The Partin Manufacturing Company was a brass era American automobile manufacturer, headquartered at 29 South LaSalle Street, Chicago, Illinois from 1913 to 1917.  The Partin-Palmer automobile and Pioneer cyclecar were produced.

History
G. H. Partin, of the Partin Manufacturing Company, a large automobile sales agency in Chicago, joined in 1913 with the Palmer Motor Car Co. of Henry Palmer, formerly general manager of Cartercar. Palmer had formed his company from the assets of the Suburban Motor Car Company.  They  began by manufacturing cyclecars called the Pioneer, a Model 45 named the Partin, and a Model 38 named Partin-Palmer. The Partin model did not last to the end of 1913, and all models were subsequently called Partin-Palmers.  The company first moved to Chicago to take over the Staver-Chicago automobile factory.

Partin and Palmer were no longer with the company by 1915 and the new manager, C. C. Darnall moved production to Rochelle, Illinois where the Geo D. Whitcomb Company assembled them.

In 1915 the company was reorganized as Commonwealth Motors Corporation and the cars were still called Partin-Palmers into 1917 when a new car called the Commonwealth was introduced and production moved to Joliet, Illinois.

A restored Partin-Palmer is displayed at the Flagg Township Museum in Rochelle, Illinois.

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Models

Partin-Palmer 20
In 1914, the Partin-Palmer 20 was a  roadster offered with a four-cylinder water-cooled engine of 22 hp (16 kW), with Gray and Davis generator, optional Gray and Davis electric starter, and (still unusual) shaft drive. It had a 56 in (142 cm) tread (track) and 96 in (2438 mm) wheelbase, with ¾-elliptic springs and I-beam front axle.

The Model 20 came standard with electric lighting and horn, folding top with side curtains and dust boot, speedometer, the (typical for the period) tool kit, jack, and tire patch, all for $495 ().  In 1916 a touring version was offered with a more powerful engine as the Model 32 priced at $675.

Pioneer Cyclecar
In late 1913 Partin Manufacturing produced a typical cyclecar with an 9-hp air-cooled V-twin, friction transmission and belt drive. On a 96-inch wheelbase, the seating was advertised as side by side, the passenger sat about a foot to the rear of the driver to allow for sufficient elbow room within the forty-inch-wide body. The Pioneer was listed as made by the American Manufacturing Company rather than Partin Manufacturing Company.  The Pioneer was available only for the 1914 season and was priced at $385, .

Partin-Palmer 38
From 1913 a six-passenger Model 38 with a 115 in (2921 mm) wheelbase was also available, for $975 (). For the first year a Partin Model 45 with a more powerful engine was offered.

References

See also

ClassisCars Journal - Pioneer Cyclecar
Checker Cab Club Article - Partin-Palmer
Partin-Palmer Model 20 images - Flagg Township Museum

Manufacturing companies based in Chicago
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Illinois
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
1910s cars
Brass Era vehicles
History of Illinois
History of Chicago
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Chicago
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1913
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1915
Cars introduced in 1913

Partin Manufacturing Company (automobile company)


The Corfu Channel incident consists of three separate events involving Royal Navy ships in the Channel of Corfu which took place in 1946, and it is considered an early episode of the Cold War. During the first incident, Royal Navy ships came under fire from Albanian fortifications. The second incident involved Royal Navy ships striking mines; and the third occurred when the Royal Navy conducted mine-clearing operations in the Corfu Channel, but in Albanian territorial waters, and Albania complained about them to the United Nations.

This series of incidents led to the Corfu Channel case, where the United Kingdom brought a case against the People's Republic of Albania to the International Court of Justice. The Court rendered a decision under which Albania was to pay £844,000 to the United Kingdom. This is equivalent to £ in 2015 terms. Because of the incidents, Britain, in 1946, broke off talks with Albania aimed at establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. Diplomatic relations were only restored in 1991.

History

The incidents started proper on 15 May 1946 when seven Royal Navy ships, including HMS Orion and HMS Superb, crossed the Corfu Channel following a prior inspection and clearing of the strait. While crossing they came under fire from Albanian artillery in coastal fortifications. The shells missed and the British warships couldn't return fire. Although the ships suffered no material damage and no human casualties occurred, Britain issued a formal demand for "an immediate and public apology from the Albanian Government". Such apology was not forthcoming, however, and the Albanian Government claimed that the British ships had trespassed into Albanian territorial waters. Albania issued a warning that prior notice should be given for all vessels passing through the Corfu Channel. The British government declared that it would not give prior notice and threatened that if British warships were fired on again, they would return fire.

The second incident was more serious. On 22 October 1946, a Royal Navy flotilla composed of the cruisers HMS Mauritius and HMS Leander, with accompanying destroyers, was ordered northward through the Corfu Channel with express orders to test the Albanian reaction to their right of innocent passage. The crews were instructed to respond if attacked.

They were passing close to the Albanian coast in what they considered to be a mine-free zone with Mauritius leading and Saumarez following closely. Leander was about one and two-thirds of a nautical mile or three kilometres away accompanied by Volage. Near the bay of Saranda, just prior to 3 p.m., the destroyer Saumarez struck a mine and was heavily damaged. The destroyer Volage was ordered to tow the Saumarez south to a Corfu harbour.

At approximately 4:16 p.m., while towing, Volage also struck a mine and sustained heavy damage. Ships' bows were completely blown off and adverse weather conditions in the straits made the towing effort exceedingly difficult with all ships sailing stern-first, but after twelve hours of effort all ships managed to reach the Corfu harbour. Eighty-four men died and forty-two were injured in the incident.

Between thirty-two and forty-three of the dead are estimated to have belonged to the crew of Saumarez. The Saumarez was damaged beyond repair while the damage to Volage was repairable. The Albanian coastal batteries did not fire during this incident and an Albanian Navy ship approached the scene flying the Albanian flag and a white flag. The mines were allegedly laid by Yugoslavian Navy minelayers Mljet and Meljine on Albanian request, around 20 October 1946.

The British Minister of Pensions at the time of the incident awarded full military pensions to the disabled and to the widows of the dead.

The third and final incident occurred on 12–13 November 1946 when the Royal Navy carried out an additional mine sweeping operation in the Corfu channel, codenamed Operation Retail. Under the direction of the Allied Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean the mine-sweeping operation took place within Albanian territorial waters, but without authorisation by the Albanian government, and had the additional purpose of using the mines as corpora delicti to prove that the British were acting in self defence by attempting to clear hazards to navigation.

There was also present a French naval officer who, at the invitation of the Mediterranean Zone Board, acted as an observer. An aircraft carrier (HMS Ocean), cruisers and other warships provided cover. Twenty-two contact mines were discovered and cut from their undersea moorings. The placement of the mines was such that the minefield was deemed to have been deliberately designed and not simply a random aggregation of isolated mines. Two of the cut mines were sent to Malta for further examination.

It was then discovered that the mines were of German origin but they were free of rust and marine growth. They were also freshly painted and their mooring cables were recently lubricated. It was concluded that the minefield was laid shortly before the incident involving Saumarez and Volage. Mine fragment analysis from the Volage confirmed the mines were similar to the ones at Malta.

Following the third incident, Albania, under prime minister Enver Hoxha, dispatched a telegram to the United Nations complaining about an incursion by the Royal Navy into Albanian coastal waters.

Aftermath

On 9 December 1946 Britain sent a note to the Albanian government accusing Albania of laying the mines and demanding reparations for the May and October incidents. Britain demanded a reply within fourteen days, mentioning that in the event of an Albanian refusal to pay reparations the matter would be referred to the UN Security Council. In its reply, which was received by the British on 21 December 1946, the Albanian government denied the British allegations and went on to claim that the whole affair was the work of countries which did not wish to see a normalisation of relations between Albania and Britain; and in fact vessels from Greece and other countries had trespassed recently in the area where the mines were discovered.

The British government did not find this response satisfactory and it eventually brought its case to the International Court of Justice, having failed in its attempt to involve the Security Council in the matter. It was the first case adjudicated by the ICJ, and in December 1949 the court awarded the British the sum of £843,947 or US$2,009,437 having found that, irrespectively of who laid the mines, the Albanians ought to have observed any such action, since the minefield was so close to their coast, and thus they failed to inform the British of the danger. The Court also rejected the self-defence argument advanced by the United Kingdom and found that the mine-clearing operations undertaken by the Royal Navy during Operation Retail, in the absence of prior consent from the Albanian government, were illegal.

The Albanian government refused to pay the reparations ordered by the Court and in retaliation the British government withheld 1,574 kilograms of Albanian gold from entering the country. The gold, looted by the Axis powers from Albania during World War II, was stored in the vaults of the Bank of England and was awarded to the Albanians by the US-UK-France tripartite commission in 1948 after it was retrieved by the Allies.

With the end of the Cold War, the People's Socialist Republic of Albania ceased to exist in 1992. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 29 May 1991. Soon after, on 8 May 1992, Britain and Albania announced that they had come to an agreement over the Corfu Channel case, jointly announcing that "Both sides expressed their regret at the Corfu Channel Incident of 22 October 1946". Only in 1996 following lengthy negotiations was the gold finally returned to Albania after it agreed to pay US$2,000,000 in delayed reparations.

Enver Hoxha, in his memoirs about his first meeting with Joseph Stalin, claimed that the whole affair was concocted by the British as an excuse to conduct naval patrols near Saranda. Hoxha also wrote that "We have never planted mines in the Ionian Sea. The mines that exploded had either been laid by the Germans in the time of war, or were deliberately laid by the British, later, so that they could explode them". He also criticised the presence of the Royal Navy in the region, writing that "There was no reason for these ships to be sailing along our coast, they had not notified us about such a movement." Hoxha also described the events as "an unprecedented provocation toward our country".

On 2 November 2009 a team of US and Albanian researchers announced that they found what they believe to be the bow segments of HMS Volage in the Corfu Channel under approximately fifty metres of water. Dishes, shoes and ammunition found in the area surrounding the wreckage are further evidence that fits, according to the researchers. In May 2013, a special edition of Archaeology Magazine entitled "Shipwrecks", specifically, the article "Righting a Cold War Wrong: Where was HMS Volage?" gave insight into the new discoveries of the case. The Director of the Albanian Center for Marine Research,  Auron Tare obtained film footage from The National Archives of the incident purportedly showing HMS Volage very close to the shore when the incident occurred. This claim was further reinforced by James P. Delgado, Director of Maritime Heritage for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). He reasserted his claim made previously to Associated Press that the wreck was that of HMS Volage because the electrical wiring of the bow section discovered matched the specifications of the Volage. The fact that the bow section, with dishes intact and stacked according to Delgado showed a rapid sinking had occurred.

