denote the "junior" emperor; writers used the vague terms of "second" or "little emperor".

Despite having a successful reign himself, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed as soon as he retired in 305. Constantine I, the son of tetrarch Constantius I, reunited the empire in 324 and imposed the principle of hereditary succession which Diocletian intended to avoid. Constantine was also the first emperor to convert to Christianity, and emperors after him, especially after its officialization under Theodosius I, saw themselves as the protectors of the Church. The territorial divisions of the Tetrarchy were maintained, however, and for most of the following century the Empire was ruled by two senior emperors, one in the West (with Milan and later Ravenna as capital) and another in the East (with Constantinople as capital). This division became permanent on the death of Theodosius I in 395, when he was succeded by his sons Honorius and Arcadius. The two halves of the Empire, while later functioning as de facto separate entities, were always considered and seen, legally and politically, as separate administrative divisions of a single, insoluble state by the Romans of the time.

In the West, the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of Germanic generals such as Aetius and Ricimer; the last emperors of the West being known as the "shadow emperor". In 476, the Heruli Odoacer overthrew the child-emperor Romulus Augustulus, made himself king of Italy and shipped the imperial regalia to the Emperor Zeno in Constantinople. Historians mark this date as the date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, although by this time there was no longer any "Empire" left, as its territory had reduced to Italy. Julius Nepos, who was overthrown and expelled to Dalmatia in favor of Romulus, continued to claim the title until his murder in 480. The Eastern court recognized this claim and Odoacer minted coins in his name, although he never managed to exercise real power. The death of Nepos left Zeno as the sole emperor of a (technically) reunited Roman Empire.

Byzantine period
The Roman Empire survived in the East for another 1000 years, but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire had a profound cultural impact on the empire and its emperor, which adopted a more Hellenistic character.

The Eastern emperors continued to be recognized in the Western kingdoms until the accession of Irene (r. 797–802), the first empress regnant. The Italian heartland was recovered during the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565), but this was reverted by the end of the century. Rome technically remained under imperial control, but was completely surrounded by the Lombards. Africa was lost to the Arabs in the early 7th century, and Rome eventually fell to the Lombards in 751, during the reign of Constantine V. The Frankish king Pepin the Short defeated them and received the favour of Pope Stephen II, who became the head of the Papal States. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, was crowned Imperator Romanorum (the first time Imperator was used as an actual regnal title) by Pope Leo III in Christmas AD 800, thus ending the recognition of the Eastern emperor. Western rulers also began referring to the Empire as the "Greek Empire", regarding themselves as the true successors of Rome.

The inhabitants of the Eastern half of the Empire always saw the emperor as an open monarch. Starting with Heraclius in 629, Roman emperors styled themselves "basileus", the traditional title for Greek monarchs used since the times of Alexander the Great. The title was used since the early days of the Empire and became the common imperial title by the 3rd century, but did not appear in official documents until the 7th century. Michael I Rangabe (r. 811–813) was the first emperor to actually use the title of "Roman emperor" (βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων, Basileus Romaíon). This was a response to the new line of emperors created by Charlemagne — although he was recognized as basileus of the Franks. By the 9th century the full imperial title became "basileus and autokrator of the Romans", usually translated as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". The title autokrator was also used to distinguish a junior co-emperor (basileus) from his senior colleague (basileus autokrator).

The Eastern Empire became not only an absolute monarchy but also a theocracy. According to George Ostrogorsky, "the absolute power of the Roman emperor was further increased with the advent of Christian ideas". This became more evident after the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, which gave Byzantine imperialism a new sense of purpose. The emperor was the subject of a series of rites and ceremonies, including a formal coronation. The Byzantine state is often said to have followed a "Caesaropapist" model, where the emperor played the role of ruler and head of the Chuch, but there was often a clear distinction between political and secular power.

