The Ardennes ( ;  ; ;  ;  ), also known as the Ardennes Forest or Forest of Ardennes, is a region of extensive forests, rough terrain, rolling hills and ridges primarily in Belgium and Luxembourg, extending into Germany and France.

Geologically, the range is a western extension of the Eifel; both were raised during the Givetian age of the Devonian (382.7 to 387.7 million years ago), as were several other named ranges of the same greater range.

The Ardennes proper stretches well into Germany and France (lending its name to the Ardennes department and the former Champagne-Ardenne region) and geologically into the Eifel (the eastern extension of the Ardennes Forest into Bitburg-Prüm, Germany); most of it is in the southeast of Wallonia, the southern and more rural part of Belgium (away from the coastal plain but encompassing more than half of the country's total area). The eastern part of the Ardennes forms the northernmost third of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, also called "Oesling" (). On the southeast the Eifel region continues into the German state of the Rhineland-Palatinate.

The trees and rivers of the Ardennes provided the charcoal industry assets that enabled the great industrial period of Wallonia in the 18th and 19th centuries, when it was arguably the second great industrial region of the world. The greater region maintained an industrial eminence into the 20th century, after coal replaced charcoal in metallurgy. The strategic position of the Ardennes has made it a battleground for European powers for centuries; it was the site of major battles during both World Wars.

Geography

Much of the Ardennes is covered in dense forests, with the hills averaging around  in height but rising to over  in the boggy moors of the High Fens region of south-eastern Belgium. The region is typified by steep-sided valleys carved by swift-flowing rivers, the most prominent of which is the Meuse. Its most populous cities are Verviers in Belgium and Charleville-Mézières in France, both exceeding 50,000 inhabitants. The Ardennes is otherwise relatively sparsely populated, with few of the cities exceeding 10,000 inhabitants. (Exceptions include Belgium's Eupen and Bastogne.)

The Eifel range in Germany adjoins the Ardennes and is part of the same geological formation, although they are conventionally regarded as being two distinct areas.

Highest summits
 Signal de Botrange , Liège Province, Belgium - highest point in the Ardennes, highest point in the Benelux countries
 Weißer Stein , Mürringen, Liège Province, Belgium
 Baraque Michel , Liège Province, Belgium
 Baraque de Fraiture, , highest point of the Plateau des Tailles, Luxembourg Province, Belgium
 Lieu-dit (=place called) Galata, , highest point on the Plateau de Saint-Hubert, Luxembourg Province, Belgium
 Kneiff, , highest point in the nation of Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg)
 Buurgplaatz, , Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
 Napoléonsgaard, , near Rambrouch, Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
 Croix Scaille , on the border of the provinces of Namur, Belgium, and Champagne, France

Geology

The Ardennes are the remnants of a mountain range formed during the Hercynian orogeny; in France similar formations are the Armorican Massif, the Massif Central, and the Vosges. The low interior of such former mountains often contains coal, plus iron, zinc and other metals in the sub-soil. This geologic fact explains the greatest part of the geography of Wallonia and its history. In the North and West of the Ardennes lie the valleys of the Sambre and Meuse rivers, forming an arc (Sillon industriel) going across the most industrial provinces of Wallonia, for example Hainaut Province, along the river Haine (the etymology of Hainaut); the Borinage, the Centre and Charleroi along the river Sambre; Liège Province along the river Meuse.

The region was uplifted by a mantle plume during the last few hundred thousand years, as measured from the present elevation of old river terraces.

This geological region is important in the history of Wallonia because this former mountain is at the origin of the economy, the history, and the geography of Wallonia. "Wallonia presents a wide range of rocks of various ages. Some geological stages internationally recognized were defined from rock sites located in Wallonia: e.g., Frasnian (Frasnes-lez-Couvin), Famennian (Famenne), Tournaisian (Tournai), Visean (Visé), Dinantian (Dinant), and Namurian (Namur)". Except for the Tournaisian, all these rocks are within the Ardennes geological area.

Economy
The Ardennes includes the greatest part of Belgium's Luxembourg Province (not to be confused with the neighbouring Grand Duchy of Luxembourg), the south of Namur Province, and Liège Province, plus a very small part of Hainaut Province, as well as the northernmost third of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, called Oesling () and the main part of the French Ardennes department.

Before the 19th century industrialization, the first furnaces in these four Belgian provinces (all in the Wallonia region) and in the French Ardennes used charcoal for fuel, made from harvesting the Ardennes forest. This industry was also in the extreme south of present-day Luxembourg Province (which until 1839 was part of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg), in the region called Gaume. The most important part of the Walloon steel industry, using coal, was built around the coal mines, mainly in the region around the cities of Liège, Charleroi, La Louvière, the Borinage, and further in the Walloon Brabant (in Tubize). Wallonia became the second industrial power area of the world (after Great Britain) in proportion to its territory and to its population (see further).

The rugged terrain and the harsh climate of the Ardennes limits the scope for agriculture; arable and dairy farming in cleared areas form the mainstay of the agricultural economy. The region is rich in timber and minerals, and Liège and the city of Namur are both major industrial centres. The extensive forests have an abundant population of wild game. The scenic beauty of the region and its wide variety of outdoor activities, including hunting, cycling, walking and canoeing, make it a popular tourist destination.

Etymology
The region takes its name from the vast ancient forest known as Arduenna Silva in the Roman Period. Arduenna probably derives from a Gaulish cognate of the Brythonic word ardu- as in the  ("high") and the Latin arduus ("high", "steep"). The second element is less certain, but may be related to the Celtic element *windo- as in the Welsh wyn/wen ("fair", "blessed"), which tentatively suggests an original meaning of "The forest of blessed/fair heights".

The Ardennes likely shares this derivation with the numerous Arden place names in Britain, including the Forest of Arden.

History

The modern Ardennes region covers a greatly diminished area from the forest recorded in Roman times.

A song about Charlemagne, the Old French 12th-century chanson de geste Quatre Fils Aymon, mentions many of Wallonia's rivers, villages and other places. In Dinant the rock named Bayard takes its name for Bayard, the magic bay horse which, according to legend, jumped from the top of the rock to the other bank of the Meuse.

On their pillaging raids in the years 881 and 882, the Vikings used the old Roman roads in the Ardennes and attacked the abbeys of Malmedy and Stavelot and destroyed Prüm Abbey in the Eifel.

The strategic position of the Ardennes has made it a battleground for European powers for centuries. Much of the Ardennes formed part of the Duchy (since 1815, the Grand Duchy) of Luxembourg, a member state of the Holy Roman Empire, which changed hands numerous times between the powerful dynasties of Europe. In 1793 revolutionary France annexed the whole area, together with all other territories west of the Rhine river. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna, which dealt with the political aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, restored the previous geographical situation, with most of the Ardennes becoming part of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After the revolution of 1830, which resulted in the establishment of the Kingdom of Belgium, the political future of the Ardennes became a matter of much dispute between Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, as well as involving the contemporary great powers of France, Prussia, and Great Britain. As a result, in 1839, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg ceded the westernmost 63% of its territory (being also the main part of the Ardennes) to the new Kingdom of Belgium, which is now its Luxembourg Province.

In the 20th century the Ardennes was widely thought by leading military strategists to be unsuitable for large-scale military operations, due to its difficult terrain and narrow lines of communications. However, in both World War I and World War II, Germany successfully gambled on making a rapid passage through the Ardennes to attack a relatively lightly defended part of France. The Ardennes became the site of three major battles during the world wars—the Battle of the Ardennes (August 1914) in World War I, and the Battle of France (1940) and the Battle of the Bulge (1944–1945) in World War II. Many of the towns of the region suffered severe damage during the two world wars.

Allied generals in World War II believed that the region was impenetrable to massed vehicular traffic and especially armor, so the area was effectively "all but undefended" during the war. The German Army twice used this region to invade northern France and southern Belgium, via Luxembourg in the Battle of France and the later Battle of the Bulge.

The military strategists of Nazi Germany in 1939 and 1940 selected the forest as the primary route of their mechanized forces in the Invasion of France. The forest's great size could conceal the armored divisions, and because the French did not suspect that the Germans would make such a risky move, they did not consider a breakthrough there, or considered that it would take at least 15 days for an army to pass through the forest. German forces, primarily under the command of Erich von Manstein, carried out the plan in two days, and managed to slip numerous divisions past the Maginot Line to attack France from the north, and rout the French forces.
In May 1940 the German army crossed the Meuse, despite the resistance of the French Army. Under the command of General Heinz Guderian, the German armoured divisions crossed the river at Dinant and at Sedan, France. This was a crucial step in the push towards Paris, and France fell on 25 June 1940.

At the other end of the war, the Ardennes area came to prominence again during the Battle of the Bulge. The German Army, which had been forced to retreat for some time, launched a surprise attack in December 1944 in an attempt to recapture Antwerp and to drive a wedge between the advancing British and American forces in northern France. After a fierce battle the Allied forces blocked the German advance on the river Meuse at Dinant.In the postwar period, the Ardennes has become a weekend retreat that is popular among both Belgians and the neighboring countries. The tourist industry is extensive and varied in range of activities and type of accommodations.

Gallery

See also
 Flemish Ardennes, an unconnected region in East Flanders
 Jambon sec des Ardennes

References

Sources
 Gerrard, John, Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains, MIT Press, 1990

External links

Areas of Belgium
Forests of Belgium
Forests of France
Forests of Luxembourg
History of Wallonia
Landforms of Ardennes (department)
Landforms of Hainaut (province)
Landforms of Liège Province
Landforms of Luxembourg (Belgium)
Landforms of Namur (province)
Landforms of Nord (French department)
Landforms of Wallonia
Mountain ranges of Belgium
Mountain ranges of Grand Est
Mountain ranges of Hauts-de-France
Mountain ranges of Luxembourg
Natural regions of Belgium
Old-growth forests
Regions of Wallonia
Rhenish Massif

Ardennes


Partho Sen-Gupta (also spelled Partho Sen Gupta or Partho Sengupta pronounced Partho Shen-Goopto) is an  independent film director and screenwriter. He is an Australian and French dual citizen, of Indian origin. He has a post-graduate degree in Film Direction from the FEMIS.