International law

The International Court of Justice ruling in the case established a precedent regarding whether a violation of territorial sovereignty is justified intervention.  The United Kingdom claimed it was justified in entering Albanian territorial waters on 12 and 13 November 1946 to secure evidence needed to support its case.  The ICJ responded,

The Court cannot accept such a line of defence. The Court can only regard the alleged right of intervention as the manifestation of a policy of force, such as has, in the past, given rise to most serious abuses and such as cannot, whatever be the present defects in international organisation, find a place in international law. Intervention is perhaps still less admissible in the particular form it would take here; for, from the nature of things, it would be reserved for the most powerful States, and might easily lead to perverting the administration of inter-national justice itself.

The United Kingdom Agent, in his speech in reply, has further classified "Operation Retail" among methods of self-protection or self-help. The Court cannot accept this defence either. Between independent States, respect for territorial sovereignty is an essential foundation of international relations. The Court recognises that the Albanian Government's complete failure to carry out its duties after the explosions, and the dilatory nature of its diplomatic notes, are extenuating circumstances for the action of the United Kingdom Government. But to ensure respect for international law, of which it is the organ, the Court must declare that the action of the British Navy constituted a violation of Albanian sovereignty.

See also

 USS Monocacy incident
 General Sherman incident
 HMS Hunter

References

External links

 Catalogue description for document piece ADM 116/5759, Corfu Channel Incident: correspondence and papers relating to claim against Albanian government, The National Archives
 JSTOR Legal Problems Involved in the Corfu Channel Incident. by Il Yung Chung International Affairs, Vol. 37, No. 4 (Oct. 1961), pp. 505–506 (review consists of 2 pages) Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Royal Institute of International Affairs
 JSTOR The Eagle Spreads His Claws: A History of the Corfu Channel Dispute and of Albania's Relations with the West, 1945–1965. by Leslie Gardiner International Affairs, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Apr. 1967), pp. 372–373

Cold War
Diplomatic incidents
Conflicts in 1946
Maritime incidents in 1946
Maritime incidents in Albania
History of the Royal Navy
Military history of Albania
History of Corfu
International maritime incidents
1946 in Albania
Albania–United Kingdom relations
Cold War history of Albania
Mine warfare
Proxy wars
Battles involving Albania

Corfu Channel incident


AA, Aa, Double A, or Double-A may refer to:

Arts, entertainment and media
 America's Army, a 2002 computer game published by the U.S. Army
 Ancient Anguish, a computer game in existence since 1992
 Aa!, a J-Pop musical group
 Double-A (band), stylised as AA, South Korean boy band
 Aa (album), a 2016 album by Baauer
 AA (song), a 2021 single by Walker Hayes
 Ace Attorney, a series of video games developed by Capcom.
AA Films, an Indian film distribution company
AA Book (disambiguation)
AA, the production code for the 1966 Doctor Who serial The Savages

Brands, organizations and enterprises
 Alcoholics Anonymous, an international fellowship dedicated to helping alcoholics peer to peer in sobriety
 A. A. Arms, a defunct firearms manufacturer
 Aerolíneas Argentinas, an Argentine airline (logo used to consist of two A's)
 Air Asia, an Asian multinational low cost carrier
 Air Austral, flag carrier airline of Reunion (logo used to consist of two A's)
 Alcoa, an American aluminum-producing company (stock symbol AA)
 American Airlines, major American full-service airline (logo used to consist of two A's)
 Anadolu Agency, a state-run press agency in Turkey
 Arakan Army, an ethnic army in Rakhine State, Myanmar
 Audio-Animatronics, used at the Disney Parks
 Academia de Artes, Mexico
 Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, a former union in the United States
 Andecha Astur, an Asturian nationalist party
 Architectural Association School of Architecture, London, United Kingdom
 Astrological Association of Great Britain, London, United Kingdom
 Auswärtiges Amt, the Foreign Office of Germany
 Danish Association of Architects (Akademisk Arkitektforening)
 The AA (formerly The Automobile Association), a British motoring organization
 AA Ireland, an Irish  automotive services company
 AA Motoring Trust, a former British road safety charity operated by The AA that was merged to form the IAM Motoring Trust
 USAA, an American financial services company

Philosophy and religion
 A∴A∴, a spiritual organization created in 1907 by Aleister Crowley
 Abhisamayalankara, or Abhisamaya-alaṅkāra, a Mahayana Buddhist text
 Augustinians of the Assumption, a congregation of Catholic religious (priests and brothers)
 Statue of A'a from Rurutu, a wooden fertility-god sculpture from the Pacific island of Rurutu
 "A is A", an expression of the law of identity: each thing is identical with itself

Language
 aa, Latin-script digraph used in the orthographies of Dutch, Finnish and other languages
 aa, representation of letter Å in several Scandinavian languages
 aa, a romanization of Arabic letter alif
 Ꜳ, an orthographic ligature
 Afar language (ISO 639-1 language code aa)
 Aa (Bengali), a Bengali letter

Measurements
 AA, a bra size
 AA, a width in shoe sizes
 AA battery size

Nature
 Aa (plant), a genus of orchid
 Aa (snail), a subgenus of snail
 ʻAʻā or aa, a form of lava
 A term for "river" in German hydronymy, see Aach (toponymy)

People
 Aa (surname), a Scandinavian surname, including a list of people with this name
 Van der Aa (surname), a Dutch surname, including a list of people with this name
 Aa (architect), an architect in ancient Egypt
 Anthony Armstrong (writer) (1897–1972), Anglo-Canadian writer who used the pseudonym A.A.
 Allu Arjun (born 1982), Indian actor, often abbreviated as AA in film titles

Places
 Aa, Estonia, a village and beach in Estonia
 Aa, Indonesia, a populated place in the South Sulawesi province of Indonesia
 Albania, LOC MARC code
 Ann Arbor, a city in Michigan, United States of America
 Anne Arundel County, a county in Maryland, United States of America
 Antarctica, WMO country code

Rivers

Belgium
Aa (Nete), a river in the province of Antwerp, which joins the Nete

France
Aa (France), a river in northern France

Germany
Aabach (Afte), formerly called the Große Aa, a river in North Rhine-Westphalia
Aa (Möhne), a river in North Rhine-Westphalia
Aa (Nethe), a river in North Rhine-Westphalia
Aa (Werre), a river in North Rhine-Westphalia
Bocholter Aa, a river in North Rhine-Westphalia
Dreierwalder Aa, a river in North Rhine-Westphalia
Kleine Aa (Aabach), a tributary of the Aabach in North Rhine-Westphalia
Große Aa, a tributary of the Ems in Lower Saxony
Große Aa (Aabach), a tributary of the Aabach in North Rhine-Westphalia
Münstersche Aa, a river in North Rhine-Westphalia
Schaler Aa, a river in Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia
Speller Aa, a river in Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia
Steinfurter Aa, a river in North Rhine-Westphalia

Netherlands
Aa (Meuse), a river in North Brabant, which joins the Dommel to form the Dieze
Aa of Weerijs, a river in North Brabant, which joins the Mark at Breda
Drentsche Aa, a river in Drenthe and Groningen
Mussel Aa, a river in Westerwolde, Groningen
 , a river in Westerwolde, Groningen
Westerwoldsche Aa, a river near Oudeschans, Groningen

Switzerland
Aabach (Aare), a tributary of the Aare in canton of Aargau
Aabach (Greifensee), or Ustermer Aa, a river in canton of Zürich
Aabach (Obersee), a tributary of Obersee (Zürichsee), in canton of St. Gallen
Aabach (Seetal), a river in the cantons of Lucerne and Aargau, runs through Lake Hallwyl
Chli Aa (Sempachersee), a tributary of Lake Sempach in the canton of Lucerne
Engelberger Aa, a river in the cantons of Obwalden and Nidwalden, tributary of Lake Lucerne
Gross Aa (Sempachersee), a tributary of Lake Sempach in the canton of Lucerne
Mönchaltorfer Aa, a tributary of Greifensee in canton of Zürich
Sarner Aa (river), a river in Obwalden, tributary of Lake Lucerne

Latvia
Gauja, a river in Latvia, formerly known as Livländische Aa
Lielupe, a river in Latvia, formerly known as Kurländische Aa

Science and technology
 AA amyloidosis, a form of amyloidosis related to serum amyloid A
 Amino acid, often abbreviated aa when indicating positions in a peptide sequence (e.g., aa 120–150)
 Antiandrogen, a drug which blocks the effects of androgens
 Aplastic anemia, a rare disease
 Arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid
 Advanced Architecture, original name of Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture
 Anti-aliasing, various techniques for mitigating certain signal processing artifacts
 Atlas Autocode, a computer programming language
 AA, a proprietary digital audio format of Audible.com
 Authoritative Answer, in DNS, a flag for a query answer
 AA postulate of Euclidean geometry
 Anti-aircraft, in military use
 Abampere (aA), the CGS unit of current
 Attoampere (aA), a unit of electric current equal to 10−18 Ampere
 AA tree, named after Arne Andersson
 AA, the abbreviation for azidoazide azide
 AppArmor

Sports
 Double-A (baseball) or Class AA, a classification level in Minor League Baseball since 1912
 American Association (1882–1891), a professional baseball league in the United States from 1882 to 1891
 American Association (1902–1997), a professional baseball league in the United States from 1902 to 1962 and 1969 to 1997
 American Association of Professional Baseball, a professional baseball league in the United States and Canada since 2006
 Athletics Australia, national sporting organisation in Australia
 Amateur Athletic Union (1884-present), an organization in the U. S. that promotes amateur sports.

Transportation
 AA Highway, a state highway in Northern Kentucky
 Ann Arbor Railroad (1895–1976), a defunct railroad in Ohio and Michigan
 Ann Arbor Railroad (1988), a railroad operating in Ohio and Michigan
 K line, a defunct line on the New York City Subway, formerly called "AA"
 NZR AA class, a locomotive class operated by the New Zealand Railways Department

Other uses
 Asian Aerospace, an airshow in Asia
 Associate of Arts, an academic degree
 European Union Association Agreement
 Postal abbreviation for United States armed forces in the Americas
 Japanese internet slang for Shift JIS art
 Internet slang for ASCII Art

See also
 A (disambiguation)
 Å (disambiguation)
 Aach (toponymy)
 AAA (disambiguation)
 AAAA (disambiguation)
 Aabach (disambiguation)
 Grosse Aa (disambiguation)
 Kleine Aa (disambiguation)
 A Aa, a film
 Automobile Association (disambiguation)

AA


Drugi Način (trans. The Other Way) is a former Yugoslav rock band.

