Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India. It is India's second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. The region that comprises the state has a long history dating back to ca. 1300–700 BCE, although the present-day state was not established until 1960 CE.

Prior to Indian independence, notable dynasties and entities that ruled the region include, in chronological order, the Maurya, the Western Satraps, the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, the Bahamanis, Deccan sultanates, Mughals, the Maratha Empire founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, and the British. Ruins, monuments, tombs, forts, and places of worship left by these rulers are dotted around the state. At the time of the Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, along with British ruled areas of Bombay presidency, and Central Provinces and Berar. The region included many British vassal states. Among these, the erstwhile Hyderabad state was the largest and extended over many modern Indian states. Other states grouped under Deccan States Agency included Kolhapur, Miraj, Sangli, Aundh, Bhor, and Sawantwadi.

After independence from the British in 1947, the state of Maharashtra was formed in 1960 after a campaign to create a Marathi-speaking state in the 1950s.

From the 4th century BC until 875, Maharashtri Prakrit and its dialects were the dominant languages of the region. The Marathi language, which evolved from Maharashtri Prakrit, has been the common language since the 9th century. The oldest stone inscriptions in the Marathi language date to around 975 AD, and can be seen in the Jain temple at Shravanabelgola in modern-day Karnataka at the foot of the Lord Bahubali statue.

Early history

Chalcolithic sites belonging to the Jorwe culture (ca. 1300–700 BCE) have been discovered throughout the state. The largest settlement discovered of the culture is at Daimabad, a Late Harappan site, which had a mud fortification during this period, as well as an elliptical temple with fire pits. Some settlements show evidence of planning in the layout of rectangular houses and streets or lanes. In the Late Harappan period there was a large migration of people from Gujarat to northern Maharashtra.

Maharashtra was historically the name of a region which consisted of Aparanta, Vidarbha, Mulak, Assaka (Asmaka) and Kuntala. In ancient times tribal communities of Bhil people inhabited this area, also known as Dandakaranya.
Linguists and archeologists believe it is likely Maharashtra was inhabited by Dravidian speakers during the middle Rigvedic period, which is determined from Dravidian place names in Maharashtra. Maharashtra region later became part of the Maurya Empire with edicts of emperor Ashoka found in the region. Buddhism flourished during this period. Trade, including international trade with Greeks and later with the Roman empire, also flourished, with traders being the main patrons of Buddhist monasteries. Indo-Sythian Western Satraps ruled part of the region during the early part of the first millennium.

Middle Kingdoms (200 BCE-13th century CE)
The region that is present-day Maharashtra has formed part of a number of states, including the Maurya empire, Satavahana dynasty, the Kadamba dynasty, the Vakataka dynasty, the Chalukya dynasty and the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Most of these empires extended over large swathes of Indian territory. Some of the greatest monuments in Maharashtra, such as the Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves, were built during the time of these empires.

Classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 650 CE)
Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd century BCE.One of the Major Rock Edicts of the Maurya king Ashoka was located at Sopara near present day Mumbai.
Around 230 BCE, Maharashtra region was taken over by the Satavahana dynasty, which ruled the area for the next 400 years. A notable ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, who defeated Scythian invaders. The Vakataka dynasty ruled from approximately 250 to 470 CE.

The Satavahana dynasty mainly used the Prakrit language on their coins and for inscriptions on the walls of Buddhist monasteries.

The Chalukya and Rashtrakuta

From the 6th century CE to the 8th century, the Chalukya dynasty ruled Maharashtra. Two prominent rulers were Pulakeshin II, who defeated the north Indian Emperor Harsha, and Vikramaditya II, who defeated Arab invaders in the 8th century.The name Maharashtra appears on a 7th-century  inscription at Aihole  by Pulakeshin II proclaiming sovereignty over the "three Mahārāshtrakas with their 99,000 villages". The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruled Maharashtra from the 8th to the 10th century. The Arab traveler Sulaiman called the ruler of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty (Amoghavarsha) "one of the 4 great kings of the world". The Chalukya dynasty and Rashtrakuta dynasty had their capitals in modern-day Karnataka and used Kannada and Sanskrit as court languages.

From the early 11th century to the 12th century the Deccan Plateau, including a large part of Maharashtra, was dominated by the Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola dynasty. Several battles over the Deccan Plateau were fought between these empires during the reigns of Raja Raja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I, Jayasimha II, Someshvara I and Vikramaditya VI.

Between 800 and 1200 CE, parts of Western Maharashtra, including the Konkan region of Maharashtra, were ruled by different Shilahara houses based in North Konkan, South Konkan, and Kolhapur respectively. At different periods in their history, the Shilaharas served as the vassals of either the Rashtrakutas or the Chalukyas.

Yadav dynasty 12th-14th century

The Yadavas of Devagiri dynasty at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh. Its capital was at Devagiri (present-day Daulatabad in modern Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas.

The founder of the Suena dynasty was Dridhaprahara, the son of Subahu. It is unclear where his capital was located; some argue that his capital was Shrinagara, while an early inscription suggests that Chandradityapura (modern Chandwad in the Nasik district) was the capital. The name Seuna comes from Dridhaprahara's son, Seunachandra, who originally ruled a region called Seunadesha (present-day Khandesh). Bhillama II, a later ruler in the dynasty, assisted Tailapa II in his war with the Paramara king Vakpati Munja. Seunachandra II helped Vikramaditya VI in gaining his throne.

Around the middle of the 12th century, as Chalukya power waned, the Yadavas declared independence. Their rule reached its peak under Singhana II. The Yadavas of Devagiri used Marathi as their court language. Sanskrit was used as a court language by earlier Yadava rulers. Simhana started using Marathi as official court Language. The Yadava capital Devagiri became a magnet for learned scholars in Marathi to showcase and find patronage for their skills. The origin and growth of Marathi literature is directly linked with the rise of the Yadava dynasty.

According to scholars such as George Moraes, V. K. Rajwade, C. V. Vaidya, A.S. Altekar, D. R. Bhandarkar, and J. Duncan M. Derrett, the Seuna rulers were of Maratha descent. Digambar Balkrishna Mokashi noted that the Yadava dynasty "seems to be the first true Maratha empire".

Medieval and Early modern period (1206-1858 CE)

In the early 14th century, the Yadava dynasty, which ruled most of present-day Maharashtra, was overthrown by the Delhi Sultanate ruler Ala-ud-din Khalji. Later, Muhammad bin Tughluq conquered parts of the Deccan, and temporarily shifted his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in Maharashtra.

Bahmani and Deccan Sultanates

After the collapse of the Tughluqs in 1347, the breakaway Bahmani Sultanate governed the region as well as the wider Deccan region for the next 150 years from Gulbarga and later from Bidar.
The early period of Islamic rule saw atrocities such as imposition of Jizya tax on non-Muslims, temple destruction and forcible conversions. Eventually these incidents largely ceased. For most of this period Brahmins were in charge of accounts, whereas revenue collection was in the hands of Marathas who had  (hereditary rights) of patilki (revenue collection at village level) and deshmukhi (revenue collection over a larger area). A number of families such as Shinde, Bhosale, Shirke, Ghorpade, Jadhav, More, Mahadik, Ghatge and Nimbalkar loyally served different sultans at different periods in time. Since most of the population was Hindu and spoke Marathi, even sultans such as Ibrahim Adil Shah I adopted Marathi as the court language, for administration and record keeping.

After the break-up of the Bahamani sultanate in 1518, the Maharashtra region was split between five Deccan Sultanates: Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar Sultanate, Adilshah of Bijapur, Qutubshah of Golkonda, Bidarshah of Bidar and Imadshah of Elichpur. These kingdoms often fought with each other. United, they decisively defeated the Vijayanagara Empire of the south in 1565. The present area of Mumbai was ruled by the Sultanate of Gujarat before its capture by Portugal in 1535.
The Faruqi dynasty ruled the Khandesh region between 1382 and 1601 before finally being annexed by the Mughal Empire.

Mughals
The Mughals under Akbar started capturing territories held by the Deccan sultanates towards the end of 16th century.By the 1630s most of present day northern Maharashtra including Khandesh, parts of Western Maharashtra, Marathwada and Berar came under Mughal control.By the end of 1600s  most of the present day area of Maharashtra came under Mughal control. However, Mughal control was challenged multiple times during this period. Early in the century the resistance was led by Malik Ambar, the regent of the Nizamshahi dynasty of Ahmednagar from 1607 to 1626. He increased the strength and power of Murtaza Nizam Shah II and raised a large army. Malik Ambar was a proponent of guerilla warfare in the Deccan region and was considered a great foe by Mughal emperor Jehangir. He assisted Mughal prince Khurram (later emperor Shah Jahan) in his struggle against his stepmother, Nur Jahan, who had ambitions to secure the Delhi throne for her son-in-law. In the second half of the 17th century, the Mughals were constantly challenged by the Marathas under Shivaji, and later his successors.
In fact, the decline of Islamic rule in Deccan started when Shivaji annexed a portion of the Bijapur Sultanate in the second half of the 17th century. In the process, he became a symbol of Hindu resistance and self-rule.

Gond kingdoms
Although Islamic rulers dominated most of Maharashtra region after the fall of Deogiri Yadavas, in the Vidarbha region of present day Maharashtra, and adjoining areas of present day Telengana, Chhatisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh, the Gond tribal people established many kingdoms that remained free until the advent of the Mughals. From the reign of Akbar to that of Aurangzeb, the Gonds were vassals of the Mughals. Bakht Buland Shah during the reign of Aurangzeb accepted islam. He is also regarded as the founder of the present day city of Nagpur. Centuries earlier, Khandkya Ballal Sah, a 13th century Gond king founded the walled city of Chandrapur in southern Vidarbha region . The last Gond ruler was pensioned of by maratha leader Raghuji Bhonsale who founded the Nagpur kingdom.