Biography
Sen-Gupta was born in Mumbai (Bombay), on 2 September 1965. He has been working in cinema since the age of seventeen, starting his career as an apprentice in the art department, in the studios of "Bollywood" in Mumbai. He worked with an Indian art director Bijon Dasgupta on the sets of big-budget commercial Hindi films like Saagar and Mr. India among others.

After having spent a few years finishing his apprenticeship, he became assistant art director. In 1988, he worked on his first film as art director or production designer in an Indian art movie called Main  Zinda Hoon (I am Alive) directed by Sudhir Mishra. He then set up his design studio working on numerous advertising films and art movies, designing sets and specializing in real-time SFX. He won the Best Art Director Award in 1989. He also worked as production designer on the French film Nocturne Indien directed by Alain Corneau and shot in Mumbai.

In 1993, he was selected to do a two-month summer workshop at FEMIS, the French film institute in Paris. During the workshop, he directed his first short film, "La Derniere..." based on Samuel Beckett's radio play Krapp's Last Tape. He was then awarded a three-and-a-half-year full scholarship to study film direction at the same school.

During his film school years, he made four short fiction films Le Cochon, La Partition, Trajet Discontinu, and La Petite Souris which took him to different European film festivals and won awards.

After graduation in 1997, he directed his first feature film Hava Aney Dey (Let the Wind Blow), which premiered at the Berlin International Film Festival in 2004. It was selected in many international film festivals and won awards. The film was part of the Global Lens 2008 series of the Global Film Initiative. and premiered at the MoMA NYC, in January 2008.

In 2005, he made a documentary film The Way of Beauty on the Indo-fusion group Shakti which was released on the DVD in May 2006.

In 2008, his new feature film project Sunrise, was selected among 30 other international projects at the 11th Pusan Promotion Plan (3 to 6 October 2008) at the Pusan International Film Festival. Sunrise was the only Indian project in the selection.

Sunrise was completed and released in October 2014 and premiered at the 2014 Busan International Film Festival and numerous international film festivals, received awards and international critical acclaim.

In 2017, Sen-Gupta wrote and directed his first Australian feature film Slam. It was an official selected project at the 2016 International Film Festival Rotterdam's CineMart  and the 2016 Berlinale Co-oproduction Market. The film starring Adam Bakri, from the Academy Awards nominated film Omar and award winning Australian actress Rachael Blake, was filmed in October and  November 2017 in Sydney, Australia.

Slam was selected in the Official Selection Competition at the 2018 Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival and had its world premiere on 27 November 2018.

Sen-Gupta lectured for the Masters in Directing at the Australian Film, Television, Radio School AFTRS from 2021 to 2023.

Filmography

Writer/Director
Slam - 2018/Fiction/115 min/English
Sunrise - 2014/Fiction/85 min/Marathi
The Way of Beauty - 2006/Documentary/180 min/English
Hava Aney Dey (Let the Wind Blow) - 2004/Fiction/93 min/Hindi
Trajet Discontinu - 1998/Fiction/26 min/French
Le Cochon - 1996/Fiction/12min/French

Production Designer/Art Director
Nocturne Indien - 1989/Fiction/110 min/French
Raakh - 1989/Fiction/153 min/Hindi
Main Zinda Hoon - 1988/Fiction/120 min/Hindi

References

External links

Official Website
2004 interview in Nantes, Festival de 3 continents
Arunoday - Sunrise - A film by Partho Sen-Gupta

1965 births
Living people
Film directors from Mumbai
Hindi-language film directors
Bengali male artists
Indian production designers
20th-century Indian designers

Partho Sen-Gupta


The Fiat 1500 was a six-cylinder car produced by the Fiat from 1935 to 1950. It was one of the first cars tested in a wind tunnel, following the Chrysler Airflow produced one year earlier. The streamlined styling achieved an aerodynamic efficiency unequalled before it in a touring car and (contrary to the failure of the "lumpen" Airflow) disproved the thesis aerodynamic cars would not sell.

History

The Fiat 1500 was introduced at the November 1935 Salone dell'automobile di Milano (Milan Motor Show). It was powered by a  overhead valve straight-six engine, producing  at 4,400 rpm. The transmission had four speeds, and synchromesh on the top two gears. Top speed was . For the first time on a Fiat there were independent suspensions at the front, of the Dubonnet type. The frame was X-shaped, with a boxed centre section.
Fiat offered two factory body styles, a 4-door pillarless saloon with suicide doors at the rear, and a 2-door convertible with suicide doors as well; both lacked a boot lid, as the luggage compartment was only accessible folding the rear seat, and carried an external spare wheel in a recess at the rear of the body. As an alternative the 1500 was also available as bare chassis, and numerous cars received coachbuilt bodies.

1939: the 1500 B
An improved, second series model was introduced in 1939, distinguished as was Fiat's custom at the time by a letter added to the model name: the Fiat 1500 B. It had more powerful brakes and an handbrake acting on the transmission through a band brake instead than on the rear axle drum brakes as before. The 1500 B was otherwise virtually undistinguishable from the original model.

1940: the 1500 C
The 1500 B was short lived as in 1940 Fiat replaced it with the 1500 C, sporting a redesigned and more conventional looking front end. Following the look introduced with the Fiat 2800 flagship of 1938, the grille was pointed, taller and more upright than before—the so-called musone, big snout. The headlamps ceased to be integrated in the front wings. Beginning with this model the sole factory body option was the 4-door saloon.

1946: the 1500 D
In 1946, after World War II, Fiat resumed production of pre-war models, the 500, 1100 and the 1500 C. Since the ongoing development of all-new cars would take some years, improvements were made to keep these vehicles of 1930s vintage competitive on the market. The resulting 1500 D was introduced at the 1948 Turin Motor Show, alongside the updated 1100 B and the 500 B Giardiniera (station wagon).
Externally the 1500 D was largely unchanged from the 1940 1500 C, while there were significant mechanical differences. The front Dubonnet suspension had been replaced by a double wishbone design similar to the 1100s; therefore the steering had to be changed as well. The engine had been equipped with a twin-choke Weber 30 DCR carburettor, had a higher 6.2:1 compression ratio and other changes, pushing output to ; top speed rose to . Between 1948 and 1949, production of this model amounted to over 2,800.

1949: the 1500 E
The fifth and final version of the 1500, the 1500 E, was first shown at the 1949 Fiera del Levante in Bari, together with the similarly updated 1100 E. The main distinguishing feature of these "E" models was their luggage compartment, accessible from outside the car; the previously rear-mounted spare wheel had to be carried inside the car, bolted inside the newly acquired boot lid. In the case of the 1500, the body aft of the rear doors was redesigned: the sloping back, almost unchanged since 1935, gave way to three-box styling. Together with more robust bumpers, this increased the overall length of the car by some . The rear window was one-piece instead of being split, and the running boards were integrated in the body-side stampings.
Other notable revisions were made to the transmission: the clutch was strengthened, synchromesh was added to second gear, and inside the cabin there was a column-mounted shifter. In total about 1,700 1500 Es were made, for a grand total of about 46,000 1500s of all models.
After 15 years of production, in 1950 the 1500 was replaced by the groundbreaking unibody Fiat 1400, the marque's first all-new post-war car.

References

Notes

Bibliography

1500
1940s cars
1950s cars
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Sedans
Streamliner cars
Cars introduced in 1935
Cars discontinued in 1950

Fiat 1500 (1935)


Barnes & Noble, Inc. is the largest bookseller in the United States. It operates mostly through its Barnes & Noble Booksellers chain of bookstores which is based in lower Fifth Avenue in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Barnes & Noble also operated the chain of small B. Dalton Booksellers stores in malls until they announced the liquidation of the chain.

The company is known for large, upscale retail stores. Many of them contain a café serving Starbucks Coffee. Most stores also sell magazines, newspapers, DVDs, graphic novels, gifts, games, and music. Video games and related items were sold in the company's GameStop retail outlets until October 2004. Then, the division was made into its own company.

As of October 2009, the company operates 777 stores in all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. It also has 636 college bookstores, which serves nearly 4 million students and 250,000 faculty members across the country.

History
Barnes & Noble began in 1873 when Charles Barnes opened a book-printing business in Wheaton, Illinois. Their first true bookstore was set up by his son, William, with G. Clifford Noble, in 1917 in New York City. The original bookstore was at 31 West 15th St., and opened during World War I. In 1932, at the height of the Great Depression, the bookstore was moved to its current location on 18th Street and Fifth Avenue.

The business was bought in 1971 by Leonard Riggio. He oversaw the growth of the business. In 1974, Barnes & Noble became the first bookstore to advertise on television. A year later, the company became the first bookseller in America to discount books. It sold New York Times best-selling titles at 40% off the publishers' list price. During the 1970s and 1980s, Barnes & Noble opened smaller discount stores.  These were eventually phased out in favor of larger stores. They also began to publish their own books to be sold to mail-order customers. These titles were mostly low price reissues of out-of-print titles. Selling them through mail-order catalogs allowed Barnes & Noble to reach new customers nationwide.

Barnes & Noble continued to expand throughout the 1980s. In 1987 it purchased the mostly shopping mall-based B. Dalton chain from Dayton Hudson. The last B. Dalton stores closed in January 2010. The purchase of 797 bookstores turned the company into a nationwide retailer. As of the end of fiscal year 1999, the second-largest online bookseller in the United States.  B&N's critics claim that it has added to the decline of local and independent booksellers.

It first began selling books online in the late 1980s, but the company's website was not launched until May 1997. The site now carries over 1 million titles.

In 2002, Leonard Riggio's brother Stephen Riggio was named CEO.

Steve Riggio, CEO and Vice Chairman
Steve Riggio is vice chairman of the company and served on the board of directors. Riggio began his career at Barnes & Noble in 1975 after graduating from Brooklyn College. After getting his start in the buying and merchandising departments, he became general manager and vice president of the company's direct mail division. He held this position from 1981 to 1987. Riggio became executive vice president of merchandising in 1987. Then, in 1995, he was appointed chief operating officer. He was appointed CEO in January 2003 and held that position till March 2010. In addition to his career at Barnes & Noble, Riggio serves on the board of directors of the National Book Foundation, Association for the Help of Retarded Children and the National Down Syndrome Society. According to Forbes.com, in 2007 Riggio's salary is $786,358 a year. He also earns $2,323,942 in other long-term payments, for a yearly grand total of $3,110,480.