Band history

1970s and 1980s
In the first half of the 1970s Branko Požgajec (vocals, keyboard, flute), Halil Mekić (guitar) and Vjekoslav Poldrugac (bass guitar) performed in the reformed Novi Akordi (trans. New Chords). After Mekić left the band due to his army obligations, Ismet Kurtović (vocals, guitar, flute) joined the band. This lineup released single with songs "Opet" and "Odlazak" and went on a tour. In July 1974 they were joined by Boris Turina (drums), who decided to leave a career of a table tennis player and dedicate himself to music. Turina previously wrote lyrics for several songs of Crveni Koralji and performed with Crveni Koralji and the first lineup of Zlatni Akordi. As this lineup of the band did not feature any original member of Zlatni Akordi, the members decided to rename themselves to Novi Akordi (New Chords), and in October 1974 adopted the name Drugi Način (The Other Way). The band members chose their name after a poem by Federico García Lorca and the band's logo was designed by comic book author Igor Kordey.

The band started to hold regular concerts at the music club Big Ben in Zagreb, and at the end of 1974 they recorded their debut album. The record label Jugoton from Zagreb did not want to sign the band, and the members broke the contract with another Zagreb-based record label, Suzy, because of disagreement about the album cover. Finally, the band signed for PGP-RTB from Belgrade, only because one of the editors liked the album artwork and decided to offer Drugi Način a contract without even listening to the album. Drugi Način, released in 1975, was a concept album with music influenced by Wishbone Ash, Deep Purple and Free and lyrics dealing with solitude. The music was written by Požgajec and Kurtović and the lyrics were written by Turina.

And the end of 1976 Požgajec left the band due to his army obligations, and during his absence guitarists Kurtović and Mekić left Drugi Način and formed the band Nepočin. After Požgajac returned from the army Drugi Način continued their activity with guitarists Branko Bogunovič and Nikola Gečević. This lineup released several singles, before Turina, Bogunović and Gečević left the band. Having left Drugi Način Gečević formed Žuta Minuta and later a better-known band Regata. Drummer Miroslav Budanko and guitarist Robert Krkač joined Drugi Način, and soon after Ismet Kurtović returned to the band, bringing bassist Boža Ilić. After Krkač joined Film, Danijel Veličan became Drugi Način's new member. In 1982 this lineup released album Ponovo na putu (On the Road again) which did not gain the popularity of the band's previous album, but the band continued to perform actively until the second half of the 1980s when the band went on hiatus and performed occasionally only until 1990.

1990s and 2000s
In 1992 Branko Požgajec, with Ilić, Davor Senčar (a former Legija member, guitar) and Dražen Kovač (a former Regata member, drums) rerecorded some of the old Drugi Način songs and released them, with two new songs, on the compilation album Drugi Način. Guitarist Ernest Vinković and keyboardist Branko Bardun also participated in the album recording. Debut albums of Drugi Način and Nepočin were reissued on the CD Drugi Način + Nepočin. In May 2000 Drugi Način performed as the opening act on the Jethro Tull concert in Zagreb, after which they disbanded once again. In 2008, the band reunited in the new lineup, consisting of Branko Požgejac (flute, vocals), Boža Ilić (bass guitar), Damir Vuk (keyboards), Mladen Palenkaš (drums), and Mario Domazet (guitar).

In 2011, Davor Senčar died at the age of 52, after illness.

Legacy
The album Drugi Način was polled in 1998 as 88th on the list of 100 greatest Yugoslav popular music albums in the book YU 100: najbolji albumi jugoslovenske rok i pop muzike (YU 100: The Best albums of Yugoslav pop and rock music).

In 2011, the band's song "Stari grad" ("Old Town") was polled, by the listeners of Radio 202, one of 60 greatest songs released by PGP-RTB/PGP-RTS.

Discography

Studio albums
Drugi Način (1975)
Ponovo na putu (1982)

Compilations
Drugi Način (1992)

Singles
"Opet" / "Odlazak" (as Novi Akordi, 1973)
"Dugi put" / "Izgubljena žena" (1975)
"Jugoslavija" / "Crnogorsko kolo" (1976)
"Prođe ovaj dan" / "Zadnji put" (1978)
"Obećaj mi proljeće" / "Balada o osmijehu" (1979)

References

EX YU ROCK enciklopedija 1960–2006, Janjatović Petar;

Croatian rock music groups
Yugoslav hard rock musical groups
Croatian progressive rock groups
Musical groups established in 1974
Yugoslav rock music groups
Musicians from Zagreb

Drugi način


John Abdulai  Jinapor born (June 8, 1979) is a Ghanaian politician and a former Minister of State of Ghana. He is a member of the  National Democratic Congress of Ghana and a Member of Parliament representing the Yapei-Kusawgu constituency.

Education
Jinapor attended Ghana Senior High School in Tamale. He had his master's degree in Development Finance from the University of Ghana in 2019. Post Graduate Diploma in Finance and Financial Law from the University of London in 2015. Masters of Science in Energy Economics from the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA) in 2021. Bachelor's degree from the University for Development Studies, Master's degree in marketing at the University of Ghana, 2008.

Political career
He was appointed Deputy Minister of Energy under the John Mahama administration. He is member of the Seventh Parliament of the Fourth Republic of Ghana representing the Yapei Kusawgu Constituency in the Northern Region on the ticket of the National Democratic Congress.

2016 election
Jinapor contested the 2016 Ghanian general election on the ticket of National Democratic Congress and won the Yapei Kusawgu parliamentary seat with 23, 364 votes of the total votes which is equivalent to 62.13% over the parliamentary candidate of New Patriotic Party Zakaria Yakubu who polled 14, 242 votes representing 37.87% of the total votes.

Personal life
Jinapor was born to Abudulai Jinapor, a former police officer and Chief of Buipe in the Savanna Region of Ghana. He is the brother of Samuel Abu Jinapor, former deputy Chief of Staff of Ghana and the current minister of Land and Natural Resources. and Dr. Ahmed Jinapor, a lecturer. He is married to Mrs. Josephine Jinapor, .

References

Living people
National Democratic Congress (Ghana) politicians
Alumni of the University of London
University for Development Studies alumni
University of Ghana alumni
People from Northern Region (Ghana)
1979 births
Ghanaian MPs 2021–2025
Ghana Senior High School (Tamale) alumni
Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration alumni
People from Savannah Region (Ghana)

John Abdulai Jinapor


A photo op (sometimes written as photo opp), short for photograph opportunity (or photo opportunity), is an arranged opportunity to take a photograph of a politician, a celebrity, or a notable event.

The term was coined by the administration of US President Richard Nixon. William Safire credited its coinage to Bruce Whelihan, an aide to Nixon Press Secretary Ron Ziegler. Ziegler would say "Get 'em in for a picture", and Whelihan would dutifully announce to the White House press room, "There will be a photo opportunity in the Oval Office."

The term has acquired a negative connotation, referring to a carefully planned pseudo-event, often masqueraded as news. It is associated with politicians who perform tasks such as planting trees, picking up litter, and visiting senior citizens, often during election cycles, with the intent of photographers catching the events, generating positive publicity.

Among nearly ritual photo ops are those when participants of a summit get out of their cars, shake hands or kiss, or sign a document. Formal, planned photography sessions in the White House date back to the 1930s, when Franklin Roosevelt's press secretary advised photographers to avoid taking photos of the President in a wheelchair.

See also

 Media clip
 Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church
 Publicity stunt
 Soundbite
 Video clip

References

Photography by genre
Public relations techniques
Mass media events

Photo op


Frugality is the quality of being frugal, sparing, thrifty, prudent, or economical in the consumption of resources such as food, time or money, and avoiding waste, lavishness or extravagance.

In behavioral science, frugality has been defined as the tendency to acquire goods and services in a restrained manner, and resourceful use of already-owned economic goods and services, to achieve a longer term goal.

Strategies
Common techniques of frugality include reduction of waste, curbing costly habits, suppressing instant gratification by means of fiscal self-restraint, seeking efficiency, avoiding traps, defying expensive social norms, detecting and avoiding manipulative advertising, embracing cost-free options, using barter, and staying well-informed about local circumstances and both market and product/service realities.

Frugality may contribute to health by leading people to avoid products that are both expensive and unhealthy when used to excess. Frugal living is practiced by those who aim to cut expenses, have more money, and get the most they possibly can from their money.

Philosophy
In the context of some belief systems, frugality is a philosophy in which one does not trust (or is deeply wary of) "expert" knowledge from commercial markets or corporate cultures, claiming to know what is in the best economic, material, or spiritual interests of the individual.

Different spiritual communities consider frugality to be a virtue or a spiritual discipline. The Religious Society of Friends and the Puritans are examples of such groups. The philosophy behind this is that people ought to save money in order to allocate it to more charitable purposes, such as helping others in need.

Benjamin Franklin paired frugality with industry as the key virtues for financial security: "[W]aste neither time nor money, but make the best use of both. Without industry and frugality nothing will do, and with them everything." Cicero agreed, arguing that "men don't understand how great a revenue sparingness is."

There are also environmentalists who consider frugality to be a virtue through which humans can make use of their ancestral skills as hunter-gatherers, carrying little and needing little, and finding meaning in nature instead of man-made conventions or religion. Henry David Thoreau expressed a similar philosophy in Walden, with his zest for self-reliance and minimal possessions while living simply in the woods.

Corporate world
Frugality has been adopted as a strategic imperative by large enterprises as a means of cost reduction through engendering a philosophy of careful spending amongst the workforce. Cost reduction is often perceived negatively, be it within a corporate organisation or in society, so inviting each employee to embrace frugality transfers the burden of cost reduction from management to the employee. In doing so, corporations introduce a moral obligation to cost cutting, proposing that careful management of costs is in the company, shareholder, and employee's best interests.

See also

References

Intentional living
Simple living
Virtue
Waste management concepts
Frugality

Frugality


James William Llewellyn Alford (15 October 1913 – 5 August 2004) was a Welsh track athlete who was born in Cardiff, Wales. In 1938 Alford won the Mile Empire Games gold medal in Sydney, becoming the first athlete in a Welsh vest to strike gold in the Empire Games. He was also a member of the British 4 x 1500 metre team that broke the world record. At home he won 11 Welsh titles in disciplines ranging from the 440 yards to cross country. He became first national coach for athletics in Wales in 1948 and is a member of the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame.

As a coach Jim Alford guided and advised many UK athletes to represent the UK and gain honours internationally.  He always had time to give to disadvantaged athletes, inspiring them to reach their potential.

He was the author and collaborator of several books and many articles, also translating many overseas books and articles into English.

He worked for the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) for a number of years, organising coaching forums and writing many articles.  He was greatly respected internationally and loved and appreciated by local athletes.

