was a Japanese ichthyologist and a government official of Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

Career
Tokiharu Abe was born in Tabata, Tokyo, emigrated to Taiwan with his family in 1919, graduated from Taipei High School and was admitted to Tokyo Imperial University. He went on to School of Science of Tokyo Imperial University.

After studying at School of Science, he became a research student of zoology class at Tokyo Imperial University and was appointed as an agriculture and forestry engineer of Fisheries Experiment Station of Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in 1947.

He received Ronbun Hakase, namely doctoral degree without finishing doctoral course study, from University of Tokyo by the thesis entitled "日本海近海産マフグ科魚類の分類学的研究 [The taxonomic study on the family fish of Takifugu of the sea around Japan]" in 1952. He became senior researcher at Tokai Regional Fisheries Research Institute and retired in 1977. He worked for the University Museum of the University of Tokyo.

He became the superintendent of
Osakana Fukyu Sentā Shiryōkan (Tsukiji Fish Information Center and Museum).

Abe became notable for his taxonomic studies on the pufferfish (Tetraodontidae, Teleostei) from East Asia, in particular the genus Takifugu which he first described in 1949. He described further species like Sagamichthys abei, Centroscyllium kamoharai and Fugu obscurus. Species like Tetraodon abei and Chaunax abei were named in his honour. Abe became honorary member of Japanese Society of Systematic Zoology in 1991 and was also an honorary foreign member of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.

In 1996, he died from a cerebral hemorrhage in a hospital in Tokyo.

Publications (selected)
Abe, T., 1950. "New, rare or uncommon fishes from Japanese waters. I.Liparis franzi, new name". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 1: 135–139.
Abe, T., 1952. "Taxonomic studies of the puffers (Tetraodontidae, Teleostei) from Japan and adjacent regions—VII. Concluding remarks, with the introduction of two new genera, Fugu and Boesemanichthys". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 2: 35–44, 93–97, 117–127.
Abe, T., 1953. "New, rare or uncommon fishes from Japanese waters. II. Records of rare fishes of the families Diretmidae, Luvaridae and Tetragonuridae, with an appendix (description of a new species, Tetragonurus pacificus, from off the Solomon Islands)". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 3: 39–47.
Abe, T., 1955. "On a new Pacific flying-fish, Prognichthys sealei, retaining five unbranched fin-rays above in the pectoral throughout life". Rec. Oceanogr. Works Japan, 2: 185–192.
Abe, T., 1957a. "Notes on fishes taken from the stomach of whales taken in the Antarctic. I.Xenocyttus nemotoi, a new genus and new species of zeomorph fish of the subfamily Oreosomatinae Goode and Bean, 1895". Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. (Tokyo), (12): 225–233.
Abe, T. 1957b. "Illustrated descriptions of one thousand useful fishes, II", Morikita Shuppan, Tokyo. (In Japanese.)
Abe, T., 1959. "New, rare or uncommon fishes from Japanese waters. VII. Description of a new species of Beryx", Japan. J. Ichthyol., 7: 157–163.
Abe, T. 1960. "Description of a new species of lutjanid fish of the genusParacaesio from Japan". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 8: 56–62.
Abe, T., 1961–1962. "Notes on some fishes of the subfamily Braminae, with the introduction of a new genus Pseudotaractes". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 8: 92–99, 101–114.
Abe, T. 1966. "Description of a new squaloid shark, Centroscyllium kamoharai, from Japan". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 13: 190–198.
Abe, T. and W. N. Eschmeyer. 1972. "A new species of the scorpionfish genus Helicolenus from the North Pacific Ocean". Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., 4th Ser., 39: 47–53.
Abe, T. and Y. Haneda. 1972. "Description of two new species of the ponyfish genusLeiognathus from Indonesia". Sci. Rep. Yokosuka City Mus. (Nat. Hist.), (19): 1–6.
Abe, T. and Y. Haneda. 1973. "Description of a new fish of the genus Photoblepharon (family Anomalopidae) from the Red Sea". Bull. Sea Fish. Res. Stn, Haifa, 60: 57–62.
Abe, T. and H. Hotta. 1963. "Description of a new deep-sea fish of the genus Rondeletia from Japan". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 10: 43–48.
Abe, T., S. Kojima, and T. Kosakai. 1963. "Description of a new nomeid fish from Japan". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 11: 31–35.
Abe, T., R. Marumo and K. Kawaguchi. 1965a. "Description of a new cetomimid fish from Suruga Bay". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 12: 57–63.
Abe, T., R. Muramo and K. Kawaguchi. 1965b. "Description of a new alepocephalid fish from Suruga Bay". Japan. J. Ichthyol., 13: 67–72.
Abe, T., M. Miki and M. Asai. 1977. "Description of a new garden eel from Japan". UO, (28): 1–8.

