The R-33 (, NATO reporting name: AA-9 Amos) is a long-range air-to-air missile developed by Vympel. It is the primary armament of the MiG-31 interceptor, intended to attack large high-speed targets such as the SR-71 Blackbird, the B-1 Lancer bomber, and the B-52 Stratofortress.

It uses a combination of semi-active radar homing for initial acquisition and mid-course updates, and inertial navigation to reach the target at extreme range. The Zaslon phased array radar of MiG-31 allows six missiles to be guided simultaneously at separate targets.

The R-33 AAM remains in service with the CIS and Russian forces (See MiG-31 operators).

Development
The history of the R-33  missile is tightly bound to the story of its launcher, the MiG-31. The development of the modernized MiG-25, E-155MP, was authorized by a governmental decision of 24 May 1968. There was a competition for future missiles for the E-155MP. Izdeliye 410 by "Vympel" of A.L.Lyapin won, while the K-50 by PKPK of M.R.Bisnovat lost. The missile was assigned the development name K-33, continuing the series of K-13 and K-23 missiles. The development was headed by vice-chief designer V.V.Zhuravlev and leading designer Y.K.Zakharov.

The R-33/MiG-31 missile/interceptor combination is similar to the earlier Bisnovat R-40/MiG-25 combination, although it is much more versatile and modern in that the MiG-25 was very heavily specialized for the interception of large supersonic targets such as the cancelled North American XB-70 Valkyrie bomber, and thus lacks maneuverability and is not suitable for air combat maneuvering. The MiG-31 is a much more versatile and capable aircraft and is still able to employ the older R-40.

Two prototypes were built in 1968, featuring nose-mounted manoeuvring fins and intended for carriage on underwing pylons, similar to the Bisnovat R-40 on board the MiG-25.

The draft project was completed in 1970 and progressed to testing using testbed aircraft. One of these was a converted early-production MiG-25 (aircraft P-10), and was used in 1972 for autonomous test launches from the upgraded APU-40 pylon. A MiG-21 (serial 76211524) was converted into the LL-21 testbed to test the missile seekers, while a Tu-104 jetliner (serial 42324) was converted into LL-104-518 (also known as LL-2) by NTK "Vzlet" to test the MFBU-410/"Zaslon" radar along with missile homing heads mounted on GVM-410 mockups. The space on board the passenger aircraft-based testbed allowed for the carriage of extensive diagnostic and support equipment.

The K-33 was evaluated with the RGS-33 SARH seeker and the TGS-33 IR seeker. Other candidates included active radar homing and dual IR/radar homing seekers. The final decision was made in favor of semi-active radar homing with an inertial initial stage. The homing device, designated MFBU-410 was developed by B.I.Ermakov under the supervision of Akopyan.

The missile design was significantly altered later in 1972. The seeker and warhead were enlarged, the span of the control fins was reduced from 1100 mm to 900 mm. Further, the mounting system was revised to include new under-fuselage slipper pylons, akin to the Phoenix mount on the American F-14, and the missile was reoriented, so it mounted with the fins cruciform rather than diagonal; the fins on the mounting (dorsal) side were made to fold to the side, to lie flush against the belly of the carrying aircraft. Consequently, the missile launch method also needed to be changed. Rather than launching directly from the mounting pylon, the redesigned missile used drop-launch, with the missile being jettisoned from the pylon on launch, and its rocket motor igniting on a time-delay.

A small run of one dummy (for launch system testing), 5 'programmed' (guidance and propulsion only, no warhead) and 8 fully functional trial missiles were built to the new design before the end of 1972. Of those 14, three were launched from the MiG-25P-10 testbed in 1973. Different warhead types (high explosive fragmentation and continuous-rod warhead) were evaluated, and tests of the radar and seeker systems were conducted on the LL-2. 1974 saw 11 more test launches from the MiG-25P-10, and the production of another 40 trial missiles. The first AKU-33 launchers and B-410 warheads were built. "Zaslon" tests continued at Akhtubinsk using the LL-2.

The first flight of the future MiG-31 (aircraft No.831) took place on 16 September 1975, with 12 more flights by the end of the year. The MiG-25P-10 testbed launched 20 more test missiles before being sent for its launchers to be upgraded, and the first telemetric missile launches from the LL-2 were carried out that year.

Development continued in 1976, including launches at PRM-2 parachute targets in April. Factory tests were completed in 1977 with 32 launches from the MiG-31 prototype, the first launch being against a MiG-17 drone on 26 March 1977). The guidance systems were improved during 1978, and the radar/missile combination performed a simultaneous launch at 4 targets in August.

State trials started in March 1979 using MiG-31 No.83210. They were successfully completed in 1980. A government decision on 6 May 1981 recommended R-33 into service.

Variants

R-33Standard type.
R-33SImproved version.
R-33EExport version.
R-37Further development of the R-33.

References

Sources

External links
 GlobalSecurity.org page
 Federation of American Scientists page

Air-to-air missiles of the Soviet Union
Cold War air-to-air missiles of the Soviet Union
Vympel NPO products
Military equipment introduced in the 1980s

R-33 (missile)


Operation Grapple was  the codeword used to cover UK defence operations in support of the UN peacekeeping missions in the former Yugoslavia (authorised by UNSCR 776 of September 1992); including the deployment of British forces in Bosnia and Croatia from October 1992 until December 1995 as part of  the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). UNPROFOR would eventually hand over the peacekeeping mission in Bosnia to NATO's Implementation Force (IFOR) in winter 1995. The British participation in the IFOR was called Operation Resolute; the whole NATO mission was called Operation Joint Endeavour. The IFOR mission would last approximately a year, before it transitioned to the follow-on Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR).

The United Kingdom originally deployed a compact army headquarters staff (commanded by a brigadier) - based in a former JNA barracks at Divulje near Split. The main manoeuvre forces were an infantry battle group (based in Bosnia); supported by an armoured reconnaissance squadron, a combat engineer squadron and a logistics support unit. A detachment of Fleet Air Arm Sea King troop carrying helicopters was also based in Divulje barracks (found from 845 and 846 Naval Air Squadrons). Some of the British unit locations were very isolated with only small amounts of security
such as the Royal Engineers base at Camp Redoubt on a particularly hilly part of the main supply route to Vitez. The British contribution to UNPROFOR also included the deployment of Royal Navy ships sailing in the Adriatic Sea and RAF aircraft supporting troop movements in Croatia. Two Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships were also berthed in Split's north port to provide accommodation and logistics support. This force would be increased in size over the course of the UN peacekeeping mandate in the Former Yugoslavia up until August 1995 when the British force was steadily drawn down.

The UK agreed to join the UN force to protect humanitarian convoys in Bosnia, as part of UNPROFOR 2. The first British Battalion (BRITBAT) was the Cheshire Regiment which deployed with its armoured vehicles in October 1992 through the Croatian port of Split, eventually headquartering itself in a school on the outskirts of the town of Vitez in the Lašva Valley. The battalion would have operating bases in Gornji Vakuf and Tuzla; and there was also a British logistics base at Tomislavgrad. The British contingent was expanded with the addition of another battalion group in March 1994.

The first BRITBAT's time in Bosnia was not without controversy and its commanding officer Lieutenant Colonel Bob Stewart very publicly lost his composure and impartiality after his unit discovered the remains of Muslim civilians who had been massacred by Croats in the village of Ahmići in April 1993.

British units took casualties from the outset and Lance Corporal Wayne Edwards, a Warrior tracked armoured vehicle driver, was shot and killed by a sniper, whilst driving his vehicle in Gornji Vakuf on 13 January 1993. Others would also sadly lose their lives; such as Private Shaun Taylor mortally wounded on 26 June 1994 near Goražde. British armed forces would serve nearly 15 years in Bosnia and would see more than 50 comrades killed and many more wounded. Even more tragically it was Bosnia and Croatia's appalling road and weather conditions that caused many of the deaths and injuries.

BRITBAT and its supporting sub-units would win praise by becoming the guardians of the only functioning main supply route into the core of Bosnia and ultimately Sarajevo and Tuzla, the maintenance of Routes Triangle and Diamond would remain a critical combat engineering task.

Key British officers involved in Operation Grapple
The following officers filled key roles in the UK's UNPROFOR mission:

 Lieutenant General Sir Michael Rose Commander UN Forces in Bosnia Herzegovina
 Major General David Pennefather Commander UN Rapid Reaction Force
 Brigadier Andrew Cumming - COMBRITFOR Grapple 1
 Brigadier Robin Searby - COMBRITFOR Grapple 2
 Brigadier John Reith - COMBRITFOR Grapple 3
 Brigadier Andrew Pringle - COMBRITFOR Grapple 6
 Lieutenant Colonel Bob Stewart - CO of the Cheshire Regiment
 Lieutenant Colonel Alastair Duncan - CO of the Prince of Wales's Own Regiment of Yorkshire
 Lieutenant Colonel Peter Williams - CO of the Coldstream Guards
 Lieutenant Colonel David Santa-Olalla - CO of the Duke of Wellington's Regiment
 Lieutenant Colonel Jeff Cook - CO of the Devonshire and Dorset Regiment
 Lieutenant Colonel Jonathon Riley - CO of the Royal Welch Fusiliers.
 Lieutenant Colonel Dick Applegate - CO BRITARTYBAT 19th Regiment Royal Artillery and 1 NL Battery RNLMC

See also
 Yugoslav Wars
 Battle of the Barracks
 Bosnian War
 Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing
 Foreign fighters in the Bosnian War
 List of massacres in Bosnia and Herzegovina

References

 https://web.archive.org/web/20120811171610/http://www.britains-smallwars.com/Bosnia/bosnia-units.html
 http://www.army.mod.uk/royalengineers/org/35regt/37sqn/37_sqn__history.htm

British Army deployments
United Nations operations in the former Yugoslavia
Bosnia and Herzegovina–United Kingdom relations
Bosnian War
Croatian War of Independence

Operation Grapple (Yugoslavia)


is a vertically scrolling platform game developed by Konami for the MSX home computer, and published in 1984. Konami published a Brazilian Portuguese version, Árvore Mágica, in 1985.