Maratha Empire (1674–1818 CE)

The Maratha Empire dominated the political scene in India from the beginning of  the 18th century to the early 19th century.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Chhatrapati Shivaji maharaj was the founder of the Maratha empire. He was born in the Bhonsle clan in 1630. Shivaji carved out an enclave from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur that formed the genesis of the Maratha Empire. In 1674, he crowned himself as the Chhatrapati (Monarch) of his realm at Raigad Fort. However, to achieve this he not only had to fight the Mughals and the Adilshahi but also many Maratha Watandars. These Watandars considered their watan a source of economic power and pride and were reluctant to part with it. The Watandars even initially opposed the emergence of Shivaji, because their economic interests were affected.
Shivaji was an able administrator and established a government that paid the generals and ministers a salary rather than granting them Jagir (fiefs). He established an effective civil and military administration, built a powerful navy and erected new forts (e.g. Sindhudurg Fort) and strengthened old ones (e.g. Vijaydurg Fort) on the west coast of Maharashtra. He died around April 3, 1680.

Mughal Maratha war (1681-1707)
After Shivaji died, Mughal emperor Aurangzeb launched an attack on the Marathas and Deccan sultanates of Adilshahi and Qutbshahi in 1681.He soon vanquished the sultanates but the conflict with the Marathas  lasted 27 years.This period also saw the capture and death of Shivaji's son and successor, Sambhaji at the hands of the Mughals in 1689.His successor Rajaram, later Rajaram's widow Tarabai and their Maratha forces fought individual battles against the forces of the Mughal Empire. Territory changed hands repeatedly during the years (1689–1707) of interminable warfare. As there was no central authority among the Marathas, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and money. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory  the Marathas expanded eastwards into Mughal lands – Malwa and Hyderabad. The Marathas also expanded further South into Southern India defeating the independent local rulers there capturing Jinji in Tamil Nadu. Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution.The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 ended the conflict, and initiated the decline of the Mughal Empire.

Expansion of Maratha Influence in 18th Century under Shahu I and Peshwa rule

During much of the 18th century, the Peshwas, belonging to the (Bhat) Deshmukh Marathi Chitpavan Brahmin family, controlled the Maratha army and later became the hereditary heads of the Maratha Empire from 1749 to 1818. During their reign, the Maratha empire reached its zenith in 1760, dominating most of the Indian subcontinent. Bajirao I, a prominent Peshwa (general), was only 20 when appointed Peshwa. For his campaigns in North India, he actively promoted young leaders of his own age such as Ranoji Shinde, Malharrao Holkar, the Puar brothers and Pilaji Gaekwad. These leaders also did not come from the traditional aristocratic families of Maharashtra. All the young leaders chosen by Bajirao I or their descendants later became rulers in their own right during the Maratha Confederacy era. Historian K.K. Datta argues that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".

Raghoji Bhonsle, the ruler of the Nagpur Kingdom,  also expanded the Maratha rule in central and East India.  In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued their military campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries.

By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across most of the Indian subcontinent.  At its peak, the empire stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan ) in the north, and Bengal in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I. Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of Maratha states led by the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas.

In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, leading to the First Anglo-Maratha War, which resulted in a Maratha victory.

Maratha Navy
Shivaji developed a potent Naval force during his rule. In the early part of the 1700s, under the leadership of Kanhoji Angre, this navy dominated the territorial waters of the western coast of India from Bilimora, Gujarat to Savantwadi. It attacked British, Portuguese, Dutch and Siddi Naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambitions. The Maratha Navy was dominant in the area until around the 1730s, was in a state of decline by the 1770s and ceased to exist by 1818.

Revenue system and Chauth
One of the tools of the empire was collection of Chauth or 25% of the revenue from states that submitted to Maratha power. The Marathas also had an elaborate land revenue system which was retained by the British East India Company when they gained control of Maratha territory.

Asaf Jahi dynasty
Although the Maratha empire dominated most of India during the 18th century, they mostly ruled by collecting tribute or chauth from local states.A significant state that  paid chuath at times but was also in constant conflict with the marathas was the Asaf Jahi dynasty,alternatively known as the Nizam of Hyderabad.The Nizam ruled the Marathwada region of present day Maharashtra as well as Telangana and parts of Karnataka during the 18th century, and later as a vassal of the British until the  Indian independence. For a part of this period the Nizzam also had control over Berar or the Vidarbha region in  eastern Maharashtra .

Early European possessions

Portugal was the first European power to establish colonies in India. Their possessions in present day Maharashtra included the island of Mumbai, the port of Chaul and area around Vasai on the Konkan coast.These areas and all other Portuguese possessions in India were ruled by a Portuguese viceroy based in Goa.The Portuguese ceded Mumbai to the British as a dowry when the Portuguese princess, Catherine of Braganza married Charles II, the British monarch in 1661. The marathas under Chimaji Appa took Vasai and the island of Salcette from the Portuguese in 1739.

Society and culture
Before British rule, the Maharashtra region was divided into many revenue divisions. The medieval equivalent of a county or district was the pargana. The chief of the pargana was called Deshmukh and record keepers were called Deshpande. The lowest administrative unit was the village. Village society in Marathi areas included the Patil or the head of the village, collector of revenue, and Kulkarni, the village record-keeper. These were hereditary positions. The Patil usually came from the Maratha caste. The Kulkarni was usually from Marathi Brahmin or CKP caste. The village also used to have twelve hereditary servants called the Balutedar. The Balutedar system was supportive of the agriculture sector. Servants under this system provided services to the farmers and the economic system of the village. The base of this system was caste. The servants were responsible for tasks specific to their castes. There were twelve kinds of servants under Bara Balutedar: Joshi (village priest and astrologer from Brahmin caste), Sonar (goldsmith from Daiwadnya caste), Sutar (carpenter), Gurav (temple priest), Nhawi (barber), Parit (washerman), Teli (oil pressers), Kumbhar (potter), Chambhar (cobbler), Dhor, Koli (fisherman or water carrier), Chougula (assistant to Patil), Mang (rope maker), and Mahar (village security). In this list of Balutedar: Dhor, Mang, Mahar, and Chambhar belonged to the untouchable group of castes.
In exchange for their services, the balutedars were granted complex sets of hereditary rights (watan) to a share in the village harvest.

Urban centers
Although the majority of population in Maharashtra has lived in rural areas throughout history, cities and towns were founded or were expanded when a new ruler chose a place as his capital.Notable urban centers that were founded during sultanate period include Chakan, Ahmadnagar, and Ellichpur. Places with history going back millennia such as Junnar, and Daulatabad  also served as capitals or regional headquarters during this period. All these places declined after they lost royal patronage due to the fall of their ruling dynasties.Aurangabad was set up in early 1600s by Malik Amber and  remained an important center because of patronage by the Mughals and later by the Nizams. During the Peshwa period in 1700s Pune became the de facto political and business capital of the Maratha empire.Like capitals, it also declined following the fall of the Maratha empire in 1818.Nagpur became prominent during the reign of the Raghujee Bhonsle and his descendants in mid 1700s. Mumbai became important under the East India Company when then moved operations from Surat in 1700s.They also invited different Gujarati mercantile classes such as the Parsee, Bhatia, Khoja, Bohra etc. to move to the port city to help with trade.

British colonial period (1818–1947 CE)

The British ruled for more than a century and brought huge changes in every aspect of life for the people of the Maharashtra region. Areas that correspond to present day Maharashtra were under direct or indirect British rule, first under the East India Company and then, from 1858, under the British crown. During this era, Maharashtra region was divided into the Bombay presidency, Berar, Central provinces,  and various Princely states such as Hyderabad state,Kolhapur and Sangli. Apart from Hyderabad, other princely states came under the Deccan States Agency.

Company Rule

The East India Company controlled Mumbai beginning in the 17th century and used it as one of their main trading posts. The Company slowly expanded areas under its rule during the 18th century. Their conquest of Maharashtra was completed in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.The governor of the new territories, Mountstuart Elphinstone, appointed  commissioners and left the district boundaries almost intact.
One of the first tasks that the company undertook after deposing Bajirao II was to destroy Hill forts previously under Maratha control.This was to stop Maratha forces regrouping in the hills. The forts destroyed included those in the Junnar region such Shivaji's birthplace of Shivneri, Hadsar, Narayangad, Chavand,Harishchandragad, and the important fort of Sinhagad overlooking the city of Pune. The company also created the vassal states of Satara and Nagpur state from the defeated Maratha empire in Maharashtra region. Both these states were abolished by 1850s by the company under the Doctrine of lapse policy that refused succession of an adopted son.The Jagirdars who were nominally under Satara state such as Aundh  became princely states after the lapse
 The province of Berar was wrested from the Nizam by the colonial government in 1858 for non-payment of military expenses. The province formally became part of Central Provinces and Berar in 1903.

The annual Pandharpur Wari starts in two places in the district, namely Alandi and Dehu. In its present form the wari dates back to 1820s. At that time, Sant Tukaram's descendants, and a devotee of Sant Dnyaneshwar named Haibatravbaba Arphalkar, who was a courtier of Scindias, the Maratha rulers of Gwalior made changes to wari. Haibatravbaba's changes involved carrying the paduka in a palkhi, having horses involved in the procession, and organizing the devotees or varkaris in Dindis (Dindi stands for a specific group of varkaris.).

Company rule also saw standardization of Marathi grammar through the efforts of the Christian missionary William Carey. Carey also published the first dictionary of Marathi in devanagari script. The most comprehensive Marathi-English dictionary was compiled by Captain James Thomas Molesworth and Major Thomas Candy in 1831. The book is still in print nearly two centuries after its publication. Molesworth also worked on standardizing Marathi. He used Brahmins of Pune for this task and adopted the Sanskrit-dominated dialect spoken by this caste in the city as the standard dialect for Marathi.
Company rule came to an end when, under the terms of a proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Bombay Presidency,and the rest of British India came under the British crown in 1858.