Publishing
Barnes & Noble publishes some of the books it sells. It reprints non-copyrighted titles or gets the American or English language rights from another publisher. In addition, Barnes & Noble pays for reprint anthologies and omnibus editions using in-house editors.

Barnes & Noble began to publish books during the 1980s, when they started reissuing out-of-print titles. One of these titles, The Gentle Art of Verbal Self-Defense by Suzette Haden Elgin, has sold over 250,000 copies.  The reissued edition of The Columbia History of the World by John Garrity has sold over 1 million copies.

Since then, the company has expanded its publishing operation. This expansion was helped by the company's purchase of SparkNotes, an educational website and publishing company. Further expansions of the company's publishing business include the purchase of how-to publisher Sterling Publishing in 2003 and the launch of Quamut in 2008.

From around 1992 through early 2003, Barnes & Noble released a series of literary classics for adults and children under the imprint Barnes & Noble Classics Collection. Originally available only in hardcover, most titles came in a black or cream-colored dustjacket edition. In 2003, Barnes & Noble redesigned and expanded its line of literature classics, releasing books in hardcover, trade paperback and mass-market editions.

Cafés

The first store to feature a café serving Starbucks beverages was in Springfield, New Jersey in 1993. Since then, most stores have been changed or built specifically to feature a cafe. The cafes serve Starbucks beverages, Harney & Sons or Tazo Tea, FIJI Bottled Water, bakery goods from The Cheesecake Factory, candy from Godiva Chocolatiers, sandwiches and other specialty products.  Although the cafés are owned and operated by Barnes & Noble, servers follow Starbucks' standards in beverage preparation.

In 2004, Barnes & Noble began offering Wi-Fi in the café area of selected stores, using the AT&T FreedomLink network. All 777 stores currently offer Wi-Fi, an effort which was completed in 2006. As of July 27, 2009, Wi-Fi is offered for free to all customers.

Community involvement
Barnes & Noble hires community relations managers to engage in community outreach. The tasks of these managers include organizing in-store events, such as author appearances, children's storytimes and book groups. Community relations managers work closely with local schools and groups for the promotion of literacy and the arts. One of the things that Barnes & Noble does in the community is sponsor a children's summer reading program that promotes literacy and puts over 2 million books into the hands of the children each year.  Barnes & Noble also hosts bookfairs which raise funds for schools and libraries. The company also hosts an annual holiday book drive to collect books for disadvantaged children. in 2007, 1.16 million books were collected and distributed. To promote nationwide literacy among 1st to 6th graders and encourage more reading during the summer, Barnes & Noble has started a summer challenge where if children read 8 books and write about their reading, Barnes & Noble will give the readers a free book.

Barnes & Noble Nook

Barnes & Noble Nook is an electronic book reader created by the company, based on the Android platform.  The device was announced in the United States on 20 October 2009. It was released 30 November 2009 for US$259. nook competes with the Amazon Kindle, Sony Reader, and other readers, and includes Wi-Fi and AT&T 3G wireless connectivity, a six-inch E Ink display, and a separate, smaller color touchscreen that serves as the primary input device.

College bookstores
Barnes & Noble College Booksellers, Inc. is a part of the company which operates bookstores at more than 600 colleges. College Bookstores was previously owned by company chairman Leonard Riggio. It is based in Basking Ridge, New Jersey.

Barnes & Noble College Booksellers says that its store at Fifth Avenue and 18th Street in New York City is the "world's largest bookstore". This store carries a large variety of textbooks, medical books, and medical supplies in addition to the various trade titles carried at the company's main stores.

Related pages
Amazon.com

Notes

Other websites

 Barnes & Noble corporate website
 Barnes & Noble retail website
 Barnes & Noble at 18th Street Bookstore (flagship store)

Companies based in New York City
1873 establishments in the United States
1870s establishments in New York (state)
Booksellers

Barnes & Noble


When talking about the colonies in the New World,  the term free people of color was used for people who had both European, and African, and sometimes native American parents, but who were not slaves. This term applied to a large number of people in Louisiana (which was known as 'New France' at the time), and the Carribean islands. In the colonies, these people were classified in various ways, usually depending on what they looked like. The term became popular in the late 17th century. In the thirteen colonies, these people were sometimes called free negroes.

The term did not apply to freed slaves, which were usually known as affranchi, in French.

African-American history
Colonialism
Slavery

Free people of color


Daoud was the half-brother of the 14th-century Kanem emperor Idris I of Kanem. After the death of Idris, a struggle for the throne began. Daoud was chosen as Mai against his competitors, the sons of Idris. This left the sons dejected and bitter, due to which they waged war against Daoud and his supporters; this led to a century of successive conflicts between the Idrisus and the Daouds. It is believed the conflict may have weakened the Sefuwa dynasty and made it vulnerable to external attacks.

References

14th-century monarchs in Africa
Rulers of the Kanem Empire

Dawud of Kanem


A lens flare happens when light is scattered or flared in a lens system, often in response to a bright light, producing a sometimes undesirable artifact in the image. This happens through light scattered by the imaging mechanism itself, for example through internal reflection and forward scatter from material imperfections in the lens. Lenses with large numbers of elements such as zooms tend to have more lens flare, as they contain a relatively large number of interfaces at which internal scattering may occur. These mechanisms differ from the focused image generation mechanism, which depends on rays from the refraction of light from the subject itself.

There are two types of flare: visible artifacts and glare across the image. The glare makes the image look "washed out" by reducing contrast and color saturation (adding light to dark image regions, and adding white to saturated regions, reducing their saturation). Visible artifacts, usually in the shape of the aperture made by the iris diaphragm, are formed when light follows a pathway through the lens that contains one or more reflections from the lens surfaces.

Flare is particularly caused by very bright light sources. Most commonly, this occurs when aiming toward the Sun (when the Sun is in frame or the lens is pointed sunward), and is reduced by using a lens hood or other shade. For good-quality optical systems, and for most images (which do not have a bright light shining into the lens), flare is a secondary effect that is widely distributed across the image and thus not visible, although it does reduce contrast.

Manifestation

The spatial distribution of the lens flare typically manifests as several starbursts, rings, or circles in a row across the image or view. Lens flare patterns typically spread widely across the scene and change location with the camera's movement relative to light sources, tracking with the light position and fading as the camera points away from the bright light until it causes no flare at all. The specific spatial distribution of the flare depends on the shape of the aperture of the image formation elements. For example, if the lens has a 6-bladed aperture, the flare may have a hexagonal pattern.

Such internal scattering is also present in the human eye, and manifests in an unwanted veiling glare most obvious when viewing very bright lights or highly reflective surfaces. In some situations, eyelashes can also create flare-like irregularities, although these are technically diffraction artifacts.

When a bright light source is shining on the lens but not in its field of view, lens flare appears as a haze that washes out the image and reduces contrast. This can be avoided by shading the lens using a lens hood. In a studio, a gobo or set of barn doors can be attached to the lighting to keep it from shining on the camera. Filters can be attached to the camera lens which will also minimise lens flare, which is especially useful for outdoor photographers.

When using an anamorphic lens, as is common in analog cinematography, lens flare can manifest itself as horizontal lines. This is most commonly seen in car headlights in a dark scene, and may be desired as part of the "film look".

Deliberate use

A lens flare is often deliberately used to invoke a sense of drama. A lens flare is also useful when added to an artificial or modified image composition because it adds a sense of realism, implying that the image is an un-edited original photograph of a "real life" scene.

For both of these reasons (implying realism and/or drama) artificial lens flare is a common effect in various graphics editing programs, although its use can be a point of contention among professional graphic designers. Lens flare was one of the first special effects developed for computer graphics because it can be imitated using relatively simple means. Basic flare-like effects, for instance in video games, can be obtained by drawing starburst, ring, and disc textures over the image and moving them as the location of the light source changes. More sophisticated rendering techniques have been developed based on ray tracing or photon mapping.

Lens flare was typically avoided by Hollywood cinematographers, but when filming Easy Rider (1969), Harrison Arnold was forced to modify a camera car for his Arriflex, which resulted in numerous lens flares as he shot motorcycle footage against landscapes of the Southwestern United States.

Director J. J. Abrams added numerous lens flares to his films Star Trek (2009) and Super 8 (2011) by aiming powerful off-camera light sources at the lens. He explained in an interview about Star Trek: "I wanted a visual system that felt unique. I know there are certain shots where even I watch and think, 'Oh that's ridiculous, that was too many.' But I love the idea that the future was so bright it couldn't be contained in the frame." Many complained of the frequent use; Abrams admitted it was "overdone, in some places."

David Boyd, the director of photography of the sci-fi Firefly series, desired this style so much (harkening back to 1970s television), that he sent back cutting-edge lenses that reduced lens flare in exchange for cheaper ones.

Other forms of photographic flare

Filter flare
The use of photographic filters can cause flare, particularly ghosts of bright lights (under central inversion). This can be eliminated by not using a filter, and reduced by using higher-quality filters or narrower aperture.

Diffraction artifact in digital cameras
One form of flare is specific to digital cameras. With the sun shining on an unprotected lens, a group of small rainbows appears. This artifact is formed by internal diffraction on the image sensor, which acts like a diffraction grating. Unlike true lens flare, this artifact is not visible in the eyepiece of a digital SLR camera, making it more difficult to avoid.

Gallery

See also
 Anti-reflective coating, used to reduce lens flare and produces the red and green colors common in lens flare.
 Bokeh, a source of circles around out-of-focus bright points, also due in part to the internals of the lens.
 Diffraction spike, a type of lens flare seen in some telescopes

References

Science of photography
Lenses
Optical phenomena

Lens flare


Cinnamomum oliveri is a rainforest tree growing at the eastern coastal parts of Australia. It grows from the Illawarra district (34° S) in New South Wales to Cape York Peninsula at the northern tip of Australia. The southernmost limit of natural distribution is on the volcanic cliffs above the town of Gerroa and nearby on the sand in rainforest behind Seven Mile Beach, New South Wales.

Named after Daniel Oliver of Kew Gardens. Cinnamomum oliveri, has several common names, such as the camphorwood, Oliver's sassafras, black sassafras and cinnamonwood. It is a medium to large tree to around 30 metres tall and 75 cm in diameter.

