The University of Louisville (UofL) is a public research university in Louisville, Kentucky. It is part of the Kentucky state university system. When founded in 1798, it was one of the first city-owned public colleges in the United States and one of the first universities chartered west of the Allegheny Mountains. The university is mandated by the Kentucky General Assembly to be a "Preeminent Metropolitan Research University". It enrolls students from 118 of 120 Kentucky counties, all 50 U.S. states, and 116 countries around the world.

Louisville is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The University of Louisville School of Medicine is touted for the first fully self-contained artificial heart transplant surgery, as well as the first successful hand transplantation in the United States. The University Hospital is also credited with the first civilian ambulance, the nation's first accident services, now known as an emergency department (ED), and one of the first blood banks in the US.

University of Louisville is known for the Louisville Cardinals athletics programs. Since 2005, the Cardinals have made appearances in the NCAA Division I men's basketball Final Four in 2005, 2012, and 2013 (vacated), football Bowl Championship Series Orange Bowl in 2007 (champions) and Sugar Bowl in 2013 (champions), the College Baseball World Series 2007, 2013, 2014, 2017 and 2019, the women's basketball Final Four in 2009 (runner-up), 2013 (runner-up), and 2018, and the men's soccer national championship game in 2010. The Louisville Cardinals Women's Volleyball program has three-peated as champions of the Big East Tournament (2008, 2009, 2010), and were Atlantic Coast Conference Champions in 2015 and 2017. Women's track and field program has won Outdoor Big East titles in 2008, 2009 and 2010 and an Indoor Big East title in 2011.

History

Founding and early years: 1798–1845

The University of Louisville traces its roots to a charter granted in 1798 by the Kentucky General Assembly to establish a school of higher learning in the newly founded town of Louisville. It ordered the sale of 6,000 acres (24 km2) of South Central Kentucky land to underwrite construction, joined on April 3, 1798, by eight community leaders who began local fund raising for what was then known as the Jefferson Seminary. It opened 15 years later and offered college and high school level courses in a variety of subjects. It was headed by Edward Mann Butler from 1813 to 1816, who later ran the first public school in Kentucky in 1829 and is considered Kentucky's first historian.

Despite the Jefferson Seminary's early success, pressure from newly established public schools and media critiques of it as "elitist" would force its closure in 1829.

Eight years later, in 1837, the Louisville City council established the Louisville Medical Institute at the urging of renowned physician and medical author Charles Caldwell. As he had earlier at Lexington's Transylvania University, Caldwell rapidly led LMI into becoming one of the leading medical schools west of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1840, the Louisville Collegiate institute, a rival medical school, was established after an LMI faculty dispute. It opened in 1844 on land near the present day Health sciences campus.

As a public municipal university: 1846–1969
In 1846, the Kentucky legislature combined the Louisville Medical Institute, the Louisville Collegiate Institution, and a newly created law school into the University of Louisville, on a campus just east of Downtown Louisville. The LCI folded soon afterwards. The university experienced rapid growth in the 20th century, adding new schools in the liberal arts (1907), graduate studies (1915), dentistry (1918), engineering (1925), music (1932) and social work (1936).

In 1923, the school purchased what is today the Belknap Campus, where it moved its liberal arts programs and law school, with the medical school remaining downtown. The school had attempted to purchase a campus donated by the Belknap family in The Highlands area in 1917 (where Bellarmine University is currently located), but a citywide tax increase to pay for it was voted down. The Belknap Campus was named after the family for their efforts. In 1926, the building that would later be dedicated as Grawemeyer Hall, was built.

In 1931, the university established the Louisville Municipal College for Negroes on the former campus of Simmons University (now Simmons College of Kentucky), as a compromise plan to desegregation. As a part of the university, the school had an equal standing with the school's other colleges. It was dissolved in 1951 when the university desegregated.

During World War II, Louisville was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.

In the second half of the 20th century, schools were opened for business (1953), education (1968), and justice administration (1969).

As a public state university: 1970–present
Talk of Louisville joining the public university system of Kentucky began in the 1960s. As a municipally-funded school (meaning funding only came from the city of Louisville), the movement of people to the suburbs of Louisville created budget shortfalls for the school and forced tuition prices to levels unaffordable for most students. At the same time, the school's well-established medicine and law schools were seen as potential assets for the state system. Still, there was opposition to the university becoming a state institution, both from faculty and alumni who feared losing the small, close-knit feel of the campus, and from universities already in the state system who feared funding cuts that would be necessitated to accommodate UofL. After several years of heated debate, the university joined the state system in 1970, a move largely orchestrated by then Kentucky governor and UofL alumnus Louie Nunn.

The first years in the state system were difficult, as enrollment skyrocketed while funding was often insufficient. Several programs were threatened with losing accreditation due to a lack of funding, although schools of nursing (1979) and urban & public affairs (1983) were added.

John W. Shumaker was named the university's president in 1995. Shumaker was a very successful fund raiser, and quickly increased the school's endowment from $183 to $550 million. He developed the REACH program to encourage retention. In 1997, he hired athletics director Tom Jurich, who restored the athletics program and raised over $100 million to raze abandoned factories and old parking lots next to campus and replace them with on-campus athletic facilities, which vastly improved the aesthetics of the Belknap Campus. Academically, Louisville moved closer to parity with the state's flagship University of Kentucky as retention rates and research funding increased, and average GPAs and ACT scores were much higher for incoming freshmen.

James R. Ramsey, the university's 17th president, continued the endowment and fundraising growth started by Shumaker. However, Ramsey added more emphasis on improving the physical aspects of the Belknap Campus. To this end, he started a million-dollar "campus beautification project" which painted six overpasses on the Belknap Campus with a University of Louisville theme and planted over 500 trees along campus streets, and doubled the number of on-campus housing units. The university's federal research funding doubled under Ramsey, and three buildings were built for nanotechnology and medical research. The university's graduation rate increased from 30 percent in 1999 to 52 percent in 2012.

On June 17, 2016, Kentucky Governor Matt Bevin announced that the entire board of trustees of the university would be immediately disbanded and replaced, and that Ramsey would be stepping down. This was confirmed in a statement issued by Ramsey on the same day. Ramsey offered his resignation at a board of trustees meeting on July 27, 2016, which was accepted by the board. In December 2016, the university was placed on academic probation by its accrediting agency, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, over concerns that Governor Bevin's actions had "violated rules that require that universities be independent". The probation was lifted a year later. The governor's actions were initially blocked by a judge but supported by new legislation passed by the Kentucky legislature in early 2017. In a lawsuit, the university sought $80 million in damages from president Ramsey, but settled only for $800,000 in 2021.

In the summer of 2017, the university again came into the national spotlight as a series of scandals became public. The university's foundation, the organization that manages its endowment and investments, reported "millions of dollars in unbudgeted spending, unapproved activities and endowment losses" in an audit. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) suspended the head coach of the men's basketball team, Rick Pitino, for five games after an investigation revealed that a university employee paid escorts to strip and have sex with players and recruits. Shortly after the NCAA announced its findings and penalties, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the office of the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York announced the arrest of 10 individuals connected with a "pay for play" scheme connected to sportswear manufacturer Adidas and many institutions, including Louisville. Pitino was subsequently fired.

From 1895 to 2016, the university's Belknap Campus featured a Confederate monument, built before the campus grew to surround the land on which it stood. Commemorating the sacrifices of Confederate veterans who died in the American Civil War, it was erected by the Muldoon Monument Company in 1895 with funds raised by the Kentucky Woman's Confederate Monument Association. Due to controversy in 2016, the statue was moved from its original location to Brandenburg, Kentucky. Relocation started in November and was completed in mid-December.

Neeli Bendapudi became the University of Louisville's 18th president on May 15, 2018.

Campuses

The university has three campuses in the Louisville area, the Belknap, the Health Science, and the Shelby. It also has an International Campus in Panama City, Panama, as well as various satellite facilities in the state of Kentucky and abroad:

Belknap Campus

Acquired in 1923, the Belknap Campus is the school's main campus. It is located three miles (5 km) south of downtown Louisville in the Old Louisville neighborhood. It houses seven of the 12 academic colleges and features one of the casts of Auguste Rodin's The Thinker in front of the main administrative building, Grawemeyer Hall. The grounds of the campus were originally used as an orphanage, with several of the original buildings used.

The Belknap Campus has expanded greatly in recent years, with land housing abandoned factories in the area being purchased and redeveloped. Projects built since 1998 include L&N Federal Credit Union Stadium and adjacent Trager Center fieldhouse, Owsley B. Frazier Cardinal Park (which includes Ulmer Stadium for softball, Trager Stadium for field hockey, Cardinal Track and Soccer Stadium, Bass-Rudd Tennis Center, locker rooms, a playground and a cushioned walking path), Jim Patterson Stadium for baseball, Ralph R. Wright Natatorium, Owsley Brown Frazier Sports medicine Center, and a lacrosse stadium. With new parking at Cardinal Stadium, non-resident parking was moved there and the parking lots near campus were redeveloped with new dormitory buildings, including the Bettie Johnson Apartments, Kurz Hall, Minardi Hall, and Community Park.

Other points of interest on the Belknap Campus include the Rauch Planetarium; the Covi Gallery of the Hite Art Institute, named for the painter Marcia Hite and her husband Allen; and the final resting place for former U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis D. Brandeis and his wife Alice, under the portico in the Brandeis Law School. Surrounded by, but not part of the campus, is the Speed Art Museum, a private institution that is affiliated with the University of Louisville. The Kentucky State Data center, the state's official clearing house for census data and estimates, is located next to Bettie Johnson Hall.

Since 2008 the school has purchased three large tracts of land adjacent to the Belknap Campus,  to the school's northwest campus,  to the school's east campus – south of Hahn and  south of the Speed School of Engineering. New student housing has been completed on one of the northwest segments with student parking slated for the other. A new engineering and applied sciences research park is planned for the land south of the Speed School of Engineering. It serves as the centerpiece of a Signature Tax Increment Financing (TIF) district, designed to stimulate economic growth in an area around the university's Belknap campus. The TIF district covers more than 900 acres stretching from Belknap Campus south to the Watterson Expressway. The Kentucky Economic Development Finance Authority recently approved the TIF, paving the way for what could be an estimated $2.6 billion over 30 years.