The line of Eastern emperors continued uninterrupted until the sack of Constantinople and the establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204. This led to the creation of three lines of emperors in exile: the emperors of Nicaea, the emperors of Trebizond, and the short-lived emperors of Thessalonica. The Nicean rulers have been traditionally regarded as the "legitimate" emperors of this period, as they recovered Constantinople and restored the Empire in 1261. The Empire of Trebizond continued to exist for another 200 years, but from 1282 onwards its rulers used the modified title of "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East, the Iberians, and the Perateia", accepting the Niceans as the sole Roman emperors. However, the Empire had been reduced mostly to Constantinople, and the rise of other powers such as Serbia and Bulgaria forced the Byzantines to recognize their rulers as basileus. Despite this, emperors continued to view themselves as the rulers of an "universal empire". During the last decades of the Empire, power was once again shared between multiple emperors and colleagues, each ruling from their own capital, notably during the long reign of John V. Constantinople finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453; its last emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, dying in battle. The last vestiges of the empire, Morea and Trebizond, fell in 1461.

Titles

Imperator

The title imperator dates back to the Roman Republic and was given to victorious commanders by their soldiers. The Senate could then award the extraordinary honor of a triumph; the commander then retained the title until the end of his magistracy. In Roman tradition, the first triumph was that of Romulus, but the first attested recipient of the title imperator in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC. It was a title held with great pride: Pompey was hailed imperator more than once, as was Sulla and Julius Caesar. Both Suetonius and Cassius Dio refer to Caesar as the first one to assume imperator as a proper name (a praenomen imperatoris), just as the later Roman emperors did, but this seems to be an anachronism. The last ordinary general to be awarded the title was Q. Junius Blaesus in AD 22, after which it became a title reserved solely for the emperor.

Augustus used imperator instead of his first name (praenomen), becoming Imperator Caesar instead of Caesar Imperator. From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense, later becoming the source of the English word "emperor". Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius avoided using the title, although it is recorded that Caligula was hailed  imperator by the Senate on his accession, indicating that it was already considered an integral part of the dignity. It was not until the late reign of Nero, in AD 66, that imperator became once more part of the emperor's nomenclature. Virtually all emperors after him used the praenomen imperoris, with only a few variations under his successors Galba and Vitellius.

The title lost some prominence after the Tetrarchy, as emperors began to be addressed as dominus noster ("our Lord"). This appellation was known and rejected by Augustus, but ordinary men of the Empire used it regularly. It began to used in official context starting with Septimius Severus, and was first officially adopted in coinage by Aurelian.

In the East, imperator was translated as autokrator ("self-ruler", "the one with power"), a title that continued to be used until the end of the Empire. This is the modern Greek word for "emperor" (υτοκράτορας). There are still some instances of imperator in official documents as late as the 9th century. Its last known use was on 866–867 coins of Michael III and his co-emperor Basil I, who are addressed as imperator and rex respectively. In the West, imperator was transformed into a monarchical title by Charlemagne, becoming the official Latin title of the Holy Roman Empire. The title was translated to German as kaiser, however.

Caesar

Originally the cognomen (third name) of the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, which was then inherited by Augustus and his relatives. Augustus used it as a family name (nomen), styling himself as Imp. Caesar instead of Imp. Julius Caesar. However, the nomen was still inherited by women (such as Julia the Younger) and appear in some inscriptions. After the death of Caligula, Augustus' great-grandson, his uncle Claudius was proclaimed emperor. He was not an official member of the Julia gens, but he was the grandson of Octavia, Augustus' sister, and thus still part of the family.

Following the suicide of Nero, the last descendant of Caesar, the new emperor Galba adopted the name of Servius Galba Caesar Augustus, thus making it part of the imperial title. Five days before his murder he adopted Piso Licinianus as his son and heir, renaming him as Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar. After this it came to denote the heir apparent, who added the name to their own and retaining it upon his accession as augustus. The only emperor not to assume was Vitellius, who adopted the name Germanicus instead. Most emperors used it as their nomen — as Imperator Caesar [cognomen] — until the reign of Antoninus Pius, when it permanently became part of the formula Imperator Caesar, which was then followed by the full personal name and then Augustus. In the third century, caesars also received the honorific of nobilissimus ("most noble"), which later evolved into a separate title.