External links

 Jim Alford 1938 Empire Games gold medallist dies at 90, obituary at IAAF, 9 August 2004
 Obituary by Robert Cole in The Independent, 21 August 2004

Welsh male middle-distance runners
Sportspeople from Cardiff
Athletes (track and field) at the 1934 British Empire Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1938 British Empire Games
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Wales
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
1913 births
2004 deaths
Medallists at the 1938 British Empire Games

Jim Alford


With residency beginning in 1727, Adam Miller (Mueller) is recognized as the first permanent white settler in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, US. Born in 1703 in Schriesheim, Germany, Miller immigrated to America as a young married man, settling in Lancaster County, PA in 1724.

On a trip through eastern Virginia, Miller heard reports about a lush Valley to the west which had been discovered by Governor Alexander Spotswood's legendary Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition. In 1727, Miller and his wife Barbara moved from Pennsylvania to Virginia and staked out a claim on the south fork of the Shenandoah River, near the line that now divides Rockingham County from Page County.

The year of Miller's 1727 arrival in the Valley is confirmed in a 1742 naturalization proclamation by Virginia Governor William Gooch, which states, "And Adam Miller ... having Settled and Inhabited for fifteen years past on Shenandoa in this colony". Miller's birthplace is also cited in the proclamation, which notes that he was "born at Shesoin in Germany", but the correct spelling of "Schriesheim" is cited on the reverse side of the original document, written out and signed by Adam Miller.

Shenandoah baptismal records show that Miller and his wife had at least three children: Catarina Elizabetha (b. December 20, 1734), Adam Jr. (b. July 16, 1736) and Anna Christina (b. October 18, 1738). In adulthood, Catarina (Catherine) and Anna married brothers, John Baer and Jacob Baer, respectively.

In 1741, Miller purchased , including a large lithia spring, near Elkton, Virginia, and lived on this property for the remainder of his life. He sold  of this property to his son-in-law, Jacob Baer, and the spring on Miller's land is still known as Bear Lithia Spring. In 1758, Miller fought in the French and Indian War, serving in the Company of Lt. Christian Bingaman. He died in 1783, with his estate settled in Rockingham County, VA.

See also
Shenandoah Germans

References

Bibliography

American pioneers
Mennonitism in Virginia
Virginia colonial people
German emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
1703 births
1783 deaths
People from Rhein-Neckar-Kreis

Adam Miller (pioneer)


David Allan Aardsma (; born December 27, 1981) is an American former professional baseball pitcher, currently serving in the Toronto Blue Jays front office as a coordinator of player development. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 2004 to 2015 for the San Francisco Giants, Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, Boston Red Sox, Seattle Mariners, New York Yankees, New York Mets, and Atlanta Braves.

Amateur career
Aardsma was born in Denver, Colorado, and attended Cherry Creek High School in Colorado, graduating in 2000. He subsequently attended Pennsylvania State University in his first year of college. He transferred to Rice University in 2001, where he remained for the rest of his college tenure. Playing for the Rice Owls baseball team, Aardsma set school single-season and career records in saves in 2003. In the 2003 College World Series, he earned two wins and a save as the Owls won their first national championship.

In 2002, while playing collegiate summer baseball for the Falmouth Commodores in the Cape Cod Baseball League (CCBL), Aardsma was named a league all-star, posting a 0.68 ERA with 45 strikeouts over 26.2 innings. In 2010, he was inducted into the CCBL Hall of Fame.

Professional career

San Francisco Giants
The right-hander was drafted in the 1st round (22nd overall) of the 2003 Major League Baseball Draft by the San Francisco Giants. He went to the San Jose Giants (Single-A), where he posted a 1.96 ERA while striking out 28 in about 18 innings. He made the major-league roster in 2004, skipping Double-A and Triple-A, and made his debut in the season's second game. In his major league debut, in front of friends and family at Minute Maid Park, he pitched two innings, allowing three hits and walking one, to earn his first MLB win. In his first six appearances, he had a 1.80 ERA; unfortunately his success did not last as his ERA ballooned to 6.75 after 11 appearances. After giving up two runs in one inning on April 20, he was sent down to Fresno, the Giants Triple-A team, the next day. He was called up six more times throughout the season.

Aardsma's route through professional baseball has been somewhat unusual, given that after making the leap from Single-A to the Giants, he was demoted to Triple-A and then subsequently started the 2005 season in Double-A with the Norwich Navigators.

Chicago Cubs
Along with pitcher Jerome Williams, Aardsma was traded to the Chicago Cubs for veteran pitcher LaTroy Hawkins on May 28, 2005. He spent the season in the minor leagues before returning to the big leagues with the Cubs in 2006, posting a 3–0 record and 4.08 ERA in 45 relief appearances, finishing nine games. Aardsma was especially effective against left-handed hitters, holding them to a .190 (12-for-63) batting average against.

Chicago White Sox
After a solid 2006 season with the Cubs, Aardsma, along with minor leaguer Carlos Vásquez, was sent across town to the Chicago White Sox in exchange for reliever Neal Cotts. Aardsma started the 2007 season strong. In April, he posted a 1.72 ERA while recording 23 strikeouts in only 15.2 innings pitched; he struck out at least one batter in each of his first 13 appearances of the season. On April 4, Aardsma matched a career high with five strikeouts against the Cleveland Indians. On April 11, as the White Sox visited the Oakland Athletics, he recorded his first American League win. In May, however, troubles mounted and Aardsma finished the month with a season ERA to that point of 4.73 and an ERA of 9.00 for the month.

Following June 2, Aardsma was optioned to Triple-A Charlotte. He was recalled on June 19, but continued to struggle in his last appearances with the team. Overall, he ended with a 6.40 ERA in 25 games.

Boston Red Sox
On January 28, 2008, the Boston Red Sox acquired Aardsma from the White Sox for pitching prospects Willy Mota and Miguel Socolovich.

He pitched in 47 games for the team that year, going 4–2 with a 5.55 ERA. He also spent two games in the minors, posting a 0.00 ERA for the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox.

, Aardsma appears first alphabetically on the all-time list of Major League players.

Seattle Mariners
Less than a year after joining the Red Sox, Aardsma was traded to the Seattle Mariners on January 20, 2009, for minor league pitcher Fabian Williamson. On April 10, he recorded the first save of his career, pitching 2 innings of relief against the Oakland Athletics.

The Mariners gave Aardsma a chance to close a game behind Brandon Morrow. Afterward, he became the team's official closer.

Aardsma was a projected pick for the All-Star Game, but failed to make both the starting and the reserve roster. He followed an outstanding 2009 season with an excellent 2010. Converting 31 of 35 save opportunities, he finished the year 19-for-20 in saves with a 1.80 ERA from June 13 to September 19.

After having Tommy John surgery in July 2011, Aardsma was not offered arbitration by the Mariners and became a free agent after the season.

New York Yankees
On February 22, 2012, Aardsma signed a contract with the New York Yankees worth one year and $500,000 with a club option for 2013. The General Manager was quoted as saying, "The move could help us in 2012, but it has a lot more eyes toward 2013." Aardsma was activated from the disabled list on September 25, 2012, after Steve Pearce and Justin Thomas were designated for assignment. He pitched in just one game for the Yankees, on September 27, and allowed one run in one inning.

On October 29, the Yankees elected to exercise Aardsma's incentive-laden $500,000 club option for 2013. However, they designated him for assignment before the start of the 2013 season. When no other team claimed him off waivers, he was released.

Miami Marlins/New York Mets
Desiring the best opportunity for playing time, Aardsma signed with the Miami Marlins, and was assigned to their Class AAA team. He opted out of his contract on May 15, 2013, after pitching in ten games for the New Orleans Zephyrs.

On May 20, 2013, Aardsma signed a minor league deal with the New York Mets. After pitching in eight games for the Triple-A Las Vegas 51s, he was promoted to the Mets on June 8, 2013. He appeared in 43 games for the Mets with a 4.31 ERA and a 2–2 record.

Cleveland Indians/St. Louis Cardinals
Aardsma signed a minor league deal with the Cleveland Indians on January 23, 2014. He was released on March 21, 2014, after not making the team in spring training.

Aardsma promptly signed another minor league deal, this time with the St. Louis Cardinals on March 26, 2014. He played in 35 games in the Cardinals farm system, mostly with the AAA Memphis Redbirds and was 4–1 with a 1.46 ERA and 11 saves.

Los Angeles Dodgers
Aardsma signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers on February 15, 2015, and was invited to spring training. He did not make the Dodgers opening day roster, and was instead assigned to the AAA Oklahoma City Dodgers. In 20 games with Oklahoma City, he had a 2.41 ERA and 18 saves. He opted out of his contract on June 4 and became a free agent.

Atlanta Braves
On June 6, 2015, Aardsma signed a minor league contract with the Atlanta Braves. He was added to the Major League roster on June 9. He was designated for assignment on August 24 after compiling a 4.99 ERA in 33 games for the Braves. He was released on September 1 and never pitched again in the major leagues.

Toronto Blue Jays
On February 5, 2016, Aardsma signed a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Toronto Blue Jays. He was assigned to minor league camp on March 25. On May 23, Aardsma opted out of his contract.

Long Island Ducks
On April 3, 2017, Aardsma signed with the Long Island Ducks of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.

Retirement
Aardsma announced his retirement on February 5, 2018, and joined the Blue Jays front office as a coordinator of player development.

Personal life
Aardsma is of Dutch descent, with all of his great-great-grandparents coming from the Netherlands. Because of this, he was slated to play for the Netherlands in the World Baseball Classic, but was ruled ineligible and did not play. Of all baseball players in history, the surname 'Aardsma' ranks first alphabetically; his major league debut displaced Hall of Famer Hank Aaron. Aardsma's sister is American actress and beauty pageant contestant Amanda Aardsma.

Aardsma and his wife Andrea have a son, born on June 26, 2010.

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
American people of Dutch descent
Baseball players from Denver
Chicago Cubs players
Chicago White Sox players
Major League Baseball pitchers
San Francisco Giants players
Boston Red Sox players
Seattle Mariners players
New York Yankees players
New York Mets players
Atlanta Braves players
Rice Owls baseball players
San Jose Giants players
Grand Canyon Rafters players
Fresno Grizzlies players
West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx players
Mesa Solar Sox players
Norwich Navigators players
Iowa Cubs players
Charlotte Knights players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Tacoma Rainiers players
Gulf Coast Yankees players
Tampa Yankees players
Staten Island Yankees players
New Orleans Zephyrs players
Las Vegas 51s players
Gulf Coast Cardinals players
Memphis Redbirds players
Oklahoma City Dodgers players
Gwinnett Braves players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Long Island Ducks players
Falmouth Commodores players
Penn State Nittany Lions baseball players

David Aardsma


IndieBound is a marketing movement for independent bookstores launched in 2008 by the American Booksellers Association. With resources targeted for "indie" booksellers, it promotes fiscal localism. IndieBound's curated reading lists include the Indie Next List (indie recommendations from around the country) and the Indie Bestseller List (bestsellers lists based on indie store sales).