Belknap Campus development projects

In 2009, the university unveiled its new master plan for the next 20 years with efforts from the University of Louisville Foundation and other affiliate partners. Several important projects under construction or planned at that time included a new student recreation center, soccer stadium, new residence halls and academic buildings. Furthermore, the reconstruction of the I-65 ramps to the Belknap Campus, converting the four lanes of Eastern Parkway into a two-lane road with bike lanes and a landscaped median to improve pedestrian access to the Speed School, the moving of several university offices to allow the existing facilities at Arthur Street and Brandeis Avenue to be converted to commercial property and restaurants. The Yum! Center (a men's basketball and volleyball practice facility) was completed in the fall of 2007. A  Olympic sports training/rehab center adjacent to Trager Stadium is under construction. Trager Plaza, a small plaza with a fountain, statue, and garden has been built with donations by the Trager Family on the south part of campus. The $37.5 million Student Recreation Center, located on the Fourth Street corridor along the western border of campus, opened in October 2013. The Province, The Bellamy and Cardinal Towne are three new student housing developments built to the southwest of campus, near the recreation center. All three were built by private developers, and The Province was built in tandem with Louisville's properties. In the short term, university provost Shirley Willihnganz expects the university to continue partnerships with private entities to build student housing.

Several athletic facilities are being renovated, and the new $8 million academic center will be located beneath the Norton Terrace at the south end of Cardinal Stadium. It will be centrally located between two of the university's cornerstone buildings, the Swain Student Activities Center and Cardinal Stadium. It will have seating capacity for over 5,300 fans and will feature a 15,500 square foot training center that will include identical locker rooms for each team, coaches' offices and a sports medicine training room. This stadium will be the second largest project the athletic department has undertaken behind Cardinal Stadium. Furthermore, a $4 million expansion of Jim Patterson Stadium includes the addition of 1,500 chair back seats, two-tiered ground level terraces, a visiting team locker room, and a 6,400 square foot terrace atop the chair back seats connecting the first and third base sides. The new Jim Patterson Stadium will have a total capacity of 5,000. Along with the $2.75 million expansion of the university's softball stadium will feature a team clubhouse with a locker room, a video room, and a players' lounge. The Dan Ulmer Stadium will see the addition of 200 chair back seats, bringing the seating capacity to 1,000. The project will add a 2,380 square foot fan terrace wrapping around the back of the stadium, as well as a new press box that will more than double its current size.

Health Sciences Campus

The University Health Sciences Center, also called the med campus, is located just east of Downtown Louisville in the Louisville medical park which contains two other major hospitals and several specialty hospitals, and it houses the remaining five colleges. This is the school's original campus, being continuously used since 1846, although none of the original buildings remain. Buildings of note on the HSC include the fourteen story Medical Research Tower and the ten-story University Hospital. Construction is finished for a recently opened, downtown Louisville Cardiovascular Research Innovation Institute building to be directed by a researcher, Stuart Williams from the University of Arizona; and an eight-story, $70 million biomedical research building. Faculty and students also work with neighboring hospitals including Norton Children's Hospital, as well as outreach programs throughout Kentucky, including in Paducah, Campbellsville, and Glasgow.

Health Sciences Campus development projects

The University of Louisville Health Sciences Campus has seen a large amount of new development in the past decade, include the completion of three new buildings: Baxter Research Complex, Cardiovascular Research Tower, and Jackson Street Medical Plaza.

In 2007 Louisville announced plans to create a nine-acre medical research park on the so-called Haymarket property roughly bounded by Market, Preston, Brook, and Jefferson Streets, along I-65 in Downtown Louisville, now called the Nucleus Research Park, with  of research space. Nucleus, Kentucky's Life Science and Innovation Center, was established in 2008 by the University of Louisville Foundation. Nucleus is assisting in the development of Louisville's Health Science Campus downtown.

Nucleus' work is integral to the development of the research park currently underway at Louisville's Haymarket 30-block property in downtown Louisville. Nucleus Innovation Park will house multiple facilities. The project is expected to cost $300 million and was planned to be constructed from 2009 to 2017. A 200,000-square-foot, eight-story, $18 million building, is the first in a series of structures, broke ground in July 2011, and was expected to open in June 2013.

An important project adjacent to the Downtown Health Sciences Campus was the conversion of the Clarksdale Housing Complex into a new mixed income development called Liberty Green.

Shelby Campus
The  Shelby Campus is located on Shelbyville Road near Hurstbourne Parkway in Eastern Louisville. This campus was originally the home of Kentucky Southern College, a Kentucky Baptist liberal arts college that operated from 1961 to 1969. After the college folded, it transferred all its assets and liabilities to the university. It currently only has three buildings which are used for night classes and seminars, although construction of a $34.6-million Center for Predictive Medicine, a Level 3 biosafety facility, is in the works.

The Shelby Campus is also home to the building which houses the Information Technology Resource Center (ITRC) for homeland security. The ITRC conducts communications and IT research for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security as well as seminars and training in emergency preparedness and response. When completed, the impressive ShelbyHurst Office Campus will have over 1.5 million square feet of modern office space managed, developed and leased by NTS Development Co., in partnership with the University of Louisville Foundation. The first three projects are in full swing.

The Shelby Campus is undergoing a major renovation, with two new entrances to the campus off Hurstbourne Parkway. The overall goal is to develop  of the  campus for business, office, technology and research use, now known as the ShelbyHurst Research and Office Park. The university will spend $7.9 million on the road improvements on the campus. The roadway improvements began in August 2008, with work on a new four-lane boulevard through the campus, bordered by bike lanes and sidewalks, and heavily landscaped. The 600 North Hursbourne – Transformation is evident at the busy northeast corner of ShelbyHurst with the completion of 600 North. The LEED-certified, 125,000-square-foot office building is 80 percent leased and serves as corporate headquarters to Churchill Downs, NTS, Semonin Realtors and Stifel Nicolaus.

International Campus

The University of Louisville runs a sister campus in Panama City, Panama, which has an MBA program. The full-time program takes around 16 months to complete and enrolls about 200 students. It is currently ranked the 4th best MBA program in Latin America.

The university also offers professional MBA programs in Athens, Hong Kong, Singapore and other parts of Asia. Their collaboration partner in Singapore is Aventis School of Management.

Other facilities
Louisville operates the Moore Observatory in Oldham County, an astronomical observatory. There are plans to purchase several hundred acres in Oldham County for the school's equine program.

The president's mansion, Amelia Place, is located at 2515 Longest Avenue. It is the former residence of railroad executive Whitefoord Russell Cole.

Academics
The University of Louisville offers bachelor's degrees in 70 fields of study, master's degrees in 78, and doctorate degrees in 22. According to the National Science Foundation, Louisville spent $176 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 125th in the nation.

Through its School of Medicine and University Hospital Louisville is known for its innovations in the field of medicine, including world's first self-contained artificial heart transplant (2001), world's first successful hand transplant (1999), development of autotransfusion (1935), and first emergency department (1911).

Rankings

U.S. News & World Report 2023 edition ranked University of Louisville's undergraduate program tied for 195 among all national universities and tied for 106th among public ones. Forbes Magazine ranks the University 423rd among 650 universities, colleges, and service academies; 195th for public colleges, 92nd for colleges in the American South and 227th best U.S. research university in 2023.

Admissions
Admission to Louisville is considered "selective" by U.S. News & World Report. A total of 9,430 applications were received for the freshmen class entering Fall 2015; 6,758 applicants were accepted (71.7%), and 2,797 enrolled. Men constituted 50.9% of the incoming class; women 49.1%.

Among freshman students who enrolled in Fall 2015, SAT scores for the middle 50% ranged from 490 to 620 for critical reading, and from 510 to 620 for math. ACT composite scores for the middle 50% ranged from 22 to 29. The average high school GPA for incoming freshmen was 3.60.

Schools and colleges

The university consists of 12 schools and colleges:
 College of Arts and Sciences (1907)
 College of Business (1953)
 College of Education and Human Development (1968)
 Graduate School (1918)
 J. B. Speed School of Engineering (1925)
 Kent School of Social Work (1936)
 Louis D. Brandeis School of Law (1846)
 School of Dentistry (1887)
 University of Louisville School of Medicine (1837)
 School of Music (1932)
 School of Nursing (1979)
 School of Public Health and Information Sciences (1919–1924; re-established in 2002)

UPS tuition reimbursement and Metropolitan College
In addition to their nationwide partial tuition reimbursement programs, UPS (United Parcel Service) offers Louisville (along with Jefferson Community and Technical College) students who work overnight at Worldport, the company's worldwide air hub at Louisville International Airport, full tuition reimbursement through a program called Metropolitan College. This program offers reimbursement for $65 of book costs for each class, and awards bonus checks to students in good standing at the end of each semester and upon reaching certain credit hour milestones. Employees are eligible for full health insurance coverage. Currently over 75 percent of the workers at the air hub are students.

Honors program
The university's honors program is under the direction of Joy Hart. Incoming freshmen can apply to be in the program if they meet the following requirements: a 3.5 cumulative high school GPA and a 29 on their ACT. Current students can apply for the honors program if they are able to maintain a cumulative GPA of 3.35 or higher. Courses through the program focus on reading, writing and discussion. Students in the honors program benefit from priority registration for classes, smaller class sizes, and unique study abroad opportunities.

Libraries

The University of Louisville library system is a member of the Association of Research Libraries. Louisville's main library branch is the William F. Ekstrom Library, which opened in 1981. The four-story building finished an expansion in March 2006, which increased its total size to  and shelving capacity to over 1.3 million books. It is one of only five universities in the U.S. to have a robotic retrieval system, which robotically places books in humidity-free bins. The University of Louisville libraries were the seventh academic institution in North America to have such a facility.