During the Tetrarchy the powers of the caesar increased considerably, but following the accession of Constantine I it once more remained as a title for heirs with no significant power attached to it. The title slowly lost importance in the following decades, as emperors started to promote their sons directly to augustus. In the East, the title finally lost its imperial character in 705, when Justinian II awarded it to Tervel of Bulgaria. After this it became a court title bestowed to prominent figures of the government, and lost even more relevance after the creation of the title sebastokrator by Alexios I Komnenos. Despite this, its regular use by earlier emperors led to the name becoming synonym with "emperor" in certain regions. Several countries use Caesar as the origin of their word for "emperor", like Kaiser in Germany and Tsar in Bulgaria and Russia.

After the Constantinian dynasty, emperors followed Imperator Caesar with Flavius, which also began as a family name but was later incorporated into the emperor's titles, thus becoming Imperator Caesar Flavius. The last use of the formula, rendered as Autokrator Kaisar Flabios (Αὐτοκράτωρ καῖσαρ Φλάβιος) in Greek, is in the Basilika of Leo VI the Wise (r. 886–912).

Augustus

Originally the main title of the emperor. According to Suetonius, it was "not merely a new title but a more honorable one, inasmuch as sacred places too, and those in which anything is consecrated by augural rites are called "august" (augusta), from the increase (auctus) in dignity". It was also connected to the religious practice of augury, which was itself linked to Rome's founding by Romulus, and to auctoritas, the authority based on prestige. The honorific was awarded as both a name and a title to Octavian in 27 BC and was inherited by all subsequent emperors, who placed it after their personal names. The only emperor to not immediately assume it was Vitellius, although he did use it after his recognition by the Senate. Later emperors ruled alongside one or several junior augusti who held de jure (but not de facto) equal constitutional power.

In the East the title was initially translated as Sebastos, but the form Augoustos eventually became more common. Emperors after Heraclius styled themselves as Basileus, but Augoustos still remained in use in a lesser form up until the end of the Empire. In the West, the title was also used by Charlemagne and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors as part of the formula Imperator Augustus. Both Eastern and Western rulers also used the style sempter augustus ("forever augustus").

Princeps

The word princeps, meaning "first", was a republican term used to denote the leading member of the Senate, and it was used by the early emperors to emphasize the continuance of the Republic. The title had already been used by Pompey and Julius Caesar, amongs others. It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers, hence why it was never used in official titulature. The title was the most preferred by Augustus as its use implies only "primacy" (is in the "first among equals"), as opposed to dominus, which implies dominance. It was the title used by early writers before the term imperator became popular. In his Res Gestae, Augustus explicitally refers to himself as the princeps senatus. The title was also sometimes given to heirs, in the form of princeps iuventutis ("first of the youth"), a term that continued to be used during the Tetrarchy.

In the era of Diocletian and beyond, princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus ("lord"); the use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolizes the differences in the empire's government, giving rise to the era designations Principate and Dominate. The title is still found in some later sources, however. The poet Claudian, for example, describes Honorius as having been raised from "caesar" to "princeps" (instead of augustus). The title survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire, as it was used by rulers such as Theodoric the Great.

Basileus

The traditional Greek title for monarchs. It was first used by Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC) during his conquests. The term was applied to emperors unofficially since the beginning of the Empire, but in official records it was often used as the Greek translation of the title rex, with the title autokrator often reserved for the emperor. As a result, Western writers often associated basileus with "king" as opposed to "emperor", despite this distinction not existing in Greek.

Basileus was first officially used by Heraclius in 629, after his victory over the Persians, and it became the main title of the emperor afterward. After the 9th century, the full imperial title became "basileus and autokrator of the Romans" (βασιλεύς καὶ αὐτοκράτωρ Ῥωμαίων), with autokrator distinguishing the senior emperor of the junior basileus. Foreign rulers were usually referred to as reges (a Greek rendition of rex), but in many cases, the Eastern emperors were forced to recognize other monarchs as basileus, mainly the Holy Roman, Serbian and Bulgarian emperors.