References

Ryoichi Arai: "Memories of Dr. Tokiharu Abe (1911–1996)" in Ichthyological Research 44: 1, February 1997. Springer Japan

External links
 Fishbase entry

1911 births
1996 deaths
Japanese ichthyologists
20th-century Japanese zoologists

Tokiharu Abe


Louis Charles de Montigny (1805–1868) was a French diplomat who was active in Asia during the 19th century.

Biography
He was the first French consul in Shanghai from 23 January 1848 to 10 June 1853. He founded the Shanghai French Concession in 1849.

In 1856, de Montigny was sent as a French envoy to King Mongkut of Thailand. A treaty was signed on 15 August 1856 to facilitate trade, guarantee religious freedom, and allow the access of French warships to Bangkok.

From Thailand, de  Montigny visited Vietnam in 1857 to demand the establishment of a consulate in Huế, freedom to trade and to preach, and an end to persecution against Catholics. However, the Vietnamese court  rejected all of his demands.  When Montigny's mission failed, Napoléon III decided to dispatch a military force of 3,000 to Vietnam, leading to the capture of Da Nang by Charles Rigault de Genouilly on 1 September 1858.

Charles de Montigny served again as President of the Municipal Council in Shanghai from 1 May 1862. From 1863 to 1868, he was French Consul in Tientsin, where he died in 1868.

Notes

1805 births
1868 deaths
People of the Cochinchina campaign
19th-century French diplomats

Charles de Montigny


Mwele Ntuli Malecela (26 March 1963 – 10 February 2022) was a Tanzanian civil servant who was a senior United Nations official and the director of the Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases at the World Health Organization Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.

Early life
Her father, John Malecela, held several senior political positions in Tanzania, including those of Prime Minister and First Vice-President, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Permanent Representative to the United Nations and High Commissioner to the United Kingdom.

Scientific and international career
Following her graduating in Zoology at the University of Dar es Salaam, she joined Tanzania's National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR) in 1987, where she worked at the Amani Center to conduct research on lymphatic filariasis. Following this, she continued her education at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, where she completed her MSc (1990) and PhD (1995). She continued her research at NIMR thereafter, and became Director of Research Coordination and Promotion (DRCP) in 1998 before moving on to become the Director of the Lymphatic Filariasis program in 2000, which is now functional in 53 districts (population: 13 million people). In 2010 she was appointed NIMR's Director General, and was the first woman to hold this position. In June 2015, she went on sabbatical to pursue her political aspirations.

In 2017, she joined WHO's Regional Office for Africa in April 2017 as the Director in the Office of the Regional Director (RD) responsible for providing policy, managerial and diplomatic advice to the RD, coordinating and facilitating the plan of work for all units under the RD's Office Cluster, and monitoring the implementation of policy decisions of WHO governing bodies. She also provided support to the RD on strategic directions of WHO's work in the region. In October 2018 the Director General of WHO, Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, appointed her Director of the Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, based at the Organization's headquarters in Geneva.

