Sabin Manuilă (or Mănuilă; February 19, 1894 – November 20, 1964) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian statistician, demographer and physician. A nationalist activist during World War I, he became noted for his pioneering research into the biostatistics of Transylvania and Banat regions, as well as a promoter of eugenics and social interventionism. As a bio- and geopolitician, Manuilă advocated the consolidation of Greater Romania through population exchanges, colonization, state-sponsored assimilation, or discriminatory policies.

Manuilă entered national politics in the early 1930s, representing the National Peasants' Party as a junior cabinet member. A disciple of the sociologist Dimitrie Gusti, who obtained him a membership in the Romanian Academy, he directed Romania's first Statistical Institute. During World War II, he rose to prominence as an expert adviser of Romanian dictator Ion Antonescu, applauding the antisemitic legislation and making antiziganism an official policy of the Romanian state. He was among the first intellectuals to propose the deportation of Romanian Jews and Romanies into occupied Transnistria. Additionally, Manuilă involved himself in the diplomatic standoffs between Romania and the Kingdom of Hungary, fighting against the loss of Northern Transylvania, then campaigning for her recovery.

By 1944, Manuilă was an Antonescu opponent, and involved himself in the August coup that toppled him. He remained active on the political scene even after the start of Soviet occupation, serving as Undersecretary of State on two successive coalition governments. He fell out with the Romanian Communist Party, and escaped the country before the imposition of a communist regime, rallying with the Romanian National Committee. He lived his final years in the United States, employed by Stanford University and the Census Bureau.

Biography

Early life and activism
Manuilă was born in Sâmbăteni, Arad County, on the traditional border between the regions of Banat and Crișana, both of which were then in Austria-Hungary. He was the son of Fabriciu Manuilă, a Romanian Orthodox Protopope from Lipova. As an ethnic Romanian activist, Father Fabriciu had been fighting the region's Magyarization, joining efforts with Sabin's uncle, Vasile Goldiș, who was a prominent militant in the Romanian National Party. As noted by scholar M. Benjamin Thorne, the Manuilă family also harbored racist prejudice against the Romanies (Gypsies), which may have shaped Sabin's political stances. He was educated at home and later graduated high school in Brașov. Since he could not pursue his studies in Romanian, Sabin entered the medical faculty of Budapest University in 1912, but remained active in Romanian nationalist circles, and published articles in political newspapers. He interrupted his studies from 1914 to 1918, taking part in World War I. A medic in the Austro-Hungarian Army, he saw action on the Russian Front, and was wounded.

By November 1918, following the split of Austria-Hungary and the democratization of Hungary, Manuilă was working as a physician in Lipova. He resumed his nationalist activities in support of Crișana and Transylvania's union with Romania, joining the Romanian National Guard and becoming its local commander. In December, he was called upon by his university colleagues to represent them at the Alba Iulia Great National Assembly, where he voted for union with Romania. The motion for union was read out by his uncle, Goldiș; Fabriciu and Sabin's brother, Camil Manuilă, were also present. In 1919, he obtained his doctorate in medicine. In 1920, he married Veturia Leucuția, a Banat native who would later become a doctor and set up an infrastructure for nursing education in Romania. She had also been a student representative at Alba Iulia.

Sabin was soon after employed by Cluj (Babeș-Bolyai) University, first as head of its children's hospital and assistant lecturer to Victor Babeș, then as head the social hygiene department. His scientific, teaching and publishing career took off between 1919 and 1926. He collected thousands of blood samples throughout Transylvania, pioneering the study of serology and immunology, and publishing his findings in Western scientific journals. During this period, he also began writing articles about epidemiology and the healthcare system's organization. His monograph on Epidemiile din Transilvania ("Epidemics in Transylvania") was presented by Babeș to the Romanian Academy, earning Manuilă the Academy Prize for 1921. His project doubled as an inquiry into racial science: Manuilă followed Ludwik Hirszfeld's ideas about the "racial index", concluding that there existed a distinct serological cluster of Balkan peoples, of which Romanians were a distinct subtype. The conclusion was discussed by other serologists: Gheorghe Popoviciu, who concluded that Manuilă's data were flawed, and that Romanians were not a race apart; and Petru Râmneațeanu, who believed that Manuilă was largely correct.

Manuilă became an assistant to Iuliu Moldovan, a pioneer in Romanian public health, but also a promoter of eugenics—a field which also interested Manuilă, who suggested the sterilization of the disabled and the encouragement of births among the healthy. The recipient of a Rockefeller Scholarship, he studied biostatistics at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in Baltimore in 1925–1926. Visiting Charles Davenport's laboratory, he became convinced that American liberal eugenicism was a viable model for Romania. Also a Rockefeller scholar, Veturia followed her husband to America. She became an enthusiast of social work and interventionism, and later an outspoken conservative feminist. Camil Manuilă, meanwhile, settled in Timișoara and became a noted figure in the business community, and eventually secretary of the Banat Chamber of Commerce and Industry. In 1925, he was president of the Romanian Football Federation.

Bucharest relocation and 1930 census

Upon his return, Manuilă was named inspector general for public health in Transylvania. In 1927, he gave lectures on eugenics and biopolitics at ASTRA Society. Founding a biopolitical and biometrical research center at Cluj University, he began cooperating with the eugenicist Sheldon C. Reed on "biological issues".

Also in 1927, Manuilă moved to the national capital Bucharest, where he began collaborating with Dimitrie Gusti and with the statistical school of Octav Onicescu. Focusing on biopolitics, his research took him into the exploration of local demographics and demographic history. He was especially active in the field of "ethnodemographic prognosis", one of the first and few Romanians who took up this chore. According to fellow statistician Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, his "organisation of Romania's vital statistics was an international paragon".

In 1929, he entered Gusti's Romanian Social Institute, and that year, together with five other doctors, he participated in a Gusti-coordinated monograph-writing campaign at Drăguș village in the vicinity of Făgăraș. As such, he led operations for the nationwide census of 1930, sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation, subsequently leading the Institute of Demography and Census. At the Social Institute, with Gusti's consent, he established a section for eugenics and biological anthropology. Supervised by Gusti and funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, Manuilă and his wife also created a Bucharest School of Social Work, which doubled as an institute for the propagation of eugenic ideals. It was located on YMCA grounds, and had Henri H. Stahl, Francisc Rainer, Gheorghe Banu, Mircea Vulcănescu and Xenia Costa-Foru among its lecturers.

At the time, Manuilă himself made groundbreaking discoveries about the demography of Transylvania and the Romanianization of its cities. In 1929, he put out the treatise  ("The Demographic Evolution of Cities and Ethnic Minorities in Transylvania"), which earned him another Academy prize. He made projects about population exchanges between Greater Romania and its various neighbors, with the goal of discarding "elements with a centrifugal tendency" and keeping "ethnic purity", and even proposed the colonization of his native Crișana with Romanians from Hungary. Moreover, Manuilă campaigned for the adoption of social welfare and biopolitical laws that, he argued, would curb emigration from Romania and promote the consolidation of a Romanian urban society. However, he believed that Romanianization was largely a natural phenomenon, and a facet of urbanization: the Romanian rural majority of the Austro-Hungarian period was moving into the cities. Uniquely among Romanian eugenicists, he endorsed fully the abortion-rights option, noting that natalism, while practical, should never infringe on a woman's informed choice.

ICS foundation
Active politically, Manuilă joined the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ), and began corresponding on social matters with the International Agrarian Bureau. From 1927 to 1930, he was a high-ranking civil servant within the Labor, Health and Social Protection Ministry, and was Undersecretary of State in a PNȚ cabinet, under Prime Minister Iuliu Maniu. He later became Maniu's adviser in matters of sociology. He represented Romania at congresses held by the International Statistical Institute, the International Institute of Sociology, the League of Nations Committee on Population, and International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP). He sided with Corrado Gini's wing of the IUSSP, which promoted the natalist and racialist dogmas of Italian fascism.

In 1933, the advent of Nazi Germany brought racism into the focus of Romanian intellectuals. In a 1934 interview, Manuilă expressed biopolitical reserves about Nazi racial doctrines. Although he believed in the "evident scientific facts" of racial determinism, he observed that "racial science" was still "young", and argued that Nazis were "compromising" the racial agenda. He also stated that Romanian Jews were "not a racial, but an economic problem, to which was added a sentimental factor". In August 1935, he was Vice President of the IUSSP Congress in Berlin, which was effectively a propaganda display for Nazi biopolitics, with Eugen Fischer as the host. By the end of the decade, Manuilă became convinced about the dangers of miscegenation, an idea which came to him from fellow sociologist Iordache Făcăoaru.

Returning to the Institute of Demography and Census, Manuilă helped Gusti organize another expedition, this time to his native Sâmbăteni (1934), and studied first-hand the region's depopulation. He also refocused on his eugenic projects: in 1935, he helped establish the Romanian Royal Eugenics Society (presided upon by Gheorghe Marinescu), also attending the Congress of Latin Eugenic Societies in Mexico City. Also that year, he addressed a memo to the Ministry of Education, proposing to assimilate, peacefully but resolutely, Romania's Hungarian-speaking Székelys. He also insisted on his old idea of "eradicating" the Hungarians of Crișana and bringing in their stead Romanians stranded across the border in Hungary, and demanded a strict policy of linguistic discrimination in Transylvania-proper. Nonetheless, Manuilă toned down the racialism of other eugenicists, who wanted the Székelys and their Csango relatives to be counted as separate from Hungarians, based on claims that both of the former had Romanian ancestry. He reputedly based his rejection on a linguistic rationale, as all three communities were Hungarian-speaking.

In 1937, Sabin Manuilă was an official host, and Veturia a guest speaker, at the Bucharest Anthropological Congress, placed under the patronage of King Carol II. From 1938, Manuilă headed his own Central Statistical Institute (Institutul Central de Statistică, ICS), while also serving as Secretary General of the Statistical Society, seconding Gusti. This move was a sign of his quarrels with Moldovan, who nevertheless continued to influence the Manuilă's work. His new research produced several detailed monographs, including a 1937 study on Populația României ("The Population of Romania"), and a 1938 Romanian encyclopedia (Enciclopedia României), which detailed and examined the 1930 census data. Dealing with the Great Depression, his articles of the time discuss the "overpopulation" of Romania's universities as a cause of white-collar unemployment, proposing a government selection of the human capital. However, when Carol II ordered him to estimate the number of jobless people with a college diploma, Manuilă counted 6,000 individuals, which was well below official expectations.