Later assertions to the title
Despite overthrowing Roman rule, Odoacer never claimed the imperial dignity. His successor Theodoric the Great is sometimes said to have been an emperor in all but name, despite using the title of rex and recognizing the emperor in Constantinople. He also used the ancient title of princeps (in full, princeps Romanus) and dominus noster, actively trying to imitate the old emperors. He even requested and received the regalia sent to Constantinople by Odoacer, although it appears that he only requested the purple robes and not the imperial crown nor cepter.

The rebels Burdunellus and Peter, both active shortly after the fall of the West, are referred to as "tyrants" in sources. This may imply that they claimed the imperial indignity, although there is almost no information available for these rebellions. The last attempt to restore the office of emperor in the West was during the Siege of Ravenna (539–540), when the Goths offered Belisarius the throne, which he refused.

Holy Roman Empire

The concept of the Roman Empire was renewed in the West with the coronation of the king of the Franks, Charles the Great (Charlemagne), as Roman emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800. This coronation had its roots in the decline of the influence of the Pope in the affairs of the Byzantine Empire at the same time the Byzantine Empire declined in influence over politics in the West. The Pope saw no advantage to be derived from working with the Byzantine Empire, but as George Ostrogorsky points out, "an alliance with the famous conqueror of the Lombards, on the other hand ... promised much".

The immediate response of the Eastern Roman emperor was not welcoming. "At that time it was axiomatic that there could be only one Empire as there could be only one church", writes Ostrogorsky. "The coronation of Charles the Great violated all traditional ideas and struck a hard blow at Byzantine interests, for hitherto Byzantium, the new Rome, had unquestionably been regarded as the sole Empire which had taken over the inheritance of the old Roman imperium. Conscious of its imperial rights, Byzantium could only consider the elevation of Charles the Great to be an act of usurpation."

Nikephoros I chose to ignore Charlemagne's claim to the imperial title, clearly recognizing the implications of this act. According to Ostrogorsky, "he even went so far as to refuse the Patriarch Nicephorus permission to dispatch the customary synodica to the Pope." Meanwhile, Charlemagne's power steadily increased: he subdued Istria and several Dalmatian cities during the reign of Irene, and his son Pepin brought Venice under Western hegemony, despite a successful counter-attack by the Byzantine fleet. Unable to counter this encroachment on Byzantine territory, Nikephoros's successor Michael I Rangabe capitulated; in return for the restoration of the captured territories, Michael sent Byzantine delegates to Aachen in 812 who recognized Charlemagne as basileus, although not "of the Romans".

This line of emperors was actually Germanic rather than Roman. These emperors used a variety of titles (most frequently Imperator Augustus) before finally settling on Imperator Romanus Electus ("Elected Roman Emperor"). Historians customarily assign them the title Holy Roman Emperor, which has a basis in actual historical usage, and treat their Holy Roman Empire as a separate institution. To Latin Catholics of the time, the Pope was the temporal authority as well as spiritual authority, and as Bishop of Rome he was recognized as having the power to anoint or crown a new Holy Roman Emperor. The last man to be crowned by the pope (although in Bologna, not Rome) was Charles V, who also had a claim to the throne of the Byzantine Empire through Andreas Palaiologos's designation of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile as his heirs.

This line of emperors lasted until 1806, when Francis II dissolved the empire during the Napoleonic Wars. Until the coronation of Napoleon in 1804, these rulers were the only ones to use the title of "emperor" in Europe. Many rulers after him styled themselves as "emperor", such as the Habsburg emperors of Austria and the Hohenzollern emperors of Germany. The British kings used the title of "Emperor of India" (Kaisar-i-Hind) from 1876 to 1947. Much of the notions often associated with the term "emperor" (as in, a ruler above "kings") originates from the Holy Roman Empire, where there was indeed a feudal hierarchy in which the emperor was at the top. The emperor, who was in theory subordinate to the Pope, was followed by kings, dukes and counts.