Political career
Malecela joined Tanzania's ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM), in 1981 when she was at KilaKala. At the time, party membership required an entrance course, which Dr. Malecela attended in April, after which she became full member. She ran for election in the CCM presidential primaries, which took place in July 2015 to determine CCM's nominee for the Presidency of Tanzania.

Personal life and death
Malecela died from cancer on 10 February 2022, at the age of 58.

References

1963 births
2022 deaths
20th-century Tanzanian women politicians
21st-century Tanzanian women politicians
Chama Cha Mapinduzi politicians
People from Dar es Salaam
Tanzanian Christians
Tanzanian scientists
University of Dar es Salaam alumni
Weruweru Secondary School alumni
Tanzanian medical doctors
Tanzanian women physicians

Mwele Ntuli Malecela


Kosala (Sanskrit: , sometimes referred as "Uttara Kosala" ) was one of the sixteen great realms of ancient India. It emerged as a small state during the Late Vedic period and became (along with Magadha) one of the earliest states to transition from a lineage-based society to a monarchy. By the 6th century BCE, it had consolidated into one of the four great powers of ancient northern India, along with Magadha, Vatsa, and Avanti.

Kosala belonged to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture (c. 700–300 BCE) and was culturally distinct from the Painted Grey Ware culture of the neighboring Kuru-Panchala region, following independent development toward urbanisation and the use of iron. The presence of the lineage of Ikshavaku—described as a raja in the Ṛgveda and an ancient hero in the Atharvaveda—to which Rama, Mahavira, and the Buddha are all thought to have belonged—characterized the Kosalan realm.

One of India's two great epics, Ramayana is set in the "Kosala-Videha" realm in which the Kosalan prince Rama marries the Videhan princess Sita.

After a series of wars with neighbouring kingdoms, it was finally defeated and absorbed into the Magadha kingdom in the 5th century BCE. After the collapse of the Maurya Empire and before the expansion of the Kushan Empire, Kosala was ruled by the Deva dynasty, the Datta dynasty, and the Mitra dynasty.

Location

Geography
Kosala was bounded by the Gomti River in the west, Sarpika River in the south, Sadanira in the east which separated it from Videha, and the Nepal Hills in the north. It encompassed the territories of the Shakyans, Mallakas, Koliyas, Kālāmas and Moriyas at its peak. It roughly corresponds to modern-day Awadh region in India.

Cities and towns
The Kosala region had three major cities, Ayodhya, Saketa and Shravasti, and a number of minor towns as Setavya, Ukattha, Dandakappa, Nalakapana and Pankadha. According to the Puranas and the Ramayana epic, Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala during the reign of Ikshvaku and his descendants. Shravasti is recorded as the capital of Kosala during the Mahajanapada period (6th–5th centuries BCE), but post-Maurya (2nd–1st centuries BCE) kings issued their coins from Ayodhya.

Culture
Kosala belonged to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture (c. 700-300 BCE), which was preceded by the Black and red ware culture (c.c. 1450-1200 BCE until c. 700-500 BCE). The Central Gangetic Plain was the earliest area for rice cultivation in South Asia, and entered the Iron Age around 700 BCE. According to Geoffrey Samuel, following Tim Hopkins, the Central Gangetic Plain was culturally distinct from the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Vedic Aryans of Kuru-Pancala west of it, and saw an independent development toward urbanisation and the use of iron.

Religion

Kosala was situated at the crossroads of Vedic heartland of Kuru-Panchala and Greater Magadhan culture. According to Alexander Wynne, Kosala-Videha culture was at the center of unorthodox Vedic traditions, ascetic and speculative traditions, possibly reaching back to the late Ṛgveda. Kosala-Videha culture is thought to be the home of the Śukla school of the Yajurveda.