Launch
IndieBound was launched in June 2008 to replace a prior marketing program for independents called Book Sense. Independent bookstores sell online through their own e-commerce sites, many using the ABA IndieCommerce platform. IndieBound.org is store referral site for customers searching for an independent bookstore.

Following its launch, the US scheme was expanded to the UK, New Zealand and Australia. However, as of 2015 the Australian version appears to be in abeyance, as despite still having a Twitter account, the linked website is unrelated and the Australian Booksellers Association website makes no mention of it.

Indie Bestseller Lists
The Indie Bestseller Lists show the top selling titles in independent bookstores nationwide.

Indie Bestseller Lists are published weekly for hardcover fiction, hardcover nonfiction, trade paperback fiction, trade paperback nonfiction, mass market paperback, "children's interest," children's illustrated, and children's fiction series. Category lists, which focus on a particular genre, are published less frequently. The Indie Bestseller Lists are released by IndieBound as XML feeds.

Indie Next Lists
Before a major new book is published, the publisher will often send out advance reading copies (ARCs, or uncorrected proofs) to booksellers to generate interest in the book. Owners and employees of ABA member stores review these ARCs, along with brand-new books when they are released, and nominate their favorites as an Indie Next List great read. The American Booksellers Association handles nominations and voting, and releases monthly lists of what member stores have selected. There are special pick lists from time to time.

Indies Choice Book Awards
Each year, owners and employees of ABA stores have the opportunity to vote for the Indies Choice Book Awards, which is issued in four categories. The winning authors are honored at a banquet at BookExpo America.

References

External links
IndieBound
Book Sense (archived)
American Booksellers Association

Independent bookstores of the United States
Book publishing in the United States
2008 introductions

IndieBound


The Gorky Railway (Горьковская железная дорога) is a subsidiary of the Russian Railways headquartered in Nizhny Novgorod (formerly known as Gorky, hence the name).

The railway network serves nine federal subjects of the Russian Federation: Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Vladimir Oblast, Kirov Oblast, Ryazan Oblast, Mordovia, Chuvashia, Udmurtia, Tatarstan, and Mari El. Its railway route length approximates 7987 km.

Construction of the mainline from Moscow through Vladimir to Nizhny Novgorod started in May 1858 and was completed within four years. This private enterprise was acquired by the imperial government in 1893. The Murom Railway was opened in 1880. The private Moscow-Kazan Railway was completed in 1912; it was nationalized by the Bolsheviks six years later.

The Gorky Railway was created as a separate organisation in 1936. The Moscow-Kazan Railway was also organised as a separate organisation at this time

The existing railway company traces its history from 1961. The Moscow-Kazan Railway was merged into the new organisation at this point. It was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour in 1971. In 2010, the Gorky Railway became the third subdivision of the Russian Railways operating a high speed train (see Sapsan).

The Gorky railway also operated a  Tumskaja–Golowanowa Datscha railway line, closed in 2008.

Divisions
Gorky Railway Division
Izhevsk Railway Division
Kazan Railway Division
Kirov Railway Division
Murom Railway Division

References

External links

 Official website

Railway lines in Russia
Rail transport in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
Rail transport in Vladimir Oblast
Railway lines opened in 1862
750 mm gauge railways in Russia
1862 establishments in the Russian Empire

Gorky Railway


William C. Cooper (1853 – 13 June 1918) was a British-born stage and film actor who made a career in silent-film in the United States.

Born as William C. Cowper in Manchester in England in 1853, he was educated in his home city. On moving to the USA he appeared with Charles Frohman, William Gillette and Lawrence Barrett among others, and later acted in his own plays of which he wrote 28 and produced nine. He later became a naturalised American citizen.

In about 1910 he moved into films, acting for such companied as Pathé, Famous Players, the Thanhouser Company and Metro Pictures. For Thanhouser he was Horace Holly in the 1911 film She (as William C. Cooper) and for Metro in 1916 he was the Father in Dimples (as William Cowper). Also as William Cowper he played The Artist in Gold Is Not All (1913) and, in 1915, Si Stork in Emmy of Stork's Nest, Tobias Rader in A Yellow Streak and Wulf Axtell in An Enemy to Society. For Mutual Film he acted in Our Mutual Girl (1914), while for Famous Players he was Elder Sprague in The Redemption of David Corson (1914). Cooper also appeared in Mother's Darling Little Boy [1914), Blown Upon (1915) and A Domestic Revolution (1915).

In directories for 1916-1918 Cooper was recorded as living at 987 Tinton Avenue in the Bronx in New York and listed his hobbies as horseback riding, swimming and boxing.

Will C. Cooper died in June 1918 and was buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York.

References

External links

1853 births
1918 deaths
Male actors from Manchester
English male silent film actors
English male film actors
American male silent film actors
American male film actors
19th-century English male actors
English male stage actors
20th-century American male actors
British emigrants to the United States

William C. Cooper (actor)


Coddington is an unincorporated community in the town of Buena Vista in Portage County, Wisconsin, United States.

History
Settlement at Coddington began after the area was drained by the Bradley Polytechnic Institute. In 1911, Wallace Bell "Wallie" Coddington platted "Pine Island" for residential living, surrounded by the present day town roads of Buena Vista Drive, O'Neill Lane, Coddington Road, and Lake Road. He is said to have chosen the name "Pine Island" because of the group of pine trees clustered on a section of higher ground, surrounded by ash and birch trees in the swampy lowlands. After receiving a post office, "Pine Island" was renamed Coddington in honor of its founder.

Coddington had a railroad station at the time when the train passed through the areas of Stevens Point to points southward. Today, Coddington remains only as a small residential subdivision surrounded by the Buena Vista Marsh.

Geography

Coddington is located in central Wisconsin approximately halfway between Bancroft and Plover. Coddington is parallel with mile post 148 on Interstate 39/U.S. Highway 51, although there is no access to Coddington from any main roads. Present-day Coddington is located at the intersection of Coddington Road and Taft Avenue.

References

External links
Profile from the Portage County Historical Society

Unincorporated communities in Wisconsin
Unincorporated communities in Portage County, Wisconsin

Coddington, Wisconsin


The Ardenne Abbey massacre occurred during the Battle of Normandy at the Ardenne Abbey, a Premonstratensian monastery in Saint-Germain-la-Blanche-Herbe, near Caen, France. In June 1944, 20 Canadian soldiers were massacred in a garden at the abbey by members of the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend over the course of several days and weeks. This was part of the Normandy Massacres, a series of scattered killings during which up to 156 Canadian prisoners of war were murdered by soldiers of the 12th SS Panzer Division during the Battle of Normandy. The perpetrators of the massacre, members of the 12th SS Panzer Division, were known for their fanaticism, the majority having been drawn from the Hitlerjugend or Hitler Youth.

POW killings
During the Normandy Campaign, Waffen-SS Standartenführer Kurt Meyer, commander of the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, used the Abbaye d'Ardenne for his regimental headquarters, as its towers gave a clear view of the battlefield. In June 1944 at the abbey, 20 Canadian soldiers were murdered by members of the 12th SS Panzer Division.

Both the method by which the murders were carried out and upon whom the blame rests remain points of contention. Some basic facts, however, are certain. During the evening of 7 June, 11 Canadian prisoners of war, soldiers from the North Nova Scotia Highlanders and the 27th Armoured Regiment (The Sherbrooke Fusilier Regiment), were shot in the back of the head. This was a violation of the Geneva Conventions (of which Germany was a signatory) and therefore these actions constituted a war crime. Specifically the Geneva Convention pertaining to the Treatment of Prisoners of War stipulates in Part I: General Provisions - Art. 2. that POWS "are in the power of the hostile Government, but not of the individuals or formation which captured them. They shall at all times be humanely treated and protected, particularly against acts of violence, from insults and from public curiosity.
Measures of reprisal against them are forbidden."

Of the North Nova Scotia Highlanders were:
Private Ivan Crowe
Private Charles Doucette
Corporal Joseph MacIntyre
Private Reginald Keeping
Private James Moss

Of the 27th Armoured Regiment (The Sherbrooke Fusiliers Regiment) were:
Trooper James Bolt
Trooper George Gill
Trooper Thomas Henry
Trooper Roger Lockhead
Trooper Harold Philp
Lieutenant Thomas Windsor

The following day, 8 June, seven more POWs from the North Nova Scotia Highlanders were also murdered:
Private Walter Doherty
Private Hollis McKeil
Private Hugh MacDonald
Private George McNaughton
Private George Millar
Private Thomas Mont
Private Raymond Moore

On 17 June, two more Canadian soldiers, Lieutenant Frederick Williams and Lance Corporal George Pollard, were also believed to have been killed at or around the Abbaye. Both soldiers "had been patrolling for disabled German tanks near Buron and went missing. It is known that two wounded Canadian POWs were evacuated by the Germans to the abbey's first-aid post on June 17. Witnesses later reported hearing shots in the vicinity of the abbey at two different times that day."

After liberating the Abbaye d'Ardenne on 8 July, members of the Regina Rifle Regiment discovered the body of Lieutenant Williams; Lance Corporal Pollard was never found.  The bodies of those killed on 7 and 8 June were not found until the winter and spring of 1945, when inhabitants from the abbey accidentally discovered remains throughout the premises.  Examinations of the remains revealed that the soldiers had either been shot or bludgeoned directly in the head; the exact weapon used to bludgeon the heads of the soldiers was indeterminate but was most likely the butt of a rifle or an entrenching tool.  All the remains were taken to the cemeteries at Beny-sur-Mer or Bretteville-sur-Laize, except for Private McKeil, who was taken to Ryes War Cemetery, Bazenville.

War crimes trial

Over the course of a year of investigation, from August 1944 to August 1945, the Canadian War Crimes Commission (CWCC), led by Lieutenant-Colonel Bruce MacDonald, strove to discover the details of the murders and who bore the responsibility.  As commander of the regiment that was responsible for the massacre, Kurt Meyer remained the prime suspect and believed to be responsible for the actions of his men. At Meyer's war crimes trial in December 1945, the incident at the Abbaye formed the core of the charges.  In total, five charges were laid against him:

1. Inciting and advising soldiers under his command to refuse quarter to Allied troops.
2. Commanding his troops to kill 23 POWs at or near the villages of Buron and Authie on 7 June 1944.
3. Commanding his troops, on 8 June 1944, to kill seven prisoners of war at the Abbaye d'Ardenne, as a result of which the prisoners were shot and killed.
4. (Alternative to third charge) Responsibility for the killing of seven Canadian POWs at the Abbaye d'Ardenne on 8 June 1944.
5. Ordering the killing of 11 Canadian POWs at the Abbaye Ardenne on 7 June 1944.