Ottoman Empire

Under Sultan Mehmed II, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, an event generally regarded to have marked the definitive end of the Roman Empire, as well as the final and decisive step in the Ottoman conquest of the former empire's core lands and subjects. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the sultans of the Ottoman Empire laid claim to be the legitimate Roman emperors, in succession to the Byzantine emperors who had previously ruled from Constantinople. Mehmed had great interest in Roman and classical Greek history, a topic he had been taught on extensively by court teachers in his youth. He emulated himself on Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great, at one point visited the city of Troy to see the graves of the mythological Greek heroes Achilles and Ajax, and kept a copy of the Iliad in his personal library.

Based on the concept of right of conquest, the sultans at times assumed the styles kayser-i Rûm, meaning the "Caesar of the Romans", which was one of the titles applied to the Byzantine emperors in earlier Ottoman writings, and basileus, which was the ruling title of the Byzantine emperors. The assumption of the heritage of the Roman Empire also led the Ottoman sultans to claim to be universal monarchs, the rightful rulers of the entire world. The early sultans after the conquest of Constantinople—Mehmed II, Bayezid II, Selim I, and Suleiman I—staunchly maintained that they were Roman emperors and went to great lengths to legitimize themselves as such. Greek aristocrats, i.e., former Byzantine nobility, were often promoted to senior administrative positions and Constantinople was maintained as the capital, rebuilt, and considerably expanded under Ottoman rule. The administration, architecture and court ceremonies of the early post-1453 Ottoman Empire were heavily influenced by the former Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman sultan also used their claim to be Roman emperors to justify campaigns of conquest against Western Europe.

Number of emperors
Several ancient writers tried to count the number of Roman emperors through history, but each of them gives a different count. The 4th-century historian Festus states that "From Octavian Caesar Augustus to Jovian, there were imperatores, 43 in number, through 407 years [reckoning from 43 BC]". The 6th-century Chronicon Paschale calls Diocletian the "33rd Roman emperor". Adding the eight other emperors mentioned in the work would give a total of 41 emperors up until Constantine I.

A few writers also attempted to make their own lists of emperors. The 4th-century calligrapher Filocalus, in his Chronographia, records 58 emperors from Augustus to Constantine. His contemporary Epiphanius records 44 emperors in his work On Weights and Measures. The 13th-century Chronicon Altinate records 46 emperors in the same time period. These discrepancies arise from the fact that there was never a defining distinction between "legitimate emperors" and "usurpers". Other emperors had such uneventful or brief reigns that they are unmentioned by literary sources, like Licinius's co-emperors Valerius Valens and Martinian.

See also

 List of condemned Roman emperors
 List of Roman imperial victory titles
 List of Italian monarchs
 List of Roman usurpers
 Family tree of Roman emperors
 Roman imperial cult
 Roman usurper

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

 Scarre, Chris. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames & Hudson, 1995.

External links
 Website of De Imperatoribus Romanis
 Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History, by Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D.
 Chronology of Roman emperors and other rulers (30 BC–1461) by Ian Mladjov, Ph.D., M.A., B.A.

20s BC establishments in the Roman Empire
1453 disestablishments
15th-century disestablishments in the Byzantine Empire

Emperor, Roman
Positions of authority

Roman emperor


The salt and ice challenge is an Internet challenge where participants pour salt on their bodies, usually on the arm, and ice is then placed on the salt. This causes a "burning" sensation similar to frost bite, and participants vie to withstand the pain for the longest time. The challenge can be recorded and posted on YouTube or other forms of social media.

The mixture of ice and salt create
eutectic frigorific mixture which can get as cold as .

The salt and ice challenge can quickly cause second- and third-degree injuries similar to frostbite or being burnt with the metal end of a lighter, as well as causing painful open sores to form on the skin. Due to the numbing sensation of the cold and possible nerve damage during the stunt, participants are often unaware of the extent of any injuries sustained during the challenge, only feeling pain once the salt on their skin enters lesions created during the challenge. Skin discoloration from the challenge may remain after the challenge has been attempted.

References

Ice

External links
The salt and ice challenge: Don't let your teen get burned
Experts: Don't Try Salt and Ice Challenge

Challenges
Self-harm

Salt and ice challenge


Dyscophus antongilii, the Madagascar tomato frog, is a species of frog in the  family Microhylidae.