Habitat
Common in warm temperate rainforest areas on sedimentary soils in cool mountain situations. But also seen in subtropical rainforest.

Description

Trunk, bark and leaves
The trunk is cylindrical or occasionally flanged. Grey or brown bark with a corky layer. The trunk has vertical lines of corky pustules.

Leaves are opposite, simple, entire wavy margins, smooth, lanceolate, pointed, gradually tapering to the base. 8 to 15 cm long, 2 to 4 cm broad. Shiny green above, bluish grey glaucous below. Leaf stalk 6 to 12 mm long. Leaf venation is distinct on both surfaces. The midrib is raised on both surfaces.

Flowers, fruit and germination
Flowers appear from October to November. Cream, fragrant, in panicles at the ends of branchlets or in the forks of leaves near the ends of the branchlets. The fruit is a blue-black or black oval, shiny, aromatic drupe. Often with galls. About 12 mm long. Fruit ripe February to April. Fruiting occurs roughly every seven years, and is prolific.

Fruit is eaten by rainforest birds including the white-headed pigeon, pied currawong and green catbird. Like most Australian laurel fruit, removal of the fleshy aril is advised to assist seed germination. The seed has short longevity due to deterioration on drying.

Uses
The bark of Cinnamomum oliveri contains tannin, also an essential oil, rich in camphor, safrole and methyleugenol or cinnamic aldehyde and eugenol depending on the chemical variety of the species.  The oil may be used for medicinal purposes. The fragrant timber is used for indoor work, lining and cabinet work. Weight 560 to 660 kilograms per cubic metre.

Gallery

References

External links
  (other publication details, included in citation)

Flora of New South Wales
Flora of Queensland
Laurales of Australia
Plants described in 1892
Trees of Australia
oliveri

Cinnamomum oliveri


The New Zealand Legal Information Institute (NZLII) is operated by the University of Otago faculty of law with assistance from the University of Canterbury and Victoria University of Wellington. It contains more than 100 databases of New Zealand law including many decision from courts and tribunals that are not available anywhere else, including from commercial operators. It operates using voluntary labour and grants from the New Zealand Law Foundation. NZLII is a member of the Free Access to Law Movement.

References
 Buckingham D 'What's in a Name?: New Zealand and the growth of free on-line legal information' [2005] CompLRes 2; 7th Law via Internet Conference, Vila, Vanuatu
 Section on NZLII in Greenleaf, G Legal Information Institutes and the Free Access to Law Movement, Globalex website, February 2008

External links
 New Zealand Legal Information Institute

University of Otago
Law of New Zealand
Free Access to Law Movement

New Zealand Legal Information Institute


Arthur Caswell Parker (April 5, 1881 – January 1, 1955) was an American scholar. His research interests included archaeology, history, folklore and museums. He was an expert on Native American  culture. His family line was both from the Seneca and Scots-English. He was director of the Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences from 1924 to 1945. He was an honorary trustee of the New York State Historical Association. He was also first president of  Society for American Archaeology.

Early Life and Education
Arthur C. Parker was born in 1881 on the Cattaraugus Reservation of the Seneca Nation of New York. His father was Frederick Ely Parker. Frederick Parker was half Seneca. Parker's mother was Geneva Hortenese Griswold. She was a Scots-English-American and taught at the reservation.

Parker became an honorary member of the Seneca tribe in 1903. He got the name Gawaso Wanneh (meaning "Big Snowsnake"). Parker grew up with his grandfather Nicholson Henry Parker. Nicholson was a Seneca leader and influenced Parker. Parker learned Seneca beliefs and Christianity. Parker's great uncle was Ely S. Parker.

Parker studied on the reservation. He graduated from high school in 1897. He became an assistant archaeologist at the American Museum of Natural History in New York from 1901 to 1902. Parker became friends with Frederic W. Putnam. His focus was anthropology.

Parker, however, studied at  Dickinson Seminary in Williamsport, Pennsylvania from 1900 to 1903. These studies were for his ministry. He did not graduate and left beforehand. He went on to become a reporter for the  New York Sun for a couple of months.

Career
Parker was an apprentice in archaeology in New York under Mark Harrington. He was later an archaeologist at several museums. These museums included Peabody Museum and the New York State Museum. For a couple years, he was an ethnologist at the New York State Library. Parker later became director of the Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences.

Parker and Charles A. Eastman founded the Society of American Indians in 1911. They wanted to educate the public about American Indians. In a 1911 fire, Parker rescued many historical records from Native Americans.

Parker was the editor of the American Indian Magazine from 1915 to 1920. He won the Cornplanter Medal in 1916. This award was named after Chief Cornplanter.

He became the first President of the Society for American Archaeology in 1935. In 1944, Parker helped found the National Congress of American Indians. Parker retired from museum work in 1946.

Personal life and Death
Arthur Parker married Beulah Tahamont (1887-1945) in 1904. They divorced in 1914. His daughter,  Bertha Parker, became an archeologist and ethnologist.

He died near Naples, New York on New Year's Day, 1955. He was 73 years old at his death.

Publications

 Excavations in an Erie Indian village and burial site at Ripley, Chautauqua Co., NY, New York State Museum Bulletin 117:459–554. 1907
 Secret Medicine Societies of the Seneca, American Anthropologist, n.s., 11:161–185. April–June, 1909
 Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants, New York State Museum Bulletin 144:5–119. 1910
 Additional Notes on Iroquois Silversmithing, American Anthropologist, n.s., 13:283–293. April–June, 1911
 The Code of Handsome Lake, the Seneca Prophet, New York State Museum Bulletin 163: 5–148. November, 1912
 The Constitution of the Five Nations, New York State Museum Bulletin 184:7-188. April 1, 1916
 The Socials Elements of the Indian Problem, The American Journal of Sociology, 22:252–267. September, 1916
 The Origin of the Iroquois as Suggested by Their Archeology , American Anthropologist, n.s., 18:479–507. October–December, 1916
 Life of General Ely S. Parker: Last Grand Sachem of the Iroquois and General Grant's Military Secretary, Buffalo Historical Society, (Buffalo, New York), Publications, 23:14-346. 1919
 The Mound Builder Culture in New York, New York State Museum Bulletin 219/220:283-292, March–April, 1919. Fifteenth report of the director.
 The New York Indian Complex and How to Solve It, N.Y. State Archaeological Assoc. Lewis H. Morgan Chapter. Researches and Transactions, Vol. 2, No. 1. 1920. 20p.
 The Archaeological History of New York, Albany [The University of the State of New York] 1922. 2 vol. Originally published in New York State Bulletins 235,236, 237, 238. July–October, 1920.
 Seneca Myths and Folk Tales, Buffalo Historical Society Publications, 27, 1923. 465p.
 The Great Algonkin Flint Mines at Coxsackie, N. Y. State Archeological Assoc. Lewis H. Morgan Chapter. Researches and Transactions, 4:105–125. 1925
 An Analytical History of the Seneca Indians, N. Y. State Archeological Assoc. Lewis H. Morgan Chapter. Researches and Transactions, 6:162p. 1926
 The Indian How Book, New York, George H. Doran Company, 1931
 Skunny Wundy and Other Indian Tales, New York, George H. Doran Company, 1926
 Sources and Range of Cooper's Indian Lore , New York History, 35:445–456. 1954
 The History of the Seneca Indians,  Port Washington, NY: I. J. Friedman, 1967
 Parker on the Iroquois, Edited by William N. Fenton, Syracuse University Press, 1986

References

1881 births
1955 deaths
Native American people
American archaeologists
American historians

Arthur C. Parker


Government Jetty, also known as the Kalgan River Jetty or the Fruit Landing, is a heritage listed structure located on Nanarup Road on the Kalgan River near Albany in the Great Southern region of Western Australia.

The jetty was built from 1906 to 1908 and is representative of the development of the Lower Kalgan Bridge. The jetty was intended as a berthing spot for lighters to off‑load goods for the district's new settlers. It was later used as a delivery point for timber used to build the bridge. The jetty once had rail lines on it so that a trolley could be used to transfer materials from the barges delivered them from upriver. It was also used to land equipment such as wooden stave and cast iron pipes, for the construction of the town water supply line from Two Peoples Bay in 1914.

The jetty was also used by tourist vessels, Messrs Armstrong and Waters used it to tie up their steamer, Silver Star, after her run from Albany boarded with sightseers. From there two motor launches took the passengers further up the river to Killarney.

The finger jetty had a T-shaped head was constructed using timber pylons and decking with iron fastenings. It is currently in a poor condition with the last  having been lost apart from parts of two pylons.

See also
 List of places on the State Register of Heritage Places in the City of Albany

References

1906 establishments in Australia
Heritage places in Albany, Western Australia
Wharves in Australia
State Register of Heritage Places in the City of Albany

Government Jetty, Albany


Girls Town is the 1996 feature film directing debut by Jim McKay. It stars Lili Taylor, Bruklin Harris, Anna Grace, and Aunjanue Ellis in her film debut. The plot follows a group of girl friends and their coming-of-age during their senior year of high school in urban America. The screenplay for the film was mostly developed through improvisations among the four lead actresses.

Girls Town had its world premiere on January 20, 1996, at the Sundance Film Festival, where it won the Filmmakers' Trophy. It received a limited release in the United States on August 21, 1996. The Girls Town soundtrack was released on August 20, 1996, by Mercury Records.

Synopsis
Four girls—Patti, Emma, Angela, and Nikki—are completing their senior year of high school and ponder what might be their last year together before they all go on separate paths. Emma and Nikki in particular are bound for college, while Patti is an unwed teen mother.

When Nikki unexpectedly commits suicide, the three remaining girls discover Nikki's journal and learn she had been raped while working as an intern at a local magazine. The shattering revelation causes the girls to realize they didn't know Nikki, or even each other, as well as they thought. They also begin to offer up their own stories of oppression by the men in their lives, with Emma revealing to the group that she too was raped. The girls band together to seek revenge on Emma's attacker, Patti's abusive ex-boyfriend, and finally, Nikki's rapist.

Cast

Production
Workshops and preparation for Girls Town took place over a months-long period, while actual shooting took place within two weeks. The film was shot in Hackensack, New Jersey.