British Raj

People from Maharashtra played an important part in the social and religious reform movements as well as the nationalist movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Notable Civil society bodies founded by Marathi leaders during 19th century include the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Prarthana Samaj, the Arya Mahila Samaj and the Satya Shodhak Samaj. The Sarvajanik Sabha took an active part in relief efforts during the famine of 1875–76, and is considered the forerunner of the Indian National Congress established in 1885. The most prominent personalities of Indian Nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th century were Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who were on opposite sides of the political spectrum, were both from Pune. Tilak was instrumental in using Shivaji and Ganesha worship to forge a collective Maharashtrian identity for Marathi people. The Marathi social reformers of the colonial era include Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, his wife Savitribai Phule, Justice Ranade, feminist Tarabai Shinde, Dhondo Keshav Karve, Vitthal Ramji Shinde and Pandita Ramabai. Jyotirao Phule was a pioneer in opening schools for girls and Marathi dalits castes.

The non-Brahmin Hindu castes of Maharashtra started organizing at the beginning of the 20th century with the blessing of Shahu of Kolhapur. The campaign took off in the early 1920s under the leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe and Baburao Javalkar. Both belonged to the Non-Brahmin party. Their early goals included capturing the Ganpati and Shiv Jayanti festivals from Brahmin domination. They combined nationalism with anti-casteism as the party's aims.

In the 1930s, Jedhe merged the non-Brahmin party with the Congress party, changing it from an upper-caste dominated body to a more broadly based but also Maratha-dominated party. Another notable Marathi figure of the time was B. R. Ambedkar, who led the campaign for the rights of Dalits, a caste that included his own Mahar caste. Ambedkar disagreed with mainstream leaders like Gandhi on issues including untouchability, the government system and the partition of India. He initiated the Dalit Buddhist movement, creating a new school of Buddhism called Navayana, leading to the Dalit movement that still endures. As the nation's first Law and Justice Minister, Ambedkar played a pivotal role in writing the constitution of India and is considered the Father of the Indian Constitution.

The ultimatum in 1942 to the British to Quit India was given in Mumbai and culminated in the transfer of power and the independence of India in 1947. Raosaheb and Achutrao Patwardhan, Nanasaheb Gore, Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi, Yeshwantrao Chavan, Swami Ramanand Bharti, Nana Patil, Dhulappa Navale, V.S. Page, Vasant Patil, Dhondiram Mali, Aruna Asif Ali, Ashfaqulla Khan and several other leaders from Maharashtra played a prominent role in this struggle. B.G. Kher was the first Chief Minister of the tri-lingual Bombay Presidency in 1937.

By the end of the 19th century a modern manufacturing industry was developing in the city of Mumbai. The main product was cotton and the bulk of work force in these cotton mills was from Western Maharashtra, specifically from the coastal Konkan region. The census recorded for the city in the first half of the 20th century showed that nearly half the population of the city listed Marathi as their mother tongue.

Post-Independence

Bombay State

After India's independence, the Deccan States, including Kolhapur, were integrated into Bombay State, which was created from the former Bombay Presidency in 1950. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganized the Indian states along linguistic lines, and Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions on Marathwada (Aurangabad Division) from erstwhile Hyderabad state and Vidarbha region from the Central Provinces and Berar. The southernmost part of Bombay State was ceded to Mysore. From 1954 to 1955, the people of Marathi speaking areas strongly protested against being included in the bilingual Bombay state. In response, the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement was formed to fight for a united Maharashtra for the Marathi people. The Mahagujarat Movement also advocated for a separate Gujarat state. Annabhau Sathe, Keshavrao Jedhe, S.M. Joshi, Shripad Amrit Dange, Pralhad Keshav Atre and Gopalrao Khedkar were prominent activists in the campaign to create a separate state of Maharashtra with Mumbai as its capital. On 1 May 1960, following mass protests and 105 deaths, Bombay State was divided into the new states of Maharashtra and Gujarat.

The state continues to have a dispute with Karnataka, to the south, over the regions of Belgaum and Karwar. Some Marathi-majority talukas were also transferred to the Adilabad, Medak, Nizamabad and Mahaboobnagar districts of new Telugu State (now Telangana), to the east of Maharashtra, in 1956.

Since 1960
The present state of Maharashtra came into being on 1 May 1960 as a Marathi speaking state according to Linguistic state reorganization with Congress party's Yashwantrao Chavan being the first chief minister of the state. The state since its inception has seen huge growth in Industry in a number of areas of the state, increased urbanization, and migration of people from other states of India.

Government and politics

The Congress party and its allies have ruled the state for the major part during the state's existence. After the brief tenures of Yashwantrao Chavan, who was inducted as defence minister by Prime minister Nehru, and Marotrao Kannamwar, who died after one year in office, Vasantrao Naik was Chief minister from 1963 to 1975. The politics of the state in this period was also dominated by leaders such as Yashwantrao Chavan, Vasantdada Patil, Vasantrao Naik, and Shankarrao Chavan.

Sharad Pawar became a significant personality within the state in 1978 when he broke away from the Congress party to form an alliance government with the Janata party. During his career, Pawar split Congress twice, with significant consequences for state politics. In 1999, after his dispute with the party president Sonia Gandhi over her foreign origins, in 1999, Pawar left the party and formed the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP). The party, however, joined a Congress-led coalition to form the state government after the 1999 Assembly elections.

The Congress party enjoyed a nearly unchallenged dominance of the state political landscape, until 1995 when the coalition of Shiv Sena and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) secured an overwhelming majority in the state, beginning a period of coalition governments. Shiv Sena was the larger party in the coalition. From 1999 until 2014, the NCP and INC formed one coalition while Shiv Sena and the BJP formed another for three successive elections, which the INC-NCP alliance won. Prithviraj Chavan of the Congress party was the last Chief Minister of Maharashtra under the Congress-NCP alliance that ruled until 2014.

The INC during its rule enjoyed overwhelming support from the state's influential sugar co-operatives, as well as thousands of other cooperatives, such as rural agricultural cooperatives involved in the marketing of dairy and vegetable produce, credit unions, etc.

For the better part of its existence, politics of the state was also dominated by the mainly rural Maratha–Kunbi caste, which accounts for 31% of the population of Maharashtra. They dominated the cooperative institutions; and with the resultant economic power, and controlled politics from the village level up to the Assembly and Lok Sabha. Major past political figures of the Congress party from Maharashtra—such as Keshavrao Jedhe, Yashwantrao Chavan, Shankarrao Chavan, Vilasrao Deshmukh, and Sharad Pawar—have been from this group. Of the 18 Chief Ministers so far, as many as 10 (55%) have been Maratha. Since the 1980s, this group has also been active in setting up private educational institutions.

In the 1980s, Shiv Sena and the BJP parties began gaining a foothold in the state especially in the urban areas such as Mumbai. The Shiv Sena was formed in the 1960s by Balashaheb Thackerey, a cartoonist and journalist, to advocate and agitate for the interests of Marathi people in Mumbai. In its early years in the late 1960s, the party specifically targeted immigrants to Mumbai from South India. Over the following decades, the party slowly expanded its base, and took over the then Bombay corporation in the 1980s. The original base of the party was lower middle and working class Marathi people in Mumbai and surrounding urban areas. The leadership of the party came from educated upper caste Maharashtrians. However, since 1990s, strong men have emerged who control their local areas through intimidation and extortion. This has phenomenon has been named "dada-ization"  of the party.
In the early 1990s, some of the party leaders incited violence against Muslims which resulted in riots between Hindus and Muslims. The Shiv Sena and the BJP came into the power at the state level in 1995, which was a big blow to the INC. A split emerged within Shiv Sena when Bal Thackeray anointed his son Uddhav Thackeray as his successor over his nephew Raj Thackeray in 2006. Raj Thackeray then left the party and formed a new party called Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS). Raj Thackeray, like his uncle, also tried to win support from the Marathi community by whipping up anti-immigrant sentiment in Maharashtra, for instance against Biharis and other north Indians.

The BJP is closely related to the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), and is part of the Sangh Parivar.In early years, the party originally derived its support from the urban upper castes such as Brahmins and non-Maharashtrians. However, in the 21st century, the party was able to penetrate the Maratha group by fielding Maratha candidates in elections. The RSS was formed in the 1920s in Nagpur by Maharashtrian Brahmins, and remains dominated by that community.

Economy

Prior to Indian independence, manufacturing industry in what became Maharashtra was based mainly in the city of Mumbai. After the formation of Maharashtra, the state government established the Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation (MIDC) in 1962 to spur growth in other areas of the state. In the decades since its formation, MIDC has acted as the primary industrial infrastructure development agency of the government of Maharashtra. Since its inception, MIDC has established at least one industrial area in every district of the state. The areas with biggest industrial growth were the Pune metropolitan region and areas close to Mumbai such as Thane district and Raigad district. After the 1991 economic liberalization, Maharashtra began to attract foreign capital, particularly in the information technology and engineering industries. The late 1990s and first decade of the 21st century saw huge development in the Information Technology sector, and IT Parks were set up in Aundh, and Hinjewadi areas of Pune.

Maharashtra has hundreds of private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions. Most of the private colleges were set up after the State Government of Vasantdada Patil liberalised the Education Sector in 1982. Politicians and leaders involved in the huge cooperative movement in Maharashtra were instrumental in setting up the private institutes

Maharashtra was a pioneer in the development of Agricultural Cooperative Societies after independence. In fact, it was an integral part of the then Governing Congress party's vision of 'rural development with local initiative'. A 'special' status was accorded to the sugar cooperatives and the government assumed the role of a mentor by acting as a stakeholder, guarantor and regulator, Apart from sugar, Cooperatives played a crucial role in dairy, cotton, and fertiliser industries.
Support by the state government led to more than 25,000 cooperatives being set up by 1990s in Maharashtra.