Description
Females are much larger than males, reaching up to 10.5 cm and 230 g in weight (6.5 cm and 41 g for males). Tomato frogs live up to their name by possessing a vibrant, orange-red colour. Females have brighter tones of red or orange on their back, with a pale undersurface.  Some individuals also have black spots on the throat. It is thought that the brilliant colours of the tomato frog act as a warning to potential predators that these frogs are toxic; a white substance secreted from the skin acts as a glue to deter predators (such as colubrid snakes) and can produce an allergic reaction in humans.

Habitat and distribution
Endemic to Madagascar, tomato frogs are found in the northeast of the island around Antongil Bay (from which they gain their specific name, antongilii), and south to Andevoranto. The exact distribution of this species is unclear however, due to confusion with the closely related D. guineti.

The tomato frog breeds in shallow pools, swamps and areas of slow-moving water. These frogs are found from sea level to elevations of around 200 metres.  Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, rivers, swamps, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, arable land, plantations, rural gardens, urban areas, heavily degraded former forest, ponds, and canals and ditches.

Life cycle and ecology

Tomato frogs breed in February to March following heavy rainfall; the sounds of males calling to attract females can be heard around small water bodies in the dark Malagasy night. Following copulation, females will lay a clutch of 1,000 to 1,500 eggs on the surface of the water. Tadpoles hatch from these small black and white eggs about 36 hours later; they are only around six millimetres long and feed by filter-feeding. Tadpoles undergo metamorphosis into yellow juveniles and this stage is completed around 45 days after the eggs were laid.

Ambushing potential prey, adult tomato frogs feed on small invertebrates, such as beetles, mosquitoes, and flies. When threatened, these frogs can inflate themselves, giving the appearance of greater size.

Threats and conservation
The tomato frog is classified as Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List, and listed on Appendix II of CITES. Numbers of the tomato frog have been declining as a result of habitat degradation and pollution and the over-collection of these brightly coloured amphibians for the pet trade. Collecting activity, and the associated decline in population, was predominately focused near to the town of Maroantsetra. The tomato frog was rapidly included on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) in response to this pressure.

Research into captive breeding techniques for the tomato frog has been carried out by Baltimore Zoo in the United States in an effort to boost the currently small and genetically deprived captive population that exists in that country. A consortium of U.S. zoos that form the Madagascar Fauna Group (MFG) have established an exhibit at the Parc Zoologique Ivoloina, Madagascar in an attempt to help educate local people about this attractive member of their natural heritage. Very little is known about the tomato frog and further research into its distribution, behaviour and potential threats is urgently needed before effective conservation measures can be put into place. It is currently listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), but this move has been criticised by some authors as an ineffective strategy. Further research is also needed to determine if D. antongilii is in fact a separate species or merely a variant of D. guineti.

References

Dyscophus
Endemic frogs of Madagascar
Taxa named by Alfred Grandidier
Amphibians described in 1877
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Dyscophus antongilii


John Fox (May 26, 1952  –  August 14, 1990) was an American novelist and short-story writer.  Fox was born in the Pelham Bay area of the Bronx and graduated from Cardinal Hayes High School and Lehman College.

Fox's only novel became famous and influential. The Boys on the Rock, detailed the coming out and falling in love of a gay teenage swimmer by the name of Billy Connors. The novel is set in the heady political atmosphere of 1968.  The author Edmund White described the book as "Some of the brightest, funniest, most touching writing about adolescence...And if ever a book will give straight readers an exact sense of what it's like to grow up gay, surely The Boys on the Rock will".

According to his obituary in The New York Times, Fox died of AIDS in his Manhattan home in 1990, aged 38.  He was survived by his parents, John Sr. and Joan, also of the Bronx; a brother, James, of Danbury, Connecticut; and a sister, Dorothy Schmidt of Malvern, Pennsylvania.

References
 The New York Times. "John Fox; Writer, 38." August 22, 1990: D23.