Konami included Magical Tree in the 1998 anthology Konami Antiques MSX Collection, Vol. 2 for PlayStation.

Gameplay
The player character is an "Indian brave" stereotype who wears a tanned vest and trousers, and a headband with a feather. The player ascends a magical tree by hopping from branch to branch and climbing vines and ladders—while also dodging larvae, owls, and lightning bolts. The player can jump and dangle from branches. He earns points by gathering apples, arrows, daggers, and coronets.

The tree is  tall. A gauge tracks the player's altitude, and at the conclusion of each level the game informs the player how much further to climb to reach the goal: A castle on the treetop. The ascent is divided into nine game levels; the player character dances at the conclusion of each level.

When the player clears the ninth level, a curtain opens to reveal the castle at the top of the tree. Smiling from the crenels of the castle's parapet are a young woman in a purple frock, and a man wearing a war bonnet. After the end sequence, the game then continues at the base of the tree.

See also
Spider-Man (1982)
Ice Climber (1985)

References

External links

1984 video games
Konami games
MSX games
Windows games
Platformers
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Video games about magic
Video games about plants
Video games based on Native American mythology
Works about trees

Magical Tree


Le Grammont () is a mountain in the Chablais Alps, near Le Bouveret in Valais. At 2,172 metres above sea level, it is one of the highest peaks overlooking Lake Geneva. Various trails lead to the summit, mostly from the southern side.

On the way to the summit, there is a mountain lake, the Lac de Taney.

The Tauredunum event of AD 563 is thought to have occurred on the slopes of Le Grammont, named for a Roman-era fortress situated close to the point where the Rhône flows into Lake Geneva.

During the Second World War, there is a recorded incident of a Lancaster of the Royal Air Force getting shot down by the Swiss anti-aircraft gunners and crashing into the mountain. The pilot of the aircraft was Horace Badge and all of the crew were lost.

See also
 List of mountains of Switzerland
 Swiss Alps

Notes and references

External links

 Le Grammont on Hikr

Mountains of the Alps
Mountains of Valais
Mountains of Switzerland
Two-thousanders of Switzerland

Le Grammont


Education in Virginia addresses the needs of students from pre-kindergarten through adult education. Virginia's educational system consistently ranks in the top ten states on the U.S. Department of Education's National Assessment of Educational Progress, with Virginia students outperforming the average in almost all subject areas and grade levels tested. The 2010 Quality Counts report ranked Virginia's K–12 education fourth best in the country. All school divisions must adhere to educational standards set forth by the Virginia Department of Education, which maintains an assessment and accreditation regime known as the Standards of Learning to ensure accountability. In 2008, 81% of high school students graduated on-time after four years. The 1984 Virginia Assembly stated that, "Education is the cornerstone upon which Virginia's future rests."

History

The Syms School was founded in 1635, as the first free school in the Americas, but this was not the first attempt at establishing an education system. The first attempt was a move in 1619-1620 by the London Company to begin a school to educate Indian children in Christianity. The second attempt, known as the "East India School", was meant to educate white children in the colony of Virginia. During the colonial period, Virginia was one of the first colonies to establish schools and colleges, such as The College of William and Mary in 1693.

Thomas Jefferson drafted a "Bill for More General Diffusion of Knowledge" to create a universal public education, but most planters at the time did not want tax money to go to educating poor children. Jefferson did start the first public university, The University of Virginia, in 1819. According to Thomas Hunt, Charles F. Mercer authored a report in the state legislature in 1816 calling for state supported primary schooling for all white children. Supervision was to be provided by a state Board of Public Instruction, chosen by the legislature. In 1817, his  bill passed the lower house but died in the state senate. Jefferson opposed the plan because heavy funding for primary schools would divert money from his beloved state university, and the plan would replace local control by state control.

Finally the first free public school systems were established around 1851. Unlike Northern and Western states influenced by the ideas of Horace Mann, public education was not required under the Virginia state constitution until 1870, after an innovation in the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1868 (although paying for such education became controversial in the next decade).

In addition to the free schools, "pay schools" also existed, particularly for education beyond simple literacy. Before the American Civil War, rich families employed private tutors. Other schools were funded at least partially by parents within a community, and they also had control over the school as a community. Some were known as field schools, because communities often built in a field by the community. After the American Civil War, the Peabody Foundation distributed funds to help construct field schools, as later did the Rosenwald Foundation, which established Rosenwald Schools in Virginia and other Southern states to assist in educating African Americans. Church groups also established schools, especially to educate Native Americans and remote mountain communities. Rev. Frederick Never established over a dozen in the Blue Ridge Mountains, of which Blue Ridge School still exists today. Baptist and other missionaries founded others, including the Manassas Industrial School and Rappahannock Industrial Academy. Some schools operated only in the winter months so students could assist their farming families; others closed during the winter months. Privately funded education also included private tutors or boarding schools abroad for richer or luckier families.

Virginia built many schools after World War I and again after World War II, but such barely kept up with population growth. Virginia had among the lowest tax rates in the nation, so local school boards often scrimped on school construction. Before $45 million in appropriations during the administration of Governor John S. Battle, per pupil expenditures and teacher salaries both remained below national averages, and the state ranked last nationally in percentage of high school age children actually attending high school, and next-to-last in college age children going to college.

However, with the collapse of Massive Resistance in the 1960s, Virginia school expenditures increased, as did educational standards.

Now, Virginia has 134 school divisions that are governed by local school boards.  Within these divisions, approximately 1,900 schools provide an education for over one million students.

Prekindergarten
Governor Tim Kaine launched an initiative for state-funding of pre-kindergarten education.  These programs are focused on children with "at risk" demographics to assist them in performing well at the K-12 levels.  During the 2008 General Assembly session, Governor Kaine backed $22 million expansion to increase the accessibility of pre-k education for at-risk four-year-olds.

K-12

Public K–12 schools in Virginia are generally operated by the counties and cities, and not by the state. , a total of 1,259,623 students were enrolled in 1,881 local and regional schools in the Commonwealth, including three charter schools, and an additional 109 alternative and special education centers across 132 school divisions. Between 2000 and 2008, school enrollment increased 5%,  the number of teachers 21%.

Besides the general public schools in Virginia, there are Governor's Schools and selective magnet schools. The Governor's Schools are a collection of more than 40 regional high schools and summer programs intended for gifted students. The Virginia Council for Private Education oversees the regulation of 294 state accredited and 141 non-accredited private schools. An additional 23,290 students receive homeschooling.

Nine high schools in the Northern Virginia region are ranked in the top 100 nationwide by Newsweek magazine. In addition, Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, which requires an application, is listed as the best public high school in the nation according to U.S. News & World Report. All Northern Virginia schools pay the test fees for students to take Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate exams, and Alexandria and Arlington lead the nation in college course tests.

Online Education
Virtual Virginia (VVa) is the Department of Education's system for providing online courses to students. These classes are mostly Advanced Placement (AP) classes for students who are home schooled or go to a public high school (some courses are offered to middle school students) where the course is not taught. These courses are offered free of charge to students enrolled through a high school, but not to those in private or home schooling, or those who are out of state. This program got its start in the 1980s, when AP courses were offered through satellite schools to students in Virginia, mostly to those in rural areas without many other education options. The program became known as the Virginia Satellite Education Network (VSEN). That program got combined with Virtual Virginia Advanced Placement School to become what it is today.

VVa currently offers a total of 54 classes; 23 of them are AP and 21 are for foreign languages. These classes are mostly one or two semester courses, with a select few being offered during the summer. The school is run through Desire2Learn, a web-based course management system which presents the lesson material through an internet browser.

Standards of Learning
Virginia has a statewide system of support and accountability for its public schools. These standards hold the state accountable for rigorous academic standards, called the Standards of Learning (SOL).  Success is measured through annual SOL testing and also through alternative testing.
The standards test students in English, math, science, and social studies. Tests are conducted at the end of 3rd, 5th, 8th grade, and at the end of some high school courses in all subjects, but English and math are tested in grades 3-8, and also at the end of some high school courses.  Testing depends on the curriculum, and can occur at any grade level according to what the curriculum says.
In 2001, there was parental resistance to the Standards of Learning, or SOLs, saying they were unrealistic goals.  By 2004, students were required to take a series of 11 exams that were all based on the SOLs.  By 2007, in order for a school to keep its accreditation, they must have a 70% pass rate of the SOLs among their students. They also argued that the tests did not accurately match what was in the curriculum.
As stated by the Standards of Learning Objectives, "The Standards of Learning Program Establishes a framework for general education in the public schools in Virginia.  It includes objectives to help students acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes believed necessary for further education and employment."
When the standards were first implemented, some veteran teachers saw them as a loss, while some inexperienced teachers viewed them as a gain to the educational system.  Losses might include things like a sense of a loss of power, and gains might be seen as things like a great opportunity for collaboration between teachers.
The major goal of having standards for curriculum is to create quality American schools.  Diane Ravitch is one of the predominant people to help write the standards, and she says that "standards give clear expectations for students, teachers, parents, colleges, and employers that will result in improved student achievement".

No Child Left Behind
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was signed into law on January 8, 2002 by President George W. Bush. It is commonly abbreviated as NCLB. It was a re-authorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and some say that it was one of the most significant pieces of legislation to affect education in the last 30 years.  No Child Left Behind was designed to hold schools accountable for students' proficiency, as determined by testing procedures. NCLB states that the 4 major goals are "stronger accountability for results, increased flexibility and local control, expanded options for parents, and an emphasis on teaching options that have been proven to work.". The goal of NCLB was to have all students testing at proficient levels by the 2012-2013 school year. It also says that 95% of all eligible students must be taking the SOL tests. "Adequate Yearly Progress" (AYP), which is meeting the target proficiency ratings, must be met by the schools annually.  If two consecutive years pass where a school does not meet AYP, then they get labeled as "needing improvement", and supplemental services may be offered.  No Child Left Behind also regulates employment of teachers, by requiring that all teachers are "highly qualified".
Although the overall goal of No Child Left Behind is full of good intentions, it does not meet all students' needs, for example, high-achieving, "gifted" students.  NCLB also has implications for teachers, by putting a lot of pressure on the educators in the public school system to get the required proficiency results.
Some have also argued that NCLB legislation prevents the teaching of civics, because the curriculum is so focused on other content areas.  This could be detrimental, because the foundation of the public education system was to help students develop into productive citizens. NCLB was repealed in 2015, succeeded by the Every Student Succeeds Act.