Drought of 1972-73
In 1963, the government of Maharashtra asserted that the agricultural situation in the state was constantly being watched and relief measures were taken as soon as any scarcity was detected. On the basis of this, and asserting that the word famine had now become obsolete in this context, the government passed "The Maharashtra Deletion of the Term 'Famine' Act, 1963". They were unable to foresee the drought in 1972 when 25 million people needed help. The relief measures undertaken by the Government of Maharashtra included employment, programmes aimed at creating productive assets such as tree plantation, conservation of soil, excavation of canals, and building artificial lentic water bodies. The public distribution system distributed food through fair-price shops. No deaths from starvation were reported.

Large scale employment to the deprived sections of Maharashtrian society which attracted considerable amounts of food to Maharashtra. The implementation of the Scarcity Manuals in the state prevented the mortality arising from severe food shortages. The relief works initiated by the government helped employ over 5 million people at the height of the drought in Maharashtra leading to effective famine prevention. The effectiveness of the Maharashtra was also attributable to the direct pressure on the government of Maharashtra by the public who perceived that employment via the relief works programme was their right.  The public protested by marching, picketing, and even rioting.Nevertheless, the measures taken by the government were praised for being a model program for famine relief.

Farmers' suicides

Since 1990s, there has been a huge increase in number of suicides committed by Farmers in India with Maharashtra accounting for the largest percentage of cases. The main reason cited was their inability to repay loans mostly taken from banks and NBFCs.
Other reasons included the difficulty of farming semi-arid regions, poor agricultural income, absence of alternative income opportunities, and the absence of suitable counselling services. In 2004, the Mumbai High Court commissioned a report from the Tata Institute on the phenomenon. The report cited "government's lack of interest, the absence of a safety net for farmers, and lack of access to information related to agriculture as the chief causes for the desperate condition of farmers in the state."

References

Citations

Bibliography

 महाराष्ट्राचा गौरवशाली इतिहास / The History of Maharashtra.....
 James Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, 3 vols. London, Longmans, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green (1826).
 Mahadev Govind Ranade, Rise of the Maratha Power (1900); reprint (1999).

External links
 Maharashtra State Past Present & History In Marathi Language
 Maharashtra Government's website

Maharashtra

History of Maharashtra


The Mazda CX-30 is a subcompact crossover SUV produced by Mazda. Based on the fourth-generation Mazda3, it debuted at the 2019 Geneva Motor Show, to slot in between the CX-3 and the CX-5. It went on sale in Japan on 24 October 2019, with global units being produced at Mazda's Hiroshima factory, North and South American units built in Salamanca, Guanajuato, Mexico, Thailand and initial Australian units made at the AutoAlliance Thailand plant in Rayong, and China-market units produced in Nanjing by Changan Mazda.

Overview
The CX-30 features lightweight construction to improve performance and economy, and is offered in either front-wheel-drive or all-wheel-drive.

According to Naohito Saga, the CX-30's program manager, the new model is targeted to drivers who are still single or are married and starting a family in the United States. Mazda chief designer Ryo Yanagisawa said that it will be more acceptable as a family car in Europe and Japan. Saga also noted that Mazda named the vehicle CX-30, to avoid confusion with the China-only CX-4.

The CX-30 was released in the UK in December 2019 and in North America in January 2020. It was launched in the Philippines on 28 November 2019, Malaysia on 15 January 2020, Indonesia on 28 January 2020, and Thailand on 6 March 2020. The 2.5 turbo model was released internationally in February 2021.

Engines

Powertrain

Safety

Safety features
The CX-30 is equipped with seven airbags, Isofix, ABS, and EBS.

Euro NCAP
Euro NCAP test results for a LHD, 5-door hatchback variant on a 2019 registration:

ANCAP
ANCAP test results on a RHD, 5-door small SUV variant on a 2020 registration:

IIHS

2021
The 2021 CX-30 was awarded the "Top Safety Pick +" by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. It received overall Good and Superior ratings on all categories except the Premium trim built before October 2020, as it received a Poor rating on headlights due to the LED projector low beams creating excessive glare.

2022
The 2022 CX-30 was awarded the "Top Safety Pick +" by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.

Reception
The CX-30 received positive reviews upon its release. Top Gear gave it a score of 7 out of 10, with the verdict being: "Good car, the Mazda CX-30. Handles well, looks smart and has a lovely interior." Car and Driver rated it 9.5 out of 10, commenting that "If you're shopping small SUVs, the Mazda CX-30 should be at the top of your consideration list." Edmunds.com gave it a score of 7.9 out of 10, commenting that "Admittedly, it's a niche vehicle, but it has the potential to be a 'just-right' fit for car shoppers who want a slightly roomier and nicer vehicle than an subcompact crossover SUV but don't like the greater cost of bigger models such as the CX-5 or CR-V." Alan Taylor-Jones of Autocar gave the CX-30 four out of five stars, saying: "Satisfyingly agile and blessed with a truly high quality interior, the CX-30 is a tempting choice if you don't need vast amounts of space inside."

On the other hand, Christian Seabaugh of Motor Trend was not impressed with the CX-30, saying that "The end result is that it feels neither sporty nor luxurious. Like the brand itself, the CX-30 (alongside the more successful CX-5) finds itself stuck in the middle. Worse still, it's a disappointing effort in a competitive class." What Car? rated the CX-30 three out of five stars, commenting that "Its real strength lies in its ability to feel as luxurious as premium brands in this class at a much cheaper price. Just remember that rear space is tight and the boot isn't anything to write home about, either."

Awards
The CX-30 won the 2020 Red Dot Design Award in the Passenger Car category, as well as the 2020 Autozeitung Design Trophy in the SUV category. It also received the 2019 Auto Bild Golden Steering Wheel Award in the SUV/crossover category for vehicles up to 4.4 meters in length and was named Thailand Car of the Year 2020 by the Thai Automotive Journalists Association, as well as the 2020 Editor's Choice Car of the Year by Top Gear Philippines.

In 2021, the CX-30 was named Car of the Year by Wheels magazine in Australia, and it was selected as a Top Pick for Subcompact SUV Under 25,000 by Consumer Reports.

U.S. News & World Report ranked the Mazda CX-30 at No. 1 (tied with the Kia Soul and Hyundai Kona) on its list of Best Subcompact SUVs for 2022, giving it a score of 8.4 out of 10.

Sales
In 2021, the CX-30 became the best-selling car in Colombia.

References

External links

CX-30
Cars introduced in 2019
2020s cars
Subcompact crossover sport utility vehicles
ANCAP small off-road
Euro NCAP small off-road
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Hybrid sport utility vehicles

Mazda CX-30


Callulops is a genus of microhylid frogs from Sulawesi as well as the New Guinea region, from Talaud Islands and the Maluku Islands (Moluccas) in the northwest to the Louisiade Archipelago in the east.
They are medium- to large-sized terrestrial frogs inhabiting burrows on the forest floor, often under large rocks. Because their population densities can be low, and they are difficult to observe and collect owing to their lifestyle, many species are known only from few specimens.

Species

References

Microhylidae
Amphibians of Asia
Amphibians of Oceania
Amphibian genera
Taxa named by George Albert Boulenger

Callulops


A electronic system that is powered by electricity, and it processes informations, data, or any raw material from input into a desired output for further usage in life.

 Inputs - Electrical or mechanical sensors, which take signals from the physical world (in the form of temperature, pressure, etc.) and convert them into electric current and voltage signals.
 Signal processing circuits - These consist of electronic components connected together to manipulate, interpret and transform the information contained in the signals.
 Outputs - Actuators or other devices that transform current and voltage signals back into human readable information.

Electricity
Systems

Electronic system


Dunraven Castle (or in Welsh, Castell Dwnrhefn) was a mansion on the South Wales coast near Southerndown. The existing manor house was rebuilt as a castellated hunting lodge in the early 19th century and was extensively remodelled later in the century. The surviving parts of the house are a Grade II listed building and its gardens and park are designated Grade II on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales.

History
The site of the castle was the location for several earlier fortifications, the first of which is said to have been built by Arnold le Boteler (Butler) in the mid-12th century. By the 16th century, a manor house owned by the Vaughan family stood on the site, its existence recorded by John Leland.

In 1642 the house was sold to the Wyndham family. Thomas Wyndham of Dunraven was MP for Glamorgan from 1789 to his death in 1814. He rebuilt the manor house as a castellated hunting lodge in 1802–1806. The building was designed by his wife, although it was probably based on Clearwell Castle.

The estate then passed to their daughter Caroline, who in 1810 had married the Irishman Windham Henry Quin (1782–1850), later 2nd Earl of Dunraven; in 1815 he assumed the additional name of Wyndham in right of his wife, becoming Windham Wyndham-Quin.

Caroline began remodelling the building in 1858; the central tower was replaced by a conservatory and the north and south wings were enlarged by Egbert Moxham. It was inherited by Edwin Wyndham-Quin, 3rd Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl, MP for Glamorganshire 1837–1851, and descendants. It was lived in until after the Second World War, having been used as a military hospital. The house was demolished in 1963.

The castle's walled garden, gatehouse and several other structures survive and are part of the Glamorgan Heritage Coast. They are designated Grade II on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales.

References

Buildings and structures demolished in 1963
Castles in the Vale of Glamorgan
Country houses in Wales
Registered historic parks and gardens in the Vale of Glamorgan
Demolished buildings and structures in Wales
Former castles in Wales
Houses completed in 1803
Houses in the Vale of Glamorgan
Wyndham family residences

Dunraven Castle


Muhammed-Gabdulkhay Kurbangaliev  (, , , 1889—1972) was a Bashkir religious leader, public and political figure in the early 20th century.

Life
Born in 1889 in the village of Mediak in Chelyabinsk province, Orenburg Governorate (these days in the Argayashsky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia) to the family of the religious leader of a local Islamic community; his father Gabidulla Kurbangaliev was the local Imam khatib and a religious teacher who had a number of followers (Murids).