Reception
Girls Town received acclaim from critics. On review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an 88% rating based on 25 reviews.

Writing for Variety, Emanuel Levy said, "Jim McKay's striking feature debut, an empowering feminist saga that makes its points without being overly preachy, should appeal to young viewers, particularly women who're likely to identify with the film's strongly independent heroines." Levy continued, "McKay reveals a sensitive ear to the psyche and feelings of young, mostly working-class women who are determined not only to establish themselves as worthy individuals, but to fight against a social system that has oppressed them for too long." Levy credited the "credible dramatic situations and authentic lingo, the film's two most impressive assets," to the dialogue that was developed through improvisation and workshops, and concluded the film "conveys effectively the sheer joy and catharsis in the girls' reluctance to quietly accept their place in society."

Roger Ebert wrote, <blockquote>"In every high school there are always 'popular' students and various groups of outsiders. It is always thought better to be "popular." One of the lessons of 'Girls Town' is that popularity is based on the opinion of others, while an outsider chooses that status on the basis of her opinion of herself. We see Patti, Emma and Angela behaving unwisely and recklessly in 'Girls Town''', but we also see them growing, and trying themselves, and discovering who they are. It is a painful process--so painful, many people never do it. I would like to see another movie in three or four years, about what has happened to these angry, gifted friends."</blockquote>Ebert added, "the movie's qualities are in the performances and dialogue. We hear the convincing sound of smart teenage girls uncomfortably trying to discover and share the truth about themselves, and we sense the social structure of the school in scenes (usually in the women's washroom) where the three confront their 'popular' classmates." In a more critical review, Chris Hicks of Deseret News called the film an "acting tour de force" but said the plot felt aimless.

References

External linksGirls Town at AllMovieGirls Town'' at TCM Movie Database

1996 films
American teen comedy-drama films
American coming-of-age comedy-drama films
1990s coming-of-age comedy-drama films
1996 directorial debut films
1990s teen comedy-drama films
American high school films
American independent films
1996 independent films
1990s feminist films
Films about teenagers
Films about suicide
Films about rape
Hood films
Rape and revenge films
Sundance Film Festival award-winning films
Films shot in New Jersey
1990s female buddy films
1990s English-language films
1990s American films
1990s teen drama films
American teen drama films

Girls Town (1996 film)


The Three Rivers Computer Corporation (3RCC) was a spinoff from the Research Engineering Laboratory of the Computer Science Department of Carnegie Mellon University, and was founded in May 1974 by Brian S. Rosen, James R. Teter, William H. Broadley, J. Stanley Kriz, D. Raj Reddy and Paul G. Newbury in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States to manufacture advanced technology computer displays, peripherals, and systems. Early products included: the GDP/2A Graphics Display processor with high speed vector generator capable of drawing in excess of 50,000 vectors at 60 Hz refresh rates; a CVD/2 Color Video Display System that displayed a full color raster scanned image with a unique data compression algorithm capable of full frame animation display; ADA-16 Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog converters for high fidelity music and speech research, and a UMB-11 Unibus Monitor that was a low-cost test instrument for PDP-11 series minicomputers. In 1979, the company launched its principal products, a line of workstation computers called PERQ, which were single-user high performance workstations with the power of a medium-scale mainframe computer from that era coupled with a versatile graphics display. In the summer of 1980, the company divested itself of all activities other than those related to PERQ. From 1981 onwards, 3RCC developed and produced the PERQ jointly with ICL in the United Kingdom. 3RCC changed its name to PERQ Systems Corporation in 1984, but became insolvent in 1985.

External links
 PERQ History

1974 establishments in Pennsylvania
1985 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
American companies established in 1974
American companies disestablished in 1985
Carnegie Mellon University
Computer companies established in 1974
Computer companies disestablished in 1985
Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Technology companies established in 1974
Technology companies disestablished in 1985

Three Rivers Computer Corporation


The Low Countries is a term used to refer to a geographical region, especially during the Middle Ages. This region is around the deltas of the Rhine, the Scheldt and the Meuse (Maas). Today,  the Low Countries consists of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the parts of Lower-Saxony (in Germany) that are in the region. Sometimes, the French Netherlands (Nord-Pas-de-Calais) are included as well.

The Dutch name of the Netherlands is Nederland, which literally means low country. The region was usually referred to as de Nederlanden.

Regions of Europe

Low Countries


Neomorphinae is a subfamily of the cuckoo family, Cuculidae. The birds in this group live in the Americas and are terrestrial, meaning they live on the ground. But the two genera, Dromococcyx and Tapera, are more arboreal, meaning they live in trees. Birds in this group are known as "New World ground cuckoos".

Description
All birds in this group are long-legged and long-tailed. They come in different sizes. The species in the genus Geococcyx are around  long. The smallest bird in this group, the striped cuckoo, is  long.

Feeding
New World ground cuckoos are omnivores, meaning they eat both meat and plants. They eat many types of insects like grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars, arachnids like spiders and scorpions, snakes like rattlesnakes, lizards, other birds and bird eggs, small mammals like mice, small, young rabbits and bats. They also eat seeds and fruits.

Habitat
New World ground cuckoos are found in forests, woodlands and deserts all over the Americas.

Genera
Genus: Tapera
 Striped cuckoo, Tapera naevia

Genus: Neomorphus
 Rufous-vented ground cuckoo, Neomorphus geoffroyi
 Red-billed ground cuckoo, Neomorphus pucheranii
 Banded ground cuckoo, Neomorphus radiolosus
 Rufous-winged ground cuckoo, Neomorphus rufipennis
 Scaled ground cuckoo, Neomorphus squamiger

Genus: Morococcyx
 Lesser ground cuckoo, Morococcyx erythropygus

Genus: Geococcyx
 Lesser roadrunner, Geococcyx velox
 Greater roadrunner, Geococcyx californianus

Genus: Dromococcyx
 Pavonine cuckoo, Dromococcyx pavoninus
 Pheasant cuckoo, Dromococcyx phasianellus

References
 Family Cuculidae-Subfamily Neomorphinae

Cuculiformes

Neomorphinae


Qiu Bo (; born 31 January 1993) is a Chinese diver. He won the silver medal in the 10 metre platform event at the 2012 Summer Olympics. He is a four-time world champion at the World Aquatics Championships, winning the gold medal three times in the 10m platform event, consecutively in 2011, 2013 and 2015, and winning the gold medal in the synchronized 10m event in 2011.

Early life
Born in Neijiang, Sichuan, Qiu started diving at the age of 7. His diving career began when a coach spotted him bouncing on a trampoline and drafted him into a state sports school. In 2002, Qiu considered quitting the sport when his family could no longer afford his schooling. His coach convinced him to continue and used his own money to finance Qiu's development.

Diving career
Qiu is part of the China National Diving Team since 2008. During the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics, he won a pair of gold medals in both the 3m springboard and 10m platform competitions. In the 2011 FINA Diving World Series, Qiu achieved his career high with a historic score of 609.20 in the 10m platform event, where he received 25 perfect 10s from the judges. He also became the first diver in history to surpass 600 points in an international competition since the regulation was introduced. Later that year, FINA named Qiu as the Male Diver of the Year. In the 2015 FINA Diving World Series, Qiu broke his previous record and achieved a new personal best with a score of 612.75.

Olympic Games
Qiu competed in the 2012 Summer Olympics and received a silver medal in the 10 metre platform competition. Despite ranking first in the preliminary round and the semifinals, he ultimately placed second behind American diver David Boudia during the finals. His final score of 566.85 was just 1.8 points behind Boudia's 568.65.

Four years later, Qiu competed in the 2016 Summer Olympics in the 10 metre platform competition. Despite ranking second in the preliminary round and the semifinals, he had misses in two of his dives and ultimately placed sixth behind Chinese diver Chen Aisen in the finals. Qiu accumulated a final score of 488.20, including a third dive that received 10s from all seven judges.

World Championships
Qiu rose to prominence during the 2009 World Aquatics Championships, where he won a silver medal in the 10 metre platform event. In 2011, he won gold medals in both the 10m individual event and the 10m synchro event with his partner Huo Liang. In 2013, Qiu continued his victorious streak by winning another gold medal in the 10m platform competition. Two years later, he repeated his success and won his third consecutive gold medal during the 2015 World Aquatics Championships. Qiu and American diver Greg Louganis are the only men to win the world championship title at this event for three successive times. In 2017, Qiu only participated in the mixed team event, where he came in sixth place.

Diving World Cup
Qiu competed in the 10m platform event at the FINA Diving World Cup on four occasions, achieving a podium finish every time. He won a gold medal in the years 2012 and 2016. He also won a silver medal in 2014, along with a bronze medal in 2010.

In 2018, Qiu competed in the mixed team event, where he won the gold medal with Chen Yiwen.

Competitive history

References

External links

1993 births
Chinese male divers
Living people
Divers at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics
Divers at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Divers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic divers for China
Olympic silver medalists for China
Olympic medalists in diving
Sportspeople from Sichuan
People from Neijiang
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Asian Games medalists in diving
Divers at the 2014 Asian Games
Divers at the 2018 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2018 Asian Games
World Aquatics Championships medalists in diving
Asian Games gold medalists for China
Asian Games silver medalists for China
Youth Olympic gold medalists for China
21st-century Chinese people

Qiu Bo


Sarah (née Gaynor) Atkinson (23 October 1823 – 8 July 1893) was an Irish writer, biographer, essayist and philanthropist.

Biography

She was the eldest daughter of John and Anne Gaynor, of Athlone, County Roscommon. At the age of fifteen she moved with her family to Dublin where her education was completed. Two of her sisters, Anna and Marcella, became nuns with Religious Sisters of Charity. At twenty-five, she married the much older George Atkinson, a medical doctor and, with Sir John Gray, joint proprietor of the Freeman's Journal. They were both interested in art and Sarah accompanied her husband on many trips abroad, taking in the cultural centres of Europe. At home they made the acquaintance of prominent politicians, journalists and musicians. Regular guests at their house were Dr. John Shaw, editor of the Evening Mail, Rosa Mulholland and Katharine Tynan.