World War II racism
Manuilă had a sinuous career during the first years of World War II, when his interest shifted toward geopolitics and historical geography. In 1938, upon Gusti's recommendation, he was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy; until 1940, he was also a department head within Banu's Institute of Hygiene and Public Health. In 1939, Carol II's National Renaissance Front (FRN) terminated Manuilă's ICS, and all statisticians were left unemployed. During 1940, the regime again appealed to Manuilă's expertise. At the time, Romania had abandoned its friendship with the Western Allies, and was testing a rapprochement with Nazi Germany and the Axis Powers. This, however, meant negotiating territorial exchanges with the Nazi-backed Kingdom of Hungary. With Mihail Manoilescu and other Foreign Affairs officials, Manuilă attended the meeting in Turnu Severin, where the Romanian side first took into consideration population exchanges between Romania and Hungary.

In the end, a Nazi-mediated Vienna Award carved out the region of Northern Transylvania and assigned it to Hungary. Manuilă was present at the proceedings. The ICS returned to prominence in late 1940: following the Award and the political turmoil it generated, Romania became a National Legionary State, ruled over by Ion Antonescu. Manuilă and his staff were directly subordinated to the Conducător, "substantiating governmental policy decisions" and, after Romania's entry into the conflict as a Nazi ally, making demographic projects in view of a future peace. Historian Viorel Achim noted in 2005: "Marshal Antonescu and other high-ranking officials would consult him on every population policy issue. While they did not always take his advice, he usually succeeded in bringing them round to his views."

Historian Vladimir Solonari notes that Antonescu's ascendency signified Manuilă's own promotion: "Antonescu [...] absolutely trusted his expertise", and presented the ICS with a state monopoly on statistical research. Also according to Solonari, Manuilă transformed himself into "an enthusiastic supporter" of Nazi racial policies, "that he now wanted to introduce in Romania." The ICS remained "the most important" instrument of "ethnopolitics", and as such mediated between Antonescu and Nazi racial scientists, in particular members of the Expert Committee on Questions of Population and Racial Policy. Manuilă built contacts with Friedrich Burgdörfer, Wilfried Krallert, and Alessandro Molinari.

As scholar Maria Bucur writes, Manuilă made a transition to the far-right, but without establishing "explicit links" with the governing Iron Guard. When the Iron Guard was eventually banned, following the rebellion and pogrom of January 1941, its leadership insisted that Veturia Manuilă had played a hand in the affair. They cited her as an anti-Guardist influence on the dictator's wife, Maria Antonescu. Manuilă did however support the passage of Jewish segregation laws, adopting the corollaries of economic antisemitism, according to which Jewish wealth and influence needed to be kept in check.

Manuilă's antisemitism was more nuanced than the Guard's own policies. In his 1940 article about "racial commands", where he proposed to create a "Superior Council for the Protection of the Race", Manuilă insisted that the Jews were a largely harmless community, both self-segregated and endogamous. He elaborated on this issue with articles hosted by the Deutsches Archiv für Landes- und Volksforschung (1941), describing the "Jewish Question" in Romania as "qualitative", not "quantitative", and insisting that the Jewish population figures circulated in Romanian antisemitic circles were unrealistic. Instead, he claimed that "Romania's racial issue" was to be found among the Romanies (Gypsies), whom he described as "dysgenic", subversive, and exogamous. He endorsed their compulsory sterilization. This idea was supported by Burgdörfer, who described the Romanies as being of "capital importance" among Romania's issues in racial hygiene.

Manuilă soon began work on a new census, "a giant, extremely complex operation" which was intended to give added weight to Romania's claims on her neighbors. According to historian Victor Neumann, this enterprise was also notable for the "ideologized criteria and notions" which it vented in its published form. A special section of the 1941 census involved the cataloging of all Jewish property, a summary of which was sent to the German Main Security Office. Manuilă also advised government to add the criminal status of Romani individuals in its census data, including sentences for being "work-shy".

Manuilă and Transnistria deportations
In late 1941, with Romania's participation on the Eastern Front as a German ally, Manuilă again proposed, in his memos to Antonescu, a population exchange, meaning to solve the issue of Northern Transylvania. He and Antonescu discussed this matter face to face, during a meeting in the Bessarabian town of Tighina. Manuilă also envisaged the mass return of ethnic Romanians from Bulgaria and Serbia, the eventual relocation to Germany of all Germans in Romania, and a voluntary repatriation of the Csangos and Romanian Turks. He later advised Antonescu on resettling scattered communities of Romanian Ukrainians into the more compact Transnistria. These were to be then moved in other areas, where they were to replace Jews, Ukrainians and Russian Bessarabians—a measure that was actually set in motion in November 1941.

Manuilă also discussed Romania's new shape in the New Order, proposing a revision of Greater Romania's pre-1940 borders, excluding most of Southern Dobruja. The country was to annex Pokuttya and Békéscsaba, but not Transnistria. She was also to cede much of Hotin, Storojineț and Cernăuți counties to a Nazified Ukraine, and some western areas (including Salonta, Oradea and Satu Mare) to Hungary. Some references were made to the Timok Valley and the traditional homelands of the Aromanians, but the project made no explicit annexation proposal concerning those lands.

More significantly, the paper also envisaged the unilateral deportation to Transnistria of all Romanian Jews and Romanies, identifying them as stateless peoples with no outside protection. This measure was supposed to enforce Romania's "ethnic homogeneity", and was presumably influenced by Manuilă's confidence in Moldovan's eugenic movement, but did not, in fact, call for the physical elimination of either community.

The Manuilă's working relationship with Antonescu also involved them in other issues specific to the Holocaust in Romania. Veturia Manuilă worked with Maria Antonescu on the state-run charity office, called Patronage Council. In addition to its social work attributes, the institution was involved in extorting Jews who were subject to deportation. In 1942, Manuilă's demographic inspections in Transnistria made him a silent witness of the 1941 Odessa massacre and death marches to Berezivka. Later that year, Transnistria Governor Gheorghe Alexianu ordered Manuilă and Făcăoaru to carry out an anthropometric study of the Romanian soldiers, to gather evidence on possible Jewish exogamy. In 1943, Antonescu assigned Manuilă, Făcăoaru, and Banu to a governmental task-force "for the Promotion and Protection of the Biological Capital of the Nation"; Moldovan was its chairman.

According to Achim, the population-exchange texts do not exhibit a racist agenda, and are also "non-imperialistic". They are "in unison" with Antonescu's policies of ethnic cleansing, but were not in themselves the basis of a government program. Nonetheless, one of the memos stands as a historical premiere, since Manuilă made official claims about a "Gypsy problem", again describing the Romanies as a "dysgenic" threat, "social and national non-values, and a racial hazard". He also assessed that Romanies had been systematically under-counted in the 1930 census, and that this apparent assimilation reflected "extreme humanitarianism" on the Romanian side, and had gone on for far too long. According to scholar Dennis Deletant, this approach is "redolent of Nazi ideology", seeking "scapegoats for the woes of the Romanian people". Both Deletant and Thorne note that Manuilă's eugenic ideas about the Romanies did in fact shape Antonescu's "ethnic policies", leading to the Romanies' deportation.

1944 Coup and aftermath
Despite his official positions and involvement in racial projects, Manuilă was still affiliated with the PNȚ, which was in the semi-clandestine opposition to Antonescu. Radu Lecca, an Antonescu adviser who oversaw the deportations to Transnistria, later claimed that Manuilă was spying on the regime for the Americans. As noted by Achim: "Manuilă, despite his antiminority opinions, was perceived by many contemporaries, both before and after the war, as a democrat." At the ICS, he revived Gusti's old team in 1941, assigning them their own Office for Studies. He therefore collaborated with sociologists of all backgrounds: leftists such as Stahl and Anton Golopenția, alongside Făcăoaru, arrested by Antonescu for his role in the Iron Guard (Golopenția was directly involved in the project to resettle Romanians from Ukraine to Transnistria). With Manuilă's acquiescence, members of this team extended their protection to some 5,000 Jews, employing them at the ICS and preventing their deportation or internment in labor camps. This was contrary to Manuilă's regular agenda: in early 1942, he himself had sent Antonescu notes about deporting all "useless" Jews, the latter being defined by race. According to Bucur, both Manuilă and Făcăoaru were probably informed that the deportees were being decimated on arrival by a massive typhus epidemic.

The ICS also hosted an illegal cell of the Romanian Communist Party (PCdR), which worked closely with the communist resistant Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu. This group and the Institute as a whole played a major part in the antifascist coup of August 1944. During the events, Golopenția and his men occupied the building housing Radio Bucharest, while Manuilă, from his home on Schitu Măgureanu Boulevard, ensured communications between the PCdR and Maniu. Following the start of Soviet occupation, Manuilă joined the Romanian Society for Friendship with the Soviet Union (ARLUS), for a while heading its Sociological Section. At the same time, with an article in Revista Fundațiilor Regale, he argued that America's victory in the war was a direct evidence of its superior health policies.

Manuilă and Făcăoaru were publicly congratulated by the Jewish community for their role in rescuing their coreligionists. At the time, Manuilă was obfuscating his earlier participation in the passage of antisemitic regulations. In his December 1944 interview with the Jewish magazine Curierul Israelit, he asserted: "The adoption of racial laws constitutes a great aberration in the mind, is not congruent with this century, and is alien to the traditions of the Romanian nation."