20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
AIDS-related deaths in New York (state)
1952 births
1990 deaths
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers

John Fox (writer)


Alistair Brown (born 12 April 1951) is a Scottish former football player who played as a striker. He made 496 league appearances over an eighteen-year career in the English Football League, scoring 141 goals.

He began his career at Leicester City, and helped to fire the "Foxes" to promotion out of the Second Division in 1970–71. He then helped the club to win the 1971 Charity Shield, before he moved on to West Bromwich Albion. He helped the "Baggies" to win promotion out of the Second Division in 1975–76, before helping the club to qualify for European football. He spent some time in 1981 playing in America for the Portland Timbers. In 1983, he moved to Walsall via Crystal Palace. He signed with Port Vale in July 1984, and helped the "Valiants" to win promotion out of the Fourth Division in 1985–86, before he retired in May 1986. A quality finisher, he was the top-scorer over the course of at least one season at Leicester, West Brom, Walsall, and Port Vale. He later worked as a pub landlord and warehouseman in the Midlands.

Playing career

Leicester City
Brown started his career at Leicester City, who were relegated out of the First Division in 1968–69. They finished third in the Second Division in 1969–70, two points shy of promotion. Brown finished as the club's top scorer in 1970–71 with 17 goals, as Leicester claimed promotion as the division's champions under Frank O'Farrell's stewardship. He played in the 1971 FA Charity Shield victory over Liverpool at Filbert Street. He was the club's top scorer again in 1971–72 under Jimmy Bloomfield, scoring seven goals, including one against rivals Nottingham Forest. He made 121 appearances for the "Foxes" in all competitions, scoring 35 goals. He then left Filbert Street for West Bromwich Albion after being sold for a £60,000 fee in March 1972.

West Bromwich Albion
West Brom suffered relegation out of the First Division under Don Howe in 1972–73, finishing four points short of safety. They finished five places and five points off the promotion places in 1973–74, before finishing three places and eight points short of promotion in 1974–75. Johnny Giles was then appointed as manager at The Hawthorns in July 1975, and Brown finished as the club's top scorer in 1975–76 with ten goals, as Albion secured the third and final promotion place by a one-point margin. They then finished seventh in 1976–77. Despite a managerial merry-go-round that saw Ronnie Allen replaced by John Wile and then Ron Atkinson, Albion managed to secure European football with a sixth-place finish in 1977–78. Brown scored 18 goals in 41 appearances in 1978–79, playing up front with Laurie Cunningham and Cyrille Regis, as the "Baggies" posted a third-place finish, some nine points behind champions Liverpool. They dropped to 10th in 1979–80, before shooting back up fourth in 1980–81, eight points behind champions Aston Villa. Brown played for Portland Timbers on loan in 1981, scoring nine goals and bagging six assists in 24 NASL appearances for Vic Crowe's side. However Atkinson left West Brom in 1981, along with Bryan Robson and Remi Moses, and Ronnie Allen could only take the club to two points above the drop zone in 1981–82. New boss Ron Wylie took the club back up to 11th in 1982–83, the last of Brown's ten seasons at the club. He made a total of 279 league appearances for the "Baggies", scoring 72 goals.

Later career
Brown joined Second Division Crystal Palace in March 1983. In August 1983, he moved on to Alan Buckley's Walsall in the Third Division. He finished as the club's top scorer in 1983–84 with 15 goals, his only season at Fellows Park. In July 1984 he joined Port Vale, then in the Fourth Division under John Rudge's stewardship, making his debut in a 1–0 defeat to Mansfield Town at Vale Park on 25 August 1984. With 21 goals in 49 games in the 1984–85 season he became the club's top scorer, forming a deadly forward pairing with Robbie Earle. However the next season he struggled with injuries and retired from the game in May 1986, at the age of 35. His six goals in 33 games did though help the secure the "Valiants" the fourth automatic promotion place. Despite smoking cigarettes during the half-time break, his experience on the field helped to improve the goal-scoring skills of Robbie Earle and Andy Jones.

Style of play
A cultured forward, he was a good finisher who could also hold the ball up well. He had an extremely powerful shot.