Received instruction in the local medrese founded by this father, then in the medrese Rasulia in Troitsk. Taught in the medrese in his home village. Embarked on a promising clerical career. In 1916, he was preparing to become Russia's head Mufti as Mukhammat-Safa Bayazitov's successor (see Orenburg Muslim Spiritual Assembly). These plans were foiled by the Russian Revolution and the subsequent Civil War.
In 1916, Muhammed Kurbangaliev took the post of the head of the Saint-Petersburg Muslim district.

Civil War

In 1917, became active as a Bashkir public figure championing Bashkir community's interests in the country undergoing dramatic political and social changes. Promoted the foundation of Argayash National Okrug, a Bashkir ethnic administration region in the north of the present-day Chelyabinsk Oblast. Participated in the 1st and 2nd All-Bashkir Congress (Kurultay) in July and August 1917. Advocated an autonomous spiritual administration for Bashkortostan's Muslim community; opposed to nationalizing land in any format. Together with his father, acted as the main opponent of Zeki Velidi Togan in the Bashkir national and liberation movement. Disagreed with Velidi when the latter took the Soviet side to preserve the Bashkir autonomy, and in the name of all Bashkirs announced support for Aleksandr Kolchak's administration.

Participated in the White movement, became one of the leader of Bashkir military units within Kolchak's army.

In the summer of 1919, he attempted to arrange a new All-Bashkir Congress in the city of Chelyabinsk, then retreated eastward together with Kolchak's army. Entered into alliances with White Movement's military leaders: Vladimir Kappel, Roman Ungern von Sternberg, Grigory Semyonov to protect Bashkirs' interests.

Emigration

In October 1920, Kolchak's army with the affiliated Bashkir troops suffered a major defeat, surrendering the city of Chita to the Red Army. Muhammed Kurbangaliev emigrated to Manchuria, where he attempted to bring together the émigré Bashkir and Turkic-speaking communities, arrange for traditional Islamic religious practices among them, support native-language instruction, acting as an Imam and mudarris (teacher).

In 1924, moved to Japan, founded a Muslim community (mahallah called Islamiya) in Tokyo and became its religious leader.
In 1927, opened a school for Japan's Muslims.
In 1928, convened an all-Japan Muslims' Congress.
Opened print works which printed books in Arabic.
Traveled extensively around the entire Japan preaching Islam, published several books about Turkic peoples and their histories.

In 1932-1936, founded a Muslim community in Manchukuo, a medrese in Mukden, a publication called "Япон Мөхбире" (Yapon Möxbire "Japan's Herald" in Turkic languages). Published the first-ever Quran in the Far East.

He developed relationships with Korean and Manchurian businessmen and established close personal relations with Japan's military leaders: Ogasawara Naganari, Nango Judiro, politicians Ōkuma Shigenobu, Tōyama Mitsuru (leader of Genyōsha). He also received funds from Japan's financial oligarchies to support his religious and public activities.

On May 12, 1938, he opened the mosque "Islamiya" in Tokyo and became Japan's first Mufti.
Japan's Muslim émigré community was involved in the international politics and promoted Japan's expansion in South-East Asia, seeing this as a means to liberate their ethnic homelands from the Communist rule. However, Muhammed Kurbangaliev's activities came to impede Japan's coherent policy toward the Muslim communities in and outside of the country, and the country's authorities arranged for his "voluntary departure" for Dalian, Manchuria. One of the reasons for his loss of influence was his close association with the Imperial Way Faction which was purged after the February 26 Incident in 1936.

Muhammed Kurbangaliev advocated Islam's equal positions in Japan alongside other religions. In 1939, Japan's PM Hiranuma Kiichirō announced that Islam had equal rights in Japan with Buddhism and Christianity.

Arrest, imprisonment, later life
In 1945, when World War II ended, Muhammed Kurbangaliev was arrested by NKVD (the Soviet secret Police), condemned to 10 years' imprisonment for "high treason". Served his sentence in Vladimir Central Prison until 1955.

After his release, he returned to his native region. He settled in a rural community near Chelyabinsk where he served as a Mullah until his death in 1972.

See also

 Islam in Japan

References

External links
 "The Kurbangalievs". Entry in Encyclopedia Bashkortostan
 Kurbangaliev, Mukhammed-Gabdulkhay. Entry in Chelyabinsk Encyclopedia
 Усманова Лариса. «Тюрко-татарская диаспора в Северо-Восточной Азии». //Larisa Usmanova.  Turkic-Tatar expatriate community in North-East Asia.

Muslims from the Russian Empire
Bashkir people
1972 deaths
1889 births
People from Chelyabinsk Oblast
People of the Russian Civil War
Soviet emigrants to Japan
People from Manchukuo
Soviet Muslims

Muhammed-Gabdulkhay Kurbangaliev


Roger Baynes (1546–1623) was secretary to Cardinal Allen and an author.

Baynes, secretary to Cardinal Allen, was born in England in 1546. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth he abjured the Protestant religion and proceeded to the English College, Reims, where he arrived on 4 July 1579. In that year he accompanied Dr. Allen to Rome, and when that divine was raised to the cardinalate he became his secretary and major-domo. After the cardinal's death he gave himself up to religious exercises. He died on 9 October 1623, and was buried in the English College, Rome, where a monument to his memory was erected. The epitaph styles him "nobilis Anglus", and states that "ex testamento centum montium loca in pios usus reliquit, prout ex actis d. Michaelis Angeli Cesi notarij constat".

He is the author of two excessively rare works, the first of which is entitled: "The Praise of Solitarinesse, Set down in the forme of a Dialogue, Wherein is conteyned a Discourse Philosophical of the lyfe Actiue and Contemplatiue. Imprinted at London by Francis Coldocke and Henry Bynneman, 1577. Qui nihil sperat, Nihil desperat" (4to). The dedication to the author's approved friend, Mr. Edward Dyer, and is signed Roger Baynes. The second is "The Baynes of Aqvisgrane, The I. Part & I. Volume, intitvled Variety. Contayning Three Bookes, in the forme of Dialogues, vnder the Titles following, Viz. Profit, Pleasvre, Honovr. Furnished with diuers things no lesse delightfull then beneficiall to be knowne and obserued. Related by Rog. Baynes Gent. a long Exile out of England, not for any temporall respects. Qui nihil sperat nihil desperat. Printed at Augusta in Germany, M.DC.XVII." (4to). A notice from the printer to the reader informs us that "this present Volume, and the rest that are to follow, though they have not come to the Presse till now, yet haue they byn written some yeares ago, in the tyme of the late Queene Elizabeth." Only the first book Of Profit appears to have been printed.

References

External links

17th-century English people
1546 births
1623 deaths
16th-century English people

Roger Baynes


is a 1995 tactical role-playing game for the Game Gear, taking place between the games Shining Force and Shining Force II. It was released after both games, with the intention of connecting their plots. Despite its name, it is not directly story-related to Shining Force Gaiden or Shining Force Gaiden II, also released for Game Gear. Unlike most of its predecessors, the game was never released outside Japan. English patches have been created by fans for players who cannot speak Japanese.

Gameplay

Final Conflict uses gameplay identical to the previous Gaiden games, Shining Force Gaiden and Shining Force Gaiden II. The player progresses through a series of turn-based tactical battles interspersed with short cutscenes. Between the cutscenes, the player is allowed to save the game, promote characters, resurrect fallen characters, and sometimes buy and sell weapons and healing items.

As with most strategy RPGs, each battlefield is divided up into a grid where player characters and enemies take turns moving, attacking, casting magic and using items. Player characters gain experience by battling enemies, and may choose, once they reach level 10, to upgrade their class into a more powerful one.

Plot

Story
Max, the leader of the Shining Force from the first Shining Force game, is chasing the witch Mishaela (servant of the devil king Darksol, from the same game). One of Max's companions, the robot Adam, is injured in battle with Mishaela. Max's party stops to help the robot, and only Max and his companion Ridion continue the chase. Max and Ridion never come back from the chase. Led by a man named Ian, Max's remaining companions set out to find them.

Characters
The following is a list of the more significant characters in the game:

Ian: The leader of the Shining Force.
Max: The former leader of the Shining Force. A great hero who once fought and defeated the evil wizard Darksol and his awakened master, Dark Dragon. After Dark Dragon's demise, Max formed a new party and continued to fight evil, now following the track of Darksol's former servant, Mishaela. He disappeared when chasing Mishaela, and the first goal of the new Shining Force is to find him.
Adam: A robot constructed by the Ancients who serves and fights alongside Max. He was badly injured when Max's group fought Mishaela's group on Parmecia, and became unable to fight. However, he is important as an advisor to Ian.
King Galam: The righteous King Galam rules the kingdom with the same name. He gives Ian the legendary sword once wielded by Max to fight evil, the Chaos Breaker. In honour of Ian's victory, he later renames the weapon "Force Sword".
Mishaela: Chief servant of Darksol. Was seemingly defeated by the Shining Force in the second Shining series game, but we now learn it was only one of her dolls that was defeated. Her plans are still unknown, but it's certain that she is involved in the disappearance of Max. She is a cunning, malicious, and arrogant woman with formidable magical ability.
Odd Eye: A blind warrior in the service of the devil king Zeon (from Shining Force II). Zeon is a great enemy of Darksol, so Odd Eye joins the Shining Force for a while to help them to defeat Mishaela. He wields a sword and possesses an attack called Odd Eye Beam, shooting rays by opening his blind eyes.

Reception

On release, Famicom Tsūshin scored the game a 29 out of 40.