Manuilă soon joined the Union of Patriots, a PCdR ally, and, in November, was appointed Undersecretary of State for Stately Organization, serving under Constantin Sănătescu. According to other sources, however, he was still (or also) a PNȚ representative. Under Sănătescu, Romania joined the Allies, and fought in particular against the Hungarians in Northern Transylvania. Manuilă was co-opted on the advisory council of the Commissariat for Transylvania's Liberated Regions, created by his patron Maniu as a special branch of government. Alongside the goal of returning Romanian administrators to the area, the Commissariat also made a specific point of dissuading Hungarian irredentism. Manuilă also campaigned internationally for the recognition of Romanian rule in Northern Transylvania, citing demographic and historical evidence in his English-language tract, The Vienna Award and Its Demographical Consequences (1945). He was consumed with a project to set up the Western Faculty of Medicine in Timișoara, with which he hoped to tackle the Banat depopulation issue.

Communist takeover and defection
Manuilă kept his government post after Sănătescu fell and was replaced with Nicolae Rădescu, but was forced out by the communist purge of the power structures, in March 1945. He returned to the ICS, but found himself in conflict with both the party cell and the corporate trade union. Having lost his job at ARLUS and his seat on the Romanian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, he was eventually demoted by the Institute in August 1947. His position was filled in by Golopenția, who, although a protégé of the communist Miron Constantinescu, was seen by Manuilă as a worthy successor. Manuilă became a political suspect, but not because of his Nazi contacts; rather, Manuilă was perceived as an Americophile.

With Georgescu-Roegen and the state carrier inspector Max Manolescu, Manuilă considered a plan to escape from Romania by plane, but this was thwarted by police during a routine checkup. According to Georgescu-Roegen, their plan also involved Pătrășcanu, who had fallen out with his communist partners. Seizing his last opportunity just before the communist regime took over, Manuilă appealed to the anti-communist resistance figure Silviu Craciunas, who ran a people-smuggling operation. Using this channel, and with assistance from three Jewish anticommunists (Lola Roth and the brothers Leibovici), Manuilă crossed the porous border into the Hungarian Republic. Sabin and Veturia Manuilă defected in Austria, and eventually made their way to the United States.

In 1948, Manuilă settled in New York City, where he continued his scientific and publishing work. Additionally, he was involved in the exile community, taking part in its cultural and political activities. He worked with the Iuliu Maniu Foundation, the Assembly of Captive European Nations (ACEN), the National Committee for a Free Europe, and a virtual government-in-exile, the Romanian National Committee (RNC). He also headed a section on the Study of Displaced Populations at the International Institute of Sociology, under Gini's presidency. Veturia Manuilă was also involved in such work, joining the National Council of Romanian Women in Exile and speaking on Radio Free Europe. In 1952, Manuilă became an RNC representative to the United Nations and, three years later, was sworn in as an executive member of the RNC. His brother Camil was also a member of the RNC staff by 1956, by which time the committee's hope for an anticommunist takeover in Romania were evidently unrealistic.

In 1950, Manuilă debated over Romania's fate behind the Iron Curtain with George Sokolsky, the American broadcaster, who had noted that, as home to a fascist regime, Romania deserved its status. Manuilă retorted that: "for a period, [Romania] had a fascist government, it is true. But Romania has overthrown it with decision and firmness. Italy had, Germany had, Japan had fascist governments, which were never overthrown until conquered. Yet they are today recipients of American favors." As noted by scholar Johanna Granville, this reply omitted to mention that the overthrow of fascism had in fact resulted in Northern Transylvania being returned to Romania. Stranded in Romania and sacked from his position at the institute, Golopenția drew up schemes for the decommunization in Romania, recording his thoughts and his intention to contact Manuilă. His notes were picked up by the Securitate during the Pătrășcanu trial, and resulted in Golopenția's fatal imprisonment.

Later life and legacy
Professionally, Manuilă was employed by Stanford University Institute for Food Research, where he published a monograph on The Agricultural Economy of the Danubian Countries: 1935-1945, then as a Counselor for the United States Census Bureau. Working at ACE and the Commission for Refugees Help, he dealt with issues of social security, population trends, and refugees' social integration. During the 1950s, he also completed work on demographic histories of the Romanian Jews (Regional Development of the Jewish Population in Romania in 1957, Populația Evreiască din România in 1958). These brought him close to Wilhelm Filderman, the exile Jewish Romanian political activist and RNC affiliate, who helped him obtain raw data. Manuilă presented his and Filderman's findings at the International Statistical Institute's 30th Congress, in Stockholm (1957). However, according to Holocaust historian Jean Ancel, Filderman "knew nothing of Manuilă's 'other face'", and Manuilă profited from his "good faith" to grossly underestimate Romania's share in the genocide. Filderman's more realistic notes were never published by Manuilă, who mis-cited them as backing his own data; Filderman, Ancel notes, never had a chance to question the text, having fallen ill with Alzheimer's disease between their compiling and the Stockholm presentation.

In September 1963, Manuilă attended the 20th International Congress of Sociology, in Córdoba, Argentina, where he presented a paper on wartime demographics in Romania, noting the increase of living standards in the 1960s. He died in New York City on November 20, 1964. His widow Veturia continued to publish memoirs and studies in social science. She died in Brick Township in 1986. Stripped of his Romanian Academy membership during the four decades of communist rule, Manuilă was posthumously readmitted in July 1990, that is to say six months after the Romanian Revolution. Access to his archive at the ICS was strictly prohibited under communism, and remained restricted after 1989.

As critically noted by Bucur, his subsequent depictions in Romanian historiography are those of a "tolerant, rational, balanced" scientist, glossing over his wartime activities. Controversially, in the mid-1990s Manuilă's studies on minority populations were included in works of Holocaust revisionists Kurt Treptow and Larry Watts, alongside fabricated quotes from Filderman, in what was read as an effort to induce doubt about Antonescu's antisemitic crimes. Manuilă's claims and the related fabrications were reused in denialist claims stated by authors such as Gheorghe Buzatu and Raoul Șorban.

Notes

References
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1894 births
1964 deaths
Romanian public health doctors
Hygienists
Serologists
Romanian sociologists
20th-century anthropologists
Romanian anthropologists
Physical anthropologists
20th-century geographers
Romanian geographers
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Romanian statisticians
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Geopoliticians
Romanian eugenicists
Abortion-rights activists
Proponents of scientific racism
Antiziganism in Romania
Romanian encyclopedists
20th-century essayists
Romanian essayists
Romanian opinion journalists
Corresponding members of the Romanian Academy
Academic staff of Babeș-Bolyai University
Stanford University staff
People from Arad County
Romanian Austro-Hungarians
Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church
Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I
Eötvös Loránd University alumni
Romanian civil servants
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Sabin Manuilă


Leonard Hugh Newman, (3 February 1909 - 23 January 1993) was a British entomologist, author and broadcaster.  He wrote many popular books on insects, especially butterflies and moths.  With Peter Scott and James Fisher, he was a resident member of the team who presented "Nature Parliament" on BBC radio's Children's Hour in the 1950s.  He ran a butterfly farm in Kent (which he inherited from his father), supplying among others Sir Winston Churchill, who bought many butterflies for his house at Chartwell.  A collection of Newman's entomological photographs is held by the library of the Natural History Museum in London

Bibliography (incomplete)
Talking of butterflies, moths and other fascinating insects (1946)
Butterfly haunts (1948)
British moths and their haunts (1949)
Butterflies on the wing (1949)
Moths on the wing (1950)
Stand & stare (1950) with W. J. C. Murray
Transformations of butterflies and moths (1952)
Nature parliament: A book of the broadcasts (1952) with James Fisher and Peter Scott
Linger and look (1952)
Nature's way : questions and answers on animal behaviour (1952) with W. J. C. Murray
How's your pet? (1953)
The observer's book of common British insects and spiders (1953)
Butterfly farmer (1953)
Butterflies of the fields and lanes, hills and heathland (1954)
Garden and woodland butterflies (1954)
Wander and watch (1954) with W. J. C. Murray
Butterflies of day and night : a book of beautiful butterflies and magnificent moths (1954)
Instructions to young naturalists (1956) with Maxwell Knight and W. E. Swinton
Looking at butterflies (1959)
Hawk-moths of Great Britain and Europe (1965)
Man and insects (1965)
Living with butterflies (1967)
Create a butterfly garden (1967), with Moira Savonius
Ants from close up (1968), with Stephen Dalton
The complete British butterflies in colour (1968)

British entomologists
British lepidopterists
1909 births
1993 deaths
20th-century American zoologists

L. Hugh Newman


Songs of a Sourdough is a book of poetry published in 1907 by Robert W. Service. In the United States, the book was published under the title The Spell of the Yukon and Other Verses.

The book is well known for its verse about the Klondike Gold Rush in the Yukon a decade earlier, particularly the long, humorous ballads, "The Shooting of Dan McGrew" and "The Cremation of Sam McGee."

Songs of a Sourdough has sold more than three million copies.

History
Service, an employee of the Imperial Bank of Canada, was posted to Whitehorse, Yukon, in 1904. He "took part in the extremely active Whitehorse social life. As was popular at the time he recited at concerts – things like "Casey at the Bat" and "Gunga Din", but they were getting stale."

One day (Service later wrote), while pondering what to recite at an upcoming church concert he met E.J. "Stroller" White, editor of the Whitehorse Star. White suggested: "Why don't you write a poem for it? Give us something about our own bit of earth. We sure would appreciate it. There's a rich paystreak waiting for someone to work. Why don't you go in and stake it?"

Out on a walk one Saturday night, Service heard the sounds of revelry coming from a saloon, and the phrase "A bunch of the boys were whooping it up" popped into his head. Inspired, he ran to the bank to write it down (almost being shot as a burglar), and by the next morning "The Shooting of Dan McGrew" was complete.

"A month or so later he heard a gold rush yarn from a Dawson mining man about a fellow who cremated his pal." He spent the night walking in the woods composing "The Cremation of Sam McGee," and wrote it down from memory the next day.

Other verses quickly followed. "In the early spring he stood above the heights of Miles Canyon ... the line 'I have gazed on naked grandeur where there's nothing else to gaze on' came into his mind and again he hammered out a complete poem, "The Call of the Wild". Conversations with locals led Service to write about things he had not seen (some of which had not actually happened) as well. He did not set foot in Dawson City until 1908, arriving in the Klondike ten years after the Gold Rush when his renown as a writer was already established.