There are five other libraries at the university, with a combined total of more than 400,000 volumes of work:
 Archives and Special Collections
 The Margaret M. Bridwell Art Library
 Dwight Anderson Memorial Music Library
 Kornhauser Health Sciences Library
 Brandeis Law School Library

In 2009, the Kersey Library at the J. B. Speed School of Engineering was converted to an academic building named the Duthie Center for Engineering. The library's collection was fully integrated into Ekstrom Library on January 15, 2007.

Enrollment statistics

Undergraduate student body
 Total enrollment is 22,293 as of Fall 2012.
 76.2% of students are Kentucky residents.
 44.0% of students are from Jefferson County (down from 64% in 1995)
 Average ACT score: 25.2 as of Fall 2013 (up from 20.7 in 1995)
 6-year graduation rate: 53.5% (2012) (up from 33% in 2004)

Student life

Residence halls

The university has 12 housing options on its campuses:
 Belknap Village North
 Belknap Village South
 Bettie Johnson Hall
 Billy Minardi Hall
 Cardinal Towne – It has an assortment of restaurants on the 1st floor.
 Community Park
 Denny Crum Hall – Named after Denny Crum former basketball coach from 1971 to 2001.
 Herman & Heddy Kurz Hall
 Louisville Hall
 Unitas Tower – Named after footballer Johnny Unitas who attended the school from 1950 to 1954, the tower is easily visible from many parts of campus and is located by the School of Music.
 University Pointe
 University Tower Apartments

Media
The university's student maintained online radio station, WLCV, was shut down at the beginning of the fall 2012 semester due to lack of funding. Louisville holds a prominent role in the city of Louisville's "Public Radio Partnership" which features three NPR stations under one roof, including the school's namesake WUOL-FM which broadcasts classical music. The school also holds one-third of the seats on the Partnership's board of directors.

There is also an independent student-run weekly newspaper, The Louisville Cardinal. The newspaper was founded in 1926, and has maintained financial and editorial independence since 1980. The newspaper is overseen by a board of local media professionals and run by a student editor-in-chief.

Inside the university's Student Activities Center is the Floyd Theatre, a 228-seat movie theater operated by the Student Activities Board. It is capable of running both 35 mm prints and DVD projection.

Greek life
There are over 20 Greek letter organizations on campus. , approximately 14% of undergraduate men and 11% of undergraduate women are active in UofL's Greek system.

Notable people

Alumni

The university has more than 144,000 alumni residing in the United States and around the world.

The university claims as alumni a winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Theatre (Marsha Norman, BFA 1969), a 10-time NFL pro-bowler (Johnny Unitas), the 2016 Heisman Trophy winner (Lamar Jackson), the Minority Leader of the United States Senate (Mitch McConnell, BA 1964), the first female director of the CIA (Gina Haspel, BA 1978), the former Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (Chang-Lin Tien, MEng 1983) and many others including governors, senators, mayors, US Attorneys and CEOs.

Athletics

The Louisville (UofL) athletic teams are called the Cardinals. The university is a member of the NCAA Division I ranks, primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) since the 2014–15 academic year. The Cardinals previously competed in the American Athletic Conference (The American; formerly known as the original Big East Conference until after the 2012–13 school year) from 2005–06 to 2013–14, and in Conference USA (C-USA) from 1995–96 to 2004–05.

UofL competes in 21 intercollegiate varsity sports. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis and track & field; women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.

Overview

The Cardinals (commonly referred to as "the Cards") are the student athletes representing the university. There are 12 women's and 9 men's teams, all of which participate in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Louisville was invited to the ACC on November 28, 2012, and began play in 2014. The Cardinals are well known nationally in men's basketball with two national championships (2013 vacated) and 9 Final Four appearances (2013 vacated), ranking 5th in NCAA Tournament wins, 9th in winning percentage, and from 2nd to 5th in annual attendance every year since 1984. For the 2015–16 season, the men's basketball team held a self-imposed postseason ban due to a sex scandal involving recruits and former players. The NCAA put the Louisville men's basketball program on four years probation in June 2017 and imposed a number of penalties including a suspension of head coach Rick Pitino, a reduction of scholarships and 123 vacated games as a result of its investigation into the program's stripper scandal.

In recent years other Cardinal teams have gained national prominence. The women's basketball team, coached by Jeff Walz and led by first team All-American Shoni Schimmel, has been to two straight Sweet 16s and have been ranked in the top 10. In December 2008 the Cardinals broke the Big East paid attendance record when 17,000 fans filled Freedom Hall to watch the Cards defeat rival Kentucky, and later that season advanced to the NCAA championship game, losing to Connecticut. The Cardinals returned to the NCAA final behind Native American star Shoni Schimmel in 2013, losing again to Connecticut, The following season, the Cardinals filled the KFC Yum! Center with over 22,000 fans, including an estimated 1,500 Native Americans from 40 states, for the final scheduled home game of the graduating Schimmel. Other Louisville teams with recent post season success includes track and field (two individual national championships), volleyball (consecutive Sweet 16 appearances and a three-peat as Big East Tournament Champions from 2008 to 2010, and Atlantic Coast Conference Champions in 2015) and baseball (two College World Series appearances and consecutive Big East conference titles). The volleyball team has also accomplished achievements such as Head Coach Anne Kordes being named Coach of the Year in 2015, Senior Setter for Louisville, Katie George being named Atlantic Coast Conference Player of the Year, and Freshman Libero, Molly Sauer being named Freshman of the Year and Defensive Player of the Year.

All Louisville locally broadcast games airing on the school's flagship affiliate WHAS-TV Louisville are televised on every cable provider in Kentucky.

See also
 McConnell Center
 Metro-College

Notes

References

External links

 Official athletics website

Universities and colleges in Louisville, Kentucky
Louisville University
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
African-American history in Louisville, Kentucky
Louisville University
1798 establishments in Kentucky
Public universities and colleges in Kentucky

University of Louisville


Edmund Brisco "Henry" Ford  (23 April 1901 – 2 January 1988) was a British ecological geneticist. He was a leader among those British biologists who investigated the role of natural selection in nature. As a schoolboy Ford became interested in lepidoptera, the group of insects which includes butterflies and moths. He went on to study the genetics of natural populations, and invented the field of ecological genetics. Ford was awarded the Royal Society's Darwin Medal in 1954. In the wider world his best known work is Butterflies (1945).

Education
Ford was born in Dalton-in-Furness, near Ulverston, in Lancashire, England, in 1901. He was the only child of Harold Dodsworth Ford (1864–1943), a classics teacher turned Anglican clergyman, and his wife (and second cousin) Gertrude Emma Bennett. His paternal grandfather, Dr Henry Edmund Ford (1821–1909), was a "professor" (= teacher) of music at Carlisle and the organist of Carlisle Cathedral from 1842 to 1902. Ford was educated at St Bees School, Cumberland (now Cumbria), and read zoology at Wadham College, Oxford, (where his father had also studied), graduating B.A. in 1924, upgraded to M.A. 1927, B.Sc. (a research degree) in 1927, and taking a D.Sc in 1943.

Career and research
Ford's career was based entirely at the University of Oxford. The biologist Arthur Cain said Ford took a degree in classics before turning to zoology. Ford read zoology at Oxford, and was taught genetics by Julian Huxley. "The lecturer whose interests most closely reflected mine was Julian Huxley. I owe him a great debt, especially for inspiration... Even though Huxley was... only at Oxford from 1919 to 1925, he was the most powerful voice in developing the selectionist attitude there... I met Ray Lankester through E.B. Poulton. He was already an old man... but talked to me a good deal of Charles Darwin and Pasteur, both of whom he knew."

Ford was appointed University Demonstrator in Zoology in 1927 and Lecturer at University College, Oxford, in 1933. Specialising in genetics, he was appointed University Reader in Genetics in 1939 and was the Director of the Genetics Laboratory, 1952–1969, and Professor of Ecological Genetics 1963–1969. Ford was one of the first scientists to be elected a Fellow of All Souls College since the seventeenth century.

Ford had a long working relationship with R.A. Fisher. By the time Ford had developed his formal definition of genetic polymorphism, Fisher had got accustomed to high selection values in nature. He was most impressed by the fact that polymorphism concealed powerful selective forces (Ford gave human blood groups as an example). Like Fisher, he continued the natural selection versus genetic drift debate with Sewall Wright, whom Ford believed put too much emphasis on genetic drift. It was as a result of Ford's work, as well as his own, that Dobzhansky changed the emphasis in the third edition of his famous text from drift to selection.

Ford was an experimental naturalist who wanted to test evolution in nature. He virtually invented the field of research known as ecological genetics. His work on the wild populations of butterflies and moths was the first to show that the predictions made by R.A. Fisher were correct. He was the first to describe and define genetic polymorphism, and predicted that human blood group polymorphisms might be maintained in the population by providing some protection against disease. Six years after this prediction it was found to be so, and furthermore, heterozygous advantage was decisively established by a study of AB x AB crosses. His magnum opus was Ecological Genetics, which ran to four editions and was widely influential. He laid much of the groundwork for subsequent studies in this field, and was invited as a consultant to help set up similar research groups in several other countries.

Amongst Ford's many publications, perhaps the most popularly successful was the first book in the New Naturalist series, Butterflies. Ford also went on in 1955 to write Moths in the same series, one of only a few to have authored more than one book in the series.

Ford became Professor, and then Emeritus Professor of Ecological Genetics, University of Oxford. He was a Fellow of All Souls College, and Honorary Fellow of Wadham College. He was elected FRS in 1946, and awarded the Darwin Medal in 1954.

Ecological genetics
E.B. Ford worked for many years on genetic polymorphism. Polymorphism in natural populations is frequent; the key feature is the occurrence together of two or more discontinuous forms of a species in some kind of balance. So long as the proportions of each form is above mutation rate, then selection must be the cause. As early as 1930 Fisher had discussed a situation where, with alleles at a single locus, the heterozygote is more viable than either homozygote. That is a typical genetic mechanism for causing this type of polymorphism. The work involves a synthesis of field observations, taxonomy, and laboratory genetics.