Higher education

, there are 167 colleges and universities in Virginia. In the 2022-2023 U.S. News & World Report ranking of public colleges in the United States, multiple institutions in Virginia were ranked: the University of Virginia was 3rd, the College of William & Mary was 13th, Virginia Tech was 23rd, George Mason University was 64th, James Madison University was 72nd, Virginia Commonwealth University was 83rd, and Old Dominion University was 156th. In U.S. News & World Report 2008 America's Best Colleges report, James Madison University was recognized as the number one regional public master's university in The South since 1993. In 2008, Virginia Commonwealth University was ranked the 4th best public university in Fine Arts in the United States according to U.S. News & World Report. The Virginia Military Institute is the oldest state military college and a top ranked public liberal arts college. Liberty University is also the largest university in Virginia with over 92,000 students, followed closely by Virginia Tech and Virginia Commonwealth University. Virginia Tech and Virginia State University are the state's land-grant universities. Virginia also operates 23 community colleges on 40 campuses serving over 288,000 students. There are 120 private institutions, including Washington and Lee University, Emory & Henry College, Hampden–Sydney College, Roanoke College, and the University of Richmond.

Virginia law requires each public college or university to publish the amount of its fees separate from its tuition. As reported in the Washington Post, athletic fees have grown in recent years.  Athletic fees typically go to a separate fund to pay for intercollegiate athletic teams.  Over the past 10 years, the average athletic fee at 14 public universities has doubled from $530 to $986. All students at an institution must pay the athletic fee, whether or not they participate in sports.

Federal role
Virginia's two land grant universities, Virginia Tech and Virginia State University, receive federal funding to perform agricultural research and to conduct cooperative extension services.

Virginia opted to not participate in No Child Left Behind federal funding. Virginia filed an application for the first round of federal Race to the Top funding, but finished 31st out of 41 states in the first round, and did not receive funds. On May 26, 2010, Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell withdrew the state from the second round of Race to the Top funding. McDonnell did not believe that Virginia should apply for the second round because he erroneously believed the competition required the use of common education performance standards instead of Virginia's current standards. In fact, the use of common performance standards is not required.  Although McDonnell supported the Race to the Top program during his campaign for governor, McDonnell later went on to claim that the Race to the Top rules precluded participating states from adopting more rigorous standards in addition to whatever multi-state standards they join. However, the "Race to the Top" regulations award the points even if states adopt standards more rigorous than the optional, common standards.

References

Further reading
 Buck, J.L. The Development of Public Schools in Virginia (1952) 570 pages.
 Egerton, Douglas R. "To the Tombs of the Capulets: Charles Fenton Mercer and Public Education in Virginia, 1816-1817." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 93.2 (1985): 155-174.
 Harlan, Louis R. Separate and unequal: Public school campaigns and racism in the southern seaboard states, 1901-1915 (1958) online pp. 135–169.
 Heatwole, Cornelius. "A History of Education in Virginia". The Macmillan Company. 1916. p. 43

 Hunt, Thomas C. "Popular education in Nineteeth-century Virginia: The efforts of Charles Fenton Mercer," Peadegogica Historica 21.2 (1981): 337-346.

 Kincheloe, Joe, and Weil, Danny. "Standards and Schooling in The United States." ABC Clio Publishing. 2001. p. 713-714.

 Morrison, Alfred J. The beginnings of public education in Virginia, 1776-1860; study of secondary schools in relation to the state Literary fund (1917) with many primary documents online

 Unger, Harlow. "Encyclopedia of American Education." Facts on File Publishing. 2007.
 Virginia Department of Education. "Standards of Learning Objectives For Virginia Public Schools." 1984. p. iii.
 Wiley, Sandra, and Marshall, Paxton. "The Virginia Assembly on Policy for Elementary and Secondary Education in Virginia: Issues For  the Commonwealth. 1984.

Government of Virginia

Education in Virginia


John Whitney Hall (September 13, 1916 – October 21, 1997) was an American historian of Japan who specialized in premodern Japanese history. His life work was recognized by the Japanese government, which awarded him the Order of the Sacred Treasure.

Early life and education
The only son of Congregational missionaries, Hall was born in Kyoto in 1916 and lived in Japan until he was a teenager. Hall moved to the United States to attend Phillips Andover Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, before matriculating at Amherst College, where he majored in American studies.  After receiving an A.B. degree in 1939, he returned to Japan as an instructor in English at Doshisha University in Kyoto until 1941.

During the war, he served with the United States Naval Intelligence, leaving the service with the rank of Lieutenant Commander.

Hall earned his Ph.D. in East Asian languages and literature from Harvard University in 1950. At Harvard, he became one of the first graduate students to study under Edwin O. Reischauer, who was another missionary's son and a pioneering Japan scholar.

Academic career
Hall's obituary in the New York Times described him as "something of an academic entrepreneur" because he was so central in the work of building up the fledgling field of Japanese studies in the years after World War II. In his lifetime, he served as a stalwart bridge linking historians in Japan with historians in the West. Harry Harootunian, a professor of history at New York University and a former student of Hall's, summarizes this view succinctly: "What I think guys like Hall tried to do was de-exoticize the study of Japan.  To de-exoticize, anything is to bring it closer to us, to eliminate the distance that we imagine exists between ourselves and the object of our study."

Hall himself explained: "My own fascination with Japanese history lies primarily with the manner in which Japan's political and social institutions have changed and diversified over time and how this fundamentally 'Eastern' culture gave rise to modern world power."

In 1948, Professor Hall began teaching at the University of Michigan, one of the few American universities that had a significant program in his field. He would become director of the Center for Japanese Studies (1957–1960) and a founder of the first American research venture in post-war Japan.  Through that program, a field research station in Okayama, Professor Hall spent a year in Japan in 1952 and became the first person to begin examining the voluminous records of one of the daimyo families that had ruled Japan during the early modern period between 1600 and 1868. He became an expert in that period, identifying the seeds of Japan's subsequent industrialization and modernization—findings which challenged the traditional Western view that that period had been nothing more than Japan's rather backward, final feudal age.

His earliest book was Tanuma Okitsugu, 1718–1787.  Among other interests, his research focused on the Kamakura period in the history of Japan.

George Wilson Pierson recruited Whitney to join the Yale University faculty as part of a plan to expand the department's curriculum to include a greater emphasis on Asian history. In 1961, he was named as the A. Whitney Griswold Professor of History, a position he held until his retirement in 1983. Five years after arriving at Yale, Hall published his most famous book, Government and Local Power in Japan, 500 to 1700, which traced the development of Okayama during that period and, some say, opened up the first thousand years of Japanese history to the English-speaking world.  Although scholarly books rarely have a shelf life of more than a generation, some colleagues assert that Hall's book is in a category all its own.

While at Yale, Hall served as chairman of the history department from 1973 until 1976.  He was also the chairman of the East Asian Languages and Literatures Department from 1971 through 1974.  In 1983, he retired from the faculty.  The university's John W. Hall Lecture Series in Japanese Studies was established in his memory.

During the 1960s and 1970s, Professor Hall became a leader in many of the organizations that were working to build up the field of Japanese studies. These groups were attempting to represent the interests of the field in order to get support from universities, foundations and the Japanese government. Professor Hall's activities included
 Chairman, the Japan-United States Friendship Commission
 Chairman, the United States-Japan Conference on Educational and Cultural Interchange
 Chairman, the Social Science Research Council/Joint Committee on Japanese Studies.

Throughout these years, Professor Hall also worked closely with the Japan Foundation, which was set up by the Japanese government in the 1970s to help American universities establish Japanese studies programs.  The Japan Foundation eventually gave $1 million to 10 major universities for activities in the field. Hall was honored with the Japan Foundation Award in 1976.

Selected works
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about John Whitney Hall, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 90+ works in 200+ publications in 8 languages and 10,000+ library holdings

1950s
 Hall, John Whitney. Japanese history; a guide to Japanese reference and research materials. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1954.
 ⸻. Tanuma Okitsugu, 1719–1788, the forerunner of modern Japan. [Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series, 14]. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1955.
1960s
 Hall, John Whitney. Government and local power in Japan, 500 to 1700; a study based on Bizen Province. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1960.
 ⸻. Japanese history: new dimensions of approach and understanding. Washington: Service Center for Teachers of History, 1961.
 ⸻ and Richard K. Beardsley. Twelve doors to Japan. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1965.
 ⸻. Japanese history; new dimensions of approach and understanding, 2nd ed. Washington, Service Center for Teachers of History, 1966.
 ⸻ and Marius Jansen, eds. Studies in the institutional history of early modern Japan. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1968.
 ⸻. Das Japanische Kaiserreich. Frankfurt-am-Main: Fischer Bücherei GmbH, 1968.
 ⸻, Beardsley, Richard K., and Robert E. Ward. Village Japan. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1969.
1970s
 Hall, John Whitney. Japan, from prehistory to modern times. New York, Delacorte Press, 1970.
 ⸻. Japan, from prehistory to modern times. New York, Dell Publ. Co., 1971.
 ⸻ and Jeffrey P. Mass, eds. Medieval Japan; essays in institutional history. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1974.
 ⸻. Das Japanische Kaiserreich. Frankfurt is Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1976.
 ⸻ and Toyoda Takeshi, eds. Japan in the Muromachi age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.
1980s
 Hall, John Whitney, Nagahara Keiji, and Kozo Yamamura, eds. Japan before Tokugawa: political consolidation and economic growth, 1500–1650. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.
 ⸻ ... et al., eds. The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1988-. [Incomplete contents: v. 1. Ancient Japan / edited by Delmer M. Brown—v. 3. Medieval Japan / edited by Kozo Yamamura—v. 4. Early modern Japan / edited by John Whitney Hall—v. 5. The nineteenth-century / edited by Marius B Jansen—v. 6. The twentieth century / edited by Peter Duus.]