After having collected enough poems for a book, Service "sent the poems to his father, who had emigrated to Toronto, and asked him to find a printing house so they could make it into a booklet. He enclosed a cheque to cover the costs and intended to give these booklets away to his friends in Whitehorse" for Christmas. His father took the manuscript to William Briggs in Toronto, whose employees loved the book. "The foreman and printers recited the ballads while they worked. A salesman read the proofs out loud as they came off the typesetting machines." An "enterprising salesman sold 1700 copies in advance orders from galley proofs." The publisher "sent Robert's cheque back to him and offered a ten percent royalty contract for the book."

Service's book, Songs of a Sourdough, was "an immediate success." It went through seven printings even before its official release date. Ultimately, Briggs "sold fifteen impressions in 1907. That same year there was an edition in New York, Philadelphia, and London. The London publisher, T. Fisher Unwin, struck a twenty-third printing in 1910, and thirteen more by 1917."

"When copies of the book reached Whitehorse, Robert's own minister took him aside to let him know how wicked were his stories. Service hung his head in shame.... But, that summer, tourists from the south arrived in Whitehorse looking for the famous poet; and he autographed many of his books."

"Service eventually earned in excess of $100,000 for Songs of a Sourdough alone (Mackay 14, 408n19)."

Contents

The book contains these poems:

 "The Land God Forgot"
 "The Spell of the Yukon"
 "The Heart of the Sourdough"
 "The Three Voices"
 "The Law of the Yukon"
 "The Parson's Son"
 "The Call of the Wild"
 "The Lone Trail"
 "The Pines"
 "The Lure of Little Voices"
 "The Song of the Wage-Slave"
 "Grin"
 "The Shooting of Dan McGrew"
 "The Cremation of Sam McGee"
 "My Madonna"
 "Unforgotten"
 "The Reckoning"
 "Quatrains"
 "The Men That Don't Fit"
 "Music in the Bush"
 "The Rhyme of the Remittance Man"
 "The Low Down White"
 "The Little Old Log Cabin"
 "The Younger Son"
 "The March of the Dead"
 ""Fighting Mac"" (a paean to the life and death of Hector MacDonald)
 "The Woman and the Angel"
 "The Rhyme of the Restless Ones"
 "New Year's Eve"
 "Comfort"
 "The Harpy"
 "Premonition"
 "The Tramps"
 "L'Envoi"

References

External links

 Annotated text of The Spell of the Yukon

1907 books
Canadian poems
Canadian poetry collections
Works by Robert W. Service

Songs of a Sourdough


Processual archaeology, formerly called New Archaeology, is a way of doing archaeology that tries to be as scientific as possible. Archaeologists are people who study people through objects. Often by digging for remains and artifacts. Processual archaeologists use specific methods to come up with general rules that explain human culture around the world and through time.  This means they are trying to find reasons that explain why people around the world do things in similar ways.

Background of Processual Archaeology

Processual archaeology came about in the 1960s and is an approach to archaeology; this means it is a way of doing archaeology that people choose to follow. Before the processual approach, another approach was 'culture history' which tried to only create histories for particular places.  Culture history archaeologists started with a modern culture and traced its roots back as far as they would go. Culture history archaeologists dug units (square holes that are dug very carefully) that went very deep to find the oldest objects. Anywhere you dig, the youngest materials are close to the surface at the top and the oldest materials are at the bottom. Archaeologists learn about the history of a place by knowing what objects came in what order. This helps archaeologists understand the history of a place.

Processual archaeology is different from culture history because archaeologists dug larger units to understand more widely what was happening at a site, or place of archaeological importance. These new archaeologists also added many scientific instruments to help them study the past.

Lewis Binford and Archaeology as Anthropology

Lewis Binford was a famous processual archaeologist from the 1960s. He believed that archaeology should be practiced like anthropology. Anthropology is the study of past and present people and the many parts of what it means to be human. Binford argued that archaeologists are responsible to add to anthropology as a field of study; this includes how cultures and societies around the world change over time.

Binford wanted to study different types of things to show changes over time in many different parts of human culture. He tried to do this by studying things in a systematic way (a way that follows set rules and can be repeated). Binford believed that some parts of culture were more important than others and thought that the way people act is based on forces or laws that people do not know about and cannot control.

What do processual archaeologists do?

Processual archaeologists tried to create models to explain why and how people would act. They felt that humans behave the same and given the same conditions or choices, people will make similar ones.
Processual archaeologists also decided to conduct archaeologically scientifically. They used radiometric dating techniques to figure out how old an artifact is, as well as other techniques to prove how the artifact was used. They began to reproduce artifacts to better understand how they were made. This is called experimental archaeology. Another scientific approach was to conduct ethnographic fieldwork (link) to better understand past hunter gatherers. Processualists think that the way hunter gatherers are today is similar to the way they were in the past. This helps us understand them better.

Impact

Post processualism challenged processual archaeology. Post processual archaeologists thought that processualists did not think beyond the artifacts and forgot about the people behind the pots. They also challenged the assumption that humans act rationally and the idea that behavior can be modelled. They also challenged how processual archaeologists know what they know, and looked at the biases behind work.

Modern Day

Processual archaeology continues to be used today, however it is not the same as it was when it started. The biggest change came with computers. The models that archaeologists could be tested and seen to be accurate or not. More detailed examinations of artifacts could be made. Not all archaeologists think the same way about the past. After processual archaeology came post-processual archaeology which challenged a lot of the assumptions being made. Both processualists and post processualists exist today.

References
Binford, Lewis R.
1962. "Archaeology as anthropology". In Contemporary Archaeology, ed by M. Leone, pp. 93–101. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
1965. "Archaeological systematics and the study of culture process". In American Antiquity 31(2) Part 1: 203-210.

Binford, Sally R. & Lewis Binford.
1968. New Perspectives in Archaeology. Chicago, Aldine Press.

Trigger, Bruce.
1989. A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge University Press: New York

White, Leslie A.
1959. The Evolution of Culture. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Willey, Gordon R., and Philip Phillips.
1958. Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Archaeology

Processual archaeology


Yuri Dmitriyevich Kasparyan (, born 24 June 1963) is a Russian musician best known for his time as the guitarist of the Soviet rock band Kino and as a member of Vyacheslav Butusov's group U-Piter.

Early life
Kasparyan was born on 24 June 1963 in Simferopol, to entomologist Dmitry Kasparyan, who was of Armenian origin, and biologist Irina Guslits, who was of Russian origin. In 1964, his family moved to Leningrad, where he grew up. From 1970 to 1977, he studied cello at a children's music school in Pushkin. But after getting interested towards Western rock music, he preferred to play guitar. In the late 1970s, he played in various student band groups.

Music career
In early 1983 he met Viktor Tsoi. Having become his main associate and close friend, he began to participate in rehearsals and recordings, and later became the lead guitarist of Kino until 1990. According to musician Boris Grebenshchikov, Kasparyan was a poor guitar player initially, but he quickly progressed and eventually became the second most important member of Kino.

From 1983 to the early 1990s, he took part in concerts and recordings, including music for films of the band Pop-Mechanics by Sergey Kuryokhin. From 1986 to 1989 he took part in performances and recordings of songs by Joanna Stingray. In the spring of 1987, together with the members of the bands  and Kino, he recorded the album Start. In the late 1980s, along with Kino, he toured extensively within the republics of the USSR, as well as Europe and the United States. In autumn 1990, he was baptized and took the name 'George'. As of present, he only uses the name as a pseudonym.

Following the death of Viktor Tsoi in a car accident in August 1990, Kino broke up after releasing their final album, consisting of songs that Tsoi and the group were working on in the months before his death. Kasparyan left the stage for several years and studied esotericism and philosophy. He worked with the art group Atrium-Alfavit by Sergey de Rocambole as a composer until 1999. He wrote music for a number of conceptual projects, such as Taranavtika and Artikulyatsiya. He also recorded the instrumental album Klyuchi Drakona. He also experimented with combining conceptual format with rock and pop music.

In 1997, Kasparyan, Vyacheslav Butusov, and their mentor Sergey de Rocambole recorded a joint album entitled . From 1999 to 2001, Kasparyan worked on the Zvezdnyy Ublyudok project with Butusov and Igor Tikhomirov.

In September 2001, Kasparyan and Butusov founded the band U-Piter. In 2005, a selection of Kino songs appeared in their repertoire.

In December 2010, the first concert of the Simfonicheskoye Kino took place. In 2014, he was included in the Music category of  magazine's "Top 50 Most Famous People of St. Petersburg" list.

On 26 February 2017, after its final Siberian-Ural tour, U-Piter formally disbanded. In the summer of 2017, Kasparyan founded the funk-disco group CHIC Project. Since December 2017, he has been part of Ronin, which was founded by Viktor Tsoi's son .

Personal life
In 1987 he married Joanna Stingray (born: Joanna Fields), an American singer and socialite who helped to popularize Soviet and post-Soviet rock culture in the West during her time in the Soviet Union. They divorced in 1991.

Kasparyan currently resides in St. Petersburg.

References

External links

Russian rock guitarists
Russian male guitarists
1963 births
Living people
Kino
Musicians from Simferopol
Russian people of Armenian descent

Yuri Kasparyan


Aleksandr Andreevich Rubel (born 25 December 1980) is a Ukrainian-born Estonian serial killer convicted of six murders in Tallinn, Estonia. Sentenced as a minor to the maximum punishment allowed by law (eight years of imprisonment), he was released from Tartu Prison on 8 June 2006. Although it has been speculated that Rubel currently lives in Ukraine, multiple sources have seen him back in Estonia with a changed name.

Murders
Rubel, a solvent abuser, had huffed gasoline vapours before committing his crimes.

On 19 September 1997, Rubel killed Tõnu Põld (born 1952), a disabled neighbour.  According to Rubel's testimony he had a desire to kill anybody at that time, and had picked Põld as his first victim because he knew Põld could not mount a spirited defense.

On 7 November 1997 Rubel's second victim, Aleksei Pavlov, was first stabbed four times by Rubel's father Andrei Rubel. According to his testimony Pavlov had been a guest of the Rubel's and Andrei Rubel had believed Pavlov had been courting his wife.

Pursuant to the stabbing, Aleksandr Rubel helped Pavlov into an empty room within the house, where he strangled him and threw him out the third-floor window.