According to Michael Witzel and Joel Brenton, the Kāṇva school of Vedic traditions (and in turn the first Upanishad i.e, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad) was based in Kosala during the middle and late Vedic periods. Kosala had a significant presence of the muni tradition, which included Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas, Naga, Yakṣa, and tree worshipers as well as Vedic munis. The muni tradition emphasized on "practicing yoga, meditation, renunciation and wandering mendicancy" as contrasted to the ṛṣis who "recited prayers, conducted homa, and led a householder lifestyle".

According to Samuel, there is "extensive iconographical evidence for a religion of fertility and auspiciousness". According to Hopkins, the region was marked by a

Buddhism
Kosala had a particularly strong connection to the Buddha's life. Buddha introduced himself to the king of Magadha in the Suttanipata as a Kosalan. In the Majjhima Nikāya too, king Prasenajit refers to Buddha as a Kosalan. He spent much of his time teaching in Śrāvastī, especially in the Jetavana monastery. According to Samuels, early Buddhism was not a protest against an already established Vedic-Brahmanical system, which developed in Kuru-Pancala realm, but an opposition against the growing influence of this Vedic-Brahmanical system, and the superior position granted to Brahmins in it.

Religious textual references

In Buddhist and Jain texts

Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala. A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan, which indicates that Kosala may have subjugated the Shakya clan, which the Buddha is traditionally believed to have belonged to.

In Vedic Literature

Kosala is not mentioned in the early Vedic literature, but appears as a region in the later Vedic texts of the Shatapatha Brahmana (7th-6th centuries BCE, final version 300 BCE) and the Kalpasutras (6th-century BCE).

In Puranas
In the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas the ruling family of the Kosala kingdom was the Ikshvaku dynasty, which was descended from king Ikshvaku. The Puranas give lists of kings of the Ikshvaku dynasty from Ikshvaku to Prasenajit (Pali: Pasenadi). According to the Ramayana, Rama ruled the Kosala kingdom from his capital, Ayodhya.

History

Pre-Mauryan

Koshala's first capital of Shravasti was barely settled by the 6th century BCE, but there is the beginnings of a mud fort. By 500 BCE, Vedic people had spread to Koshala.

By the 5th century BCE under the reign of King Mahakosala, the neighboring Kingdom of Kashi had been conquered. Mahakosala's daughter was the first wife of King Bimbisara of Magadha. As a dowry, Bimbisara received a Kashi village that had a revenue of 100,000. This marriage temporarily eased tensions between Koshala and Magadha.

By the time of Mahākosala's son Pasenadi, Kosala had become the suzerain of the Kālāma tribal republic, and Pasenadi's realm maintained friendly relations with the powerful Licchavi tribe which lived to the east of his kingdom.

During Pasenadi's reign, a Mallaka named Bandhula who had received education in Takṣaśilā, had offered his services as a general to the Kauśalya king so as to maintain the good relations between the Mallakas and Kosala. Later, Bandhula, along with his wife Mallikā, violated the  sacred tank of the Licchavikas, which resulted in armed hostilities between the Kauśalya and the Licchavikas. Bandhula was later treacherously murdered along with his sons by Pasenadi. In retaliation, some Mallakas helped Pasenadi's son Viḍūḍabha usurp the throne of Kosala to avenge the death of Bandhula, after which Pasenadi fled from Kosala and died in front of the gates of the Māgadhī capital of Rājagaha.

At some point during his reign, Viḍūḍabha fully annexed the Kālāmas. That the Kālāmas did not request a share of the Buddha's relics after his death was possibly because they had lost their independence by then.

Shortly after the Buddha's death, the Viḍūḍabha invaded the Sakya and Koliya republics, seeking to conquer their territories because they had once been part of Kosala. Viḍūḍabha finally triumphed over the Sakyas and Koliyas and annexed their state after a long war with massive loss of lives on both sides. Details of this war were exaggerated by later Buddhist accounts, which claimed that Viḍūḍabha's invasion was in retaliation for having given in marriage to his father the slave girl who became Viḍūḍabha's mother, and that he exterminated the Sakyas. In actuality, Viḍūḍabha's invasion of Sakya might instead have had similar motivations to the Māgadhī king Ajātasattu's conquest of the Vajjika League because he was the son of a Vajjika princess and was therefore interested in the territory of his mother's homeland. The result of the Kauśalya invasion was that the Sakyas and Koliyas were absorbed into Viḍūḍabha's kingdom.