References

External links

Role-playing video games
Camelot Software Planning games
Fantasy video games
Game Gear games
Japan-exclusive video games
Shining (series)
Single-player video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Motoaki Takenouchi
Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS
Tactical role-playing video games
1995 video games

Shining Force Gaiden: Final Conflict


Dedun (or Dedwen) was a Kushite or Nehasi (C-Group culture) god worshipped during ancient times in ancient Egypt and Sudan and attested as early as 2400 BC. There is much uncertainty about his original nature, especially since he was depicted as a lion, a role that usually was assigned to the son of another deity. Nothing is known of the earlier Kushite mythology from which the deity arose, however. The earliest known information in Egyptian writings about Dedun indicates that he already had become a god of incense by the time of the writings. Since at that historical point, incense was an extremely expensive luxury commodity, and Nubia was the source of much of it, he was quite an important deity. The wealth that the trade in incense delivered to Nubia led to his being identified by them as the god of prosperity and of wealth in particular.

Although he is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts of ancient Egypt as being a Nubian deity, there is no evidence that Dedun was worshipped by the Egyptians or that he was worshipped in any location north of Swenet (contemporary Aswan), which was considered the most southerly city of Ancient Egypt. Nevertheless, in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, during the Egyptian rule over Kush, Dedun was said by the Egyptians to be the protector of deceased Nubian rulers and their god of incense, thereby associated with funerary rites.

Atlanersa, a Kushite ruler of the Napatan kingdom of Nubia, is known to have started a temple dedicated to the syncretic god Osiris-Dedun at Jebel Barkal.

References

Egyptian gods
Fortune gods
Lion gods
Nubian gods
Tutelary gods

Dedun


The Caproni Campini N.1, also known as the C.C.2, is an experimental jet aircraft built in the 1930s by Italian aircraft manufacturer Caproni. The N.1 first flew in 1940 and was briefly regarded as the first successful jet-powered aircraft in history, before news emerged of the German Heinkel He 178's first flight a year earlier.

During 1931, Italian aeronautics engineer Secondo Campini submitted his studies on jet propulsion, including a proposal for a so-called thermo-jet to power an aircraft. Following a high-profile demonstration of a jet-powered boat in Venice, Campini was rewarded with an initial contract issued by the Italian government to develop and manufacture his proposed engine. During 1934, the Regia Aeronautica (the Italian Air Force) granted its approval to proceed with the production of a pair of jet-powered prototype aircraft. To produce this aircraft, which was officially designated as the N.1, Campini formed an arrangement with the larger Caproni aviation manufacturer.

The N.1 is powered by a motorjet, a type of jet engine in which the compressor is driven by a conventional reciprocating engine. On 27 August 1940, the first flight of the N.1 took place at the Caproni facility in Taliedo, outside of Milan, flown by  Mario de Bernardi. On 30 November 1941 the second prototype was flown by De Bernardi and engineer Giovanni Pedace from Milan's Linate Airport to Rome's Guidonia Airport, in a highly publicised event that included a fly-past over Rome and a reception with Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini.  Testing of the N.1 continued into 1943, when work on the project was disrupted by the Allied invasion of Italy.

The N.1 achieved mixed results; while it was perceived and commended as a crucial milestone in aviation (until the revelation of the He 178's earlier flight), the performance of the aircraft was unimpressive. Specifically, it was slower than some existing conventional aircraft of the era, while the motorjet engine was incapable of producing sufficient thrust to deliver adequate performance for a fighter aircraft. Campini embarked on further projects, such as the Reggiane Re.2007, but these involved the indigenously-developed motorjet being replaced with a German-provided turbojet. As such, the N.1 programme never led to any operational combat aircraft, and the motorjet design was soon superseded by more powerful turbojets. Only one of the two examples of the N.1 to have been constructed has survived to the present day.

Background
During 1931, Italian aeronautics engineer Secondo Campini submitted a report to the Regia Aeronautica (the Italian Air Force) on the potential of jet propulsion; this report included his proposals for one such implementation, which he referred to as a thermo-jet. That same year, Campini established a company, with his two brothers, called the "Velivoli e Natanti a Reazione" (Italian for "Jet Aircraft and Boats") to pursue the development of this engine. In April 1932, the company demonstrated a pump-jet propelled boat in Venice, Italy. The boat achieved a top speed of , a speed comparable to a boat with a conventional engine of similar output. The Italian Navy, who had funded the development of the boat, placed no orders but did veto the sale of the design outside of Italy.

During 1934, the Regia Aeronautica granted approval for the development of a pair of prototypes, along with a static testbed, for the purpose of demonstrating the principle of a jet aircraft, as well as to explore potential military applications. As his company lacked the necessary industrial infrastructure for such endeavours, Campini formed an arrangement with the larger Caproni aviation manufacturer, under which the latter provided the required material assistance for the manufacturing of the prototypes. Under this relationship, Campini developed his design, which later received the official Italian Air Force designation of N.1.

Historian Nathanial Edwards has contrasted the relative openness of Italian early jet development work against the high levels of secrecy present within other nation's programmes, such as Britain and Germany. He speculated that this was due to desire of the Italian government to be perceived as possessing a modern and advanced aviation industry, being keen to acquire national prestige and renown for such achievements. Edwards went onto claim that the practicality of the N.1 design was undermined by political pressure to speed the programme along so that Italy would be more likely to be the first country in the world to perform a jet-powered flight.

Design

The Caproni Campini N.1 is an experimental aircraft, designed to demonstrate the practicality of jet propulsion and its viability as an engine for aircraft. It was a monoplane built entirely out of duralumin, with an elliptical wing. The initial aircraft lacked elements such as a pressurised cabin; however, these improvements were featured on the second prototype. However, flight testing quickly revealed that, due to the excessive heat output of the propulsion system, the canopy had to be left permanently open as a mitigating measure.

The engine of the N.1 differs substantially from the later-produced turbojet and turbofan engines. One crucial difference in Campini's design is that the compressor – a three-stage, variable-incidence one, located forward of the cockpit – was driven by a conventional piston engine, this being a , liquid-cooled Isotta Fraschini unit. The airflow provided by the compressor was used to cool the engine before being mixed with the engine's exhaust gases, thus recovering most of the heat energy that in traditional piston-propeller designs would be wasted. A ring-shaped burner then injected fuel into the gas flow and ignited it, immediately before the exhaust nozzle, to further increase thrust.

In practice the engine provided enough thrust for flight without activating the rear burner, making the design somewhat similar to a ducted fan coupled to an afterburner. Campini referred to this configuration as being a thermojet, although it has since become commonly known as motorjet. However, despite the elaborate design, the relatively small size of the duct limited the mass flow and thus the propulsive efficiency of the engine. In modern designs this is offset through high overall pressure ratios, which could not be achieved on the N.1, therefore resulting in relatively low thrust and poor fuel efficiency. Ground tests performed with the static testbed produced a thrust of around .

Operational history

The N.1s first flight was made on 27 August 1940 by test pilot Mario De Bernardi at Caproni's facility in Taliedo, outside Milan. He would conduct the majority of the N.1's test flights. The first flight lasted ten minutes, during which de Bernardi kept the speed below , less than half throttle.

Although the first flight of the jet-powered Heinkel He 178 had been made a year before to the day, it had not been made public, so the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale recorded the N.1 as the first successful flight by a jet aircraft.

Flight tests with the first prototype revealed several issues with the engine. It did not produce sufficient thrust to achieve the anticipated performance if it was matched to a strengthened airframe to withstand the high loading pressures. The engine generated considerable heat, which forced the pilot to fly with the canopy open throughout the flight, which although effectively venting the heat, increased drag. According to aviation author Sterling Michael Pavelec the N.1 was "heavy and underpowered" and the conventionally-powered Caproni Vizzola F.4 was faster which he attributed to limited national resources which left development programs underfunded.

On 30 November 1941 the second prototype was flown by de Bernardi, with Giovanni Pedace as a passenger, from Milan's Linate Airport to Rome's Guidonia Airport, in a highly publicised event which included a fly-past over Rome and a reception hosted by Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. It was the first cross-country jet flight. The flight included a stopover at Pisa, possibly to refuel, and was made without using the rear burner.

A Soviet aircraft design bureau, TsAGI, obtained some details of the motorjet, and developed their own. Campini later formed a partnership with another Italian aircraft company, Reggiane, and with Roberto Longhi, modified the Reggiane Re.2005 to create the Re.2005R with a motor jet. Speed could have been increased to 750 km/h (470 mph) but fuel consumption would have reached nearly 1,000 L/h (61 imp gal/ks), almost four times the normal consumption of the Re.2005, at full throttle.

Testing of the two N.1 prototypes continued into 1943; however one of the N.1s was partially destroyed when the Caproni factory was bombed, and the collapse of the Fascist government following the Allied invasion of Italy hindered the programme. After the defeat of Italy, the damaged prototype was transported to the United Kingdom for study at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) in Farnborough. The aircraft was later scrapped at RAF Newton in 1949.

Surviving aircraft

The surviving example is now on display at the Italian Air Force Museum at Vigna di Valle, near Rome, while the ground testbed, consisting of only the fuselage, is on display at the National Museum of Science and Technology in Milan.

Specifications

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Golly, John. Jet: Frank Whittle and the Invention of the Jet Engine. Datum Publishing, 1996. .
 Mark, Harrison. The Economics Of Coercion And Conflict. World Scientific, 2014. .
 Morse, Stan. Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft. Orbis Publishing, 1982.
 Pavelec, Sterling Michael. The Jet Race and the Second World War. Praeger Security International: Westport, Connecticut. 2007. .

External links

 Photographs and a cutaway drawing of the N.1

 Jet Propulsion pg 50, Life, November 27, 1944

Campini N.1
1940s Italian experimental aircraft
Motorjet-powered aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
World War II Italian experimental aircraft
World War II jet aircraft of Italy
Aircraft first flown in 1940

Caproni Campini N.1


The blackside dace (Chrosomus cumberlandensis) is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae. It is endemic to the Cumberland River drainage in Kentucky and Tennessee as well as the Powell River drainage in Virginia in the United States. It is a federally listed threatened species.