Honors
In 1987, Hall was one of the recipients of American Historical Association's Award for Scholarly Distinction.
 Order of the Sacred Treasure
 Japan Foundation Award
 President, Association for Asian Studies, 1967

AAS John Whitney Hall Book Prize

The Association for Asian Studies (AAS) Northeast Asia Council (NEAC) presents the John Whitney Hall Book Prize, which has been awarded annually since 1994 for an outstanding English language book published on Japan or Korea.

Notes

References
 Conlon, Frank. F. (1997). "Obituary John Whitney Hall, 1916–1997." World History Archives. Hartford Web Publishing.-- link to web-published obituary
 Hall, John Whitney. (1971). "Japan, From Prehistory to Modern Times" in Delacorte World History, Vol. XX. New York: Delacorte Press.
 John Whitney Hall papers, 1930–1999. Yale University. Library.--link to online catalog notice
 Mass, Jeffrey P. "John Whitney Hall 1916–1997," The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 57, No. 1 (Feb. 1998), pp. 306–310.
 Schulman, Frank Joseph. (1970).  Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages, 1877–1969.  London: Routledge.
 Scott, Janny. "John W. Hall, Historian of Japan, Dies at 81," New York Times, October 27, 1997.

External links
 John Whitney Hall Papers (MS 1737). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

1916 births
American Japanologists
Yale University faculty
Amherst College alumni
Harvard University alumni
1997 deaths
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy officers
University of Michigan faculty
Presidents of the Association for Asian Studies
Phillips Academy alumni

John Whitney Hall


Witzenhausen is a small town in the Werra-Meißner-Kreis in northeastern Hesse, Germany.

It was granted town rights in 1225, and until 1974, it was a district seat.

The University of Kassel maintains a satellite campus in Witzenhausen at which is offered the ecological agricultural sciences programme, which is unique in the country. This also puts Witzenhausen among Germany's smallest university towns. Furthermore, a teaching institute (DEULA) for environment and technology, agriculture, horticulture and landscaping. The town is also nationally known for the invention of the Biotonne – a biological refuse container – in 1983, and as an important cherry-growing area; it is said to be Europe's biggest self-contained cherry-growing area. Cherries are traditional in Witzenhausen, which has led to the yearly Kesperkirmes, or "Cherry Fair" (Kesper is a regional name for the cherry; the standard German word is Kirsche), at which a Cherry Queen (Kirschenkönigin) is chosen.

Geography

Location
Witzenhausen lies on the northeast slope of the Kaufunger Wald, which is surrounded by the Meißner-Kaufunger Wald Nature Park. The town is found at the mouth of the Gelster, where it empties into the Werra some 30 km east of Kassel, 16 km east-southeast of Hann. Münden, 25 km south of Göttingen and 23 km northwest of Eschwege.

Neighbouring communities
Witzenhausen borders in the north on the town of Hann. Münden, the communities of Rosdorf and Friedland (all three in Lower Saxony's Göttingen district), in the east on the communities of Neu-Eichenberg (in the Werra-Meißner-Kreis), Bornhagen and Lindewerra (both in Thuringia's Eichsfeld district), in the south on the towns of Bad Sooden-Allendorf and Großalmerode and the unincorporated area of Gutsbezirk Kaufunger Wald (all three in the Werra-Meißner-Kreis) and in the west on the community of Staufenberg in Lower Saxony's Göttingen district.

Constituent communities
Witzenhausen's 16 Stadtteile, besides the main town, also called Witzenhausen, are, on the Werra's left bank:
Blickershausen (293 inhabitants),
Dohrenbach (657 inhabitants),
Ellingerode (344 inhabitants),
Ermschwerd (1189 inhabitants),
Hubenrode (191 inhabitants),
Hundelshausen (1365 inhabitants),
Kleinalmerode (925 inhabitants),
Roßbach (825 inhabitants),
Wendershausen (831 inhabitants)
Ziegenhagen (716 inhabitants),

On the river's right bank:
Albshausen (69 inhabitants),
Berlepsch-Ellerode-Hübenthal (132 inhabitants),
Gertenbach (947 inhabitants),
Neuseesen (97 inhabitants),
Unterrieden (914 inhabitants)
Werleshausen (503 inhabitants).

History

In 1898, the Deutsche Kolonialschule für Landwirtschaft, Handel und Gewerbe ("German Colonial School for Agriculture, Trade and Industry", also called the Tropenschule, or "Tropical School") was founded to train people in agriculture for resettlement in Germany's colonies. The successor institution forms today a satellite campus of the University of Kassel, and includes a greenhouse complex dedicated to tropical crops (the Gewächshaus für tropische Nutzpflanzen).

Main sights

Buildings
 Historic town centre with various important timber-frame houses:
 Grau'sches Haus
 Rotes Haus
 Steinernes Haus
 Sommermann'sches Haus
 Meinhard-Wedekind'sches Haus
 Persch'sches Haus
 Liebfrauenkirche (church)
 Historic Town Hall
 Erlöserkirche (church)
 Diebesturm ("Thief's Tower"), Eulenturm ("Owls' Tower") and parts of the old town wall
 Former Williamite monastery, part of the Colonial School and today part of the University of Kassel
 Gelsterhof Estate, the former Colonial School's farm
 Burg Ludwigstein (castle)

Museums
 Völkerkundliches Museum (ethnology)
 Greenhouse for domesticated tropical plants

Parks
 Town park with swan pond (former firefighting pond)

Politics

Town council

The municipal election held on 27 March 2011 yielded the following results:

At first, the current council was ruled by a CDU-Green-FWG coalition, but this was dissolved in September 2007.

Mayors

1945-1948: Eduard Platner (CDU)
1987-2005: Günter Engel (SPD)
2005-2018: Angela Fischer (CDU)
2018- : Daniel Herz (independent)

Events
 Witzenhäuser Woche, partly in conjunction with German Queens' Day (Deutscher Königinnentag), every 3 years (in 2007 more than 200 guest queens, princesses and kings).
 Kesperkirmes, the "cherry fair" in the Old Town with election of the Cherry Queen and German cherry pip spitting championship.
 Cherry Man (Triathlon)
 Erntedank- und Heimatfest ("Harvest and Homeland Festival "), 20–25 August 2008, this year with Jürgen Drews as the star guest on Sunday in the festival tent at Joseph Pott Platz
 In 2006 Witzenhausen was the starting point for the third stage of the Deutschland Tour
 Christmas market

Economy and infrastructure
Witzenhausen suffers – like the whole Werra-Meißner-Kreis and a great part of North Hesse – from extremely high unemployment and its attendant loss of younger people to migration.

In Witzenhausen-Unterrieden, the last producer of chewing tobacco in Germany is still in business. An important employer in Witzenhausen is, with 430 employees all together, the corporation Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget (SCA). In Witzenhausen the SCA produces raw paper for corrugated cardboard for manufacturing packagings (SCA Packaging Containerboard) and hygiene products such as toilet paper (SCA Hygiene Products). Another important employer is the district and town hospital in Witzenhausen.

Witzenhausen is domicile of Gesellschaft zur Erhaltung alter und gefährdeter Haustierrassen (GEH, the society for the conservation of old and endangered livestock breeds).

Media

Print
 Witzenhäuser Allgemeine (Hessische/Niedersächsische Allgemeine)
 Markt Spiegel
 Witzenhüsser
 Extra Tipp

Wireless
 RundFunk Meißner

Transport

Over Bundesstraßen 27 (Göttingen–Eschwege), 80 (Hann. Münden–Heiligenstadt) and 451 (Helsa–Witzenhausen), the town is linked to the greater road network. In Hedemünden, some 10 km away, is an interchange on the Autobahn A 7 (Flensburg–Füssen). Near Friedland is an interchange on the A 38 towards Halle. Moreover, Witzenhausen is on the two tourist routes: the German Timber-Frame Road (Deutsche Fachwerkstraße) and the German Fairy Tale Route (Deutsche Märchenstraße).

Witzenhausen has a railway station, Witzenhausen Nord, on the Eichenberg–Kassel section of the Halle-Kassel Railway. It is located above the town on the north slope of the Werra valley and is served by trains to Kassel, Göttingen, Erfurt and Halle. The former Witzenhausen Süd station stood southeast of the inner town and has been closed, like the whole of the Gelster Valley Railway between Eichenberg and –Großalmerode.

The outlying centre of Gertenbach has a further stop on the Halle-Kassel railway

Education
 Grundschule Gertenbach (primary school)
 Gelstertalschule Hundelshausen (primary school)
 Grundschule Witzenhausen (primary school)
 Steintorschule (school for help with learning)
 Johannisbergschule Witzenhausen (comprehensive school)
 Berufliche Schulen des Werra-Meißner-Kreises (vocational schools)
 University of Kassel
 Medienzentrum Witzenhausen (media centre)
 Bildstelle des Werra-Meißner-Kreises (training centre)
 Deutsches Institut für tropische und subtropische Landwirtschaft GmbH (DITSL, "German Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture")
 IBZW Internationales Bildungszentrum Witzenhausen GmbH (training centre)
 DEULA Lehranstalt für angewandte Technik GmbH
 Folk high school
 GNE Witzenhausen

Famous people

 Burkhardt von Berlepsch (1619-1691), lawyer and administrative officer
 Johann Jacob Schweppe, (1740-1821), German watchmaker and silversmith, inventor of the trademark Schweppes
 Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig, (1816-1895), German physiologist
 Hermann von Christen, (1841-1919), Member of the Reichstag
 Edward Schröder (1858-1942), a Germanist mediavist
 Theodor Neubauer (1890-1945), German sociologist, educator, parliamentarian and Resistance fighter against National Socialism
 Heinz Bonatz (1897-1981), German naval officer
 Helga Seibert, (1939-1999), German constitutional judge
 Bodo Abel (born 1948), economist
 Stefan Markolf (born 1984), first deaf German professional footballer for, among others, 1. FSV Mainz 05, Wuppertaler SV Borussia
 Diether Haenicke, President of Western Michigan University
 Aidan "A-Danöwitz McMahonowitz" Murphy, Irishman and Krypto-Jew

Town partnerships
Witzenhausen is twinned with:
 Saint-Vallier, France, since 1975
 Vignola, Italy, since 1995
 Filton, United Kingdom, since 1978
 Kayunga, Uganda, since 2001

Since 1979, Filton, St. Vallier and Witzenhausen have had a three-way partnership.