Andrei Rubel was convicted as an accessory in this murder and sentenced to seven years imprisonment.

Between 22 and 24 January 1998, Rubel stabbed Jevgeni Shelest (born 1947) to death at the Stroomi Beach.

On 2 February 1998, Rubel decapitated Vladimir Ivanov (born 1954), a random passerby.

Rubel dispatched and decapitated Ivanov using an axe after asking him for a cigarette and five EEK "for gasoline".

On 9 February 1998, Rubel killed Olga Voronkova (born 1944), a neighbour tenant in the tenement house in which the Rubel resided in Kopli (Kopli 100B).

Between 28 February and 1 March 1998, Rubel killed Vladimir Kinzerski (born 1944) in his house.

On 4 June 1998, Rubel killed 15-year-old Alice Siivas (born 22 February 1983) in Paljassaare by slitting her throat.

See also
 List of serial killers by country

Sources
 Postimees 11 February 1999: Sarimõrvar nautis verd ja surma by Tiiu Põld
 Postimees 16 February 1999: Sarimõrtsukas jäi süüdi seitsme inimese tapmises by Tiiu Põld
 SL Õhtuleht 5 April 2006: Kopli sarimõrvar pääseb vabadusse
 Postimees 7 June 2006: Sarimõrvar Rubel vabaneb homme vanglast
 SL Õhtuleht 9 June 2006: Kas tapakirg on taltunud?

1980 births
1997 crimes in Estonia
1997 murders in Europe
1998 crimes in Estonia
1998 murders in Europe
1990s murders in Estonia
Estonian expatriates in Ukraine
Estonian people convicted of murder
Estonian serial killers
Living people
People convicted of murder by Estonia
People from Tallinn

Aleksandr Rubel


was an onmyōji, a leading specialist of Onmyōdō during the middle of the Heian period in Japan. In addition to his prominence in history, he is a legendary figure in Japanese folklore. He has been portrayed in several stories and films.

Seimei worked as an onmyōji for emperors and the Heian government, advising on the spiritually correct way to deal with issues. He prayed for the well-being of emperors and the government and advised on various issues. He was also an astrologer and predicted astrological events. He enjoyed an extremely long life, free from any major illness, contributing to the popular belief that he had mystical powers.

The Seimei Shrine, located in Kyoto, is a famous shrine dedicated to him. The Abeno train station and district in Osaka are named after him, as it is one of the locations where legends place his birth.

Life and legends

Seimei's life is well recorded, and there is little to question about his existence. Immediately after his death, however, legends arose much like those surrounding Merlin. Many legends of Seimei were originally written in the Konjaku Monogatarishū, and by the Edo period, many stories in circulation focused on his heroic acts.

His ancestry was not very clear. His ancestor might have been Abe no Masuki (安倍 益材), a Daizen-no-daibu (大膳大夫 "Master of the Palace Table"), or Abe no Shunzai (安倍 春材), a Kokushi of Awaji. Another candidate is Abe no Miushi (阿倍 御主人), who appeared as an Udaijin (右大臣 "Minister of the Right") in The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter. Seimei might also have been a descendant of Abe no Nakamaro as Abe-no-Sukune-no-Seimei (安倍宿禰晴明). However, some other sources recorded his name as Abe-no-Asomi-no-Seimei (安倍朝臣晴明), which refers to the Abe-no-Asomi descending from Abe no Miushi. The name Sukune (宿禰), through the Abe clan, was taken from Naniwa no Imiki (難波忌寸, later Naniwa no Sukune) of the Naniwa clan (難波氏), also known as the Naniwa no Kishi (難波吉士), which Naniwa no Mitsuna (難波 三綱, ) established.

According to Anderson, Abe no Seimei was a descendant of the poet Abe no Nakamaro and a disciple of Kamo no Tadayuki (賀茂忠行) and Kamo no Yasunori, 10th-century diviners of the Heian court. He became Kamo no Yasunori's successor in astrology and divination, while Yasunori's son took on the lesser responsibility of devising the calendar. Seimei's duties included analyzing strange events, conducting exorcisms, warding against evil spirits, and performing various rites of geomancy. He was said to be incredibly skilled in divining the sex of fetuses and finding lost objects. According to the Konjaku Monogatarishu, he correctly predicted the abdication of Emperor Kazan based on his observation of celestial phenomena.

Seimei's reputation grew sufficiently that, from the late 10th century, the Onmyōryō, the government ministry of Onmyōdō, was controlled by the Abe clan. The Kamo clan likewise became the hereditary keepers of the calendar.

The mystical symbol of the central five-pointed star referred to in the West as a pentagram, is known in Japan as the Seiman, the Seal of Abe no Seimei, or the Seimei Kikyō (晴明紋 / 晴明桔梗); this pentacle was originally the personal seal of Abe-no-Seimei, later becoming the symbol for the Onmyōryō (the government ministry department for the practice of Onmyōdō, or the Bureau of Taoist Geomancy) and for Onmyōdō itself, given its association with the Chinese Five Elements.

According to legend, Abe no Seimei was not entirely human. His father, Abe no Yasuna (安倍 保名), was human. Still, his mother, Kuzunoha, was a kitsune (a "fox spirit"). At a very early age, no later than five, he was allegedly able to command weak oni to do his bidding. His mother entrusted Seimei to Kamo no Tadayuki to live a good human life and not become evil himself.

The Heian period, mainly when Seimei lived, was a time of peace. Many of his legends revolve around a series of magical battles with a rival, Ashiya Dōman (蘆屋道満), who often tried to embarrass Seimei so that he could usurp his position. One noted story involved Dōman and the young Seimei in a divination duel to reveal the contents of a particular box. Dōman had another person put fifteen mandarin oranges into the box and "divined" that there were fifteen oranges in it. Seimei saw through the ruse, metamorphosed the oranges into rats, and stated that fifteen rats were in the box. When the rats were revealed, Dōman was shocked and defeated.

Seimei is involved in numerous other tales as well. He appears as a minor character in the Heike Monogatari and is said to be responsible for divining the location of the Shuten-dōji, a powerful oni purportedly slain by Minamoto no Yorimitsu. He is sometimes said to be the onmyōji who discovered Tamamo-no-Mae's true nature, although the time of the Tamamo-no-Mae story does not coincide with Seimei's lifetime; other sources credit the act to a descendant, Abe no Yasuchika.

Legacy

After Seimei's death, Emperor Ichijo made a shrine in his honor, the Seimei Jinja was erected at the location of his home in 1007 AD. The original shrine was destroyed in war during the fifteenth century, but it was rebuilt in the same location and still stands today. The Seimei Jinja located in Kyoto attracts fans of Seimei's interpretations in popular culture. In 2005, the shrine was renovated and decorated with pentagrams. The shrine sells amulets with pentagrams and the Chinese bellflower adorning them, associated with Seimei. The shrine is now popular with fans of Seimei-inspired media, such as Okano Reiko's manga.

The asteroid 5541 Seimei, discovered in 1976, is named for him.

Japanese figure skater and two-time Olympic champion Yuzuru Hanyu portrayed Abe no Seimei in his Olympic free skate program Seimei, using the soundtrack of the movies Onmyōji and Onmyōji II. With the program, Hanyu became the first skater across all disciplines to score above 200 points in the free skate and set back-to-back world records in the 2015–16 season. This program also contributed to the win of his second Olympic title in 2018 and the completion of the first career Super Slam in the men's singles discipline in 2020.

Abe no Seimei's origin story would be retold on the Japanese Animation television show, Folktales from Japan in episode 83. His story would appear in the third segment of the episode, telling the tale of the meeting of parents and early life known as Doujimaru. It would show how his mother commanded him to become a fortune teller at the capital to help others.

Abe-No-Seimei was termed the "Merlin the Magician of Japan" by some scholars due to his legends and portrayals in several stories, folklore, and films – also due to the legends of Merlin being a cambion of a demon and a human much like the Kuzunoha legend.

Senji Ryakketsu
Abe no Seimei is credited with the Senji Ryakketsu, an Onmyōdō primer.

In fiction

His name appears in many works of fiction, often as a helpful, wise man and rarely as an enemy, such as Twin Star Exorcists. There are exceptions, such as Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan, where Seimei was also a great ayakashi and the Lord of Darkness.

Since 1989, Abe no Seimei has been depicted as a bishōnen.

Novels
The first modern fictional work credited with bringing back widespread interest to Onmyōdō mysticism in Japan is the 1985 historical fantasy novel Teito Monogatari by Hiroshi Aramata. In the novel's story, two of the primary characters, Yasumasa Hirai and Yasunori Katō, are descendants of Seimei and have inherited all his knowledge. Yasumasa Hirai is a notable example because his appearance is modeled off classic depictions of Seimei, and many of his actions are based on those of Seimei's from stories in the Uji Shūi Monogatari. Yasunori Katō's first name "Yasunori" is derived from the name of Seimei's legendary teacher and he proudly wears Seimei's symbol, the Seiman (five-pointed star), on his gloves and handkerchief. Unlike Hirai, though, Katō's burning hatred for the Japanese Empire has metamorphosed him into an oni. With one in defense of the Empire and one against it, the two men naturally become enemies. The rest of the novel chronicles the battle between their two factions.

In 1988, Baku Yumemakura started a novel series named Onmyōji with Seimei portrayed as a handsome young man who lived in a Heian-period world populated by mysterious beings. Reiko Okano turned this into a manga and became popular with teenage girls. In 2002, an NHK television series was made based on the novels. A version of Abe has also been rendered by acclaimed Taiwanese manga artist Ethan, who has stated that he is a massive fan of the novel.

Films
The film Onmyōji, starring Mansai Nomura as Seimei, was released in 2001 (2004 in the U.S.) by Pioneer (now Geneon). As with any other work featuring both Seimei and Minamoto no Hiromasa, the film was based on Yumemakura's novels. Despite Yumemakura being involved, the manga adaptation and the movie adaptation are quite different in style and plot.

A sequel, Onmyōji 2, was made in 2003.