The massive life losses incurred by Kosala during its conquest of Sakya weakened it significantly enough that it was itself was soon annexed by its eastern neighbour, the kingdom of Magadha, and Viḍūḍabha was defeated and killed by the Māgadhī king Ajātasattu.

Under the reign of Mahapadma Nanda of Magadha, Koshala rebelled but the rebellion was put down.

Under Mauryan rule
It is assumed that during the Mauryan reign, Kosala was administratively under the viceroy at Kaushambi. The Sohgaura copper plate inscription, probably issued during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya deals with a famine in Shravasti and the relief measures to be adopted by the officials. The Yuga Purana section of the Garga Samhita mentions about the Yavana (Indo-Greek) invasion and subsequent occupation of Saket during the reign of the last Maurya ruler Brihadratha.

Post-Mauryan period

The names of a number of rulers of Kosala of the post-Maurya period are known from the square copper coins issued by them, mostly found at Ayodhya. The rulers, forming the Deva dynasty, are: Muladeva, Vayudeva, Vishakhadeva, Dhanadeva, Naradatta, Jyesthadatta and Shivadatta. There is no way to know whether king Muladeva of the coins is identifiable with Muladeva, murderer of the Shunga ruler Vasumitra or not (though a historian, Jagannath has tried to do so). King Dhanadeva of the coins is identified with king Dhanadeva (1st century BCE) of Ayodhya inscription. In this Sanskrit inscription, King Kaushikiputra Dhanadeva mentions about setting a ketana (flag-staff) in memory of his father, Phalgudeva. In this inscription he claimed himself as the sixth in descent from Pushyamitra Shunga. Dhanadeva issued both cast and die-struck coins and both the types have a bull on obverse.

Other local rulers whose coins were found in Kosala include: a group of rulers whose name ends in "-mitra" is also known from their coins: Satyamitra, Aryamitra, Vijayamitra and Devamitra, sometimes called the "Late Mitra dynasty of Kosala". Other rulers known from their coins are: Kumudasena, Ajavarman and Sanghamitra.

See also

 Kosala Kingdom
 Ayodhya
 Rama
 Prasenjit of Kosala
 Janapada
 Mahajanapada
 Ancestors of Rama
 List of Ikshvaku dynasty kings

References

Citations

Sources

 .

 .

Historical Indian regions
Mahajanapadas
Places in the Ramayana
History of Uttar Pradesh

Kosala


The World of Lee Evans is a BAFTA-nominated television comedy series written by and starring Lee Evans. It was produced by Granada Television for Channel 4 and aired four episodes (featuring two stories each) in June 1995.

The series followed Lee around getting stuck in tight situations - its humour, which differs greatly from Evans' later stand-up material, contains many elements of slapstick, and the show is similar in style to Mr. Bean. It won a cult following but has received a very mixed reception in retrospect with some critics and fans comparing it unfavourably to his other work.

The series' slogan is If Lee Evans needs to get from A to B, he starts at Z....