Between Witzenhausen and Filton, and between Witzenhausen and St. Vallier, there are regular student exchanges with the local comprehensive school. The partnership between Witzenhausen and St. Vallier came about by accident. St. Vallier's mayor's last name at the time was Witzenhausen, and when, on a visit to Germany, he spotted this name on a road sign, he drove to the town. Out of his visit sprang the partnership, which has lasted to this day.

Furthermore, there have been school exchanges between Witzenhausen and these two places since 2002:
 100 Mile House, Canada (between the comprehensive school and the secondary school there)
 Turlock, USA (between the vocational Gymnasium and Turlock High School)

References

External links
 Kirschenland, tourist information about Witzenhausen
 Town's official webpage

Werra-Meißner-Kreis

Witzenhausen


Robert Jason Costanzo (born October 20, 1942) is an American actor. He was born in New York City. He is known as the voice double for Danny DeVito. His first role was in the 1975 movie Dog Day Afternoon. He is also known for his voice role of Detective Harvey Bullock on Batman: The Animated Series, Superman: The Animated Series, The New Batman Adventures and Static Shock

His movie roles include Total Recall, Die Hard 2, Dick Tracy, City Slickers, and Down and Derby. His television roles include in Boston Legal, Hannah Montana, Friends, Days of Our Lives, The Golden Girls and as Commissioner Stenchler in the Sega CD game Sewer Shark.

References

Other websites

1942 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
American video game actors
Actors from New York City

Robert Costanzo


The Wild and the Innocent is a 1959 American CinemaScope Western film directed by Jack Sher and starring Audie Murphy and Sandra Dee as two inexperienced young people who get into trouble when they visit a town for the very first time.
The film was the final Universal-International film shot in CinemaScope.

Plot
Shy and naive mountain trapper Yancy (Audie Murphy) travels through Wyoming with his uncle and his Indian wife. After Uncle Lije (George Mitchell) is injured by a bear, Yancy is sent to trade their beaver pelts for money and supplies. When he arrives at the trading post, he finds it has been burnt down by an Indian who was sold moonshine by a lazy sneak thief, Ben Stocker (Strother Martin). The trading post owner tells Yancy that he will have to ride two more days to Casper, Wyoming, the nearest town to trade his furs. Stocker tries to trade his oldest daughter Rosalie (Sandra Dee) to Yancy for some furs, but is rebuffed. The next day, Yancy finds that Rosalie has run away from her father and wants him to take her to town.

When they reach the town and he trades his furs, Yancy gets Rosalie some new clothes so she will be presentable to look for a job. Paul Bartell (Gilbert Roland), the town's corrupt sheriff, says he will find Rosalie a job at the dance hall, and Yancy believes that this will be alright. He later finds out what really goes on at the dance hall and goes to get Rosalie. Bartell, who intends to earn good money with Rosalie, refuses to let the girl go, and Yancy is forced to shoot him in self-defense.

The next day, Yancy is loading up to leave for the mountains, while he intends for Rosalie to stay at the general store and be cared for by Mr. Forbes (Jim Backus) and his wife (Betty Harford). However, Rosalie refuses to part with him, and in the end Uncle Lije and Yancy head into the mountains with Rosalie riding on the back of Yancy's horse.

Cast
 Audie Murphy as Yancy Hawks
 Joanne Dru as Marcy Howard
 Gilbert Roland as Sheriff Paul Bartell
 Jim Backus as Cecil Forbes
 Sandra Dee as Rosalie Stocker
 George Mitchell as Uncle Lije Hawks
 Peter Breck as Chip
 Strother Martin as Ben Stocker
 Wesley Marie Tackitt as Ma Ransome
 Betty Harford as Mrs. Forbes
 Mel Leonard as Pitchman
 Lillian Adams as Kiri Hawks
 Val Benedict as Richie
 Jim Sheppard as Henchman
 Edson Stroll as Henchman (as Ed Stroll)
 John Qualls as Henchman
 Frank Wolff as Henchman
 Rosemary Eliot as Dancehall Girl
 Barboura Morris as Dancehall Girl
 Louise Glenn as Dancehall Girl
 Stephen Roberts as Bouncer
 Karyn Kupcinet as Townswoman (as Tammy Windsor)

Production
Filming took place in Big Bear Lake, California.

See also
 List of American films of 1959

References

External links

1959 films
1950s Western (genre) comedy films
Audie Murphy
1959 romantic comedy films
Films directed by Jack Sher
American Western (genre) comedy films
Films scored by Hans J. Salter
Films with screenplays by Jack Sher
Films set in Wyoming
Films shot in Big Bear Lake, California
1950s English-language films
1950s American films

The Wild and the Innocent


A Kilner jar is a jar that has a rubber ring to seal the top.  It does not let out any air, and helps to store food.  It was invented by the Kilner family and made by John Kilner & Co in Yorkshire, England.  Most jars made now-a-days have metal tops instead of rubber. They are also known as Terrine Jars.

Related pages
 Mason jar
 Weck Jar

Containers

Kilner jar


Intersex people are born with natural variations in physical and sex characteristics including those of the chromosomes, gonads, sex hormones, or genitals that, according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit the typical definitions for male or female bodies". Such variations may involve genital ambiguity, and combinations of chromosomal genotype and sexual phenotype other than XY-male and XX-female. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis allows the elimination of embryos and fetuses with intersex traits and thus has an impact on discrimination against intersex people.

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD or PIGD) refers to genetic evaluation of embryos and oocytes prior to implantation. When used to screen for a specific genetic condition, the method also makes it possible to select embryos with intersex conditions for termination. Some national authorities, such as the UK Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority, maintain lists of conditions for which PGD is permissible, including intersex conditions such as 5 alpha reductase deficiency, androgen insensitivity syndrome, congenital adrenal hyperplasia and others.

Surgical interventions on children with intersex conditions are contentious and may lead to selection for other traits like same sex attraction. Robert Sparrow states that intersex conditions are comparable to sexual orientation in that harms may be associated with a "hostile social environment". He concluded that the acceptability of elimination of intersex conditions has "uncomfortable" implications for "other nonpathological human variations" that do not affect physical health.

Organisation Intersex International Australia has quoted research showing pregnancy termination rates of up to 88% in 47,XXY even while the World Health Organization describes the trait as "compatible with normal life expectancy", and "often undiagnosed". In 2014, it called for the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council to prohibit such interventions, noting a "close entanglement of intersex status, gender identity and sexual orientation in social understandings of sex and gender norms, and in medical and medical sociology literature". In 2016, the organization wrote about the sponsorship of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) events by IVF clinics in Australia, stating that, in addition to ethical issues raised by the elimination of intersex traits, "sponsorship of "LGBTI" events by such businesses raises more ethical issues still, including the nature of community and comprehension of issues relating to intersex bodily diversity".

In response to Sparrow, Georgiann Davis argues that such discrimination fails to recognize that many people with intersex traits led full and happy lives, and that the "intersex community is only "invisible" to those who choose to ignore it", while "the medical profession, not the intersex trait itself, is a major source of the social and psychological harm that perpetuates intersex stigmatization and the "hostile social environment" that individuals with intersex traits encounter". Jeff Nisker links the elimination of intersex conditions to their pathologization, describing how "[o]nce a difference becomes a medical disorder to which the medical profession is dedicating time and resources to prevent, procedures to this end become endowed with appropriateness".

Jason Behrmann and Vardit Ravitsky state: "Parental choice against intersex may ... conceal biases against same-sex attractedness and gender nonconformity." In 2014, Morgan Carpenter expressed concern about intersex variations appeared in a list by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority of "serious" "genetic conditions" that may be de-selected in the United Kingdom. These include 5-alpha-reductase deficiency and androgen insensitivity syndrome, traits evident in elite Olympic-level women athletes and "the world's first openly intersex mayor".

In 2015, the Council of Europe published an Issue Paper on Human rights and intersex people, remarking on a right to life:

Prenatal hormone treatment

Currently, prenatal testing and hormone treatment to prevent the physical and behavioral expression of intersex traits is available. In 1990, a paper by Heino Meyer-Bahlburg titled Will Prenatal Hormone Treatment Prevent Homosexuality? was published in the Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. It examined the use of "prenatal hormone screening or treatment for the prevention of homosexuality" using research conducted on foetuses with congenital adrenal hyperplasia and other traits.

Alice Dreger, Ellen Feder, and Anne Tamar-Mattis describe how research published by Saroj Nimkarn and Maria New in 2010 constructs "low interest in babies and men – and even interest in what they consider to be men's occupations and games – as "abnormal", and potentially preventable with prenatal dexamethasone". The authors state that "weak and unsupported conclusions" of investigations into the attempted "prevention of benign behavioral sex variations" indicates gaps in the ethical management of clinical research.

In 2012, Hirvikoski and others described a lack of long-term follow-up studies of individuals exposed to prenatal treatment, and the results of a 10-year Swedish study of 43 mothers and children. The authors found evidence of unacceptable side-effects in their study, including neurological consequences. Treatment with dexamethasone was discontinued in Sweden.