Former SS Private Alfred Helzel was the prosecution's first major witness.  While in prison in Quebec, Helzel revealed that in June 1944 Meyer had directed his troops to take no prisoners. On the stand, however, Helzel denied that Meyer made such a declaration.  Macdonald eventually managed to have Helzel verify his original statement, thus helping to establish Meyer's guilt.

Citizens of the towns of Authie and Buron testified against the 12th SS and confirmed various atrocities committed against Canadian soldiers.  Canadian soldiers themselves testified, the most important being Sergeant Stanley Dudka.  He maintained that his column of prisoners arrived at the Abbaye Ardenne on 7 June, after which military police demanded 10 volunteers step forward.  Since no one volunteered, 10 men were randomly taken, including Private Moss, later identified as one of the men executed at the Abbaye.

The prosecution's central witness, however, was Polish soldier Jan Jesionek (who had been pressed into service in the 12th SS).  At the Abbaye on 8 June 1944, Jesionek was approached by two SS troopers who were escorting seven Canadian prisoners, and watched as the POWs were directed into a stall adjoining the Abbaye.  One of the troopers asked for the regimental commander, whereby Jesionek led him to Kurt Meyer.  In response to learning of the seven prisoners, Meyer reportedly said: 'What should we do with these prisoners; they only eat up our rations?'  Afterwards, he turned to one of the officers, spoke softly so that others could not hear, and then announced: 'In the future, no more prisoners are to be taken.'  Jesionek then saw each prisoner questioned by the officer to whom Meyer had spoken.  A name was called out, a prisoner walked up from the passageway leading to the garden in the Abbaye.  As soon as the prisoner turned, the officer shot him in the head with a machine pistol; this was repeated for the remaining six prisoners.  After the officer and guards left, Jesionek and three fellow drivers examined the bodies, all lying in the garden and surrounded by blood.  According to Jesionek, the Canadians realized what was happening, each prisoner shaking hands with his comrades before walking to the garden and being shot.  Uncertainty over Meyer's commands remained since Jesionek never heard Meyer give the order to kill the Canadians.

Meyer originally claimed to have had no knowledge of the murders at the Abbaye.  He later insisted, however, that he was aware of the bodies' presence but had not seen them until two days after the killings.  Disgusted, Meyer apparently ordered for the burial of the bodies and the admonishment, albeit unsuccessfully, of those responsible.  These claims were refuted by French teenagers, however, who lived in the Abbaye and testified that no bodies were visible in the garden when they went there the day after the murders.  Throughout the trial, Meyer maintained that he never commanded his troops not to take prisoners.

Meyer was found guilty of inciting his troops to commit murder and of being responsible as a commander for the killings at the Abbaye; he was acquitted on the second and third charges.  Sentenced to death on 28 December 1945, his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment on 14 January 1946.  After serving nearly nine years in prison, Meyer was released on 7 September 1954.

Memorial

A memorial was unveiled in the garden of the Abbaye on 6 June 1984.  After the names of those murdered, an inscription reads:

See also
France during World War II

References

External links
 The Lost Canadian Soldiers Of The Ardenne Abbey. Webpage about the memorial.
Kurt Meyer on Trial: A Documentary Record. Kingston: CDA Press, 2007 Available as a PDF download with free registration.

Canada in World War II
Canada–France relations
Canada–Germany relations
Crime in Normandy
Massacres in France
Nazi war crimes in France
North Nova Scotia Highlanders
Operation Overlord
Sherbrooke Hussars
War crimes of the Waffen-SS
World War II prisoner of war massacres by Nazi Germany

Ardenne Abbey massacre


Stefan Wolpe (25 August 1902, Berlin – 4 April 1972, New York City) was a German-Jewish-American composer. He was associated with interdisciplinary modernism, with affiliations ranging from the Bauhaus, Berlin agitprop theater and the kibbutz movement to the Eighth Street Artists' Club, Black Mountain College, and the Darmstadt Summer Courses for New Music. He lived and worked in Berlin (1902–1933) until the Nazi seizure of power forced him to move first to Vienna (1933–34) and Jerusalem (1934–38) before settling in New York City (1938–72). In works such as Battle Piece (1942/1947) and "In a State of Flight" in Enactments for Three Pianos (1953), he responded self-consciously to the circumstances of his uprooted life, a theme he also explored extensively in voluminous diaries, correspondence, and lectures. His densely eclectic music absorbed ideas and idioms from diverse artistic milieus, including post-tonality, bebop, and Arab classical musics.

Life
Wolpe was born in Berlin. He attended the Klindworth-Scharwenka Conservatory from the age of fourteen, and the Berlin Hochschule für Musik in 1920–21. He studied composition under Franz Schreker and was also a pupil of Ferruccio Busoni. He also studied at the Bauhaus circa 1923, and met some of the dadaists, setting Kurt Schwitters's poem An Anna Blume to music.

In 1928, Wolpe's first opera, Zeus und Elida, premiered in Berlin. This soon was followed by two more operas in 1929, Schöne Geschichten and Anna Blume. In 1927, he married the artist Ola Okuniewska from Czechoslavakia and their daughter, Katharina Wolpe was born in 1931 but the couple had separated. His wife escaped to London in 1938, but his daughter was a de facto orphan in Berne during the war.

The music Wolpe was writing between 1929 and 1933 was dissonant, using Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique. However, possibly influenced by Paul Hindemith's concept of Gebrauchsmusik (music that serves a social function), and as an avid socialist, he wrote a number of pieces for workers' unions and communist theatre groups. For these, he made his style more accessible, incorporating elements of jazz and popular music.

When the Nazis came to power in Germany, Wolpe, a Jew and a communist, fled the country, passing through Romania and Russia en route to Austria in 1933–34, where he met and studied with Anton Webern. He had left Germany with a Romanian pianist and he married Irma Schoenberg in Vienna. He later moved to Palestine in 1934–38, where he wrote simple songs for the kibbutzim. The music he was writing for concert performance, however, remained complex and atonal. Partly because of this, his teaching contract with the Palestine Conservatoire was not renewed for the 1938–39 school year.

In 1938, Wolpe moved to New York City. He briefly met his daughter in London in 1946. There, during the fifties, he associated with the abstract expressionist painters. He was introduced to them by his third wife, the poet Hilda Morley. From 1952 to 1956 he was director of music at Black Mountain College. On January 24, 1956, he was appointed to the faculty at the C.W. Post College of Long Island University in Brookville, New York. He also lectured at the summer schools in Darmstadt in Germany. His pupils included Jack Behrens, Herbert Brün, Morton Feldman, David Tudor, Matthew Greenbaum, John Carisi, M. William Karlins, Gil Evans, George Russell, Robert D. Levin, Boyd McDonald, Ralph Shapey, Ursula Mamlok, Netty Simons, and Beatrice Witkin.

His works from this time sometimes used the twelve-tone technique, were sometimes diatonic, were sometimes based on the Arabic scales (such as maqam saba) he had heard in Palestine and sometimes employed some other method of tonal organisation.

Wolpe developed Parkinson's disease in 1964, and died in New York City in 1972.

Music

Elliott Carter said of Wolpe's music that, "he does everything wrong and it comes out right."

References

Further reading
 Stefan Wolpe: Das Ganze überdenken. Vorträge über Musik 1935–1962, edited by Thomas Phleps (Quellentexte zur Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts 7.1). Saarbrücken: PFAU-Verlag, 2002.
 Thomas Phleps: "'An Anna Blume' – Ein vollchromatisiertes Liebesgedicht von Kurt Schwitters und Stefan Wolpe". In: Zwischen Aufklärung & Kulturindustrie. Festschrift für Georg Knepler zum 85. Geburtstag. Vol. I: Musik/Geschichte, edited by Hanns-Werner Heister, Karin Heister-Grech, and Gerhart Scheit, 157–77. Hamburg: von Bockel 1993.
 Thomas Phleps: "Stefan Wolpe – Von Dada, Anna & anderem". Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 155 (1994) no. 3: .
 Thomas Phleps: "Stefan Wolpes 'Stehende Musik'". Dissonanz/Dissonance no. 41 (August 1994), pp. 9–14.
 Thomas Phleps: "Stefan Wolpe – Drei kleinere Canons in der Umkehrung zweier 12tönig correspondierender Hexachorde für Viola und Violoncello op. 24a". In: Klassizistische Moderne. Eine Begleitpublikation zur Konzertreihe im Rahmen der Veranstaltungen "10 Jahre Paul Sacher Stiftung", edited by Felix Meyer. pp. 143–44. Winterthur: Amadeus, 1996.
 Thomas Phleps: "Wo es der Musik die Sprache verschlägt... – "Zeus und Elida" und "Schöne Geschichten" von Stefan Wolpe". Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 158 (1997) no. 6, pp. 48–51.
 Thomas Phleps: "'Outsider im besten Sinne des Wortes': Stefan Wolpes Einblicke ins Komponieren in Darmstadt und anderswo". In Stefan Wolpe: Das Ganze überdenken. Vorträge über Musik 1935–1962, edited by Thomas Phleps, . (Quellentexte zur Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts Bd. 7.1). Saarbrücken: PFAU-Verlag, 2002.
 Thomas Phleps: "Music Contents and Speech Contents in the Political Compositions of Eisler, Wolpe, and Vladimir Vogel". In: On the Music of Stefan Wolpe: Essays and Recollections, edited by Austin Clarkson, . (Dimension & Diversity Series 6). Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2003.
 Brigid Cohen: Stefan Wolpe and the Avant-Garde Diaspora. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
 Nora Born: Stefan Wolpe, in the Lexikon verfolgter Musiker und Musikerinnen der NS-Zeit, Claudia Maurer Zenck, Peter Petersen (ed.), Hamburg: Universität Hamburg, 2012 (https://www.lexm.uni-hamburg.de/object/lexm_lexmperson_00002691).