Episodes
"The Late Night Shift"/"Meet the Folks" (2 June 1995)
In "The Late Night Shift", Evans works his first nightshift in a 24-hour garage, though he has problems with his first customer. Evans has problems delivering him a packet of crisps, a drink's can and a cassette tape.
In "Meet the Folks", Lee Evans believes he has arrived at his girlfriend's house, though whilst she is getting ready to see Evans, he must occupy his time making a good image of himself for her parents. Unfortunately, Evans embarrasses himself, and it turns out eventually he has visited the wrong house.
"Off the Rails" (9 June 1995)
In "Off the Rails" (Part One): Lee Evans and his girlfriend Jo travel on a "hotel train" heading to Edinburgh. However, as the train wobbles, havoc erupts.
In "Off the Rails" (Part Two): Jo almost breaks up with Evans due to her believing that he doesn't understand her.
"One Late Night" (16 June 1995)
In "One Late Night" (Part One): Lee Evans takes a trip in a car he is selling at his outdoor showroom. During the journey, he picks up a mysterious hitch hiker. They both hear a BBC Radio announcement on the car radio about a criminal who has escaped from prison and was hitchhiking.
In "One Late Night" (Part Two): As both Lee Evans and the hitch hiker both heard the BBC report, Evans starts to believe that the hitch hiker is the criminal, whilst the hitch hiker thinks Evans in the criminal, and thus act closely aware of each other.
"Mr Confidence"/"Special Delivery" (23 June 1995)
In "Mr Confidence", Lee Evans puts on an LP of a man giving instructions to Evans on how to impress his next door neighbour. However, Evans cannot hold up the act up for very long.
In "Special Delivery", a friend of Evans' is giving birth and Evans tries to find things to do to occupy his time in the hospital whilst he awaits the birth.

External links

1990s British sitcoms
1995 British television series debuts
1995 British television series endings
Channel 4 comedy
Channel 4 sitcoms
Television shows produced by Granada Television
Television series by ITV Studios
English-language television shows

The World of Lee Evans


Zainab Chottani is a Pakistan based fashion designer who started as a bridal wear designer but has since then included prêt and haute couture in her forte.  She is one of the well known designers in  Pakistan for bridal wear and has displayed her creations in Pakistan as well as in Dubai, USA  and London.

Career
Chottani started in bridal fashion under the name of Zainab Sajid in 1999. She works with traditional colors and uses embroidery along with different cuts to form new designs. The designs contain influences from the Mughal Era where Royal women adorned heavily decorated dresses to look more attractive. Her bridal dresses are specifically made to order as to cater to the different requirements of each bride. She has displayed her bridal collection in various exhibitions including the Pantene Bridal Couture week  and Pakistan Fashion Week by Riwayat in the UK.

Aqua and Mera Pakistan

Zainab Chottani has added to her portfolio by introducing the brands Aqua and Mera Pakistan. Aqua is a fashion label which features ready to wear clothes for women. Launched in 2012, the brand makes clothes to be worn in the summer season by featuring bright colors and baggy shirts. Later it launched the Mera Pakistan collection in March 2012 which aimed to convert Pakistan's cultural symbols into fashion. It did this by featuring rickshaws, traditional drums, the Minar-e-Pakistan on its kurta's, a long shirt worn by women in Pakistan.

Exhibitions and fashion shows
Chottani did her first show in 2010 with Frieha Altaf, and has  showcased her work during the Pakistan Fashion Week and Bridal Couture Week. Creations from the house of Zainab Chottani have been displayed in various fashion shows. Models adorned her work in the Pakistan Fashion week in London alongside notable designers such as Sonya Battla, Sophia Mehta and Rizwan Ahmad. Her work was also displayed at the Pantene Bridal Couture Week where her notable personalities such as TV hosts Shaista Wahidi, Nida Yasir, Fahad Mustafa walked the ramp wearing her works with super model Nadia Hussain to follow. Apart from these shows, Chottani's work has been showcased in Dubai and at her studio in which she introduces new lines of work.

References

External links

1982 births
Living people
Pakistani fashion designers
Pakistani women fashion designers
People from Karachi

Zainab Chottani


Erich Johann Albert Raeder (24 April 1876 – 6 November 1960) was a German admiral who played a major role in the naval history of World War II, and was convicted of war crimes after the war. Raeder attained the highest possible naval rank, that of grand admiral, in 1939, becoming the first person to hold that rank since Henning von Holtzendorff in 1918. Raeder led the Kriegsmarine for the first half of the war; he resigned in January 1943 and was replaced by Karl Dönitz. At the Nuremberg trials he was sentenced to life imprisonment but was released early owing to failing health.