Description
This fish is  in length. It is olive green in color with black speckling and a black stripe. During the breeding season in April through July the stripe becomes a deeper black, there are red areas on the upper parts, and the fins become yellow.

Ecology
This fish is found in 105 streams in Kentucky and Tennessee, but many of these populations are very small, with under 10 individuals. The species has been found in western Virginia, but these populations may have been introduced by people or represent undescribed species.

The fish lives in cool, clear streams with rocky substrates and overhanging vegetation. It is schooling and lives under banks and rock formations. Other fish in the habitat include the common creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), white sucker (Catostomus commersoni),  stoneroller (Campostoma anomalum), and stripetail darter (Etheostoma kennicotti). The dace eats algae and sometimes insects. It lives 2–3 years and becomes sexually mature in its first year. The female lays an average of 1540 eggs.

Population threats
The species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its habitat. The rocky riverbed substrates in which it spawns are degraded by erosion and sedimentation, which are increased by human activities such as runoff pipes from septic tanks, and trash being dumped into streams. Several populations have been extirpated by these processes.

In 2007 a large scale die-off of aquatic life, including blackside dace, occurred in the Acorn Fork in Kentucky. Scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service concluded that the most likely cause was a spill of hydraulic fracturing fluid from nearby natural gas wells. The results of a joint study indicated that the spill caused a spike in acidity, as well as toxic concentrations of heavy metals.

References

External links

Chrosomus
Fish described in 1978
Natural history of Kentucky
Natural history of Tennessee
Natural history of Virginia
Freshwater fish of the United States
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Blackside dace


Abraham Guillén (13 March 1913 – 1 August 1993), was a Spanish author, economist, and educator. He was a veteran of the Spanish Civil War, influenced by anarchism. One of the most prolific revolutionary writers in Latin America during the 1960s and intellectual mentor of Uruguay's revolutionary Movement of National Liberation (Tupamaros), he is most widely known as the author of Strategy of the Urban Guerrilla, which played an important role in the activities of urban guerrillas in Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil.

Biography

Guillen was born in Guadalajara on March 13, 1913. During the Spanish Civil War he fought against the Francisco Franco's forces, operating within the National Confederation of Labour (CNT), the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI), and the General Union of Workers (UGT). At the end of the war, he was arrested by Franco's forces, condemned to death, and ultimately was sentenced to ten years in prison. He escaped from prison in 1945, fled Spain, and spent three years in France.

In 1948, he emigrated to Argentina. During the Perón era, he worked as an editor for Economia y finanzas ("Economy and Finance"), and his contributions were published under the pseudonym, Jaime de las Heras. Under another pseudonym, that of Fernando Molina, he contributed to the Buenos Aires newspaper El Laborista. His 1957 publication The Agony of Imperialism, resulted in the loss of his job and his barring from employment as a journalist in Argentina. In 1960, he was employed briefly as an economic consultant to the Argentine government.
In 1961, he was imprisoned for a few months on the charge that he was a member of the Uturuncos, guerrillas active in northwest Argentina during 1960 and 1961. Following his imprisonment he sought political asylum in Montevideo in 1962 and soon made contact with revolutionary elements in that country. The first edition of Strategy of the Urban Guerrilla was published in 1966. It served as a counter to the rural insurrectionist methods espoused by Che Guevara, although Guillen did agree with Guevara on several key issues and even authored the introduction to the Uruguayan edition of Guevara's Guerrilla Warfare.

Guillen continued to publish frequently during this time period. He took a position as a journalist for the Montevideo newspaper Accion, often using the pseudonym of Arapey. Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s, he was a constant subject of investigations both by Latin America police and by the CIA. In addition to Argentina and Uruguay, he also lived and worked in Peru and eventually returned to Madrid, Spain, where he taught theories of economic self-management and communal political action. He died on August 1, 1993.

Works

El imperio del dolar: América Latina: Revolución o alienación, Buenos Aires 1962
Teoria de la violencia; guerra y lucha de clases, Buenos Aires 1965
Estrategia de la guerrilla urbana (Ediciones Liberación, 1969)
Desafío al Pentagono; la guerrilla latinoamericana, Montevideo 1969
Philosophy of the urban guerrilla. The revolutionary writings of Abraham Guillén, New York 1973
El Capitalismo Soviético: Última etapa del Imperialismo (Queimada Ediciones, 1979)
El error militar de las izquierdas, Barcelona 1980
Economía libertaria (Fundación Anselmo Lorenzo, 1988)
Técnica de la desinformación (Fundación Anselmo Lorenzo, 1991)

General sources
 "A Guide to the Abraham Guillen Collection"

1913 births
1993 deaths
Guerrilla warfare theorists
Urban guerrilla warfare theorists
People from Guadalajara, Spain
Spanish rebels
Revolution theorists
Anarchist theorists
Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in Argentina
Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in Uruguay
Spanish anarchists
Argentine anarchists
Uruguayan anarchists

Abraham Guillén


Paul V. Rea is an American radio, TV and web journalist, and media personality based in Clarkesville, Georgia.

Early life
Rea was born in Clarkesville, Georgia to Judy, a florist, and James M. Rea, an attorney. According to his mother, he wanted to be a DJ at an early age. When he was 6, Rea called a radio classifieds show, Dial and Deal on WIAF-AM, offering to sell his older sister. There were no takers. He also hosted the morning announcements at Habersham Central High School.

Broadcasting career

1980s
Rea began his career in 1983 at age 14 as an afternoon and weekend radio host and News Anchor for Clarkesville's WIAF. He was one of the station's youngest DJs.

After completing high school, Rea went on to attend the University of Georgia, where he majored in journalism. During his freshman year of college, Rea worked for both WGAU and WNGC as a DJ. Rea left the stations in 1988 to work for cross-town rival WBKZ, where he held the largely ceremonial title of Afternoon News Director.

Writing and reporting news was a fraction of Rea's job. He was mostly a Disc Jockey playing oldies records from the 1950s and 1960s. While working for the station, he scored one significant story for it. During the 1988 Democratic National Convention in Atlanta, actor Rob Lowe became involved in a sex scandal with a 16-year-old girl. Rea managed to get one of the few interviews with Hue Henry, the attorney who sued Lowe on behalf of the girl and her mother. In 1989 Rea returned to WNGC as the host of their All Night Request Show.

1990s
In 1991 Rea was promoted to music director and Midday Host at WNGC. His work on the popular Paul Rea Midday led to an offer to host an afternoon video music show on Athens TV station WNGM-TV. In 1992 he joined actress/model Eaddy Thomas (Eaddy Mays) to co-host a morning news show on WNGM.

When the show was canceled in 1994, Rea went back to radio at Magic 102.1 FM in Athens. He was reunited with Thomas and hosted a successful morning show for the station until leaving again for television news.

In 1997 he joined WNEG-TV the CBS affiliate in Toccoa, Georgia as a reporter and then as anchor of the Daybreak morning news show.

2000-present
He joined WSAV-TV in Savannah in 2000 as a photojournalist. During his year at the station, he began his investigation of the Tybee Bomb.

The nuclear weapon was lost near Tybee Island, Georgia in the 1950s. With the help of amateur bomb hunters, Rea discovered documents that showed the weapon might still be dangerous, due to a small quantity of plutonium believed to be inside. These reports were rejected by the United States Department of Defense but the United States Air Force reopened the investigation, first in 2001 and again in 2005. Both recent investigations maintain the weapon is lost and no danger to the public.

In the summer of 2000, Rea was attacked while covering a story in Coffee County, Georgia. The incident came to light in a November 2005 article on TV journalists in Georgia Trend magazine. The article, "Who's Who in TV News" by Jerry Grillo, ranked Rea as one of the top reporters in the state.

Grillo wrote:
<blockquote>
Though Rea almost certainly is the only person on Georgia Trend'''s Who's Who list of TV news people to have taped his own beating, his experience defines the pluck and tenacity of the TV journalist.
</blockquote>While the magazine claims Rea's camera was rolling during the attack, the footage was never broadcast.

Rea returned to anchor, write and produce the morning show at WNEG-TV in 2001. He also produced the station's popular Georgia Journey segments, showcasing unique people and places in Northeast Georgia.

Rea returned to WSAV-TV in 2003 to oversee the station's Community Report, covering neighborhood issues such as crime, blight, policing issues, and poverty in Savannah. Special reports include Counting Cops, in which he showed the Savannah Metropolitan Police Department was seriously understaffed, and Houses From Hell, which drew attention to some of the city's worst dilapidated houses.

Rea left his position at WSAV-TV in 2008. In 2009 he began working as a Media and Messaging Consultant for government and corporate clients including the City of Savannah.

He was a news reader on Fox News Radio 810 WYZI in Royston, Georgia from 2010 to 2014.

On September 24, 2010, Rea debuted as the anchor of Newsnight on the Patriot'', on WRWR-LD channel 38.1 in Warner Robins, Georgia. but this position was temporary. Behind the scenes, Rea was tasked with developing all programming for the fledgling station. During the six months of the station's launch, Rea oversaw the development of four original local programs, including a two-hour nightly local newscast. He helped transition two existing shows from radio to television.

In 2011 Rea returned to Savannah to provide media and messaging support to political clients in advance of that year's municipal elections. As of 2015, he returned to his hometown of Clarkesville, Georgia where he was a contributor to local news website nowhabersham.com.

References

Living people
American reporters and correspondents
American television journalists
1968 births
People from Clarkesville, Georgia
People from Savannah, Georgia
People from Georgia (U.S. state)
Journalists from Georgia (U.S. state)
Writers from Georgia (U.S. state)
American male journalists

Paul Rea


Tacoma Weekly is a weekly community newspaper published by Matt Nagle. The paper started in 1987 as the Tacoma Monthly and in 1994 became the Tacoma Weekly. The free newspaper is distributed on Thursdays to hundreds of businesses and public spaces in the Tacoma area. It has used a broadsheet format since 2001.