Melanism in the peppered moth

Ford was the supervisor of Bernard Kettlewell during Kettlewell's famous experiments on the evolution of melanism in the peppered moth, Biston betularia.

The entomologist Michael Majerus discussed criticisms that had been made of Kettlewell's experimental methods in his 1998 book Melanism: Evolution in Action. This book was misrepresented in reviews, and the story was picked up by creationist campaigners. In her controversial book Of Moths and Men, Judith Hooper (2002) gave a critical account of Ford's supervision and relationship with Kettlewell, and implied that the work was fraudulent or at least incompetent. Careful studies of Kettlewell's surviving papers by Rudge (2005) and Young (2004) found Hooper's suggestion of fraud to be unjustified, and that "Hooper does not provide one shred of evidence to support this serious allegation". Majerus himself described Of Moths and Men as "littered with errors, misrepresentations, misinterpretations and falsehoods". He concludes

"If you wade through the 200+ papers written about melanism in the peppered moth, it is difficult to come to any conclusion other than that natural selection through the agent of differential bird predation is largely responsible for the rise and fall of carbonaria".

Kettlewell and Helen Spurway, then the graduate student (and later the wife) of J.B.S. Haldane, were known to have shocked Ford by catching live moths as they flitted around a light, popping them in their mouths, and eating them whole. Haldane, who did not like Ford, was of the opinion that Ford and Kettlewell had attempted to capitalise on the supposed evolutionary adaptation of the main two variants of the peppered moth, for which Haldane, as early as 1924, had predicted the statistical probability of rate of change from light to melanic forms as an example of classic Mendelian genetics. In 1961, Haldane and Spurway talked to Canadian lepidopterist Gary Botting about the peppered moth and the unlikelihood of Ford and Kettlewell obtaining results that approximated Haldane's 1924 statistical calculations so closely, but the reasoning behind this view is far from clear. Botting already regarded the case of the peppered moth as tantamount to belief in Lamarckian evolution, and was of the opinion that some genetic mechanism other than bird predation was at work.

Bibliography

 Clarke B 1995. Edmund Brisco Ford. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society of London.

  (jointly dedicated to Ford and the Nuffield Foundation)

 Teän, Isles of Scilly: the site of Ford's Common Blue (Polyommatus icarus) population study.

Works by Ford

 Ford E.B. (1931, 8th ed 1965). Mendelism and evolution. Methuen, London.
 Carpenter, G.D. Hale and E.B. Ford (1933) Mimicry. Methuen, London.
 Ford E.B. (1938, 2nd ed 1950). The study of heredity. Butterworth, London. 2nd edn: Oxford University Press.
 Ford E.B. (1940). Polymorphism and taxonomy. In Huxley J. The new systematics. Oxford.
 Ford E.B. (1942, 7th edn 1973). Genetics for medical students Chapman and Hall, London.
 Ford E.B. (1945, 3rd edn 1977). Butterflies. New Naturalist No. 1 Collins, London.
 Ford E.B. (1951). British butterflies. Penguin Books, London.
 Ford E.B. (1954, 3rd edn 1972). Moths. New Naturalist No. 30 Collins, London.
 Ford E.B. (1964, 4th edn 1975). Ecological genetics.  Chapman and Hall, London.
 Ford E.B. (1965). Genetic polymorphism. All Souls Studies, Faber & Faber, London.
 Ford E.B. (1976). Genetics and adaptation. Institute of Biology studies, Edward Arnold, London.
 Ford E.B. (1979). Understanding genetics. Faber and Faber, London.
 Ford E.B. (1980). Some recollections pertaining to the evolutionary synthesis. In Mayr E. and Provine W.B. (eds) The evolutionary synthesis: perspectives on the unification of biology. Harvard 1980; 1998. [effectively, this is an intellectual autobiography]
 Ford E.B. (1981). Taking genetics into the countryside.  Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
 Ford E.B. and J.S. Haywood (1984). Church treasures of the Oxford district. Alan Sutton, Gloucester.

Personal life
Ford never married, had no children, and was considered decidedly eccentric, although his eccentricity was said to be more prominent when he knew he had an audience; he was also fond of slightly surrealist practical joking. He could be markedly generous to his friends: it was "an open secret" that he made a handsome contribution to the grant of £350000 given by the Nuffield Foundation for the establishment of a Unit of Medical Genetics at the University of Liverpool; this greatly boosted the research of Cyril Clarke and Philip Sheppard.

Professor Ford would come into first year biology lectures at Oxford University – which were quite large, with about 150 students, and address the mixed group "good morning gentlemen", ignoring the ladies, who even at that time were maybe 30% of student numbers – they are now 48%.  The students thought that was amusing, and decided that, for one lecture in 1965, no men would attend.  So he walked in to the lecture theatre with about 50 women sitting there waiting attentively, but no men.  He put his notes on the lectern and looked up.  "Oh dear, nobody here today I see, might as well go home"! Picked up his notes and walked out. (This story is also told of Arthur Quiller Couch, and has to be treated as apocryphal)(It is not apocryphal - it is confirmed by a number of first year Agriculture undergraduates who participated in the activity).

Non-academic information on his life is hard to come by, mostly consisting of scattered remarks made by colleagues. He campaigned strenuously against the admission of female Fellows to All Souls College. Miriam Rothschild, an outstanding zoologist, was one of the few women with whom Ford was on good terms. Rothschild and Ford campaigned for the legalisation of male homosexuality in Britain. Ford was on good terms with Theodosius Dobzhansky, who did ground-breaking work on ecological genetics with Drosophila species: they exchanged letters and visits.

Ford has a  memoir written by Bryan Clarke published in the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, but there are few other sources on his life.

References

1901 births
1988 deaths
British evolutionary biologists
English geneticists
English science writers
English lepidopterists
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at St Bees School
Alumni of Wadham College, Oxford
Modern synthesis (20th century)
New Naturalist writers
20th-century British zoologists
People from Dalton-in-Furness
People associated with University College, Oxford

E. B. Ford


Protein combining or protein complementing is a dietary theory for protein nutrition that purports to optimize the biological value of protein intake. According to the theory, vegetarian and vegan diets may provide an insufficient amount of some essential amino acids, making protein combining with multiple foods necessary to obtain a complete protein food. The terms complete and incomplete are outdated in relation to plant protein. In fact, all plant foods contain all 20 essential amino acids including the 9 essential amino acids in varying amounts.

Though it is undisputed that diverse foods can be combined to make up for their respective limiting amino acids, a general consensus has emerged among nutrition scientists and writers contrary to the original vegetarian nutrition dogmas of the 1970s. Though historically, protein combining was promoted as a method of compensating for supposed deficiencies in vegetables as foods, studies on essential amino acid contents in plant proteins have shown that vegetarians and vegans typically do not need to complement plant proteins in each meal to reach the desired level of essential amino acids as long as their diets are varied and caloric requirements are met. The position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics is that protein from a variety of plant foods eaten during the course of a day supplies enough of all essential amino acids when caloric requirements are met.

Concept
Protein nutrition is complex because any proteinogenic amino acid may be the limiting factor in metabolism. Mixing livestock feeds can optimize for growth, or minimize cost while maintaining adequate growth. Similarly, human nutrition is subject to Liebig's law of the minimum: The lowest level of one of the essential amino acids will be the limiting factor in metabolism.
If the content of a single indispensable amino acid in the diet is less than the individual's requirement, then it will limit the utilization of other amino acids and thus prevent the normal rates of synthesis even when the total nitrogen intake level is adequate. Thus the "limiting amino acid" will determine the nutritional value of the total nitrogen or protein in the diet.

Plants are thus rated as protein sources by their limiting amino acids.

Examples of "limiting" amino acids in plant protein
According to WHO, human need for proteins is 0.66 g per kg of bodyweight per day. A 70 kg person has an estimated protein requirement of 46.2g (70 kg x 0,66 g/kg).

In addition, there is a specific need of essential amino acids quantities. See Essential amino acid#Recommended daily intake for a table of the values; the tables below use a percentage of the requirement.

In the above examples, neither whole rice nor canned chickpeas have sufficient amounts of all required amino acids when used as the only source of 46.2 g of daily protein. The insufficient amino acid is called the "limiting" amino acid: lysine in rice and methionine in chickpeas. Consuming the specific quantity for long periods of time might result in deficiency of the amino acid.

In the above example, the combination of whole rice and canned chickpeas has no limiting amino acids. This means that consuming only rice and chickpeas, in these specific quantities of 306g/day and 261g/day respectively, for long periods of time, would not result in any of the essential amino acid deficiency, at least to the extent they are metabolized at the time.

As the data of the example show, all essential amino acids are found in a specific plant. However, one or more of them may be limiting. For this reason, vegan and vegetarian diets need to be varied in terms of plants consumed.

Plant protein research
The first biochemist to enter the field was Karl Heinrich Ritthausen, a student of Justus von Liebig. Thomas Burr Osborne continued what Ritthausen started and published The Vegetable Proteins in 1909. Thus Yale University was the early center of protein nutrition, where William Cumming Rose was a student. Osborne also worked to determine the essentials, and later led the Biochemistry Department at the University of Chicago.

When Ritthausen died in 1912, Osborne praised his efforts in biochemistry:
As a result of his later work he proved that wide differences exist between different food proteins; and he was the first to direct attention to this fact, and to discuss its probable bearing on their relative value in nutrition.

Osborne then joined forces with Lafayette Mendel at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station to determine the essential amino acids.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Nevin S. Scrimshaw took this knowledge to India and Guatemala. He designed meals using local vegetables to fight against the scourge of kwashiorkor. In Guatemala he used the combination of cottonseed flour with maize, while in India he combined peanut flour with wheat.

Popularization
In 1954, Adelle Davis published Let's Eat Right to Keep Fit, which described the importance of combining "incomplete" proteins to make "complete" proteins, and advised that any incomplete proteins not complemented within one hour could not be used by the body.