The loss of her only child in his fourth year deeply affected Mrs. Atkinson and she threw herself into charitable and other good works. She moved with her husband to Drumcondra in Dublin, where she made the acquaintance of Mrs. Ellen Woodlock. Ellen Woodlock, a sister of Francis Sylvester Mahony, was born in Cork in 1811 and had been married in 1830 and widowed quite young, just before the birth of her only son. Ellen was the sister in law of Rev. Dr. Bartholomew Woodlock, who was President of All Hallows College. She intended joining a religious community in France but after spending a few years in that country (with her son in a nearby school) returned to Cork and then moved to Dublin. At this time the post-famine city was inundated with poverty-stricken families and abandoned children. Fever and disease were rife, and the Poor Law of the day was insufficient to meet the needs of the starving population. Many evictions were taking place in deplorable circumstances, which forced the poor, however reluctantly, to seek refuge in the workhouses. The most vulnerable sections of the community were single women (including widows) and children. Ellen Woodlock was totally against placing children in workhouses and founded St. Joseph's Institute in 1855 to rescue girls from that situation. With her Mrs. Atkinson interested herself in the female paupers of the South Dublin Union. With much difficulty in the 1860s she gained permission for ladies like herself to enter and inspect the condition of young girls in the North and South Dublin Unions, after which she opened a better home to which many were transferred. She campaigned for years to improve the state of the workhouses and provide better conditions for the poverty-stricken. One of her sisters ran the Hospice for the Dying in Dublin, to which she donated funds. She helped Ellen Woodlock establish the Children's Hospital at 9 Buckingham Street in 1872, which later moved to Temple St., which she visited every day. Every week she visited hospitals and prisons, in the 1880s accompanying Katharine Tynan to visit the last of the Land Leaguers incarcerated in Kilmainham Gaol.

From the 1850s Atkinson contributed a large number of historical and biographical articles and essays to several publications, including Duffy's Hibernian Magazine, The Month, The Nation and the Freeman's Journal. She later wrote for the Irish Monthly after it was established, and for the Irish Quarterly Review. Her Life of Mary Aikenhead was published in 1875 and was very well received. She followed this with biographies of the Irish sculptors John Henry Foley and John Hogan and also a life of Catherine of Siena. A collection of her essays, with a preface and biography by Rosa Mulholland, was published posthumously in 1895.

References

External links

1823 births
1893 deaths
19th-century Irish biographers
People from Athlone
Irish women biographers
19th-century Irish women writers
19th-century Irish writers
People from Drumcondra, Dublin
Writers from County Dublin
Writers from County Westmeath

Sarah Atkinson


Richard Love (1596–1661) was an English churchman and academic, Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity, member of the Westminster Assembly, and Dean of Ely.

Life
He was son of Richard Love, an apothecary who died in 1605, and was born in the parish of St. Mary the Great, Cambridge, on 26 December 1596. He was probably educated at the free school, Cambridge, subsequently at Clare Hall, where he was a fellow before 1628. In 1628 he was proctor, and about the same time was made chaplain in ordinary to Charles I, who on 27 October 1629 presented him to the living of Eckington, Derbyshire. In January 1631 he proceeded D.D., on the king's recommendation. On 12 October 1631 he received the prebend of Tachbrook in Lichfield Cathedral.

By a mandate from Charles I, Love was made Master of Corpus Christi College on 4 April 1632, immediately on the death of Henry Butts. A quarrel followed between Love and Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick. Warwick, supported by the king, tried to press a nominee of his own for a vacant fellowship, but the master and fellows resisted and finally the king directed the withdrawal of the candidate, after receiving a letter of apology and explanation from Love. From November 1633 to November 1634 Love was vice-chancellor. His most notable act in that capacity was to cause the arrest of Peter Hausted in the pulpit of St. Mary's while preaching a sermon against the neglect of religious duties in the university.

In July 1643 a general leave of absence was granted to the fellows, but Love was one of four heads of colleges at Cambridge who continued in their posts. Colonel Valentine Walton was Love's friend, and protected him during the supremacy of the parliament. In 1649 he was made Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity, and appears to have retained his prebend, but in 1650 his hold on his preferments was imperilled by his refusal to subscribe the Engagement; whether he subscribed is not certain. He managed to retain his preferments, and was made a member of the Westminster Assembly of divines, though he apparently took no part in its proceedings.

After the Restoration the king made him dean of Ely by patent dated 14 August; he was installed 28 September. He died at the beginning of February 1661, and was buried in his college chapel.

Works
Love composed two Latin congratulatory addresses on the return of Charles II, which he published in one volume at Cambridge, 1660. In the first, delivered at Cambridge, Love, with much address, expatiates on the calamities of the late rebellion, and adroitly excuses his temporary acquiescence. The second (published by the king's command) was presented by Love in person, acting as deputy vice-chancellor, at Whitehall, 5 June 1660. He also contributed to the Cambridge collection of verses which were published at the Restoration.

Love also published a sermon, preached at Whitehall to parliament at the monthly fast, 30 March 1642, entitled The Watchman's Watchword, 1643, Cambridge.

Family
He married about 1632 Grace, daughter of his stepfather Henry Moutlow, Gresham Professor of Law and public orator, and had four sons, the eldest of whom was at Clare Hall in 1662, and two daughters. The elder, Anne, married Thomas Tenison.

Notes

References

1596 births
1661 deaths
17th-century English Anglican priests
Masters of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Westminster Divines
Deans of Ely
People from Cambridge
Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
Fellows of Clare College, Cambridge
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
Lady Margaret's Professors of Divinity

Richard Love


This article provides details regarding the geographical distribution of all Portuguese-speakers,  Lusophones, regardless of legislative status. The Portuguese language is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world and is an official language of countries on four continents.

Statistics

Native speakers
This table depicts the native speakers of the language, which means that the table includes people who have been exposed to the Portuguese language from birth and, thus, excludes people who use the language as a L2.

Sortable list

Spread of Portuguese
During a period of Portuguese discoveries and through a large colonial empire, the language was spread to areas in Africa, Asia and the Americas, beyond Macau and East Timor in the Pacific Ocean. Portuguese-based creole languages also developed during this era.

Today, Portuguese continues to thrive outside the Lusophone world through the presence of large expat communities of Brazilians, Portuguese, Cape Verdeans, Angolans and Timorese found throughout the world.

Europe

Portugal
Portuguese is spoken as a first language in Portugal (the language's namesake) by nearly all of the nation's 10.6 million people. The ancestor of modern Portuguese, Galician-Portuguese, began developing in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in an area encompassing present-day northern-Portugal and Galicia, at around the 9th century. Modern Portuguese started developing in the early 16th century.

Galicia
The region of Galicia in Spain isn't exactly classified as Lusophone, but holds close ties to the Lusophony. The Galician language used to form a common dialect continuum with Portuguese during the Middle Ages, denominated as Galician-Portuguese by historians. Thus, efforts have been made by the Xunta de Galicia to promote cultural and linguistical interchange between Galicia and the Lusophone world, such as the Euroregion between Galicia and Northern Portugal. The Consello da Cultura Galega has been considered an observer member of the CPLP since 2016.

Rest of Europe
Portuguese-speaking immigrants from Portugal, Brazil, Portuguese-speaking Africa and Macau have also settled in Albania (around 15,000 speakers), Belgium, Croatia, France (around 500,000 speakers), Germany, Greece, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, North Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. In Luxembourg, 19% of the population speaks Portuguese as mother tongue, making it the largest minority language by percentage in a Western or Eastern European country.

Africa

Angola
Portuguese is the sole official language of Angola, and 85% of the population profess fluency in the language. Additionally, 75% of Angolan households speak Portuguese as their primary language, and native Bantu languages have been influenced by Portuguese through loanwords.

Mozambique
Portuguese is the sole official language of Mozambique and serves as a lingua franca between the various ethnic groups in the country. Slightly over 30% of the population are native speakers of Portuguese, while 65% profess fluency. Most of Mozambican media is available solely in Portuguese, and the country receives several Portuguese and Brazilian television stations.

Guinea-Bissau
Despite being the sole official language, only 50% of the population professes fluency in Portuguese. However, a Portuguese-based creole called Guinea-Bissau Creole (Kriol) is spoken by nearly the whole population.

Cape Verde
Similar to Guinea-Bissau, although Portuguese is the only official language, a Portuguese-based creole known as Cape Verdean Creole is spoken by the majority of the population. Most Cape Verdeans are fluent in Portuguese as well. Education and media are available largely in standard European Portuguese only.

São Tomé and Príncipe
In São Tomé and Príncipe, Portuguese is by far the most spoken language, with around 95% of the population speaking it at home or professing fluency; 99.8% declared speaking Portuguese in the 1991 census. A Portuguese-based creole called Forro is also spoken.

Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea was a Spanish colony between 1778 and 1968 and was originally a group of Portuguese colonies between 1474 and 1778. A Portuguese creole is spoken by locals on the island of Annobón.

In 2007, President Teodoro Obiang Nguema announced a decision to make Portuguese the third official language of the country after Spanish and French. Despite government promotions, Portuguese remains rarely spoken in Equatorial Guinea, but increased political and trade relations with Portuguese-speaking nations (i.e. Brazil, Angola, Portugal) will soon increase the number of Portuguese speakers in the country. News, sports, and entertainment media in Portuguese will undoubtedly also facilitate increased comprehension. The majority of the population (~90%) still speaks Spanish as their primary language, and Spanish is still the administrative language and that of education, while French is the second official language.

Rest of Africa
Large Portuguese-speaking communities are found in Namibia, South Africa, and Zambia due to immigration from the Lusophone African countries. Portuguese is also  taught in the schools of these countries.

Americas

Brazil
With a population of over 212 million, Brazil is by far the world's largest Portuguese-speaking nation and the only one in the Americas. Portuguese was introduced during the Portuguese colonial period. Portuguese has also served as a lingua franca between the various ethnic groups in Brazil and the native Amerindian population after the Jesuits were expelled from every Portuguese territory and the languages associated with them prohibited.

Portuguese is the first language of the overwhelming majority of Brazilians, at 99.5%.