External links
The Stefan Wolpe Society
Peermusic Classical: Stefan Wolpe Composer's Publisher and Biography
Discography
 Thomas Phleps: Stefan Wolpe – Eine Einführung
 Thomas Phleps: Stefan Wolpes politische Musik
 Thomas Phleps: Schöne Geschichten und Zeus und Elida – Zwei Opern von Stefan Wolpe

 Stefan Wolpe
 Recollections of Stefan Wolpe by former students and friends, Edited by Austin Clarkson
Carol Baron research files on Stefan Wolpe, 1933–1976, 2009 Music Division, The New York Public Library.
Recollections of Stefan Wolpe by M. William Karlins, August 17, 1992

Listening
 Starr Auditorium, Tate Modern: The Music of Stefan Wolpe (The evening's performers were pianist Nicolas Hodges and violinist Mieko Kanno. Leading Wolpe scholar Austin Clarkson and concert pianist Katharina Wolpe, the composer's daughter, took part in the discussion)
 Art of the States: Stefan Wolpe three works by the composer

1902 births
1972 deaths
20th-century classical composers
Composers from Berlin
Bauhaus alumni
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine
Jewish American classical composers
German opera composers
Male opera composers
American opera composers
Pupils of Paul Juon
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
Pupils of Franz Schreker
Pupils of Ferruccio Busoni
Pupils of Anton Webern
Twelve-tone and serial composers
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
Neurological disease deaths in New York (state)
Black Mountain College faculty
German male classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
20th-century German composers
Klindworth-Scharwenka Conservatory alumni
20th-century American composers
Burials at Green River Cemetery
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American Jews

Stefan Wolpe


Enns () is a town in the Austrian state of Upper Austria on the river Enns, which forms the border with the state of Lower Austria.

Enns was one of the first places in Austria to receive town rights. Its charter dates to 22 April 1212; the document is displayed at the local museum. The date is also depicted on the municipal tower, the landmark of Enns.

Geography
Enns extends for 7.5 km from north to south and 8.6 km from west to east. Its total area is 34.3 km², of which 12.8% are covered with forest, and 64.1% are used for agriculture.

The municipality can be subdivided into the districts of  Einsiedl, Enghagen, Enghagen am Tabor, Enns, Ental, Erlengraben, Hiesendorf, Kottingrat, Kristein, Kronau, Lorch, Moos, Rabenberg and Volkersdorf.

History

The first settlements in the area of the mouth of the Enns river to the Danube date back to 4,000 years ago. Celts settled the land around 400 BC. Their kingdom of Noricum was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 15 BC and was designated as a Roman province under the reign of Emperor Claudius in AD 45.

In the second and third century, the Roman camp of Lauriacum, in which up to 6,000 soldiers were stationed, was located on the site of modern Enns. The adjacent settlement (today: Lorch) received the privileges of a municipium in 212 from Emperor Caracalla. At that time about 30,000 people lived here. During the Diocletian Persecution of Christians, a commander of the Roman army, Saint Florian, died as a martyr at Lauriacum on 4 May 304, when he was drowned in the Enns river. Only nine years later, the Emperor Constantine I proclaimed religious tolerance with the Edict of Milan. About 370, an Early Christian basilica was built on the remains of a Jupiter temple and Lauriacum was the see of a bishop until 488. The present Basilica of St. Lawrence at Lorch was built in 1344 on the foundations of the old church

About 900, the Enisiburg castle, later Ennsegg Palace, was built on the Georgenberg hill to serve as a protective fortress against Magyar invasions. The surrounding settlement prospered from the 12th century onwards, when Ottokar II, Margrave of Styria established a market here. In 1186 the Georgenberg Pact was signed, an inheritance contract between Ottokar IV, Duke of Styria, who lacked a male heir, and the Babenberg duke of Austria, Leopold V. Following the death of Ottokar IV in 1192, his Duchy of Styria — then significantly bigger than the contemporary state, reaching from present day Slovenia to Upper Austria — fell to the House of Babenberg. Thus, Enns became Austrian.

As Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, endowed Enns with town privileges in 1212, it is now considered Austria's oldest town (apart from the Roman municipal status). The landmark of Enns, the belfry (municipal tower) on the Main Square, was erected between 1564 and 1568 as a bell tower, watch and clock tower during the reign of emperor Maximilian II.

Population

Politics

Municipal council

The municipal council consists of 37 members. Since the 2003 elections, party representation on the council has been as follows:
21 Social Democratic Party of Austria
12 Austrian People's Party
3 Austrian Green Party
1 Freedom Party of Austria

The current mayor is Christian Deleja-Hotko, a Social Democrat.

Population
In 1991, Enns had 10,192 inhabitants according to the census. The number grew to 10,639 in the census of 2001.

References

Cities and towns in Linz-Land District
Roman fortifications in Noricum
Roman towns and cities in Austria

Enns (town)


Rogue (also known as Rogue: Exploring the Dungeons of Doom) is a dungeon crawling video game by Michael Toy and Glenn Wichman with later contributions by Ken Arnold. Rogue was originally developed around 1980 for Unix-based minicomputer systems as a freely distributed executable. It was later included in the Berkeley Software Distribution 4.2 operating system (4.2BSD). Commercial ports of the game for a range of personal computers were made by Toy, Wichman, and Jon Lane under the company A.I. Design and financially supported by the Epyx software publishers. Additional ports to modern systems have been made since by other parties using the game's now-open source code.

In Rogue, players control a character as they explore several levels of a dungeon seeking the Amulet of Yendor located in the dungeon's lowest level. The player character must fend off an array of monsters that roam the dungeons. Along the way, players can collect treasures that can help them offensively or defensively, such as weapons, armor, potions, scrolls, and other magical items. Rogue is turn-based, taking place on a square grid represented in ASCII or other fixed character set, allowing players to have time to determine the best move to survive. Rogue implements permadeath as a design choice to make each action by the player meaningfulshould the player-character lose all their health via combat or other means, that player character is dead. The player must restart with a fresh character as the dead character cannot respawn, or be brought back by reloading from a saved state. Moreover, no game is the same as any previous one, as the dungeon levels, monster encounters, and treasures are procedurally generated for each playthrough.

Rogue was inspired by text-based computer games such as the 1971 Star Trek game and Colossal Cave Adventure released in 1976, along with the high fantasy setting from Dungeons & Dragons. Toy and Wichman, both students at University of California, Santa Cruz, worked together to create their own text-based game but looked to incorporate elements of procedural generation to create a new experience each time the user played the game. Toy later worked at University of California, Berkeley where he met Arnold, the lead developer of the curses programming library that Rogue was dependent on to mimic a graphical display. Arnold helped Toy to optimize the code and incorporate additional features to the game. The commercial ports were inspired when Toy met Lane while working for the Olivetti company, and Toy engaged with Wichman again to help with designing graphics and various ports.

Rogue became popular in the 1980s among college students and other computer-savvy users in part due to its inclusion in 4.2BSD. It inspired programmers to develop a number of similar titles such as Hack (1982/1984) and Moria (1983), though as Toy, Wichman, and Arnold had not released the source code at this time, these new games introduced different variations atop Rogue. A long lineage of games grew out from these titles. While Rogue was not the first dungeon-crawling game with procedural generation features, it introduced the subgenre of roguelike role-playing procedurally generated dungeon crawlers with Dungeons & Dragons-like items (armor, weapons, potions, and magic scrolls) that also had permadeath (permanent death) and an overhead graphical viewalbeit via ASCII drawings, as opposed to text descriptions in natural language such as in Colossal Cave Adventure and the original Zork games.

Gameplay

In Rogue, the player character is an adventurer. The game starts at the uppermost level of an unmapped dungeon with myriad monsters and treasures. The goal is to fight a way to the bottom level, retrieve the Amulet of Yendor ("Rodney" spelled backwards), then ascend to the surface. Monsters in the levels become progressively more difficult to defeat. Until the Amulet is retrieved, the player cannot return to earlier levels.

User interface

In the original text-based versions, all aspects of the game, including the dungeon, the player character, and monsters, are represented by letters and symbols within the ASCII character set. Monsters are represented by capital letters (such as Z, for zombie), and accordingly there are twenty-six varieties. This type of display makes it appropriate for a non-graphical terminal. Later ports of Rogue apply extended character sets to the text user interface or replace it with graphical tiles.

The basic movement keys (h, left; j, down; k, up; and l, right) are the same as the cursor control keys in the vi editor. Other game actions also use single keystrokes—q to quaff a potion, w to wield a weapon, e to eat some food, etc. In the DOS version, the cursor keys specify movement, and the fast-move keys (H, J, K, and L) are supplanted by use of the scroll lock key.

Each dungeon level consists of a grid of three rooms by three rooms (potentially); dead-end hallways sometimes appear where rooms would be expected. Lower levels can include a maze in place of a room. Unlike most adventure games of the time of the original design, the dungeon layout and the placement of objects within are randomly generated.

Development

At UC Santa Cruz
The concept of Rogue originated with Michael Toy and Glenn Wichman. Toy grew up in Livermore, California, where his father was a nuclear scientist. Once a year, his father's workplace allowed employees' families to visit, which included allowing them to use the facility's mainframe system to play games. Toy took interest in the text-based Star Trek game (1971), which represented space combat through characters on screen, and required players to make strategic decisions each turn. Toy took to learn programming and recreate this game on other computer systems that he could access, including the Processor Technology Sol-20 and the Atari 400.

Toy subsequently enrolled in computer science at the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) in the late 1970s. Working first on UCSC's PDP-11 and then its VAX-11, Toy began exploring what games were available over ARPANET, the predecessor of the current Internet. One game that intrigued him was Colossal Cave Adventure (also known as Adventure) (1976) by William Crowther and Don Woods. Adventure, considered the first text-based adventure game, challenged the player to explore a cave system through descriptions given by the computer and commands issued by the player. Toy was impressed by the game and started writing his own.

Toy met Wichman, another student at UCSC who was also writing his own adventure game. Wichman had created his own variations on traditional role-playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons while growing up. Wichman chose UCSC specifically to study game design to become a board-game developer, and this led him into the computer sciences to get the opportunity to play and develop games. The two became friends, shared an apartment, and challenged each other with their own adventure game creations. Of the two, Toy was more proficient at coding, while Wichman had a better sense of the design of these games. Toy and Wichman soon found that most adventure games suffered from a lack of replayability, in that the game did not change on separate playthroughs.

Around this time, ca. 1980, BSD Unix had started to gain a foothold as the operating system for many of the University of California's campuses. One element of the BSD distribution at this point included the curses programming library by Ken Arnold. curses enabled a programmer to place characters at any point on a terminal, effectively allowing for "graphical" interfaces. When Toy saw this library, he and Wichman quickly realized the potential for it. After crafting a few games using curses to learn the library, they came up with the idea of an adventure game in the flavor of Dungeons & Dragons, but, to address their concerns with the static nature of adventure games, wanted to include elements that would change every time the game was played. The two came up with a narrative, that of an adventurer setting out to explore and find treasures in the Dungeons of Doom, specifically the Amulet of Yendor (a renowned wizard in the game whose name is derived from "Rodney" spelled backwards). Wichman came up with the name Rogue, based on the idea that unlike the party-based systems of Dungeons & Dragons, the player's character was going at this alone. They also wanted to make sure the name was short to make it simple to type on command lines.