In 1971, Frances Moore Lappé published Diet for a Small Planet, which explained how essential amino acids might be obtained from complementary sources in vegetarian nutrition. The book became a bestseller :
An extension of a one-page handout that Lappé had circulated among her fellow improvisors in Berkeley, Diet for a Small Planet (1971) soon became the vegetarian text of the ecology movement, selling in the next ten years almost two million copies in three editions and six languages.

Lappé wrote:
Complementary protein combinations make for delicious recipes – they are combinations that formed the basis of the world's traditional cuisines. We use them naturally in our cooking without even being aware of it. The three most common complementary protein combinations are:
Grains (rice, corn, wheat, barley, etc.) + legumes (peas, beans, lentils)
Grains and milk products
Seeds (Sesame or sunflower) +legumes

In 1975, both Vogue and American Journal of Nursing carried articles describing the principles and practice of protein combining.
For a time,
The American National Research Council and the American Dietetic Association (ADA) cautioned vegetarians to be sure to combine their proteins.

In 1985, the principle of protein combining was explained by J. Rigó:
The biological value of proteins in general, hence also of grain-proteins, is fundamentally determined by the ratio between the essential amino acids to be found in cereals and the requirement of essential amino acids of the living creature, consuming protein...the most important way of raising the biological value ... [is] given by the technique of complementing.

In 2011 PLOS ONE published an article investigating the specifics of protein combining for 1251 plant-based foods. The bases of reference are the amino acids indispensable to human nutrition, and the ideal proportioning of these amino acids in a meal. They explain, "complementation involves consuming two or more foods together to yield an amino acid pattern that is better than the sum of the two foods alone."  In contrast to pairings based on food groups, such as pairing a grain with a bean, the investigators reported that pairing by food group was not supported by their work: "Examining the top 100 pairings for each food, we found no consistent pattern of food group-food group pairings."

Criticism

Protein combining has drawn criticism as an unnecessary complicating factor in nutrition.

In 1981,    Frances Moore Lappé changed her position on protein combining from a decade prior in a revised edition of  Diet for a Small Planet in which she wrote:

"In 1971 I stressed protein complementarity because I assumed that the only way to get enough protein ... was to create a protein as usable by the body as animal protein. In combating the myth that meat is the only way to get high-quality protein, I reinforced another myth. I gave the impression that in order to get enough protein without meat, considerable care was needed in choosing foods. Actually, it is much easier than I thought.

"With three important exceptions, there is little danger of protein deficiency in a plant food diet. The exceptions are diets very heavily dependent on [1] fruit or on [2] some tubers, such as sweet potatoes or cassava, or on [3] junk food (refined flours, sugars, and fat). Fortunately, relatively few people in the world try to survive on diets in which these foods are virtually the sole source of calories. In all other diets, if people are getting enough calories, they are virtually certain of getting enough protein."

Necessity of protein combining was not asserted. Rather, the increased biological value of meals where proteins are combined was noted. In a concession, Lappé removed from the second edition "charts that indicate exact proportions of complementary proteins".

The American Dietetic Association reversed itself in its 1988 position paper on vegetarianism. Suzanne Havala, the primary author of the paper, recalls the research process:
There was no basis for [protein combining] that I could see.... I began calling around and talking to people and asking them what the justification was for saying that you had to complement proteins, and there was none. And what I got instead was some interesting insight from people who were knowledgeable and actually felt that there was probably no need to complement proteins. So we went ahead and made that change in the paper.  [Note: The paper was approved by peer review and by a delegation vote before becoming official.]

In 1994, Vernon Young and Peter Pellett published their paper that became the definitive contemporary guide to protein metabolism in humans. It also confirmed that complementing proteins at meals was totally unnecessary. Thus, people who avoid consuming animal protein do not need to be at all concerned about amino acid imbalances from the plant proteins that make up their usual diets.

While many plant proteins are lower in one or more essential amino acids than animal proteins, especially lysine, and to a lesser extent methionine and threonine, eating a variety of plants can serve as a well-balanced and complete source of amino acids.

In 2009, the American Dietetic Association wrote:
Plant protein can meet protein requirements when a variety of plant foods is consumed and energy needs are met. Research indicates that an assortment of plant foods eaten over the course of a day can provide all essential amino acids and ensure adequate nitrogen retention and use in healthy adults, thus, complementary proteins do not need to be consumed at the same meal.

The American Heart Association now states:
You don't need to eat foods from animals to have enough protein in your diet. Plant proteins alone can provide enough of the essential and non-essential amino acids, as long as sources of dietary protein are varied and caloric intake is high enough to meet energy needs. Whole grains, legumes, vegetables, seeds and nuts all contain both essential and non-essential amino acids. You don't need to consciously combine these foods ("complementary proteins") within a given meal.

Some institutions use the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score to assess diets without consideration of protein combining and hence find the use of combinations to be a challenge to their methodology.

References

Nutrition
Proteins as nutrients
Vegetarianism

Protein combining


Aziz Ahmad (born c. 1964) is a professional Buzkashi player from Afghanistan.

Ahmad was born in a farming village in northern Kunduz to a poor family. He began playing Buzkashi at age 15. At the time that he began playing, Buzkashi was a rite of passage for young men in the Kunduz region.

At the age of 18, he was conscripted by the military of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War. He soon defected from the government military to join the Mujahideen.

Ahmad initially left Kabul and returned to Kunduz after the 1992 Civil war began. His playing skill soon drew the attention of Mohammed Fahim, who was then a powerful warlord. Fahim offered to sponsor him if he returned to play in Kabul and chartered a helicopter to bring him back. Ahmad remained in Kabul until leaving the city in 1996 shortly before it fell to the Taliban, who then banned buzkashi. He returned to the north and joined the Northern Alliance to fight against the Taliban in the ensuing Civil war.

After the fall of the Taliban during the 2001 War in Afghanistan, Ahmad returned to his Buzkashi career and soon became known as the best living player.

References

Living people
1964 births
People from Kunduz Province
Afghan Tajik people
Afghan sportsmen

Aziz Ahmad (buzkashi)


James Grimble Groves (24 October 1854 – 23 June 1914) was a British brewer and Conservative politician.

Life
He was the son of William Peer Groves, of Springbank, Pendleton, near Salford and was educated privately and at Owen's College, Manchester. He became chairman and managing director of Groves and Whitnall Limited, owners of the Regent Road Brewery, Salford.

Groves was the chairman of the Salford Conservative Association, and when the Member of Parliament for Salford South announced his retirement prior to the 1900 general election, he was selected as the party's candidate. He held the seat for the Conservatives.

In November 1900 a number of arsenic poisonings in the Manchester area were traced to beer from the Groves and Whitnall Brewery, and consequently a large amount of the company's stock had to be destroyed. In 1903, he was appointed a deputy lieutenant of Cheshire.

Groves only served one term in the Commons, losing his seat to Hilaire Belloc in the Liberal landslide at the 1906 general election.

He married in 1878, and made his home at Oldfield Hall, Altrincham, Cheshire. He died in June 1914 aged 59, after a long illness. His daughter, Eileen Norah, married Howard Cumming and their daughter was the writer Anne Cumming. One of Groves' son was Robert Marsland Groves, the naval aviation pioneer and senior Royal Air Force commander. Two other sons William Peer Groves and Keith Grimble Groves went on to join the brewery's board.

Notes and references

External links

 Groves & Whitnall

1854 births
1914 deaths
English brewers
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Deputy Lieutenants of Cheshire
UK MPs 1900–1906
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Salford South
People from Pendleton, Greater Manchester
19th-century English businesspeople

James Grimble Groves


The far side of the Moon is the lunar hemisphere that always faces away from Earth, opposite to the near side, because of synchronous rotation in the Moon's orbit. Compared to the near side, the far side's terrain is rugged, with a multitude of impact craters and relatively few flat and dark lunar maria ("seas"), giving it an appearance closer to other barren places in the Solar System such as Mercury and Callisto. It has one of the largest craters in the Solar System, the South Pole–Aitken basin. The hemisphere has sometimes been called the "dark side of the Moon", where "dark" means "unknown" instead of "lacking sunlight"  each side of the Moon experiences two weeks of sunlight while the opposite side experiences two weeks of night.

About 18 percent of the far side is occasionally visible from Earth due to libration. The remaining 82 percent remained unobserved until 1959, when it was photographed by the Soviet Luna 3 space probe. The Soviet Academy of Sciences published the first atlas of the far side in 1960. The Apollo 8 astronauts were the first humans to see the far side in person when they orbited the Moon in 1968. All crewed and uncrewed soft landings had taken place on the near side of the Moon, until 3 January 2019 when the Chang'e 4 spacecraft made the first landing on the far side.

Astronomers have suggested installing a large radio telescope on the far side, where the Moon would shield it from possible radio interference from Earth.

Definition

Tidal forces from Earth have slowed the Moon's rotation to the point where the same side is always facing the Earth—a phenomenon called tidal locking. The other face, most of which is never visible from the Earth, is therefore called the "far side of the Moon". Over time, some crescent-shaped edges of the far side can be seen due to libration. In total, 59 percent of the Moon's surface is visible from Earth at one time or another. Useful observation of the parts of the far side of the Moon occasionally visible from Earth is difficult because of the low viewing angle from Earth (they cannot be observed "full on").

A common misconception is that the Moon does not rotate on its axis. If that were so, the whole of the Moon would be visible to Earth over the course of its orbit. Instead, its rotation period matches its orbital period, meaning it turns around once for every orbit it makes: in Earth terms, it could be said that its day and its year have the same length (i.e., ~29.5 earth days).

The phrase "dark side of the Moon" does not refer to "dark" as in the absence of light, but rather "dark" as in unknown: until humans were able to send spacecraft around the Moon, this area had never been seen. In reality, both the near and far sides receive (on average) almost equal amounts of light directly from the Sun.  This symmetry is complicated by sunlight reflected from the Earth onto the near side (earthshine), and by lunar eclipses, which occur only when the far side is already dark. Lunar eclipses mean that the side facing earth receives fractionally LESS sunlight than the far side when considered over a long period of time.