In 2020, a Chinese film, The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity, was produced based on an adaption from Onmyōji written by Baku Yumemakura. Seimei was portrayed by Mark Chao. In the following year, another Chinese film, The Yinyang Master was released. The film is an adaption of  a NetEase game Onmyōji (which in turn is based on the novel series, Onmyōji by author Baku Yumemakura). Seimei was portrayed by Chen Kun.

Television
To capitalize on the success of the Onmyōji films, Fuji Television produced a miniseries in 2004, called Onmyoji: Abe no Seimei. This series has no ties to cinematic releases.

Games
The horror/survival PlayStation 2 video game Kuon featured Seimei as a female exorcist who becomes a playable character near the end of the game.

Abe no Seimei was made a playable character in the PlayStation 4, PlayStation Portable, Xbox One, and Wii U versions of Warriors Orochi 3.

Seimei appears in the video game Toukiden: The Age of Demons as a mitama (a heroe's soul from Japanese history).

Manga
Hao Asakura's character from Hiroyuki Takei'''s Shaman King is directly based on Seimei. Hao is the author of a magical book called Chō-Senjiryakketsu, clearly inspired by Seimei's Senji Ryakketsu. They also share facts about their lives, such as their mother being called a demon fox and their ability to create oni since they were young.

Seimei had been shown in a manga called Nurarihyon no Mago by Hiroshi Shiibashi, as a Nue, dark lord of the Ayakashi, born from an evil fox. Nurarihyon no Mago was adapted into an anime series starting on July 2010.

Abe no Seimei also appears in the manga Igyoujin Oniwakamaru as an evil spirit who plans to revive himself to begin his second life and rule over humans and yokai.

He also appeared in Kouta Hirano's Drifters manga series leading a group of magicians called the Octobrist Organization. Appearing as a young man, he has been pulled into an alternate world where various historical figures are summoned, and magicians need their skills and techniques to save their world from destruction. It is mentioned in English dubbed anime of Drifters that Abe no Haruakira was another way to read the kanji of his name.

In the manga series Twin Star Exorcists, Seimei was, in fact, a female exorcist no older than thirteen. She was the founder of yang-style exorcism who did away with the King of Kegare (Impurities), creating Magano as a powerful barrier and forcefield. Before shutting herself and her retainers inside, she turned to her disciple Doujimaru and granted him a some of her powers. This Doujimaru that modern times know as 'Abe no Seimei'. (The truth about Seimei being female is known only to a few characters in-universe). In contrast to the source material, however, the second half of its anime adaptation with its completely original story in comparison to the source has Seimei still be male. He serves as the final antagonist of the anime-only storyline, with his plans to use the Cataclysm King that is Rokuro to cleanse humanity by erasing humanity's free will.

 Anime
Seimei can be seen in the anime Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi, released in 2004 in the U.S. by ADV Films. The show's focus was on the Onmyoji practice of changing events to avoid an ill occurrence and the misadventures of two youths. Seimei also appears in the anime Gintama as an onmyoji, and in the anime Shonen Onmyouji which is about his grandson. Seimei is a central character in the anime called Otogi Zoshi.

Seimei appears in the anime New Getter Robo'' as the leader of the villainous oni.

The second season of the anime Garo: The Animation features a female Abe no Seimei as its protagonist.

Seimei appears in the PlayStation Vita game Oreshika: Tainted Bloodlines as the main villain of the game, a priest who places a curse on the main characters that shortens their lifespan to only two years.

He also appears in the anime Fukigen no Mononokean with Ashiya as his companion rather than his rival.

Seimei plays a role in the Midnight Occult Civil Servants anime, about mild-mannered civil servants in Tokyo's Shinjuku ward who secretly manage a huge population of fairies and other magical creatures.

Games
In Part 1.5 of the mobile game Fate/Grand Order, Seimei's name is claimed as an undercover pseudonym used by Ashiya Dōman in the Shimōsa story chapter. Later, Seimei indirectly appears briefly in Part 2's Heian-kyō story chapter as an ally to the protagonist.

Onmyoji, a mobile game, featured Abe no Seimei as the protagonist who summons various Shikigami to ward off demons alongside his onmyoji comrades.

In Dragalia Lost, Seimei plays a part as head of the Ox Clan, one of the twelve Hinomotoan clans serving Amaterasu, with his soul pact dragon Gozu Tennō and his kitsune disciple Kuzunoha.

Seimei appears as an NPC in the video game Nioh 2. Despite being from the Heian period, he strangely appears during the Sengoku era to train the players in the art of Onmyō magic. It is later revealed in the DLC "Darkness in the Capital" that this individual was an avatar created by the real Seimei, who had sacrificed himself alongside Minamoto no Yorimitsu to seal away Shuten Dōji and Tamamo-no-Mae within Byōdō-in during the Heian period.

References

Cited works

External links

921 births
1005 deaths
Japanese mythology
Onmyōji
Deified Japanese people

Abe no Seimei


Hanan Mohamed Abdelrahman is an Egyptian-Norwegian mathematics educator, the 2017 winner of the .

Life and career
Hanan Mohamed Abdelrahman is originally from Egypt, where her father was an engineer and her mother was a banker. She came to Norway with her husband, a Sudanese immigrant to Norway, in 2002. She has a master's degree in mathematics education, and is a teacher at , a secondary school near Oslo.

Contributions
Abdelrahman's school has many immigrant students of varying backgrounds. Abdelrahman provides them with mathematical games, puzzles, and videos as well as the more traditional coursework of mathematics. She takes the point of view that with individual attention all her students should be able to learn mathematics,
and that all should be equally challenged.

Abdelrahman is the author of a Norwegian-language book, Mattehjelperen - Leksehjelp for foreldre og elever på ungdomsskolen, aimed at getting parents to help students with mathematics, and the founder of an online web site for assisting students with mathematics. She is also a member of a national committee to investigate the effects of gender differences on school outcomes.

Prize
The Holmboe Prize, which Abdelrahman won in 2017, is an annual award for the top mathematics teachers at the primary and secondary school level in Norway, given by the Norwegian Mathematics Council. It is presented in conjunction with the Abel Prize, whose 2017 winner was Yves Meyer. The Holmboe Prize is named after Norwegian mathematics teacher Bernt Michael Holmboe, the teacher of Niels Henrik Abel. It offers a prize of 100,000 Norwegian krone to be split between its winner and the winner's school.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
21st-century Egyptian mathematicians
21st-century Norwegian mathematicians
Women mathematicians
Mathematics educators

Hanan Mohamed Abdelrahman


Snow Hill Tunnel is a railway tunnel underneath Birmingham city-centre. It runs for 635 yards (580 metres),  linking Birmingham Moor Street station at its southern end, with Birmingham Snow Hill station at its northern end. It is a vital link in the cross-city Snow Hill Lines.

History

The tunnel was opened in 1852 by the Great Western Railway as part of its London Paddington to  main line. It was built using the cut and cover method as far as Temple Row, and then a deep cutting to Snow Hill. In 1872 the cutting from Temple Row to Snow Hill was roofed over and the Great Western Arcade built on top.

Bank of England siding
At the Snow Hill end of the tunnel, a short siding existed within the tunnel, alongside which was an underground entrance to the Birmingham branch of the Bank of England. The siding was used to transport cash and bullion by train to and from the bank, a facility which was last used in the mid-1960s. The bank entrance is now sealed up.

Bottleneck
As traffic into Snow Hill station grew, the twin tracked tunnel became a capacity bottleneck. This proved to be a problem when Snow Hill station was rebuilt and expanded in the 1900s. It was not economically feasible to widen the tunnel, as this would have required demolition of prime city-centre buildings whose foundations impeded construction. The capacity problem was therefore solved by building Moor Street station as a terminus at the southern end of the tunnel, in order to allow local trains from the south to terminate there instead of Snow Hill.

Closure and reopening
Snow Hill station was run down and closed under the Beeching axe in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Services south from Snow Hill were ended in 1968, and the tunnel was closed to all traffic. The last train passed through on 2 March 1968. Trains from the north continued into Snow Hill until the station was closed in 1972.

Having been derelict for over 19 years, the tunnel was reopened in 1987, when a new station at Snow Hill was built. Also, Moor Street station at the southern end of the tunnel was re-sited, with two new through platforms built adjacent to the tunnel mouth. These replaced the previous terminus platforms which were then closed once the tunnel was reopened. Shortly before it opened to traffic, a charity walk through the tunnel took place, where members of the public were allowed to walk through the tunnel, from Moor Street to Snow Hill, in return for a donation to charity. The tunnel was officially reopened on 5 October 1987, along with the new Snow Hill and Moor Street stations.

The growth in traffic into Snow Hill meant that the old capacity bottleneck problem resurfaced. This led to the reopening of two of the terminus platforms at Moor Street in 2010, allowing some Chiltern Railways expresses to terminate there instead of Snow Hill.

Coordinates

See also
Hockley Tunnels
Snow Hill Tunnel (London) - unrelated tunnel of the same name in London.

References

Tunnels in Birmingham, West Midlands
Railway tunnels in England
Great Western Railway
Tunnels completed in 1852
Tunnels completed in 1872

Snow Hill tunnel (Birmingham)


William Harrison (20 May 1728 – 24 April 1815) was an English instrument maker, the son of John Harrison, inventor of the marine chronometer.

Early life
He was born in Barrow-upon-Humber but moved to London to assist his father in developing the chronometer.

Development of marine watches
In 1761 he sailed to Jamaica on HMS Deptford in charge of his aged father's latest development, the "sea watch", now known as the H4 marine watch, which was to undergo critical performance trials during the transatlantic crossing. Parliament had offered a large prize (20,000 pounds) for a practical working solution to the problem of determining longitude at sea and set up the Board of Longitude to evaluate submissions. In spite of the success of the H4 trials, where the timepiece was shown to be very accurate and reliable and had enabled the longitude to be accurately determined, the Board of Longitude insisted on a second transatlantic crossing to confirm the results. He undertook a second voyage in 1764, sailing to Barbados on HMS Tartar. However, the Board of Longitude were still not convinced that the conditions for the prize had been met.

He then worked with his father, who was now in his late 70s, to produce the H5 chronometer which in 1772 they demonstrated to King George III with great success, gaining the king's support in their fight for the prize offered by Parliament. They were eventually awarded a sum of money, but not the full amount originally offered.