See also
 Intersex medical interventions
 Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
 Sex selection
 Vaginal anomalies

Notes

Bibliography

Intersex and medicine
Medical ethics
Medical genetics

Genetic diagnosis of intersex


Special Science Senior Secondary School is a Senior Secondary School (ages 15–18) in Makurdi, Nigeria, specialising in science education.  It is a government school founded in 1995 by David Ker, later vice chancellor of Benue State University, with the aim of enhancing science education in the state. The school has a comprehensive library, and hostels for boarding students.

The school has been involved in research as well as teaching, with teacher Ahura Simeon inventing a "multipurpose solar energy device" in 2009 as part of a national competition organised by the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, Mobil and the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. over hundreds of the students are highly recommend in their various areas of discipline.

References

Educational institutions established in 1995
Secondary schools in Benue State
1995 establishments in Nigeria

Special Science Senior Secondary School


Negroland, Nigrita, or Nigritia, is an archaic term in European mapping, referring to Europeans' descriptions of West Africa as an area populated with negroes.

This area comprised at least the western part of the region called Sudan (not to be confused with the modern country). The term is probably a direct translation of the Arabic term Bilad as-Sudan (بلاد السودان), meaning "Land of the Blacks", corresponding to about the same area. There were various kinds of people in the area. The Persians called these areas Zangistān (زنگستان), meaning "Land of the Blacks" and the name Zang for black still remains in the name of Zanzibar (from Persian زنگبار (Zangibār) meaning "The Coast of Blacks". The name was given by Persian navigators when they visited the area in the middle ages. Some of the greatest states of those considered part of Negroland were the Bornu Empire and the Sokoto Caliphate.

"Negroland" represented the area between the region of Guinea and "Sahara" or "The Desert", the Sahara Desert. The name "Sahara" is derived from the Arabic word for "desert" in the feminine irregular form, the singular ṣaḥra' (صحراء /ˈsˤaħra/), plural ṣaḥārā (صَحَارَى /ˈsˤaħaːraː/[4][5][6][7]), ṣaḥār (صَحَار), ṣaḥrāwāt (صَحْارَاوَات), ṣaḥāriy (صَحَارِي). "Guinea", not to be confused with the modern country, then referred to the south-facing coast of West Africa and the land stretching upriver from there. Herman Moll's 1727 map labels these "Grain Coast", "Slave Coast", and "Gold Coast". "Negroland" was the territory to the north of this, along the east–west axis of the Niger River, and the west-facing coast. Moll's map labels Gambia, Senegal, Mandinga and many other territories.

In 1823, approximately the same area was described as "Nigritia" on an American map published by Fielding Lucas Jr.

See also
 Sahel

Sources
Encyclopædia Britannica 10th Edition (1902) Online - States of Central Africa

References

History of Africa
Regions of Africa

Negroland


In the United States Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps and Coast Guard, a guidon is a military standard or flag that company/battery/troop or platoon-sized detachments carry to signify their unit designation and branch/corps affiliation or the title of the individual who carries it.  A basic guidon can be rectangular, but sometimes has a triangular portion removed from the fly (known as "swallow-tailed").

Significance
The significance and importance of the guidon is that it represents the unit and its commanding officer. When the commander is in service, his or her guidon is displayed for everyone to see. When the commander leaves for the day, the guidon is taken down. It is an honor to be the guidon carrier for a unit, known as a "guidon bearer" or "guide". He or she stands in front of the unit alongside of the commander (or the commander's representative) and is the rallying point for troops to fall into formation when the order is given. In drill and ceremonies, the guidon bearers and commander are always in front of the formation.

The guidon is a great source of pride for the unit, and several military traditions have developed around it, stemming back from ancient times. Any sort of disgrace toward the guidon is considered a dishonor of the unit as a whole, and punishment is typical. For example, should the guidon bearer drop the guidon, they must fall with it and perform punishment, often in the form of push-ups. Other units may attempt to steal the guidon to demoralize or antagonize the unit. Veteran soldiers know not to give up the guidon to anyone outside their unit, but new recruits may be tempted into relinquishing it by a superior, especially during a unit run.

By branch

Army
As described in Chapter 6 of Army Regulation 840-10, guidons are swallow-tailed marker flags in branch-of-service colors, measuring  at the hoist by  at the fly, with the swallow-tail end forked . Previously guidons were made of wool bunting, and if serviceable these older versions may still be used. Current guidons are made of heavyweight rayon banner cloth. Old guidons show letters and numerals reversed as if printed through on the reverse of the guidon. Current guidons are made so that letters and numerals read correctly on both sides.

In general, the following Army units are entitled to guidons: lettered companies, troops, and batteries of regiments and separate battalions; separate numbered TO&E companies; and headquarters elements of groups, brigades, divisions, corps, commands, schools, and similar organizations.

Lettered companies (troops and batteries in the cavalry and field artillery respectively) of battalions (squadrons in the cavalry) have guidons displaying the branch insignia, the company letter, and the battalion and regimental numbers. The base color of the guidon is the first named color of the applicable branch, e.g. scarlet for field artillery, with the letters, numerals and insignia applied in the second named color of the branch, e.g. yellow for field artillery. For companies of separate battalions, the branch insignia is centered on the guidon between the battalion number above and the company letter below. For companies of battalions of regiments, the number above the insignia is that of the regiment; the number of the battalion is vertically centered between the insignia and the hoist. Groups use diagonal stripes of the branch's secondary color.

Separate numbered TO&E companies have guidons with their numerical designation under the branch insignia, e.g. the guidon of the 380th Quartermaster Company is buff with the insignia of the Quartermaster Corps over the numerals "380" in ultramarine blue, these being the named colors of the branch. Headquarters companies of groups, brigades, divisions and corps have guidons of a design corresponding to that of their Organizational Flag, e.g. the guidon of a headquarters battery of a Field Artillery Brigade or Fires Brigade would be vertically divided, scarlet and yellow, with the brigade's shoulder sleeve insignia centered.

Headquarters elements of Army commands, agencies, garrisons, centers, schools, depots and miscellaneous organizations are authorized guidons of distinctive design and colors. Generally these guidons follow the design of the unit's Organizational Flag. Various units not oriented to a specific branch, e.g. US Army Garrisons, have a teal blue guidon with the branch immaterial insignia (the coat of arms of the U.S. within a ring) in yellow.

Exceptions to the use of branch colors for guidons are found in the infantry and cavalry. The infantry branch colors are light blue and white, but infantry guidons have a field of Old Glory blue (the same shade of blue as used for the canton of the US national flag). The cavalry branch colors are yellow and dark blue. Cavalry guidons, however, are horizontally divided, scarlet over white, with troop letters and squadron/regimental numbers in white and scarlet, but no branch insignia.

There are two types of guidons used by the Corps of Cadets at the United States Military Academy. "Dress" guidons are horizontally divided, golden yellow over silver gray, with the letters "USCC" centered between the regimental number on the upper stripe and the company letter on the lower stripe. "Field" guidons have the regimental number only. All letters and numerals are black. Initial entry training platoons carry colored guidons to signify what phase of training they have attained. The guidon bearer normally stands with the platoon guide when stationary and marches at the head of the column. Although IET guidons may have streamers attached, they are typically undecorated.

Any unit citation, war service or campaign streamer may be attached to guidons. Guidon-bearing elements of US Army Regimental System units are entitled to display all streamers awarded to the regiment, with those earned by its own higher echelon (battalion or squadron) denoted by the addition of the Earned Honor Device, an embroidered laurel wreath, at the fly. Streamers for guidons are .

In recent years, the ongoing reorganization of the Army has led to the creation of new types of units, e.g. Sustainment Brigades and Fires Brigades, but generally their flags and guidons are of the pattern described above.

Component guidon chart

Marine Corps

A Marine guidon is always rectangular, , with a scarlet field and gold lettering, and an Eagle, Globe, and Anchor centered.

Recruit training units do not have any branch of service indication on their guidons; boot camp platoon guidons only display the platoon number (such as "3081")  During the first phase of training (i.e., before initial drill), the guidon has a red platoon number against a yellow/gold background. During the second and third phases of training, the guidon's foreground and background colorations are exchanged, yielding a yellow/gold platoon number against a scarlet background.

Fleet Marine Forces units have "FMF" emblazoned above the Marine Emblem, non infantry and artillery reserve units display "USMCR," while all infantry, artillery, and active units carry a "USMC". The regimental-level numeral will be displayed in the lower left corner, unless a higher or lower command numeral provides better identification (for example, a battalion HQ company would display the battalion's numeral instead of the regiment). The company level designation letter, abbreviated title, or number will be in the lower right corner.

Charlie Company 1st Battalion 7th Marines "Suicide Charley" is one of the only units authorized a second guidon in the United States Marine Corps. Charlie Company 1/7 a.k.a. "Suicide Charley" is authorized a white guidon with a skull and crossbones.
Fox Company 2nd Battalion 5th Marines "Blackhearts" are authorized white markings on a black guidon, Crossed rifle and shattered paddle and a Ka-Bar inset behind a black heart logo; skull wearing camouflage "Boonie Cover" superimposed at center above "Blackhearts."
The emblem is also seen on the Company's black T-shirts which are authorized for Company PT uniform in place of a green T-shirt.
Versions of this emblem also have the words, "Special Operations Capable" across the bottom.

No additional attachments are authorized, including streamers, bands, or the like. Some units incorporate additional mascots into unofficial guidons.

Navy

Navy ships and squadrons may display a unit guidon while parading ashore. It measures  with a  swallowtail, is blue with white text, and depicts a fouled anchor within a diamond (identical to the insignia of the Naval Infantry Flag).
Prior to World War II, a red flag was used for naval artillery units.
Companies of the Brigade of Midshipmen attending the United States Naval Academy carry a gold guidon with blue numerals.
Officer Candidate School Companies carry blue guidons with white lettering and a white bulldog.