At night under a "full Earth" the near side of the Moon receives on the order of 10 lux of illumination (about what a city sidewalk under streetlights gets; this is 34 times more light than is received on Earth under a full Moon) whereas the dark side of the Moon during the lunar night receives only about 0.001 lux of starlight. Only during a full Moon (as viewed from Earth) is the whole far side of the Moon dark.

The word dark has expanded to refer also to the fact that communication with spacecraft can be blocked while the spacecraft is on the far side of the Moon, during Apollo space missions for example.

Differences

The two hemispheres of the Moon have distinctly different appearances, with the near side covered in multiple, large maria (Latin for 'seas,' since the earliest astronomers incorrectly thought that these plains were seas of lunar water).
The far side has a battered, densely cratered appearance with few maria. Only 1% of the surface of the far side is covered by maria, compared to 31.2% on the near side. One commonly accepted explanation for this difference is related to a higher concentration of heat-producing elements on the near-side hemisphere, as has been demonstrated by geochemical maps obtained from the Lunar Prospector gamma-ray spectrometer. While other factors, such as surface elevation and crustal thickness, could also affect where basalts erupt, these do not explain why the far side South Pole–Aitken basin (which contains the lowest elevations of the Moon and possesses a thin crust) was not as volcanically active as Oceanus Procellarum on the near side.

It has also been proposed that the differences between the two hemispheres may have been caused by a collision with a smaller companion moon that also originated from the Theia collision. In this model, the impact led to an accretionary pile rather than a crater, contributing a hemispheric layer of extent and thickness that may be consistent with the dimensions of the far side highlands. However, the chemical composition of the far side is inconsistent with this model.

The far side has more visible craters. This was thought to be a result of the effects of lunar lava flows, which cover and obscure craters, rather than a shielding effect from the Earth. NASA calculates that the Earth obscures only about 4 square degrees out of 41,000 square degrees of the sky as seen from the Moon. "This makes the Earth negligible as a shield for the Moon [and] it is likely that each side of the Moon has received equal numbers of impacts, but the resurfacing by lava results in fewer craters visible on the near side than the far side, even though both sides have received the same number of impacts."

Newer research suggests that heat from Earth at the time when the Moon was formed is the reason the near side has fewer impact craters. The lunar crust consists primarily of plagioclases formed when aluminium and calcium condensed and combined with silicates in the mantle. The cooler far side experienced condensation of these elements sooner and so formed a thicker crust; meteoroid impacts on the near side would sometimes penetrate the thinner crust here and release basaltic lava that created the maria, but would rarely do so on the far side.

Exploration

Early exploration

Until the late 1950s, little was known about the far side of the Moon. Librations periodically allowed limited glimpses of features near the lunar limb on the far side, but only up to 59% of the total surface of the Moon. These features, however, were seen from a low angle, hindering useful observation (it proved difficult to distinguish a crater from a mountain range). The remaining 82% of the surface on the far side remained unknown, and its properties were subject to much speculation.

An example of a far side feature that can be seen through libration is the Mare Orientale, which is a prominent impact basin spanning almost , yet this was not even named as a feature until 1906, by Julius Franz in Der Mond. The true nature of the basin was discovered in the 1960s when rectified images were projected onto a globe. The basin was photographed in fine detail by Lunar Orbiter 4 in 1967.

Before space exploration began, astronomers did not expect that the far side would be different from the side visible to Earth. On 7 October 1959, the Soviet probe Luna 3 took the first photographs of the lunar far side, eighteen of them resolvable, covering one-third of the surface invisible from the Earth. The images were analysed, and the first atlas of the far side of the Moon was published by the USSR Academy of Sciences on 6 November 1960. It included a catalog of 500 distinguished features of the landscape.

In 1961, the first globe (1: scale) containing lunar features invisible from the Earth was released in the USSR, based on images from Luna 3. On 20 July 1965, another Soviet probe, Zond 3, transmitted 25 pictures of very good quality of the lunar far side, with much better resolution than those from Luna 3. In particular, they revealed chains of craters, hundreds of kilometers in length, but, unexpectedly, no mare plains like those visible from Earth with the naked eye.

In 1967, the second part of the Atlas of the Far Side of the Moon was published in Moscow, based on data from Zond 3, with the catalog now including 4,000 newly discovered features of the lunar far side landscape. In the same year, the first Complete Map of the Moon (1: scale) and updated complete globe (1: scale), featuring 95 percent of the lunar surface, were released in the Soviet Union.

As many prominent landscape features of the far side were discovered by Soviet space probes, Soviet scientists selected names for them. This caused some controversy, and the International Astronomical Union, leaving many of those names intact, later assumed the role of naming lunar features on this hemisphere.

Further survey mission
On 26 April 1962, NASA's Ranger 4 space probe became the first spacecraft to impact the far side of the Moon, although it failed to return any scientific data before impact.

The first truly comprehensive and detailed mapping survey of the far side was undertaken by the American uncrewed Lunar Orbiter program launched by NASA from 1966 to 1967. Most of the coverage of the far side was provided by the final probe in the series, Lunar Orbiter 5.

The far side was first seen directly by human eyes during the Apollo 8 mission in December, 1968. Astronaut William Anders described the view:

It has been seen by all 24 men who flew on Apollo 8 and Apollo 10 through Apollo 17, and photographed by multiple lunar probes. Spacecraft passing behind the Moon were out of direct radio communication with the Earth, and had to wait until the orbit allowed transmission. During the Apollo missions, the main engine of the Service Module was fired when the vessel was behind the Moon, producing some tense moments in Mission Control before the craft reappeared.

Geologist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt, who became the last to step onto the Moon, had aggressively lobbied for Apollo 17's landing site to be on the far side of the Moon, targeting the lava-filled crater Tsiolkovskiy. Schmitt's ambitious proposal included a special communications satellite based on the existing TIROS satellites to be launched into a Farquhar–Lissajous halo orbit around the L2 point so as to maintain line-of-sight contact with the astronauts during their powered descent and lunar surface operations. NASA administrators rejected these plans on the grounds of added risk and lack of funding.

The idea of utilizing Earth–Moon  for communications satellite covering the Moon's far side has been realized, as China National Space Administration launched Queqiao relay satellite in 2018. It has since been used for communications between the Chang'e 4 lander and Yutu 2 rover that have successfully landed in early 2019 on the lunar far side and ground stations on the Earth.  And L2 is proposed to be "an ideal location" for a propellant depot as part of the proposed depot-based space transportation architecture.

Soft landing

The China National Space Administration's Chang'e 4 achieved humanity's first ever soft landing on the lunar far side on 3 January 2019 and deployed Yutu-2 lunar rover onto far side lunar surface.

The craft included a lander equipped with a low-frequency radio spectrograph and geological research tools. The far side of the Moon provides a good environment for radio astronomy as interferences from the Earth are blocked by the Moon.

In February 2020, Chinese astronomers reported, for the first time, a high-resolution image of a lunar ejecta sequence, and, as well, direct analysis of its internal architecture. These were based on observations made by the Lunar Penetrating Radar (LPR) on board the Yutu-2 rover.

The Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment (LuSEE-Night) lander, a mission to soft land as early as 2026 a robotic observatory on the far side designed to measure electromagnetic waves from the early history of the universe is being developed by NASA and the United States Department of Energy.

Potential uses and missions
Because the far side of the Moon is shielded from radio transmissions from the Earth, it is considered a good location for placing radio telescopes for use by astronomers. Small, bowl-shaped craters provide a natural formation for a stationary telescope similar to Arecibo in Puerto Rico. For much larger-scale telescopes, the  crater Daedalus is situated near the center of the far side, and the  rim would help to block stray communications from orbiting satellites. Another potential candidate for a radio telescope is the Saha crater.

Before deploying radio telescopes to the far side, several problems must be overcome. The fine lunar dust can contaminate equipment, vehicles, and space suits. The conducting materials used for the radio dishes must also be carefully shielded against the effects of solar flares. Finally, the area around the telescopes must be protected against contamination by other radio sources.

The  Lagrange point of the Earth–Moon system is located about  above the far side, which has also been proposed as a location for a future radio telescope which would perform a Lissajous orbit about the Lagrangian point.

One of the NASA missions to the Moon under study would send a sample-return lander to the South Pole–Aitken basin, the location of a major impact event that created a formation nearly  across. The force of this impact has created a deep penetration into the lunar surface, and a sample returned from this site could be analyzed for information concerning the interior of the Moon.

Because the near side is partly shielded from the solar wind by the Earth, the far side maria are expected to have the highest concentration of helium-3 on the surface of the Moon. This isotope is relatively rare on the Earth, but has good potential for use as a fuel in fusion reactors. Proponents of lunar settlement have cited the presence of this material as a reason for developing a Moon base.