Other roles

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1765, his candidature citation reading "Mr William Harrison of East Street Red Lyon Square, being desirous of the honour of becoming a Member of this Society, Is recommended by us as a Person well skilled in Mechanicks, and several other useful other parts of Mechanical learning, and well known to the learned not only in this Kingdom, but several parts of Europe, for his careful Experiments for the discovery of the Longitude at Sea and therefore we think he will be an useful member of this Society."  He was described as a Scientific Instrument Maker.

He was a Governor of the Foundling Hospital and helped to teach music to the children. He was a deputy lieutenant of Monmouthshire and Middlesex  and was elected Sheriff of Monmouthshire in 1791.

Death
He died in 1815 and was buried in his father's tomb in St John's churchyard, Hampstead. The south face of the tomb has the inscription "And to his Son, WILLIAM HARRISON, FRS, born 1728 at Barrow-on-Humber, died 1815.  He was the custodian of his father's prize-winning watch H4 during the vital official trials at sea to Jamaica in 1761, and to Barbados in 1764.  He also actively helped his father in the long and difficult negotiations with the Board of Longitude and Parliament when claiming the £20,000 prize.  For many years he was a Prominent Governor of the Foundling Hospital, teaching music to the children, and was appointed High Sheriff of Monmouthshire in 1791"

References

1728 births
1815 deaths
People from Barrow upon Humber
Fellows of the Royal Society
High Sheriffs of Monmouthshire

William Harrison (instrument maker)


Robert Gerald Beaumont (April 1, 1932 – October 24, 2011) was the founder of Sebring-Vanguard a Florida-based company that produced the Citicar, an electric automobile manufacturer from 1974 to 1977. He was born in Teaneck, New Jersey and attended Hartwick College after serving in the United States Air Force.

Career
Beaumont was the owner of a Chrysler dealership in upstate New York. In the early 70's, he moved to Sebring, Florida, where he founded Vanguard Vehicles, later named Sebring Vanguard where the CitiCar was produced. Nearly 2,300 Citicars were built and sold, many of which are still in use today. Sebring-Vanguard closed in 1977 with most of the assets sold to Frank Flower who formed a new company called Commuter Vehicles, Inc. to continue production of his re engineered Commuter-Car version from 1979 to 1982.
After the closing of Sebring-Vanguard, Beaumont moved to the Washington D.C area in order to lobby and promote electric vehicles.  Later he established a used automobile dealership outside Columbia, Maryland.
In the early 1990s with the California emissions regulations looming, Beaumont formed Renaissance Cars, Inc. and created the all-electric Tropica.

Death
Beaumont died October 24, 2011, at his home in Columbia, Maryland.

References

Sources
 Robert G. Beaumont Designer of the Citicar
 The Lost Cord by Barbara Taylor Published 1995.

1932 births
2011 deaths
American founders of automobile manufacturers
Hartwick College alumni
People from Columbia, Maryland
People from Teaneck, New Jersey

Bob Beaumont


Sherbaz Khan Mazari () (6 October 1930 – 5 December 2020) was a Pakistani politician and a leader of the opposition in the National Assembly.

Career
Mazari was born in Rojhan Mazari on October 5, 1930. His father, Mir Murad Bakhsh Khan, was the chief of the Mazari tribe in Dera Ghazi Khan.

Having lost his mother when he was one year old and his father when he was two years old, as an orphan, Sherbaz, his two brothers, Sardar Mir Balakh Sher, Sardar Sher Janand and three sisters were placed under the guardianship of the British government. He studied at Aitchison College at Lahore and at the Royal Indian Military College at Dehradun.

Mazari entered politics when Fatima Jinnah contested the presidential election against Ayub Khan. Mazari supported Ms Jinnah even though he knew that the election would be engineered.

He has been described by many as a man of principle. When General Yahya Khan took over, he opposed the undemocratic transition. He also opposed Yahya Khan's military action in the then East Pakistan. When Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came into power, Mazari supported the Pakistan Peoples Party. In 1970, when every politician was vying for a PPP ticket, he contested the National Assembly election as an independent.

Mazari tried to resolve the Balochistan issue politically in the National Assembly, However, Bhutto opted for military action. Later, Mazari joined the Wali Khan-led National Awami Party (NAP). When it was banned, Mazari formed the National Democratic Party (NDP).

He remained the leader of the opposition in the parliament till 1977. It is worth mentioning that Mazari was a signatory to the 1973 Constitution as head of the independent group in the National Assembly. Mazari became part of the campaign launched by the Pakistan National Alliance that ultimately led to the ouster of Bhutto's government on July 5, 1977. However, in 1983, he supported the PPP and other parties in launching the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD) against Zia.

The Mazari clan had a long standing rivalry with the Bugtis. Despite that, Mazari requested Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to negotiate a way out for Nawab Akbar Bugti during the Ayub Khan era.

In 1951, he settled in Sonmiani, on the east bank of the Indus river. As a tribal chief, he had to look after the affairs of the tribe. The locals still remember his golden days and say they had felt safe when Mazari was there. No one dared steal from or rob anyone in the area. He used to resolve the disputes and old feuds within days. In a jirga no one could pressure him into deciding unjustly. It is often claimed that most feudal lords use and protect criminal gangs. However, Sher Baz Khan Mazari would have none of such tactics. During his time, no criminal gangs emerged in the area. People used to sleep safe and sound without the fear of criminals. Today, there are more than 200 criminals are based in Sonmani.

He had a refined literary taste and had a large collection of books in his personal library. This is evident from his autobiography, A Journey to Disillusionment, that was published in 1999.

In 1980, Mazari was offered prime ministership by General Zia. However, he refused the offer because of his belief in democracy. After losing in elections in 1988, Mazari left Rajanpur and permanently settled in Karachi where he spent the rest of his life. He was buried in Rojhan, where thousands of people came to grieve his loss.

He is survived by five sons and one daughter: Sherazam Mazari, Sher Ali Mazari, Sher Koh Mazari, Samia Mazari, Murad Bukhsh Mazari, And Sher Afzal Mazari.

In 1999, he wrote his memoir, titled Pakistan: A Journey to Disillusionment.

http://www.sanipanhwar.com/A%20Journey%20to%20Disillusionment%20-%20Sherbaz%20Khan%20Mazari.pdf

Bibliography

Further reading

See also
Hyderabad tribunal

References

Sherbaz
Baloch people
Leaders of the Opposition (Pakistan)
2020 deaths
1930 births
Aitchison College alumni
People from Rajanpur District

Sherbaz Khan Mazari


Tebbe's reagent is the organometallic compound with the formula (C5H5)2TiCH2ClAl(CH3)2. It is used in the methylidenation of carbonyl compounds, that is it converts organic compounds containing the R2C=O group into the related R2C=CH2 derivative. It is a red solid that is pyrophoric in the air, and thus is typically handled with air-free techniques. It was originally synthesized by Fred Tebbe at DuPont Central Research.

Tebbe's reagent contains two tetrahedral metal centers linked by a pair of bridging ligands. The titanium has two cyclopentadienyl (, or  Cp) rings and aluminium has two methyl groups. The titanium and aluminium atoms are linked together by both a methylene bridge (-CH2-) and a chloride atom in a nearly square-planar (Ti–CH2–Al–Cl) geometry.  The Tebbe reagent was the first reported compound where a methylene bridge connects a transition metal (Ti) and a main group metal (Al).

Preparation
The Tebbe reagent is synthesized from titanocene dichloride and trimethylaluminium in toluene solution.

Cp2TiCl2 + 2 Al(CH3)3 → CH4 + Cp2TiCH2AlCl(CH3)2 + Al(CH3)2Cl

After about 3 days, the product is obtained after recrystallization to remove Al(CH3)2Cl.  Although syntheses using the isolated Tebbe reagent give a cleaner product, successful procedures using the reagent "in situ" have been reported. Instead of isolating the Tebbe reagent, the solution is merely cooled in an ice bath or dry ice bath before adding the starting material.

An alternative but less convenient synthesis entails the use of dimethyltitanocene (Petasis reagent):

Cp2Ti(CH3)2 + Al(CH3)2Cl → Cp2TiCH2AlCl(CH3)2 + CH4
One drawback to this method, aside from requiring Cp2Ti(CH3)2, is the difficulty of separating product from unreacted starting reagent.

Reaction mechanism
Tebbe's reagent itself does not react with carbonyl compounds, but must first be treated with a mild Lewis base, such as pyridine, which generates the active Schrock carbene.

Also analogous to the Wittig reagent, the reactivity appears to be driven by the high oxophilicity of Ti(IV). The Schrock carbene (1) reacts with carbonyl compounds (2) to give a postulated oxatitanacyclobutane intermediate (3).  This cyclic intermediate has never been directly isolated, presumably because it breaks down immediately to the produce the desired alkene (5).

Scope
The Tebbe reagent is used in organic synthesis for carbonyl methylidenation.
  This conversion can also be effected using the Wittig reaction, although the Tebbe reagent is more efficient especially for sterically encumbered carbonyls.  Furthermore, the Tebbe reagent is less basic than the Wittig reagent and does not give the β-elimination products.

Methylidenation reactions also occur for aldehydes as well as esters, lactones and amides.  The Tebbe reagent converts esters and lactones to enol ethers and amides to enamines.  In compounds containing both ketone and ester groups, the ketone selectively reacts in the presence of one equivalent of the Tebbe reagent.

The Tebbe reagent methylidenates carbonyls without racemizing a chiral α carbon.  For this reason, the Tebbe reagent has found applications in reactions of sugars where maintenance of stereochemistry can be critical.

The Tebbe reagent reacts with acid chlorides to form titanium enolates by replacing Cl−.

Modifications
It is possible to modify Tebbe's reagent through the use of different ligands. This can alter the reactivity of the complex, allowing for a broader range of reactions. For example, cyclopropanation can be achieved using a chlorinated analogue.