Post-retirement
After retiring, Brown ran the Cedar Tree Public House in Aldridge and then the Throstles Club in West Bromwich, before becoming a warehouseman in an iron foundry in Walsall.

Statistics
Source:

Honours
Leicester City
Football League Second Division champion: 1970–71
Charity Shield winner: 1971

West Bromwich Albion
Football League Second Division third place promotion: 1975–76

Port Vale
Football League Fourth Division fourth place promotion: 1985–86

References

1951 births
Living people
Footballers from Musselburgh
Men's association football forwards
Scottish men's footballers
Leicester City F.C. players
West Bromwich Albion F.C. players
Scottish expatriate men's footballers
Scottish expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
Portland Timbers (1975–1982) players
Crystal Palace F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
English Football League players
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players

Alistair Brown (footballer, born 1951)


Craig Stephen Sutherland (born 17 December 1988) is a Scottish former professional footballer who played as a forward. He began his career in the United States playing college soccer for Midwestern State University and North Carolina State University. Sutherland played 16 times in the Football League for Blackpool and Plymouth Argyle between 2011 and 2012. He has also played for Woking, Queen's Park, Cowdenbeath, Stenhousemuir and East Fife.

Career
Sutherland played for Spartans at youth level between 2006 and 2007 before moving to the United States to begin a soccer scholarship in Texas.

Sutherland joined Blackpool on 26 July 2011 from North Carolina State University. He made his debut on 5 August as a substitute in Blackpool's single-goal Championship victory at Hull City in the opening game of the 2011–12 Football League season. His first start came six days later, in the first round of the League Cup against Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough.

On 16 November he joined League Two side Plymouth Argyle on loan for two months, joining teammate Paul Bignot, who had also signed on loan two weeks earlier. His made his debut three days later in a 3–1 defeat away to Torquay United.

He went close to scoring his first senior goal in his third appearance for the Pilgrims, in a 1–1 draw with Bradford City at Valley Parade on 10 December. A shot from Simon Walton took a deflection in the crowded penalty area and Sutherland was credited with the goal by the Press Association, however the deflection actually came off a Bradford defender. "Craig said he didn't touch it. It might have been one of the defenders, but, as far as I understand it, it's only an own goal if it is not on target, and it was going in," said Walton. "Craig said, while we were celebrating, 'It's your goal' so I'll take it." The goal remained credited to Sutherland at the end of the season.

Sutherland returned to Blackpool at the end of January 2012, having made nine appearances for Argyle. He was released at the end of the 2012–13 season without making another first team appearance.

Sutherland then spent time on trial at Rangers before signing for Woking. In March 2014, Sutherland went on trial at Dundee. After registration issues stopped him joining Dundee, he signed for Scottish League Two club Queen's Park until the end of the 2013–14 season.

On 25 July 2014, Sutherland signed for Scottish Championship club Cowdenbeath.

On 23 January 2015, Sutherland joined Stenhousemuir, signing a contract until the end of the 2014–15 season. He was released by the club at the end of the season.

Sutherland then signed for East Fife on 23 July 2015, making eight appearances before leaving the club in October 2015.

Personal life
Sutherland was born in Edinburgh. After attending George Watson's College in Edinburgh, he moved to the United States in 2007 to begin a soccer scholarship at Midwestern State University. He played for Great Britain in the 2009 Summer Universiade football tournament, held in Serbia. In the opening group game he scored a late equaliser in a 2–2 draw with Mexico at the Omladinski Stadium, Belgrade. After two years at Midwestern he then moved to North Carolina State University, where he played for a further two years.

Career statistics

References

External links

Craig Sutherland profile at North Carolina State Wolfpack's website

1988 births
Living people
Footballers from Edinburgh
Scottish men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Midwestern State Mustangs men's soccer players
NC State Wolfpack men's soccer players
Blackpool F.C. players
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Woking F.C. players
Queen's Park F.C. players
Cowdenbeath F.C. players
Stenhousemuir F.C. players
East Fife F.C. players
English Football League players
Scottish Professional Football League players
Midwestern State University alumni
North Carolina State University alumni
People educated at George Watson's College

Craig Sutherland