Named features

 Aitken (crater)
 Amici (crater)
 Anuchin (crater)
 Apollo (crater)
 Avogadro (crater)
 Bel'kovich (crater)
 Belopol'skiy (crater)
 Bergstrand (crater)
 Berkner (crater)
 Birkhoff (crater)
 Bjerknes (lunar crater)
 Bok (lunar crater)
 Campbell (lunar crater)
 Cantor (crater)
 Carnot (crater)
 Cassegrain (crater)
 Chandler (crater)
 Chappell (crater)
 Chernyshev (crater)
 Comrie (crater)
 Coulomb-Sarton Basin
 Crookes (crater)
 d'Alembert (crater)
 Daedalus (crater)
 Davisson (crater)
 Delporte (crater)
 Dyson (crater)
 Ellerman (crater)
 Emden (crater)
 Esnault-Pelterie (crater)
 Finsen (crater)
 Fleming (crater)
 Fowler (crater)
 Fridman (crater)
 Gerasimovich (crater)
 Gullstrand (crater)
 Hayn (crater)
 Hegu (crater)
 Hertzsprung (crater)
 H. G. Wells (crater)
 Hippocrates (lunar crater)
 Houzeau (crater)
 Icarus (crater)
 Ioffe (crater)
 Izsak (crater)
 Jenner (crater)
 Kamerlingh Onnes (crater)
 Kirkwood (crater)
 Klute (crater)
 Kolhörster (crater)
 Komarov (crater)
 Korolev (lunar crater)
 Kovalevskaya (crater)
 Kugler (crater)
 Kulik (crater)
 Lamb (crater)
 Lacus Luxuriae
 Lacus Oblivionis
 Lander (crater)
 Langevin (crater)
 Lebedev (crater)
 Leibnitz (crater)
 Lucretius (crater)
 Lunar south pole
 Maksutov (crater)
 McKellar (crater)
 Mare Australe
 Mare Frigoris
 Mare Humboldtianum
 Mare Ingenii
 Mare Moscoviense
 Mare Orientale
 Mendeleev (crater)
 Michelson (crater)
 Montes Cordillera
 Montes Rook
 Mons Tai
 Nicholson (lunar crater)
 Nishina (crater)
 Ohm (crater)
 Oppenheimer (crater)
 Oresme (crater)
 Pannekoek (crater)
 Paraskevopoulos (crater)
 Parenago (crater)
 Patsaev (crater)
 Perrine (crater)
 Pettit (lunar crater)
 Pirquet (crater)
 Pogson (crater)
 Priestley (lunar crater)
 Quetelet (crater)
 Rowland (crater)
 Sarton (crater)
 Schlesinger (crater)
 Shaler (crater)
 Shternberg (crater)
 Shuleykin (crater)
 Sniadecki (crater)
 Sommerfeld (crater)
 South Pole–Aitken basin
 Statio Tianhe
 Stebbins (crater)
 Stoletov (crater)
 Sverdrup (crater)
 Tianjin (crater)
 Tikhov (lunar crater)
 Titov (crater)
 Tsinger (crater)
 Tsiolkovskiy (crater)
 Tyndall (lunar crater)
 Vallis Bouvard
 Vallis Inghirami
 van't Hoff (crater)
 Van der Waals (crater)
 Vavilov (crater)
 Vertregt (crater)
 Virtanen (crater)
 Volkov (crater)
 Von Kármán (lunar crater)
 Von Zeipel (crater)
 Wan-Hoo (crater)
 Wiener (crater)
 Wright (lunar crater)
 Yamamoto (crater)
 Zhinyu (crater)

See also
 Geology of the Moon
 Giant-impact hypothesis
 Near side of the Moon

References

External links
 Lunar and Planetary Institute: Exploring the Moon
 NASA takes first video of dark side of the Moon
 Lunar and Planetary Institute: Lunar Atlases
 Ralph Aeschliman Planetary Cartography and Graphics: Lunar Maps
 Full Moon Atlas: Lunar Far Side at lunarrepublic.com
 Northwest Africa 482, only meteorite believed to have originated from the far side of the Moon
 Moon articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries

 LIFE magazine (Nov. 9, 1959) article about first photos.

Hemispheres
Lunar science

Far side of the Moon


Laura Cowie (7 April 1892 – 11 February 1969) was a Scottish silent film actress.

Early life
Cowie was born on 7 April 1892 in Milltown of Rothiemay, Banffshire, Scotland. She was the daughter of farmer Alexander Cowie and his wife Anna Hutcheon. After her parents had married in 1889, they took up a lease on Turtory farm near Marnoch. In 1893, Laura's older brother Alexander was born. When the father died in 1900, following a sudden heart attack, the remaining family moved to Aberdeen, where they lived with two of Laura's cousins and earned some money by taking in two female students as boarders. Laura went to school in Aberdeen.

In 1902, her mother married her second husband, the elderly Alexander Reid Craib, the Minister of the parish of New Pitsligo. He was 61 at the time.

As a young girl, Laura wished to become a professional dancer. She was already taking dancing lessons at a local institute in Aberdeen. Both her mother and her step-father decided that she was indeed talented and needed proper training. So Anna took her daughter as well as her son Alexander to London, where Laura gained a place at the Academy of Dramatic Arts (later RADA) which had been founded in 1904.

Career
The academy's founder, theatre director Herbert Beerbohm Tree, saw great potential in Laura Cowie, but convinced her that she would make a better actress than a dancer. While the young woman embarked on her career, she was chaperoned by her mother, who had decided to stay in London, opening up an agency for housemaids. While Anna Cowie took a flat in Hampstead, Laura shared an apartment in Great Smith Street with her brother Alexander, who had found a good job in the automobile industry.

After appearing in various stage productions, Laura's first role in a film was in William Barker's Henry VIII (1911). She would later play major parts in Anne de Boleyn (1914) and Queens of France (1938). Laura Cowie played alongside famous actors like Sir John Gielgud, Alec Guinness, Mrs Patrick Campbell or George Fawcett. In 1934 she starred as Katherine Parr in Winifred Carter's The Queen Who Kept Her Head.

On 20 June 1918 she married scriptwriter and director John Hastings Turner. After the marriage, she mostly retired and only occasionally appeared in film productions by the Rank studios.

Final years and death
In 1939, both Laura's mother and her brother died, the latter leaving behind a wife and a young son.

After their marriage, John Hastings Turner and Laura bought Blue Tile Farm in Fakenham, Norfolk. Here Turner wrote many of his scripts and novels, and here he died in 1956. Laura died on 11 February 1969 in the small coastal town of Wells-next-the-Sea, Norfolk, England.

References

External links

1892 births
1969 deaths
20th-century Scottish actresses
Scottish silent film actresses
Scottish stage actresses
People from Milltown of Rothiemay
People from Fakenham

Laura Cowie


Siouxland is the name for the drainage basin of the Big Sioux River. (Sioux is pronounced like Sue). The people in the area think they have a common history, even though the territory today is part of several U.S. states. They also feel like belonging together in other ways. The author Frederick Manfred first used the term Siouxland, in 1946.

Important cities in the area include Sioux Falls, South Dakota,  Sioux City, Iowa and Norfolk, Nebraska.

Geography of the United States

Siouxland


Eilean Choraidh, also known as Horse Island is an island in Loch Eriboll in Sutherland on the north coast of Scotland. It is about  in extent and the highest point is  above sea level.

During the 19th century the Reay estate quarried lime from Eilean Choraidh, treated it in kilns on the nearby peninsula of Ard Neakie, and exported it by ship.

The census of 1931 records a single male inhabitant, and there has been no indication of any permanent residents since then. This may be partly because  Eilean Choraidh was used as a representation of the German battleship Tirpitz for target practice by Mosquito bombers of the Royal Air Force during World War II. The Ordnance Survey indicate the presence of two ruined buildings, one in the centre of the island north of a long wall that runs east to west and another at the north end. Today, the island is used for grazing sheep.

A variety of wild mammals are present including otters, grey seals and cetaceans. Beds of maerl, a corraline algae that has been identified as a priority habitat in the UK
Biodiversity Action Plan, has been recorded in the channels on either side of Eilean Choraidh. The sea pen,
Virgularia mirabilis is also present in the inner loch.

References

Notes

Islands of Sutherland
Former populated places in Scotland
Uninhabited islands of Highland (council area)

Eilean Choraidh


Luck is a 2009 Indian Hindi-language action-thriller film written and directed by Soham Shah and produced by Dhilin Mehta under Shree Ashtavinayak Cine Vision Ltd. It stars Mithun Chakraborty,  Shruti Haasan, Imran Khan, Sanjay Dutt, Danny Denzongpa, Ravi Kishan and Chitrashi Rawat in pivotal roles. The camera of the film was handled by Santosh Thundiyil, whilst composer duo Salim–Sulaiman recorded the musical score. Sruthi Hassan made her Hindi debut and feature film debut through this film. The film is heavily inspired by 13_Tzameti.

The film released to Indian audiences on 24 July 2009.

Plot

Gambling kingpin Karim Musa is a very lucky person. He remained the sole survivor when a mosque collapsed in Maharashtra when he was just nine months old and was amongst very few survivors of another incident at the age of 12. When he was 14, he challenged three friends to jump from a four-storied building and remained alive, though with some injuries, and won. He started gambling at 19 and since then tried out his luck in different places of the world and became known as Musa Bhai. For him, gambling and drug smuggling have become ways to get money; his latest interest is investment on people's luck.

Ram Mehra is a banker who is abducted by Musa's right-hand man Lakhan Tamang, but instead of taking, he gives Ram hundred thousand rupees and explains that Ram is very lucky as Tamang bought lottery tickets for two years without any success until he took tickets from Ram both of which won him two hundred thousand rupees. He then offers Ram 200 million rupees for which Ram has to gamble with him for 20 days. After Ram agrees, Musa Bhai and Tamang create a game, getting people with luck to play, and the luckiest ones win them money.

Later, along with Ram, Tamang hires Major Lucky, who is a soldier as lucky once as he fought in battles and faced numerous bullets yet none that could kill him. He is in need of money for the operation of his wife Sheila. Tamang then visits Pakistan where he discovers Shortcut, a 16-year-old girl, who is also known to be lucky as any camel she rides wins the race and observes her winning one despite her camel's half-broken leg. Tamang pays four lakh rupees to "export" her to South Africa. Tamang then invites the sole-criminal, Raghav Raghuvaran to the game. Raghav was put in Tihar Jail for raping many women, and also killing them, but when he was hanged, he survived, and since the Indian law doesn't allow one person to be hanged twice, he is freed from Tihar Jail.