See also

Related organotitanium reagents and reactions
Kulinkovich reaction
Petasis reagent
Lombardo reagent
McMurry reaction

Related methylidenation reactions
Nysted reagent
Peterson olefination
Wittig reaction
Kauffmann olefination

References

Reagents for organic chemistry
Titanocenes
Organoaluminium compounds
Chloro complexes
Titanium(IV) compounds

Tebbe's reagent


Anthony Philip Swern (born 30 June 1948), known as Phil "The Collector" Swern, is an English radio producer and music collector, who earned the nickname "The Collector" from working on Sounds of the 60s with Brian Matthew. Born in Ealing, London, he was formerly a record producer and songwriter, and has also written for television. He produced Pick of the Pops for Radio 1 in the late 1980s and early 1990s and had produced the show for BBC Radio 2 from 1997- 2023. He has also produced Sounds of the 60s for Radio 2 since 2007 and formerly produced the Saturday night Bob Harris Show for the same station, also producing Harris's Radio 1 shows in the early 1990s. He also devised the questions for the PopMaster quiz on Radio 2's Ken Bruce Show until this role was assumed by Neil Myners and Simon Bray. Swern co-wrote the quiz show Pop the Question with Jeremy Beadle and co-created fellow quiz show That's Showbusiness with screenwriter Jeremy Pascall.

His first record production work was Horace Faith's recording of "Black Pearl" for Trojan Records in 1970. He went on to produce for many other musicians, including the Pearls, Polly Brown and R&J Stone, whose "We Do It", released in 1976, reached number 5 on the UK Singles Chart.

Swern has the world's only complete collection of every UK Top 40 chart hit since records began in 1952. His extensive work within the music industry led to him being awarded a BASCA Gold Badge Award in October 2010.

References

External links

45cat list of singles producer credits
45cat list of singles composer credits

1948 births
Living people
English record producers
English male songwriters
People from Ealing
English radio producers
BBC radio producers
BBC Radio 2 presenters

Phil Swern


Eugene F. Stoermer (March 7, 1934February 17, 2012) was a leading researcher in diatoms, with a special emphasis on freshwater species of the North American Great Lakes. He was a professor of biology at the University of Michigan School of Natural Resources and Environment.

Biography
His Bachelor of Science degree was obtained in 1958 and his Doctor of Science in 1963, both from Iowa State University. His doctoral thesis was "Post-pleistocene diatoms from Lake West Okoboji, Iowa"

Stoermer originally coined and used the term Anthropocene from the early 1980s to refer to the impact and evidence for the effects of human activity on the planet earth. The word was not used in general culture until it was popularized in 2000 by Nobel Prize-winning atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen and others who regard the influence of human behavior on Earth's atmosphere in recent centuries as so significant as to constitute a new geological epoch.

He is the co-author  with   J. P. Smol of The Diatoms Applications for the Environmental and Earth Sciences. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ; According to WorldCat, the book is held in 1262 libraries

In 2009, he received the honor of a festschrift, Diatom taxonomy, ultrastructure, and ecology : modern methods and timeless questions : a tribute to Eugene F. Stoermer

Named after him
Diatom genera — Stoermeria J.P. Kociolek, L. Escobar & S. Richardon, 1996.

Diatom species:
 Amphora stoermerii M. Edlund & Z. Levkov, 2009
 Amphorotia stoermeri D.M. Williams & G. Reid, 2006
 Colliculoamphora stoermeri G. Reid & D.M. Williams, 2009
 Encyonema stoermeri S.A. Spaulding, J.R. Pool & S.I. Castro, 2010
 Encyonopsis stoermeri H. Lange-Bertalot & D. Metzeltin, 2009
 Frustulia stoermeri H. Lange-Bertalot & D. Metzeltin, 2009
 Gomphonema stoermeri J.P. Kociolek & J.C. Kingston, 1999
 Gomphosphenia stoermeri J.P. Kociolek & E.W. Thomas, 2009
 Navicula stoermeri J.P. Kociolek & B. de Reviers, 1996
 Neidium stoermeri E.W. Thomas & J.P. Kociolek, 2008
 Pinnularia stoermeri D. Metzeltin & H. Lange-Bertalot, 2007
 Surirella stoermerii R.L. Lowe, 1973

References

External links
 Eugene F. Stoermer (1934—2012) — Obituary, 2012.

American phycologists
American limnologists
American ecologists
1934 births
2012 deaths
University of Michigan faculty

Eugene F. Stoermer


The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (, USPD) was a short-lived political party in Germany during the German Empire and the Weimar Republic. The organization was established in 1917 as the result of a split of anti-war members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), from the left of the party as well as the centre and the right. The organization attempted to chart a course between electorally oriented reformism on the one hand and Bolshevist revolutionism on the other. The organization was terminated in 1931 through merger with the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAPD).

Organizational history

Formation
On 21 December 1915, several SPD members in the Reichstag, the German parliament, voted against the authorization of further credits to finance World War I, an incident that emphasized existing tensions between the party's leadership and the pacifists surrounding Hugo Haase and ultimately led to the expulsion of the group from the SPD on 24 March 1916.

To be able to continue their parliamentary work, the group formed the Social Democratic Working Group (Sozialdemokratische Arbeitsgemeinschaft, SAG). Concerns from the SPD leadership and Friedrich Ebert that the SAG was intent on dividing the SPD then led to the expulsion of the SAG members from the SPD on 18 January 1917. On 6 April 1917, the USPD was founded at a conference in Gotha, with Hugo Haase as the party's first chairman. The Spartakusbund also merged into the newly founded party, but it retained relative autonomy. To avoid confusion, the existing SPD was typically called the Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany (Mehrheits-SPD or MSPD, majority-SPD) from then on. Luise Zietz was one of the main agitators in favor of a split in the party in 1917. She became a leader in the creation of the USPD's women's movement.

Following the Januarstreik in January 1918, a strike demanding an end to the war and better food provisioning that was organized by revolutionaries affiliated with the USPD and officially supported by the party, the USPD quickly rose to about 120,000 members. The USPD reached a settlement with the SPD as the German Revolution began and even became part of the government in the form of the Rat der Volksbeauftragten (Council of People's Deputies) which was formed on 10 November 1918 and mutually led by Ebert and Haase following the German Revolution.

However, the agreement did not last long as Haase, Wilhelm Dittmann and Emil Barth left the council again on 29 December 1918 to protest the SPD's actions during the soldier mutiny in Berlin. At the same time, the Spartakusbund, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, separated from the USPD again as well to merge with other left-wing groups and form the Communist Party of Germany (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands, KPD).

Development
During the elections for the National Assembly on 19 January 1919 from which the SPD emerged as the strongest party with 37.9% of the votes, the USPD only managed to attract 7.6%. Nevertheless, the party's strong support for the introduction of a system of councils (Räterepublik) instead of a parliamentary democracy attracted many former SPD members and in spring 1920 the USPD had grown to more than 750,000 members, managing to increase their share of votes to 17.9% during the parliamentary elections on 6 June 1920 and becoming one of the largest factions in the new Reichstag, second only to the SPD (21.7%).
During that period, the USPD briefly published a newspaper, Arbeiterpost.

Debate over joining the Communist International

In 1920, four delegates from the USPD (Ernst Däumig, Arthur Crispien, Walter Stoecker and Wilhelm Dittmann) attended the 2nd World Congress of the Comintern to discuss participating in the Comintern. Whilst Däumig and Stoecker agreed with the International's 21 conditions of entry, Crispien and Dittmann opposed them, leading to a controversial debate over joining the Comintern to break out in the USPD. Many members felt that the necessary requirements for joining would lead to a loss of the party's independence and a perceived dictate from Moscow while others, especially younger members such as Ernst Thälmann, argued that only the joining of the Comintern would allow the party to implement its socialist ideals.

Ultimately, the proposition to join the Comintern was approved at a party convention in Halle in October 1920 by 237 votes to 156, with various international speakers including Julius Martov, Jean Longuet and Grigory Zinoviev. The USPD split up in the process, with both groups seeing themselves as the rightful USPD and the other one as being outcast. On 4 December 1920, the left wing of the USPD with about 400,000 members merged into the KPD, forming the United Communist Party of Germany (Vereinigte Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands, VKPD) while the other half of the party, with about 340,000 members-including three quarters of the USPD's 81 Reichstag members-continued under the name USPD. Led by Georg Ledebour and Arthur Crispien, they advocated a parliamentary democracy. The USPD was instrumental in the creation of the 2½ International in 1921.

Move to merger
Over time, the political differences between SPD and USPD dwindled. Following the assassination of foreign minister Walther Rathenau by right-wing extremists in June 1922, the two parties' factions in the Reichstag formed a common working group on 14 July 1922. Two months later on 24 September, the parties officially merged again after a joint party convention in Nürnberg, adopting the name of United Social Democratic Party of Germany (Vereinigte Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, VSPD) which was shortened again to SPD in 1924.

Elements of the USPD continued as an independent party led by Georg Ledebour and Theodor Liebknecht, who refused to work with the SPD, but it never attained any significance again.

The party got 20,275 votes in the 1928 Reichstag election, but it won no seats. It merged into the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschland, SAPD) in 1931.

Electoral results

Notable USPD members

 Emil Barth
 Eduard Bernstein
 Arthur Crispien
 Ernst Däumig
 Wilhelm Dittmann
 Hugo Eberlein
 Kurt Eisner

 Hugo Haase
 Adolph Hoffmann
 Karl Kautsky
 Karl Korsch
 Georg Ledebour
 Paul Levi
 Karl Liebknecht
 Theodor Liebknecht

 Kurt Löwenstein
 Rosa Luxemburg
 Richard Müller
 Ernst Niekisch
 Toni Sender
 Ernst Thälmann
 Ernst Toller
 Kurt Tucholsky
 Clara Zetkin

Further reading
 Eric D. Weitz (1997). Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
 David Priestand (2009). Red Flag:  A History of Communism. New York: Grove Press.

Footnotes

External links
 USPD Reichstagsfraktion Archives at the International Institute of Social History

1917 establishments in Germany
1931 disestablishments in Germany
Defunct socialist parties in Germany
Organizations of the German Revolution of 1918–1919
Political parties disestablished in 1931
Political parties established in 1917
Political parties in the Weimar Republic
Political parties of the German Empire
Social democratic parties in Germany
Marxist parties in Germany