Controversies
In a recent two-year period, publisher John Weymer paid $9,157.06 in wage theft claims that were filed against him at the Washington Department of Labor and Industries. Since 1995, Weymer has accumulated over $170,000 in judgements against himself and his business. In 2019, a judge ruled Weymer owed $5,000 to the Grand Cinema after failing to deliver a printing job the cinema paid for.

In September 2021, Tacoma Weekly was fined $15,000 for offering political candidates a news story or endorsement from the paper in exchange for money. The Washington State Public Disclosure Commission found that the paper ran cover stories for two paying candidates that were written under a staff member's byline without mention of it being a paid advertisement. John Weymer claimed that the fine was an overreaction to a mistake the paper committed, and insisted that the cover stories followed the paper's editorial guidelines and were not meant to be advertisements.

References

External links

Newspapers published in Washington (state)
Weekly newspapers published in the United States
Mass media in Tacoma, Washington

Tacoma Weekly


The Juno Award for Roots & Traditional Album of the Year – Solo was presented annually at Canada's Juno Awards to honour the best album of the year in the roots and/or traditional music genres. Prior to 1996, a single award was presented for Best Roots & Traditional Album, whose winner could be a solo artist or a band; for the 1996 ceremony, the award was split for the first time into distinct awards, one for solo artists and one for groups.

Beginning with the 2016 ceremony, two new awards categories (Contemporary Roots Album of the Year and Traditional Roots Album of the Year) were introduced to "ensure two genres of music are not competing against each other in the same category".

Winners

Best Roots & Traditional Album - Solo (1996–2002)

Roots & Traditional Album of the Year: Solo (2003–2015)

References

Roots and Traditional - Solo
Folk music awards
Album awards


A prime minister–designate or premier–designate is the person who is expected to succeed an incumbent as prime minister, or premier, as the result of a general election, winning the leadership of a currently governing party, or being named by the head of state to form a new government.

Overview
In the Westminster system, which originated in what is now the United Kingdom, the head of state or his/her representative has the sole prerogative to appoint a new prime minister upon the resignation, dismissal or death of the incumbent prime minister. Invariably, sitting prime ministers who after an election have no reasonable hope of commanding the confidence of parliament will resign rather than face a certain vote of no confidence. If another party has won a majority government, the prime minister will formally advise the appointment of that party's leader as the new prime minister. There is usually no set minimum or maximum amount of time set aside for the transition to take place, but often in countries that have adopted the Westminster system the incoming head of government will want two or three weeks to put affairs in order and determine who should get cabinet posts, which itself might require more time especially if recounts involving prospective frontbenchers are in progress. As such, the incoming head of government will spend two or three weeks as prime minister–designate before being formally sworn in as prime minister. This is not the case in the United Kingdom itself however, where an opposition leader who wins a clear majority a general election is expected to assume office as soon as possible, often within 24 hours after the polls close.

The situation is more complicated in case of a hung parliament. By law, incumbent prime ministers always have the right to try to win the confidence of the house in a confidence vote. Often, especially if they do not have the most seats, prime ministers will not attempt to remain in office and will instead relinquish power in favour of the leader of the largest party, in which case they become prime minister–designate same as if their party had a majority. On the other hand, if a prime minister in such a situation chooses not to resign, the leader of the largest opposition party will not become the prime minister–designate even if their party has the most seats. In the latter case, the prime minister must win a vote of confidence to remain in office. If they are immediately defeated in the house, the head of state (or representative thereof) in most Westminster systems has the de facto prerogative to refuse a request to dissolve the house. The leader of the largest opposition party therefore could still become prime minister–designate perhaps several weeks after the general election.

The term prime minister–elect is sometimes used as a synonym, but in most circumstances it is technically incorrect: a prime minister is usually appointed by the head of state, and not elected to office by the entire nation, as is the case with some presidential polls.  However, it has nonetheless seen common use in the media.  Terms such as incoming prime minister and prime minister–in-waiting are also sometimes used, although the latter term is also sometimes used prior to an election for a party leader who is leading in the polls and/or has a meaningful chance of winning, or even more generally at any time between elections in reference to any opposition party leader (regardless of his or her party's perceived electoral prospects) and even for future leadership contenders within the current governing party. Under the broader definition, many prime ministers-in-waiting never actually become prime minister.

In some countries the role is specifically covered by legislation, in others convention applies before the chosen leader is sworn in. The Australian Electoral Commission, the government authority responsible for the conduct of elections in Australia, notes that "it is usually possible for the prime minister–elect to claim victory on the night of the election".

The media sometimes prematurely refers to someone as a prime minister–designate where the broader term of prime minister-in-waiting would be more suitable. Common circumstances when this happens include upcoming leadership elections where there is only one candidate and/or a clear majority of eligible voters in the election have pledged to vote for a particular candidate. For example, in the United Kingdom during the 2007 Labour Party leadership election, Gordon Brown was referred to as the prime minister–designate even before the leadership elections had confirmed him in that position. Some reporters have suggested that in such circumstances, the term prime minister-presumptive would be more suitable than either "in-waiting" or "designate" since the prospects of accession are typically similar to that of an heir presumptive in a monarchy or a presumptive nominee in a United States presidential election.

In the Republic of Ireland, where the prime minister and head of government is officially titled and referred to in both English and Irish as the Taoiseach, the person most expected to succeed to the office is variously described as the presumptive Taoiseach, the Taoiseach-designate, the Taoiseach-in-waiting or more rarely the Taoiseach-elect, with no singular style predominating.

In continental European Parliamentary systems, which frequently use proportional representation for elections to parliament, and have a multiparty system that makes it improbable for one party to win an outright majority, there is usually no Prime-Minister designate apparent right after the election. Rather, the outgoing caretaker government continues to serve in a lame duck capacity, while the head of state consults with representatives of the parties represented in the new parliament, and designates a formateur to form a majority coalition. The formateur only becomes prime minister-designate once the coalition formation is finalized; in turn, the prime-minister designate only becomes prime minister after receiving a formal vote of confidence from the newly-elected parliament.

The title "premier-designate" often has the same meaning in governments that use the title "premier" to describe a role equivalent to a prime minister.

Constitutionally specified roles

In most jurisdictions where the term is used, becoming prime minister-designate grants no special powers, duties or privileges until appointment to the office is actually made.

Israel

Between 1996 and 2001 (when direct prime-ministerial elections were held) the role and duration of the prime minister–elect was prescribed by Israeli legislation: within 45 days of the publication of the election results (which were published eight days after elections) the prime minister–elect would have appeared before the Knesset, presented the Ministers of the Government, announced the division of tasks and the guiding principles of the government's policies, and, after receiving a vote of confidence, enter into office. In 2001, the Knesset voted to change the system of direct prime-ministerial elections and restore the one-vote parliamentary system of government that operated until 1996, approving a reformed version of the original Basic Law: The Government 1968. This new law entered into effect with the January 2003 elections.<ref name ="IsraelBasicLawGovt1992"> and </</ref>

Solomon Islands

The Solomon Islands' constitution provides a fourteen-day period between the date of the general election and the selection of the prime minister. During this period, aspiring candidates for prime minister lobby intensely to acquire the numbers needed to win the contest and form the government.  The individual successfully voted to form government is the prime minister-designate until sworn in by the governor-general.

See also

-elect
 Caretaker government of Australia
 President-elect of the United States

References

Prime minister–designate


The Bettmann Archive is a collection of over 18 million photographs and images, some going back to the United States Civil War and including some of the best known U.S. historic images. The Archive also includes many images from Europe and elsewhere.

It was founded in 1936 by Otto Bettmann (1903–1998), a German curator who immigrated to the United States in 1935. He actively expanded his collection by advertising in magazines, e.g. in the Winter 1959 issue of Film Quarterly "Wanting to buy: Old movie stills - ca. 1915 to 1935; early comedies -- well-known stars and productions."

In 1960, Bettmann moved it from his apartment at 215 East 57th Street, in New York City to the Tishman Building. In 1981, Bettmann sold the archive to the Kraus Thomson Organization.

In 1995, the archive was sold to Corbis, a digital stock photography company founded by Bill Gates.  Restrictions of access to the collection
arising from this sale were described in the editorial "Goodbye to All That" in the May 2001 issue of American Heritage magazine.

Between late-2001 and March 2002, to preserve the photos and negatives, Corbis moved the archive from Manhattan to the Iron Mountain National Underground Storage Facility, a former limestone quarry located 220 feet (67 m) below ground in western Pennsylvania. The temperature of the storage room is gradually being lowered to -4 °F (-20 °C), which was determined by film preservationist Henry Wilhelm to be the optimal temperature for the long-term storage of the archive. At this temperature, the collection will degrade 500 times more slowly in than it did in Manhattan. Meanwhile, Corbis has been scanning the negatives into digital form as they are ordered by clients.

The archive began with Otto Bettmann's personal collection of 15,000 images which he brought with him in suitcases when he escaped from Nazi Germany.  Over the years, it acquired other collections, including the Gendreau Collection of Americana in 1967, the Underwood & Underwood Collection of material from late 19th century to World War I in 1971, and the United Press International collection in 1984.

Today, Getty Images had taken over the Bettmann Archive before Visual China Group acquired Corbis in 2016.

References

Further reading
Susanne Mendack: Schatzkammer der Fotografie: das legendäre Bettmann-Archiv. Düsseldorf: Feymedia, 2009.
Monika Idems: "Bettmann-Archiv - Schatzkammer der Fotografie" - Review in WAZ, 20. Dez. 2009, with sample images
Sarah Boxer: "A Century's Photo History Destined for Life in a Mine," New York Times, April 15, 2001.

External links

Photo archives in the United States
1936 establishments in the United States

Bettmann Archive