All competitors arrive in Cape Town. There, Ram meets a girl, who is later revealed to be Ayesha and Tamang says she took part in the game once before. In their first game, all competitors shoot the person to their right at the same time with a pistol. Some pistols have a bullet, some don't and all the unlucky ones die, and the lucky ones survive. Later that night, while everyone is eating at a dining table, Ram and Major Jawar Pratap befriend each other and Raghav goes to Ayesha's room, and starts flirting with her, though Ayesha pays no attention and leaves. The second game is where all of the contestants take parachutes and jump off from a helicopter. Some parachutes open while others don't. Among the unlucky is Ayesha whose parachute doesn't open but she is saved by Ram since he has developed a liking towards her, and afterwards, they start getting closer. In the third game, everyone is left in a hollow tank with one of everyone's hand locked with handcuffs and in front of them are 300 keys and one each will open the handcuffs and added to their trouble are the sharks that swim around them as they start opening the handcuffs as the tank sinks. Ram, Ayesha, Raghav and Major Pratap survive but Shortcut is attacked by a shark. The shark bites her leg off, and Ram jumps into the water, and saves the wounded Shortcut (who is then taken to the hospital). Later on, it is revealed that due to her leg, Shortcut will not be taking part in any of the games anymore.

Before the fourth and final game, Raghav tries to rape and kill Ayesha, but the latter is saved by Ram. Ayesha then runs away to Musa and Tamang, where it is revealed that Ayesha is dead and it is Natasha playing, taking Ayesha's character whilst seeking revenge on Musa, for her sister's death. Musa finds out about this and uses her for the final game. In the final game, Ram, on whom the bid is the highest ever, has to save Natasha before the train she's tied to hits an oil tanker while Major Singh will help him, and Raghav will shoot at Ram and the other survivors try to stop Ram. On the train, Ram starts to fight Raghav, but once Raghav is knocked out, Ram goes to save Natasha, but Raghav gets up, then interrupted by Major Singh, who to save Natasha and Ram, jumps onto Raghav. However, Raghav pushes Major Singh down to the back of the train, which later explodes. Raghav then goes to Ram, who is currently untying Natasha's hands, though Raghav attacks Ram from the back, but when the oil tank reaches right in front of the train, Ram and Natasha jump off, and Raghav dies. When Ram and Natasha realise what has happened, before they lose hope, Major Singh is seen on the floor getting up, who explains that he jumped off the train a second before his side of the train exploded. The three survivors are then approached by Musa and Tamang, who claim that they won the game and claim 200 million rupees each.

Ram stakes his reward and challenges Musa to a game where two pistols are dug in coal the train's carrying and one has to find one and shoot the other. Musa finds both but hands one to Ram and both shoot at the same time and hit each other, Ram is shot at the place of his heart and Musa survives as he is hit at his shoulder. Though, it is shown that Ram's heart is at his right side (dextrocardia), very rare for a human, rather than left and he survives and wins back his reward. Later, Shortcut's leg is fixed by a prosthesis, Major Singh saves his wife and maintains his title "Lucky Major Jawar Pratap Singh" and Ram frees him and his mother off the debts and marries Natasha.

Cast
 Sanjay Dutt as Karim Musa
 Mithun Chakraborty as Major Jawar Pratap Singh
 Imran Khan as Ram Mehra
 Shruti Haasan as Ayesha / Natasha
 Danny Denzongpa as Lakhan Tamang
 Ravi Kishan as Raghav Raghuvaran
 Rati Agnihotri as Mrs. Mehra (Ram's Mother)
 Chitrashi Rawat as Shortcut
 Snehal Dabi as Jiten
 Daya Shankar Pandey as Passport Agent
 Roopa Ganguly as Sheila Singh (Major Jawar Pratap Singh's wife)
 Kota Srinivasa Rao as Swami
 Snita Mahey as Angela

Soundtrack

The soundtrack album has nine songs composed by duo Salim–Sulaiman and background score by Amar Mohile. The lyrics are primarily penned by Shabbir Ahmed for eight songs and Anvita Dutt Guptan for Jee Le. The audio of the film released nationwide on 23 June 2009, a month prior to the release. The album, notably features a song sung entirely by the lead actress Shruti Haasan who made her debut with the film.

Track listing

Box office
Luck was released worldwide on 1,110 prints in 1300 screens. In India, it was released on 976 prints (343 physical prints and 633 digital prints) in 1,150 screens and in 134 prints on 150 screens in overseas. The action-thriller Luck fetched a very good start at single screens of most circuits. The 12 noon shows in U.P., Punjab, Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra were in the 70% – 80% range. But the 3 pm shows were almost houseful everywhere. The opening at multiplexes, however, was around 40%. Mumbai was affected due to the high tide scare on Friday but soon rose up on Saturday and Sunday. Meanwhile, the film collected DHS280,000 on its opening day in UAE.

In 4 weeks, the film collected  in India, meanwhile collecting  in the UK and  in United States.

References

External links

2000s Hindi-language films
2009 films
2009 action films
Indian action thriller films
Viacom18 Studios films
Films about death games
Films set in Cape Town
Films shot in South Africa

Luck (2009 film)


Pasquale Errichelli (also Ericchelli or Enrichelli; 1730–1785) was an Italian composer and organist based in the city of Naples. Trained at the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini, his compositional output consists of 7 operas, 2 cantatas, 1 symphony, 3 sonatas, several concert arias, and the oratorio Gerosolina protetta. He was for many years the organist at the Cattedrale di Napoli.

Operas
La serva astuta (opera buffa, 1753, Naples; in collaboration with Gioacchino Cocchi)
Il finto turco (opera buffa, libretto by Antonio Palomba, 1753, Naples; in collaboration with Gioacchino Cocchi)
Issipile (opera seria, libretto by Pietro Metastasio, 1754, Naples)
La finta 'mbreana (commedia, libretto by G. Bisceglia, 1756, Naples; in collaboration with Nicola Bonifacio Logroscino)
Solimano (opera seria, libretto by Giovanni Ambrogio Migliavacca, 1757, Rome)
Siroe (opera seria, libretto by Pietro Metastasio, 1758, Naples)
Eumene (3 Acts) (opera seria, libretto by Apostolo Zeno, 1771, Naples; Act 1 by Gian Francesco de Majo, Act 2 by Giacomo Insanguine)

References

External links

1730 births
1785 deaths
Italian male classical composers
Italian organists
Male organists
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Musicians from Naples
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
18th-century keyboardists

Pasquale Errichelli


The Anderkilla Shahi Jame Mosque (, ) is built on top of a high hill called Ander-Qila (meaning inner fort). It is said to have been the earliest Mughal building that has been established in the city of Chittagong.

History
The Persian inscriptions on the mosque reveal that the Subahdar of Bengal Shaista Khan built-in 1667. It is believed that the mosque was built by the eldest son of Shaista Khan, Buzurg Umed Khan. He was also the conqueror of Chittagong. But, his name is not cited on the inscription. This mosque was unused for a long time and in the year 1761, the British officials used it to store arms and ammunition. In 1853, the Muslim elites of Chittagong headed by Hamidullah approached the British Government and were successful in releasing the mosque for religious purposes in 1855. The repairs and extension works are continuing till to date

References

Mughal mosques
17th-century architecture
Mosques in Chittagong

Anderkilla Shahi Jame Mosque


Walter Schumann (October 8, 1913 – August 21, 1958) was an American composer for film, television, and the theater. His notable works include the score for The Night of the Hunter and the Dragnet Theme; the latter of which earned Schumann the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition in 1955. His Broadway musical, 3 for Tonight, won the Outer Critics Circle Award for Best Musical in 1955.

Career
Schumann was born in New York City in 1913. By the early 1930s, he was attending law school at USC when he abruptly quit his studies to perform in a college dance band. Eventually, the members of the band went their separate ways but Schumann continued on within the music industry, working with Eddie Cantor on Cantor's radio show, and recording with Andre Kostelanetz.

Following the outbreak of World War II, Schumann enlisted, eventually becoming the musical director of the Armed Forces Radio Service. He worked with most of the major acts of the war on all the radio shows AFRS produced during this time.  After the war, he returned to Los Angeles and worked in the movie and television industry as a composer and arranger, mostly on several Abbott & Costello films. In 1949, Schumann was asked to compose a new theme for a police detective show about to make its debut on the NBC Radio network. He began his theme with a four-note motif—quite possibly the second most famous four-note motif after Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Dragnet became a smash hit on the radio, and then television and Schumann's theme quickly became instantly recognizable.

He wrote one opera, John Brown's Body, which premiered in Los Angeles in 1953 and subsequently ran for sixty-five performances on Broadway at the New Century Theatre. This was followed by the musical revue 3 for Tonight which premiered on Broadway in 1955 in a production directed by and starring Gower Champion. It won the Outer Critics Circle Award for Best Musical in 1955.

Around this time, Schumann gathered together 20 talented vocalists and The Voices Of Walter Schumann was born. The ensemble recorded several easy-listening albums, similar to those recorded by Jackie Gleason, for both Capitol Records and RCA Victor.
By 1955, Schumann was busy composing and conducting the score to the classic Robert Mitchum film The Night of the Hunter and won an Emmy for his wildly popular Dragnet theme. He recorded a space-age themed, spoken-word album titled Exploring the Unknown, and his "Voices" troupe recorded a popular, 19-track Christmas album, The Voices of Christmas. The latter album was reissued on compact disc by Collector's Choice Music in November 2007 – 52 years after its initial debut both as an LP and 3-record 45 RPM set. There was a tribute to him on the centennial anniversary of his birth.

Death
In 1956 and 1957 Schumann continued to record with the Voices and they appeared on the first season of NBC's The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford. However, by the summer of 1958, poor health prompted Schumann to be admitted to the Mayo Clinic, where he underwent one of the first open heart surgeries in the United States. Complications arose following the operation, and Schumann died on August 21, 1958, aged 44, just weeks before the third season of The Tennessee Ernie Ford Show was scheduled to begin. Members of Schumann's "Voices" ensemble were stunned by his sudden death but decided to continue performing. They were renamed "The Top Twenty," and they carried on with Ford for another five years.

References

External links

American film score composers
American male film score composers
American opera composers
Broadway composers and lyricists
Male opera composers
1913 births
1958 deaths
Composers from New York City
USC Gould School of Law alumni
20th-century classical musicians
20th-century classical composers
20th-century American composers
Classical musicians from New York (state)
20th-century American male musicians

Walter Schumann