As Toy was more proficient at programming, he led the development of the game in the C language, which generally produced fast, effective code. Wichman learned the language from Toy as they went along while providing significant input on the design of game. The first two major aspects of the game developed were the method of displaying the dungeon on-screen to the player, and how to generate the dungeon in a random manner.  Limited by choices of what a terminal could display, they stuck to ASCII characters, such as . for empty floor space, + for doors, and | and - for walls of the dungeon. They also used the "at" symbol (@) to represent the player, considering this showed the player "where they're at". For the dungeon, they found initial attempts at purely random generation to be weak, in some cases having a stairway ending up in a room inaccessible to players. They found a solution through procedural generation, where each level would start on the idea of a 3x3 tic-tac-toe grid, with each room of various size occupying one space in this grid, and then creating the hallways to connect the rooms. Once they could have their character move about these randomly created dungeons, they added equipment, magic items, and monsters. With magic items, they wanted the effects of these items to be a mystery on each run-through, and thus would initially present the items to the player only by a descriptor such as color, and only later in the game give the true name of the item once the player experimented or used another means to identify the item. For monsters, they wanted to have more advanced intelligence routines as the player got deeper in the dungeons, but had started running into memory limits on the VAX-11, and simply made the monsters stronger with more health to pose more of a challenge.

The two started testing the game with other students at UCSC, finding that despite the limited graphics, players were filling the gaps with their own imagination. Playtester feedback helped them to improve the procedural generation routines to balance the game's challenge. One element that fell out from playtesting was the use of permadeath. Toy wanted to move away from the notion of simply learning the right sequence of steps to complete within adventure games, and instead make the player focus on finding the right moves to avoid the character's death at that moment; Wichman later called this idea "consequence persistence". Initially, a Rogue game had to be completed in one sitting, but by demand of playtesters, Toy and Wichman added the ability to save the state of the game, so that players could continue a game across sessions. They soon found players were "save scumming", reloading the game from the save file, an approach counter to their design goals. They changed this so that the save file was erased upon reloading the game, thus making a character's death effectively permanent. They subsequently added a scoreboard feature that let players rank their progress with others, rewarding players with more points for surviving as deep as possible into the dungeons and making the Amulet of Yendor a lucrative goal.

Around 1982, Toy's attention to Rogue and computer games caused him to suffer poor academic performance, and he was kicked out of the school, shortly finding employment at University of California, Berkeley (UCB) in their computer lab. Toy took the Rogue code with him to continue its development. Wichman, still enrolled at UCSC, continued to help develop Rogue for a time, such as adding armor elements, but the logistics of working over the distance made it difficult for him to keep up, and he let Toy fully take over development.

At UC Berkeley
Prior to Toy's arrival at UCB, Ken Arnold had gotten to play Rogue, which had been distributed as an executable across many of the UC campuses. Though impressed with the game, he expressed frustration at the inefficient means the game updated the screen via his curses library over a modem line. He had ideas for how to fix it, but at this point Toy and Wichman had opted not to release the code.

When Toy arrived at UCB in 1982, he sought out Arnold to get insight into the nature of how the curses library worked. After the two got to know each other, Toy allowed him access to Rogues source code. In addition to helping to improve the interface and rendering of the game, Arnold helped to improve the procedural generation aspects of the game.

With its popularity on the UCB servers, Rogue was selected as one of the game titles included in the 1983 distribution of 4.2 BSD, which spread across ARPANET and quickly gained popularity among colleges and facilities with access to this hardware. Among its fans included UNIX's co-developer Ken Thompson working at Bell Labs; Dennis Ritchie had joked at the time that Rogue was "the biggest waste of CPU cycles in history". Rogues distribution in 4.2 BSD did not include its source code, so after Toy and Arnold separately left UCB, they took the code with them, making it difficult for anyone to build off it. Rogues source was eventually added under a BSD software license within 4.3 BSD in 1986, putting it into the open source.

At A.I. Design

Toy left UCB sometime before 1984 and took a consulting position with Olivetti, an Italian typewriter company that at the time were starting development of their own computer based on the IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC) operating system. There, he met one of Olivetti's computer system administrators, Jon Lane. Lane had previously seen the popularity of Rogue among the United States location he managed and had played the game himself along with Ritchie's observations on Rogue.  Upon meeting Toy, Lane proposed the idea of porting Rogue to the IBM PC as a commercial product, which Toy agreed. They founded the company A.I. Design to port and market the game. Though Toy's source code was necessary for the porting, Lane had to redevelop many of the routines for the game's interface. Lane took advantage of the more graphical Code page 437 character set on PC to expand the number of symbols to represent the dungeon, such as using a happy-face ☺ for the player-character. They also took steps to avoid potential copyright issues with TSR, the company that owned Dungeons & Dragons at that time, by changing the names of monsters like kobolds that were unique to that game.

Toy and Lane initially funded the publishing, distribution, and promotion of the IBM PC version themselves, and though they continued to gain sales, they were only able to break even as they lacked the power of a larger distributor. Around 1984, Robert Borch, the vice president of publishing at Epyx discovered that Rogue had become popular by several of Epyx's employees and that they suggested that Epyx should help fund ports to other systems. Though Borch felt there was niche appeal to the game, he followed this advice and contracted A.I. Design to port the game to the Macintosh and Amiga upon which Epyx would take over distribution and marketing.

Toy obtained a Macintosh and took the lead in porting the game to that system. Both Toy and Lane recognized that they could implement improved graphics with the Macintosh version, but neither had art skills to make the icons. Toy reached out to Wichman to help with these graphics. Wichman was initially cautious due to the fact that his credit for Rogue in the PC version had been cast as a "contribution" equal to the UCSC playtesters rather than as equal to Toy, Arnold, or Lane, but ultimately agreed to help and joined A.I. Design. Much of the Macintosh version was developed in concert by Toy, Wichman, and Lane in a cabin at the Squaw Valley Ski Resort. Following this, Epyx requested that Wichman lead the development of the Atari ST version, with the company providing Wichman a system to work on. This work occurred alongside Toy's work on the Amiga version. Wichman enlisted help from an Epyx in-house artist, Michael Kosaka, to create the art on the Atari ST version. Epyx would also fund A.I. Design to port the game to other systems including the TRS-80 Color Computer.

Borch recognized the difficulty in marketing Rogue through traditional methods compared to other games on the market at that time, and opted to push the title through software catalogs rather than retail channels. Though it sold well initially, Rogues sales quickly declined, and it was considered a commercial flop. Besides the competition from more graphically interesting games, Wichman attributed the failure to the fact that the commercial version of Rogue was essentially the same game previously offered for free via BSD and did not pose a new challenge. Epyx eventually went bankrupt in 1989, and A.I. Design disbanded. None of Toy, Wichman, Arnold, or Lane profited greatly from Rogue, though they became renowned in the industry for their participation on the game.

Other ports
In 1988, the budget software publisher Mastertronic released a commercial port of Rogue for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, Atari 8-bit, and ZX Spectrum computers.

Numerous clones exist for modern operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Palm OS, Linux, BSD OSs, and iOS. It is even included in the base distribution of NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

Automated play
Because the input and output of the original game is over a terminal interface, it is relatively easy in Unix to redirect output to another program. One such program, Rog-O-Matic, was developed in 1981 to play and win the game, by four graduate students in the Computer Science Department at Carnegie-Mellon University in Pittsburgh: Andrew Appel, Leonard Harney, Guy Jacobson and Michael Loren Mauldin.

Ken Arnold said that he liked to make "sure that every subsequent version of Rogue had a new feature in it that broke Rogue-O-Matic". Nevertheless, it remains a noted study in expert system design and led to the development of other game-playing programs, typically called "bots". Some of these bots target other roguelikes, in particular Angband.

Reception
In March 1984, Jerry Pournelle named the version of Rogue for the IBM PC his "game of the month", describing it as "a real time trap. I found myself thinking 'just one more try' far too often". The game was reviewed in 1986 in Dragon #112 by Hartley and Pattie Lesser in the "Role of Computers" column. In a subsequent column, the reviewers gave the IBM and Mac versions of the game 3½ out of 5 stars. Compute! favorably reviewed Epyx's Amiga version as improving on the text-based original, stating that "the game will give you many hours of gaming fun". In 2009, Rogue was named #6 on the "Ten Greatest PC Games Ever" list by PC World.

Legacy
Because of Rogues popularity at colleges in the early 1980s, other users sought to expand or create similar games. However, as neither Toy, Wichman, nor Arnold released the source code of the game, these efforts generally required the programmers to craft the core game elements from scratch to mimic Rogue. Though there were multiple titles that tried this, the two most significant ones were Moria (1983) and Hack (1982). Both games spawned a family of improved versions and clones over the next several years, leading to a wide number of games in a similar flavor. These games, which generally feature turn-based exploration and combat in a high fantasy setting in a procedurally generated dungeon and employing permadeath, are named roguelike games in honor of Rogues impact. Most of the graphical interface conventions used in Rogue were reused within these other roguelikes, such as the use of @ to represent the player-character.

Toy, Wichman, and Arnold reunited onstage for the first time in 30 years in an event called "Roguelike Celebration" at San Francisco in 2016.

References

External links

 A Guide to the Dungeons of Doom - the original paper by Michael Toy and Kenneth Arnold describing the game

1980 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Atari 8-bit family games
Atari ST games
Classic Mac OS games
Commodore 64 games
CP/M games
Epyx games
Linux games
Mainframe games
Mastertronic games
Open-source video games
Public-domain software with source code
Roguelike video games
Role-playing video games
Single-player video games
Free software that uses ncurses

TRS-80 Color Computer games
Unix games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games with textual graphics
ZX Spectrum games

Rogue (video game)


Akoustik Piano is a virtual instrument developed by Native Instruments for both the Mac OS X and Windows XP platforms. It uses a large collection of audio samples taken from three grand pianos.

The software used for playback is Native Instruments' own Kontakt Player (a feature-limited version of Kontakt), which is used as a stand-alone program for live performance or recording to MIDI. Additionally it may be used as a plug-in for a digital audio workstation (such as MOTU's Digital Performer.)

Sampled instruments
The pianos sampled include Steinway concert grand piano model D, Imperial Bösendorfer (grand piano 290), Bechstein D 280 and the upright piano Steingraeber 130. The audio library comes in both 16-bit and 24-bit resolutions.

Playback adjustments
The Kontakt synthesizer includes several optional transformations to the sample's sound. Pitch level, pitch bend, velocity curve, tuning system (including quarter-tone), dynamics, microphone distance, equalizer, lid position (closed, half-, or full-stick) as well as choice of performance space may all be modified.

Supported technology
Virtual Studio Technology (VST), Audio Units, RTAS, DXi, Audio Stream Input/Output (ASIO), Apple Computer's Core Audio and Microsoft's DirectSound are all supported. Akoustic Piano is now a Macintosh Universal Binary.

Native Instruments
Keyboard software synthesizers

Akoustik Piano