Air Force

In the Air Force, guidons are ultramarine blue wool and gold in nylon or polyester bunting,  to end of the swallowtail, and forked . An Air Force yellow American Eagle design appears on the front of the guidon and on the reverse side as if printed through. Above the design is the designation of the parent unit; below it is the designation of the squadron. When the number of the squadron and the parent organization are the same, the lower line indicates only the alphabetical portion of the squadron designation. Numerals and lettering are yellow, from  tall, and in varying widths. Lettering and numerals appear on both sides of the guidon, reading from left to right on both sides.

Campaign and service streamers earned by a unit are displayed on that unit's flag or guidon.

Space Force

See also
Colours, standards and guidons
Flags of the United States armed forces
Fanion

References

External links

Military flags of the United States
Types of flags

Guidon (United States)


In many countries, judges have the option of putting someone on probation. Instead of serving time in jail, the person will be ordered to follow certain rules, and his or her behaviour will be monitored. This monitoring is only done for a certain amount of time. If the convicted person does not break the rules, while being monitored he or she can avoid another, harsher sentence (for example: spending time in prison). In general, sentences on probation are used for people who committed a crime for the first time, and for crimes that are seen as "less serious".

Probation is also used for people released from prison to help them get back into a normal life. These people might have been released on parole

Common rules
Common rules are to keep away from certain people, for example in the case of domestic violence or  to not work with children, in the case of child abuse. Other rules are that people on probation need to have a job, and they must telll the court where they live. In many cases electronic tags are used, to track where people are. The rules can be both that the person needs to do certain things, and also that he or she must not do other things.

Part of the sentence is "on probation"
There are also cases where the verdict specifies that part of the sentence is on probation: If the sentence is one year in prison, the court may for example say: three months in prison, and nine months on probation.

Punishments

Probation


Fort Davis is a residential neighborhood located in southeast Washington, D.C., on the border between the District of Columbia and Maryland. It is bounded by Southern Avenue, Pennsylvania Avenue SE, and Alabama Avenue SE/Bowen Road SE.

Fort Davis Park abuts the western corner of the neighborhood. This park was the site of an American Civil War fort, part of the Defenses of Washington, that gives the neighborhood its name. Fort Dupont Park is adjacent to the neighborhood's northern border on Alabama Avenue SE between Massachusetts Avenue SE and Burns Street SE.

The Fort Davis neighborhood was primarily undeveloped forest until 1941. Max Sugar, a real estate developer, built the first homes in the area in late 1940. The 250 brick detached houses, originally known as "Dupont Village", were bounded by 41st Street SE, 42nd Street SE, Fort Dupont Street SE, and Southern Avenue. Sugar's development was aimed at upper-income defense workers.

References

1940 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Neighborhoods in Southeast (Washington, D.C.)

Fort Davis (Washington, D.C.)


Wildcat Mountain is a peak in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah. Approximately 52 miles west of Tooele and 17 miles south of I-80, the mountain is just over 5,200 feet high and once played host to a Cold War–era bombing target field at its southeastern foot.

Mountains of Utah

A mock airfield is visible at the southeastern end of the mountain.  A main runway and a taxi way have been built including hardstands and parked aircraft.
Several types of derelict aircraft are visible. These include T-37, Mig 29, Mig 21 and Phantom II aircraft.  The Phantoms are on the north end of both the runway and the taxi way.  They have been mostly destroyed.  The whole region around this airport and extending north along the base of Wildcat Mountain shows evidence of munition impacts.  There is a road which ascends northwesterly from the south end of the airport.  Along this road are isolated hardstands with T-37 aircraft sitting on them.

One can look over the region using satellite views on Google Earth plus Google and Bing Maps. This is a rather fascinating relic of the cold war, though it may still remain in use.  Searching to the east towards Dugway there are many target areas liberally pitted with spent munitions.

Wildcat Mountain (Utah)


The University of Bologna (, abbreviated Unibo) is a public research university in Bologna, Italy. Founded in 1088 by an organised guild of students (studiorum), it is the oldest university in continuous operation in the world, and the first degree-awarding institution of higher learning. At its foundation, the word universitas was first coined. With over 90,000 students, it is also one of the largest universities in Europe.

The University of Bologna was the first educational institution to use the term universitas for the corporations of students and masters. The university's emblem carries the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum ("Nourishing mother of studies"), the date A.D. 1088. The university saw the first woman to earn a university degree and teach at a university, Bettisia Gozzadini, and the first woman to earn both a doctorate in science and a salaried position as a university professor, Laura Bassi. The University of Bologna has had a central role in the sciences during the medieval age and the Italian renaissance, where it housed and educated Nicholas Copernicus as well as numerous other renaissance mathematicians. It has educated a wide range of notable alumni, amongst them a large number of Italian scientists, prime ministers, supreme court judges, and priests.

The University of Bologna has campuses in Cesena, Forlì, Ravenna and Rimini as well as branch centres abroad in Buenos Aires, Argentina, New York, Brussels, and Shangai. It houses the fully funded boarding college Collegio Superiore di Bologna, the Bologna School of Advanced Studies, the botanical gardens of Bologna, a large number of museums, libraries and archeological collections, as well as the Bologna University Press.

History

The date of the University of Bologna's founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088. The university was granted a charter (Authentica habita) by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158, but in the 19th century, a committee of historians led by Giosuè Carducci traced the founding of the university back to 1088, which would make it the oldest continuously operating university in the world. However, the development of the institution at Bologna into a university was a gradual process. Paul Grendler writes that "it is not likely that enough instruction and organization existed to merit the term university before the 1150s, and it might not have happened before the 1180s."

The university arose around mutual aid societies (known as universitates scholarium) of foreign students called "nations" (as they were grouped by nationality) for protection against city laws which imposed collective punishment on foreigners for the crimes and debts of their countrymen. These students then hired scholars from the city's pre-existing lay and ecclesiastical schools to teach them subjects such as liberal arts, notarial law, theology, and ars dictaminis (scrivenery). The lectures were given in informal schools called scholae. In time the various universitates scholarium decided to form a larger association, or Studium—thus, the university. The Studium grew to have a strong position of collective bargaining with the city, since by then it derived significant revenue through visiting foreign students, who would depart if they were not well treated. The foreign students in Bologna received greater rights, and collective punishment was ended. There was also collective bargaining with the scholars who served as professors at the university. By the initiation or threat of a student strike, the students could enforce their demands as to the content of courses and the pay professors would receive. University professors were hired, fired, and had their pay determined by an elected council of two representatives from every student "nation" which governed the institution, with the most important decisions requiring a majority vote from all the students to ratify. The professors could also be fined if they failed to finish classes on time, or complete course material by the end of the semester. A student committee, the "Denouncers of Professors", kept tabs on them and reported any misbehavior. Professors themselves were not powerless, however, forming collegia doctorum (professors' committees) in each faculty, and securing the rights to set examination fees and degree requirements. Eventually, the city ended this arrangement, paying professors from tax revenues and making it a chartered public university.

The university is historically notable for its teaching of canon and civil law; indeed, it was set up in large part with the aim of studying the Digest, a central text in Roman law, which had been rediscovered in Italy in 1070, and the university was central in the development of medieval Roman law. Until modern times, the only degree granted at that university was the doctorate.

Bettisia Gozzadini earned a law degree in 1237, being one of the first women in history to obtain a university degree. She taught law from her own home for two years, and in 1239 she taught at the university, becoming the first woman in history to teach at a university.

In 1477, when Pope Sixtus IV issued a papal bull, authorizing the creation of Uppsala University in Sweden, the bull specified that the new university would have the same freedoms and privileges as the University of Bologna - a highly desirable situation for the Swedish scholars. This included the right of Uppsala to establish the four traditional faculties of theology, law (Canon Law and Roman law), medicine, and philosophy, and to award the bachelor's, master's, licentiate, and doctoral degrees.

Laura Bassi was born into a prosperous family of Bologna and was privately educated from the age of five. Bassi's education and intellect was noticed by Prospero Lorenzini Lambertini, who became the Archbishop of Bologna in 1731 (later Pope Benedict XIV). Lambertini became the official patron of Bassi. He arranged for a public debate between Bassi and four professors from the University of Bologna on 17 April 1732. In 1732, Bassi, aged twenty, publicly defended her forty-nine theses on Philosophica Studia at the Sala degli Anziani of the Palazzo Pubblico. The University of Bologna awarded her a doctorate degree on 12 May. She became the first woman to receive a doctorate in science, and the second woman in the world to earn a philosophy doctorate after Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678, fifty-four years prior. She was by then popularly known as Bolognese Minerva. On 29 October 1732, the Senate and the University of Bologna granted Bassi's candidature, and in December she was appointed professor of natural philosophy to teach physics. She became the first salaried woman lecturer in the world, thus beginning her academic career. She was also the first woman member of any scientific establishment, when she was elected to the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna in 1732. Bassi became the most important populariser of Newtonian mechanics in Italy.

In 1971, the Graecist Benedetto Marzullo in company with Umberto Eco, Renato Barilli, Adelio Ferrero. instituted within the Faculty of Letters and Arts the DAMS (acronym of discipline delle arti, della musica e dello spettacolo, "Dicipline of Arts, Musics and Performance"). It was the first degree course of this type to be opened in Italy. Between December 26, 1982, and November 29, 1983, there occurred the DAMS murders (in Italian: Delitti del DAMS), dealing with four victims who were students or professors of the DAMS: Angelo Fabbri (a brilliant student of Umberto Eco), Liviana Rossi, the dancer Francesca Alinovi (who was stabbed for 47 times), and Leonarda Polvani.

Organization

Higher education processes are being harmonised across the European Community. Nowadays the university offers 101 different "Laurea" or "Laurea breve" first-level degrees (three years of courses), followed by 108 "Laurea specialistica" or "Laurea magistrale" second-level degrees (two years). However 11 other courses have maintained the previous rules of "Laurea specialistica a ciclo unico" or "Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico", with only one cycle of study of five years, except for medicine and dentistry, which require six years of courses. After the "Laurea" one may attain first-level Master (one-year diploma, similar to a postgraduate diploma). After second-level degrees are attained, one may proceed to second-level Master, specialisation schools (residency) or research doctorates (PhD).