The form of Portuguese spoken in South America is somewhat different from that spoken in Europe, with differences in vocabulary and grammar that can be compared to the differences between American and British English, but with somewhat different phonology and prosody from the remaining Portuguese-speaking countries. Nevertheless, European and Brazilian Portuguese are completely mutually intelligible. The vast majority of Brazilian characteristics are also found in some rural, remote Portuguese registers (or the African and Asian ones, indicating an Old Portuguese feature lost in Europe), while nearly all distinctive European characteristics can be found in any major dialect of Brazil (such as fluminense, specially its carioca sociolect, and florianopolitano), due to a stronger or more recent Portuguese and other European immigration.

Migration from Brazil also led to a great number of Portuguese speakers in the Southern Cone (especially Uruguay with portunhol da pampa), Paraguay (see brasiguayos), other regions of South America (especially Bolivia) except Venezuela, Japan (see Brazilians in Japan 400,000 and dekasegi, official numbers do not include second generation Portuguese speakers and naturalized citizens), South Korea, the Philippines (see Brazilians in the Philippines), and Israel (see Aliyah from Latin America in the 2000s).

Rest of South America
Although Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in South America, it has the largest population, area and economy on the continent. Thus, the South American trade bloc Mercosul uses Portuguese alongside Spanish as its working languages. A Spanish influenced Portuguese dialect is spoken in the northern Uruguayan border area with Brazil. Given the proximity and trading relations between Portuguese speaking Brazil, and its respective Spanish speaking nations, Portuguese is offered as a foreign (sometimes obligatory)  language course at most schools in Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Venezuela and Bolivia, and has become the second (after English) most studied foreign language in these countries.

In Venezuela and Guyana, there are communities of Portuguese immigrants (mostly Madeirans) and their descendants who speak Portuguese as their native language.

Given the similarities between Spanish and Portuguese, a colloquial mix of both, unofficially called "Portuñol" or "Portunhol", is spoken by large number of people travelling between Brazil and its Spanish-speaking neighbours. People living in the border areas usually like Paraguay and Uruguay mix the two languages in their daily conversation, a phenomenon similar to Spanglish for Latinos living in the United States.

North America

There are more than 1.5 million Portuguese Americans and about 300,000 Brazilian Americans living in the United States, and Portuguese is spoken by over 730,000 people at home in the country. There are over 500,000 people of Portuguese descent living in Canada; however,  most of the community's population now speaks English or French as their primary language. Portuguese is also a primary language along with English in the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda.

In Mexico, mainly in the states of Quintana Roo, Yucatán, Jalisco, and Mexico City, there are small communities of speakers who are Brazilians. Portuguese, Cape Verdeans, Angolans, and Uruguayans are mainly from the Rivera Department.

Asia and Oceania

East Timor and Indonesia

Portuguese is co-official with Tetum in East Timor and was introduced during the colonial period. A little under 39% of the population professes fluency in Portuguese, and their number is steadily growing. Meanwhile, on the Indonesian side, it is rare to hear a Portuguese speaker because it lost in competition with the local language after becoming a Dutch  colony in 18th century. The local Tetum language has been heavily influenced by Portuguese through loanwords, and code-switching between the two languages is common.

Macau

Due to the one country, two systems policy of China regarding its special administrative regions, Macau is able to retain Portuguese as an official language alongside Cantonese. Portuguese was first introduced to Macau when Portuguese traders established a permanent settlement there in 1537. Despite being a Portuguese colony for over four centuries, the Portuguese language was never widely spoken in Macau and remained limited to administration and higher education. It was spoken primarily by the Portuguese colonists, Macanese people of mixed ancestry, and elites and middle-class people of pure Chinese blood. As a consequence, when Macau was handed back to China in 1999, Portuguese did not have a strong presence like English had in Hong Kong and continued its decline which began when Macau was still under Portuguese rule. Nevertheless, it was only after Portuguese rule ended that the Portuguese language in Macau began to see an increase in speakers due to China's increased trading relations with Lusophone countries. Currently, there is only one school in Macau where Portuguese is the medium of instruction, the Macau Portuguese School, and Portuguese is also mainly taught in government schools. There has been an increase in the teaching of Portuguese owing to the growing trade links between China and lusophone nations such as Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, and East Timor, with 5,000 students learning the language. Today, about 3% of Macau's population speaks Portuguese as a first language and 7% of the population professes fluency. Code-switching between Cantonese and Portuguese are commonly heard. A Portuguese creole called Macanese (Patuá) was spoken by Macanese of mixed ancestry but is near extinction today.

Goa (India)

Portuguese is present in the Indian state of Goa, which was a Portuguese colony until 1961. Although it was the sole official language during Portuguese colonial rule, it is mostly spoken by the elderly and educated populations today and is not an official language. Rather, Goa's official state language is Konkani, which has however picked up some Portuguese vocabulary as a legacy of Portuguese influence. Attempts to make Konkani be written in the Portuguese alphabet and  reintroduce Portuguese as a co-official language of Goa have been made in recent years; presently Portuguese is officially taught there.

Portuguese rule in Daman and Diu has also left a smaller Portuguese influence on the territory. A Portuguese-based creole called Língua da Casa is spoken in the territory. As a result of the renewed interest in the Portuguese language and culture, the Portuguese language is making an impressive comeback. Portuguese is still taught in some schools in Goa.

Portuguese people were also present in the area of Vasai, previously Bassein or Bacaim since 1560 until 1739. Though the Portuguese were defeated by Marathas, there are some words which are used by the locals which were borrowed from the Portuguese language. Today there is a large Catholic population, and many churches built during those days are still being used for worship.

Rest of Asia
Portuguese is spoken in Japan among returned immigrants (500,000) or migrant workers from Brazil known as dekasegi. Portuguese loanwords are also present in the Japanese language due to trading relations between Japan and the Portuguese Empire in the 16th century. Portuguese is now part of the curriculum in many Japanese schools, and many radio and television stations are broadcast exclusively in the Portuguese language.

In Malacca, Malaysia, a Portuguese creole known as Papiá Kristang or Cristão is still spoken by some of the Eurasian population.

See also
 List of countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language
 Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)
 List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an official language
 Luso-American
 List of topics on the Portuguese East Indies
 Portuguese dialects
 Portuguese creole
 Portuguese language
 Portuguese-speaking African countries (PALOP)
 Latin America
 Latin Europe
 Glossary of Japanese words of Portuguese origin
 World Portuguese Language Day

Notes

References

Geographical distribution of Portuguese speakers


The Gateway of India is an arch-monument completed in 1924 on the waterfront of Mumbai (Bombay), India. It was erected to commemorate the landing of George V for his coronation as the Emperor of India in December 1911 at Strand Road near Wellington Fountain. He was the first British monarch to visit India.

The foundation stone was laid in March 1913 for a monument built in the Indo-Islamic style, inspired by elements of 16th-century Gujarati architecture. The final design of the monument by architect George Wittet was sanctioned only in 1914, and construction was completed in 1924. The structure is a memorial arch made of basalt, which is  high, with an architectural resemblance to a triumphial arch as well as Gujarati architecture of the time.

After its construction, the Gateway was used as a symbolic ceremonial entrance to India for important government personnel. The Gateway is also the monument from where the last British troops in the Army of India left in 1948, following British withdrawal from India a year earlier. It is located on the waterfront at an angle, opposite the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower Hotel and overlooks the Arabian Sea. Today, the monument is synonymous with the city of Mumbai, and is amongst its prime tourist attractions. The gateway is also a gathering spot for locals, street vendors, and photographers soliciting services. It holds significance for the local Jewish community as it has been the spot for Hanukkah celebrations, with the lighting of the menorah, since 2003. There are five jetties located at the Gateway, of which two are used for commercial ferry operations.

The Gateway was the site of a terror attack in August 2003, when there was a bomb blast in a taxi parked in front of it. Access to the gateway was restricted after people congregated at its premises following the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks, in which the Taj Hotel opposite the gateway and other locations in its vicinity were targeted.

In March 2019, the Maharashtra state government proposed a four-step plan to develop the location for the convenience of tourists, following a direction issued by the state governor in February 2019.

History and significance

The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the arrival of George V, Emperor of India and Mary of Teck, Empress consort, in India at Apollo Bunder, Mumbai (Bombay) on 2 December 1911 prior to the Delhi Durbar of 1911; it was the first visit of a British monarch to India. However, they only got to see a cardboard model of the monument, as construction did not begin until 1915.

The foundation stone for the Gateway was laid on 31 March 1913 by then Governor of Bombay, Sir George Sydenham Clarke with the final design of George Wittet for the Gateway sanctioned in August 1914. Before the Gateway's construction, Apollo Bunder used to serve a native fishing ground. Between 1915 and 1919 work continued at the Apollo Bunder to reclaim the land on which the Gateway was to be built, along with the construction of a sea wall. Gammon India had undertaken construction work for the gateway.

Its foundations were completed in 1920 while construction was finished in 1924. The Gateway was opened to the public on 4 December 1924 by then Viceroy, Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading. Following Indian independence, the last British troops to leave India, the First Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry, passed through the Gateway with a 21-gun salute, as part of a ceremony on 28 February 1948, signalling the end of the British Raj.

N. Kamala, professor at Jawaharlal Nehru University, refers to the Gateway as a "jewel in the crown" and a "symbol of conquest and colonisation". The monument commemorates the legacy of British colonial rule, namely the first visit of a British monarch to India and its use as an entry point for prominent colonial personnel into British India. Today the Gateway is synonymous with the city of Mumbai. Since its construction, the gateway has remained amongst the first structures visible to visitors arriving in Bombay by the sea.

Since 2003, the Gateway has been the location for the local Jewish community to light the menorah for Hanukkah celebrations every year. This ritual was started by Rabbi Gavriel Noach Holtzberg of the chabad in Mumbai (located in Nariman House). It also became a site for prayers following the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks which targeted, amongst others, Nariman House. Rabbi Holtzberg lost his life in the 2008 terror attacks.

Design and architecture

The structure, in yellow basalt and concrete, is rectangular, with two long sides and two much shorter ones. Three arched passageways run between the long sides, as well as a single arched passageway between the two shorter sides. The central arch is higher and wider, with an extra storey above, from which four turrets rise.  The arches on the short sides are the same size and design as the smaller arches on the long sides.  The style of the Gateway of India is Indo-Saracenic architecture, with many details taken from the Gujarati regional style.  The facade is reminiscent of Gujarati mosque facades, for example the Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad of 1424, while the basic shape is, in the terminology of classical architecture, an octopylon with a floor plan of eight piers, as used in some triumphal arches and memorials, including the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in Paris.  The exterior features restrained but intricate bands of ornament, and jali screens around the smaller arches.