The 11 Schools (which replace the existing 23 faculties) are:
 School of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
 School of Economics, Management and Statistics
 School of Engineering and Architecture
 School of Foreign Languages and Literature, Interpreting and Translation
 School of Law
 School of Arts, Humanities, and Cultural Heritage
 School of Medicine and Surgery
 School of Pharmacy, Biotechnologies and Sport Sciences
 School of Political Sciences
 School of Psychology and Education Sciences
 School of Sciences

The university is structured in 33 departments (66 until 2012), organized by homogeneous research domains that integrate activities related to one or more faculty. A new department of Latin history was added in 2015.

The 33 departments are:
 Architecture - DA
 Cultural Heritage - DBC
 Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" - CHIM
 Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari" - CHIMIND
 Arts - DARvipem
 Pharmacy and Biotechnology - FaBiT
 Classical Philology and Italian Studies - FICLIT
 Philosophy and Communication Studies - FILCOM
 Physics and Astronomy - DIFA
 Computer Science and Engineering - DISI
 Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering - DICAM
 Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering "Guglielmo Marconi" - DEI
 Industrial Engineering - DIN
 Interpreting and Translation - DIT
 Modern Languages, Literatures, and Cultures - LILEC
 Mathematics - MAT
 Experimental Medicine, Diagnostic Medicine and Specialty Medicine - DIMES
 Psychology - PSI
 Agricultural Sciences - DipSA
 Management - DiSA
 Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences - BiGeA
 Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences - DIBINEM
 Education Studies "Giovanni Maria Bertin" - EDU
 Agricultural and Food Sciences - DISTAL
 Economics - DSE
 Legal Studies - DSG
 Medical and Surgical Sciences - DIMEC
 Veterinary Medical Sciences - DIMEVET
 Department for Life Quality Studies - QUVI
 Political and Social Sciences - SPS
 Statistical Sciences "Paolo Fortunati" - STAT
 Sociology and Business Law - SDE
 History and Cultures - DiSCi

Affiliates and other institutions

Il Mulino
In the early 1950s, some students of the University of Bologna were among the founders of the review "il Mulino". On 25 April 1951 the first issue of the review was published in Bologna. In a short time, "il Mulino" became one of the most interesting reference points in Italy for the political and cultural debate and established important editorial relationships in Italy and abroad. Editorial activities evolved along with the review. In 1954, the il Mulino publishing house (It. Società editrice il Mulino) was founded, which today represents one of the most relevant Italian publishers. In addition to this were initiated research projects (focusing mostly on the educational institutions and the political system in Italy), that eventually led, in 1964, to the establishment of the Istituto Carlo Cattaneo.

Collegio Superiore
The Collegio Superiore  is an excellence institution inside the University of Bologna, aimed at promoting students' merit through dedicated learning programmes.

The institution was founded in 1998 as Collegio d'Eccellenza. Together with the Institute for Advanced Study it is part of the Institute for Higher Study.

The Collegio Superiore offers an additional educational path to students enrolled in a degree programme at the University of Bologna, providing specialized courses as part of an interdisciplinary framework.

All students of the Collegio Superiore are granted a full-ride scholarship and additional benefits such as the assistance of a personal tutor and free accommodation at the Residence for Higher Study. In order to remain members of the Collegio Superiore students are required to maintain high marks in both their degree programme and the additional courses.

Beatrice Fraboni, professor of Physics of Matter, has been head of Collegio Superiore since 2019.

Notable people

Alumni
 Adone Zoli, former Prime Minister of Italy.
 Cardinal Alberto Bolognetti
 Pope Alexander VI
 Álvaro de Figueroa, former Prime Minister of Spain.
 Anna M. Borghi, Italian cognitive psychologist
 Augusto Righi, pioneer in the study of electromagnetism
 Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright
 Carlo Rovelli, Italian theoretical physicist
 Carlo Severini
 Saint Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan
 Corrado Gini, Italian statistician, demographer and sociologist who developed the Gini coefficient/ratio.
 Dante Alighieri, Italian poet, writer and philosopher
 Daria de Pretis, Italian jurist, Constitutional Judge of the Constitutional Court of Italy.
 Diego Della Valle, chairman of the Italian leather goods company Tod's
 Enzo Ferrari, Italian racing driver, engineer and entrepreneur
 Erasmus of Rotterdam
 Fabrizio Zilibotti, Italian economist and Professor of International and Development Economics at Yale University.
 Fawziya Abikar Nur, Minister for Health and Social Care - Somalia.
 Gabriele Paleotti
 Gasparo Tagliacozzi, pioneer of plastic and reconstructive surgery
 Giacomo Matteotti
 Giovanni Pascoli
 Pope Gregory XIII (Ugo Boncompagni);
 Pope Gregory XV
 Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician and the inventor of tensor calculus.
 Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor and radio pioneer
 Henry of Susa (Hostiensis);
 Pope Innocent IX
 Irnerius, founder of the School of Glossators
 Joaquín Chapaprieta, former Prime Minister of Spain.
 Juan Fernando López Aguilar, former Minister of Justice - Spain.
 Julius Caesar Aranzi, the pioneer human anatomists and surgeons.
 Laura Bassi, the world's first woman to earn a university chair in a scientific field of studies
 Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian priest, biologist and physiologist
 Leon Battista Alberti;
 Luigi Galvani;
 Manuel Olivencia, lawyer and academic;
 Mauro Moretti, former CEO and general manager of Leonardo S.p.A.
 Marcello Malpighi;
 Michelangelo Antonioni;
 Nicolaus Copernicus, formulator of the heliocentric universal model;
 Cardinal Paolo Burali d'Arezzo;
 Paracelsus, founder of the discipline of toxicology;
 Patrizio Bianchi, Minister of Public Education in the Draghi Cabinet
 Petrarch;
 Pico della Mirandola;
 Pier Luigi Nervi, Italian Structural engineer and architect of UNESCO Headquarters Paris (1950).
 Pier Paolo Pasolini;
 Pierluigi Collina, Chairman of the FIFA referees committee
 Piero Gnudi, Minister of Tourism and Sports in the Monti cabinet.
 Pietro Mengoli;
 Remo Gaspari, Minister of Relationships with the Parliament and Minister of Public Function in the Bettino Craxi and Giulio Andreotti Cabinet.
 Stefano Domenicali, CEO of Formula One Group, former CEO of Italian sports car manufacturer Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. and Team Principal of Formula One team Scuderia Ferrari.
 Archbishop Thomas Becket;
 Tommaso Perelli, Italian astronomer
 Torquato Tasso;
 Ulisse Aldrovandi;
 Umberto Eco, Italian semiotician, philosopher and writer
 Mihalj Šilobod Bolšić (1724–1787), Roman Catholic priest, mathematician, writer, and musical theorist primarily known for writing the first Croatian arithmetic textbook Arithmatika Horvatzka (published in Zagreb, 1758)

Faculty and staff
Notable former faculty include:

 11th century
 Irnerius
 12th century
 Bulgarus
 Gratian
 Martinus Gosia
 Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem
 William of Tyre
 13th century
 Benvenutus Scotivoli
 Bettisia Gozzadini
 Guido Guinizelli
 Henry of Susa (Hostiensis)
 Paul, Dominican martyr
 Sylvester Gozzolini
 William of Saliceto
 14th century
 Manuel Chrysoloras
 Giovanni de' Marignolli
 Francesco Petrarca (also known as Petrarch)
 Coluccio Salutati
 15th century
 Leon Battista Alberti
 Nicolaus Copernicus
 Lippo Bartolomeo Dardi
 Yuriy Drohobych (also known as Georgius de Drohobycz)
 Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
 16th century
 Ulisse Aldrovandi
 Giovanni Antonio Magini
 Camillo Baldi
 Girolamo Cardano
 Ignazio Danti
 Giovanni Della Casa
 Girolamo Maggi
 Virgilio Malvezzi
 Paracelsus
 17th century
 Giovanni Cassini
 Niall Ó Glacáin
 Marcello Malpighi
 Pietro Mengoli
 Lodovico Scapinelli
 18th century
 Laura Bassi
 Luigi Galvani
 Maria Gaetana Agnesi
 Carlo Goldoni
 19th century
 Augusto Righi
 Giacomo Ciamician
 Giosuè Carducci
 Giovanni Pascoli
 Pellegrino Rossi
 Francesco Selmi
 20th century
 Umberto Eco
 Beppo Levi
 Guglielmo Marconi
 Pier Paolo Pasolini
 Romano Prodi
 21st century
 Hamida Barmaki
 Özalp Babaoğlu
 Gabriella Campadelli-Fiume
 Pier Cesare Bori
 Augusto Barbera
 Gualtiero Calboli
 Ivano Dionigi
 Luciano Floridi

Rankings and reputation

The 2022 QS World University Rankings ranked the University of Bologna 166th in the world and 71st (first in Italy) with reference to academic reputation. In another measurement by the same company, it was positioned among the world's top 100 universities for graduate employability (84th).

In the 2021 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, it claimed the 167th place globally. In the THE Impact Rankings of the same year, measuring the universities' commitment to sustainable development in compliance with the UN 2030 Agenda, Bologna took first place in Europe and sixth in the world.

Nationally, in 2020 Bologna topped Italy's main ranking of large public universities (> 40,000 students) for the eleventh year in a row, produced by the Italian Center for Social Investment Studies.

Points of interest
 Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna

See also
 Bologna
 Bologna declaration
 Bologna process
 Coimbra Group (a network of leading European universities)
 Collegio Superiore di Bologna (school of excellence of the University of Bologna)
 List of Italian universities
 List of medieval universities
 Medieval university
 Palazzo Poggi
 Utrecht Network

References

External links

 Scholars and Literati at the University of Bologna (1088–1800), in Repertorium Eruditorum Totius Europae/RETE

Universities in Italy
1088 establishments in Europe
11th-century establishments in Italy
Buildings and structures in Bologna
Education in Bologna
Bologna, University of
Medical schools in Italy

University of Bologna