The Gateway's arch has a height of  with its central dome being  in diameter. The monument is built of yellow basalt and reinforced concrete. The stones were sourced locally while the perforated screens were brought in from Gwalior. The monument faces towards the Mumbai Harbour. There are four turrets on the structure of the gateway, and there are steps constructed behind the arch of the Gateway which lead to the Arabian Sea. The monument features intricate stone latticework (also known as the jali work). The Scottish architect, George Wittet combined indigenous architectural elements with elements of 16th-century architecture of Gujarat. The harbour front was realigned in order to make an esplanade, which would sweep down to the centre of the town. On each side of the arch, there are large halls with the capacity to hold 600 people. The cost of the construction was , borne by the then government. Due to a paucity of funds, the approach road was never built. Hence, the Gateway stands at an angle to the road leading up to it.

In February 2019, Seagate Technology and CyArk embarked on a mission to digitally record and preserve the Gateway, by digital scanning and archiving of the monument. The images and data collected will be used to make photo-real three dimensional models. This is a part of CyArk's international programme for digitally preserving heritage monuments. It involves aerial surveys conducted with terrestrial laser scanning (LiDAR), drones, and photogrammetry exercises. The drawings and three-dimensional models will inform any future reconstruction works.

Location and jetties

The Gateway stands at an angle, opposite to the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower Hotel, which was built in 1903. In the grounds of the gateway, opposite the monument, stands the statue of Shivaji, the Maratha warrior-hero who fought against the Mughal Empire to establish the Maratha Empire in the 17th century. The statue was unveiled on 26 January 1961 on the occasion of India's Republic Day. It replaced a bronze statue of King-Emperor George V which stood at its place. In 2016, Mid-Day reported that the George V statue is kept locked in a tin shed belonging to the Public Works Department, behind Elphinstone College, in Fort, Mumbai. The George V statue was sculpted by G. K. Mhatre, who has over 300 sculptures to his credit in India. Hemant Pathare, Mhatre's great-grandson and Sandeep Dahisarkar, a historian, researcher, and academician, have made efforts to relocate the George V statue to a museum, the latter of whom has reasserted the statue as swadeshi art.

The other statue in the locality of the gateway is that of Swami Vivekananda, an Indian monk who is credited as a key figure in the introduction of Indian philosophies such as Vedanta and Yoga to the west, and with bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion during the late 19th century.

There are five jetties located around the monument. The first jetty is exclusive to the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, while the second and third are used for commercial ferry operations, the fourth one is closed, and the fifth is exclusive to the Royal Bombay Yacht Club. The second and third jetties are the starting point for tourists to reach the Elephanta Caves, which are fifty minutes away by boat from the monument. Other routes from the gateway include ferry rides to Rewas, Mandwa, and Alibaug, while cruises also operate from the gateway. These ferries reportedly carry an overload of daily passengers. The Mumbai Port Trust licenses vessels to use the gateway while the Maharashtra Maritime Board issues fitness certificates to them.

Tourism and development

The Gateway is amongst the prime tourist attractions in Mumbai. The Gateway is a protected monument in Maharashtra under the aegis of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). It is a regular gathering place for locals, street vendors, and photographers. In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation moved the Elephanta Festival of Music and Dance from its original location at Elephanta Caves — where it had been celebrated for 23 years — to the Gateway, due to the increased capacity offered by the venue. The Gateway can host 2,000 to 2,500 people, whereas Elephanta Caves could host only 700 to 800.

By 2012, the Bombay Municipal Corporation increased the plaza area around the Gateway for pedestrians by restoring the area at a cost of 5 crores. It involved the cutting down of trees, reducing the garden area, replacing toilets, and closing the car park. The redevelopment led to a dispute between the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) and the Urban Design Research Institute, and the government was criticised for poor project implementation which critics alleged had failed to conform to the original plans.

In January 2014, Philips Lighting India, in association with the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation, undertook the expenditure of 2 crores to illuminate the gateway, by installing an LED lighting system with sixteen million shades. Philips used products from its Philips Color Kinetics and LED street lighting, and did not receive any branding for the illumination project in which 132 light points were created, which were reportedly sixty-percent more energy efficient than the old lighting system. In August 2014, the state Directorate of Archaeology and Museums had proposed conservation of the Gateway by the ASI, after noting deterioration caused by saline deposits from the sea. An estimate of costs was to be prepared and approved by the ASI. The last such conservation had been undertaken twenty years earlier. An independent study had earlier been conducted at the Gateway, between June 2001 and May 2002, aimed at informing future conservation of the monument understanding the degree of colour changes of stones owing to seasonal weather conditions and saturated colour of minerals. The study found the stones of the monument to appear darker during monsoon than during other seasons while the colour change in the inner portions of the monument rises with variations of seasonal humidity and temperature, given they do not face the sea, rainwater, or sunlight. It concluded with the finding that the alteration degree and overall colour change in the inner portions are higher than those in the outer portions of the monument.

In 2015, the Maharashtra Maritime Board and the Maharashtra Coastal Zone Management Authority approved a proposal to construct a passenger jetty near Apollo Bunder and a promenade between the Gateway and the Bombay Presidency Radio Club. The project was aimed at reducing crowding at the Gateway by closing all its jetties and refocusing the location solely as a tourist attraction.

The Gateway has interested companies and corporate houses such as the Tata Group, the RPG Group, and the JSW Group, who have expressed their wish to maintain the Gateway and enhance its facilities. This happened after the state government identified 371 heritage sites under its Maharashtra Vaibhav State Protected Monuments Adoption Scheme (MVSPMAS). Under this scheme, companies and corporates can adopt heritage monuments and give out funds for their maintenance, to satisfy their corporate social responsibility. The scheme also provides sponsors with the opportunity to generate revenue by selling their rights to feature the heritage monuments in commercials and advertisements. Other revenue-generating opportunities include the sale of entry tickets to the site and charging for the use of facilities.

In February 2019, the Maharashtra state government initiated a plan to restore, clean, and beautify the monument. A project plan was to be prepared in a month. The state governor, C. Vidyasagar Rao, directed the Bombay Municipal Corporation commissioner and architects to submit a project plan in a month on measures to be taken for the purpose. In the same month, chemical conservation was proposed by the state archaeology department noting blackening of and algae on stones and surface cracks.  Structural stability audit had last been conducted eight years earlier with plant growth on the monument removed annually. In March 2019 the state government agreed on a four-stage plan to manage tourists visiting the site. This involved the physical conservation of the monument, the installation of a sound-and-light show, the relocation of the anchorage around the monument and a streamlined, ticketed entry system. The plan followed UNESCO guidance for protected heritage sites and took into account the views of interested parties, including the Directorate of Museums and Archaeology, which has the monument within its purview; the Mumbai Port Trust, which is entrusted with the land; and the Bombay Municipal Corporation, which controls the location. The task of coming up with a suitable management plan was delegated to architects.

In August 2019, Snapchat extended its Landmarker features to the Gateway by which users can superimpose augmented reality experiences on top of their pictures of the Gateway.

Events and incidents

The Gateway was the location of a terror attack on 25 August 2003, when there was a bomb blast in front of it. The force of the explosion, from a bomb in a taxi parked near the Taj Mahal Hotel, reportedly threw bystanders into the sea. On 13 August 2005, a mentally unstable man stabbed two young girls from Manipur at the gateway premises. On New Year's Eve, 2007 a woman was groped by a mob at the gateway.

Following the November 2008 Mumbai terror attacks, which targeted the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower Hotel opposite to the Gateway, among other locations, crowds of people including news television reporters and cameramen congregated at the Gateway premises. Subsequently, public access to the area around was restricted. Fearing further attacks on the Gateway and on the Elephanta caves, the state government proposed the closure of all of the jetties at the Gateway and their replacement with two new piers, to be built near the Bombay Presidency Radio Club. In response to the terror attacks, a solidarity march was held at the Gateway premises on 3 December 2008.

In February 2019, protests were organised at the premises in the wake of the Pulwama attack. In January 2020, the Gateway became a site of spontaneous protests that commenced overnight, under the name of "Occupy Gateway", in the aftermath of the attack on Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. Protestors were later relocated from the Gateway premises to Azad Maidan in Mumbai to ease the movement of traffic and people.

In the media

The Mumbai-based video game Mumbai Gullies is expected to feature the Gateway of India in its fictional map.

Several films, such as Bhai Bhai (1956), Gateway of India (1957), Shararat (1959), Hum Hindustani (1960), Mr. X in Bombay (1964),  Sadhu aur Shaitan (1968), Ansoo aur Muskaan (1970), Andaz (1971),Chhoti si Baat (1976) and Don (1978) have been shot at the Gateway of India.

Gallery

Footnotes

References

Notes and news reports

Books and journals

External links

 Interactive 360° imagery of the gateway

 Gateway of India - Secret World

Stone buildings
Buildings and structures completed in 1924
Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture
Gates in India
Triumphal arches in India
Monuments and memorials in Mumbai
Mary of Teck
George V
Tourist attractions in Mumbai
20th-century architecture in India

Gateway of India


Anactorium or Anaktorion () was a town in ancient Acarnania, situated on the promontory on the Ambraciot Gulf. On entering the Ambraciot Gulf from the Ionian Sea it was the first town in Acarnania after Actium, from which it was distant 40 stadia, and which was in the territory of Anactorium. This town was for some time one of the most important places in this part of Greece. It was colonized jointly by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans; but in the war between these peoples, in 432 BCE, the Corinthians obtained sole possession of the place by fraud. It remained in the hands of the Corinthians till 425 BCE, when it was taken by the Acarnanians with the assistance of the Athenians, and the Corinthian settlers were expelled. Augustus removed its inhabitants to the town of Nicopolis, which he founded on the opposite coast of Epirus, and Strabo describes it as an emporium of the latter city.

Its site is located at Ag. Petros, near the modern Nea Kamarina.

References

Populated places in ancient Acarnania
Former populated places in Greece

Anactorium