Early career

Early years
Raeder was born in Wandsbek in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein in the German Empire. His father was a headmaster, who as a teacher and a father was noted for his marked authoritarian views, and who impressed upon his son the values of hard work, thrift, faith and obedience – all values that Raeder preached throughout his life. Hans Raeder also warned his children that if Germany were to become a democracy, that would be a disaster as it meant government by men "playing politics" – doing what was only best for their petty sectarian interests instead of the nation.

Imperial German Navy

Raeder joined the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) in 1894 and rapidly rose in rank, becoming chief of staff for Franz von Hipper in 1912. Raeder's rise up the ranks was due mostly to his intelligence and hard work though from 1901 to 1903 Raeder served on the staff of Prince Heinrich of Prussia, and gained a powerful patron in the process. Owing to his cold and distant personality, Raeder was a man whom even his friends often admitted to knowing very little about. The dominating figure of the Navy was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the autocratic State Secretary of the Navy. Tirpitz's preferred means of obtaining "world power status" was through his Risikotheorie (risk theory) where Germany would build a Risikoflotte (Risk Fleet) that would make it too dangerous for Britain to risk a war with Germany, and thereby alter the international balance of power decisively in the Reich favor. Tirpitz transformed the Navy from the small coastal defense force of 1897 into the mighty High Seas Fleet of 1914.

In 1904, Raeder, who spoke fluent Russian, was sent to the Far East as an observer of the Russo-Japanese War. Starting in 1905, Raeder worked in the public relations section of the Navy, where he first met Tirpitz and began his introduction to politics by briefing journalists to run articles promoting the Seemachtideologie and meeting politicians who held seats in the Reichstag in order to convert them to the Seemachtideologie. Working closely with Tirpitz, Raeder was heavily involved in the lobbying the Reichstag to pass the Third Navy Law of 1906 which committed Germany to building "all big gun battleships" to compete with the new British  in the Anglo-German naval race that had only begun at the start of the 20th century.

Raeder was the captain of Kaiser Wilhelm II's private yacht in the years leading up to World War I. In itself, this was not a rewarding post, but often people in this post were quickly promoted afterwards.

World War I
Raeder served as Hipper's chief of staff during World War I, as well as in combat posts. He took part in the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915 and in the Battle of Jutland in 1916. Raeder later described Hipper as an admiral who "hated paperwork"; accordingly, Hipper delegated considerable power to Raeder, who thus enjoyed more influence than his position as chief of staff would suggest.

During and after World War I the German navy was divided into two schools of thought. One, led by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (1849–1930), consisted of avid followers of the teachings of the American historian Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840–1914) and believed in building a "balanced fleet" centered around the battleship that would seek out and win a decisive battle of annihilation (Entscheidungsschlacht) against the Royal Navy in the event of war. The other school, led by Commander Wolfgang Wegener (1875–1956), argued that because of superior British shipbuilding capacity Germany could never hope to build a "balanced fleet" capable of winning an Entscheidungsschlacht, and so the best use of German naval strength was to build a fleet of cruisers and submarines that would wage a guerre de course (commerce raiding against an enemy's merchant shipping). After reading all three of Wegener's papers setting out his ideas, Admiral Hipper decided to submit them to the Admiralty in Berlin, but changed his mind after reading a paper by Raeder attacking the Wegener thesis as flawed. This marked the beginning of a long feud between Raeder and Wegener, with Wegener claiming that his former friend Raeder was jealous of what Wegener insisted were his superior ideas.

In May 1916 Raeder played a major role planning a raid by Hipper's battlecruisers that aimed to lure out the British battlecruiser force which would then be destroyed by the main High Seas Fleet. This raid turned into the Battle of Jutland. Raeder played a prominent role, and was forced midway through the battle to transfer from  to  as a result of damage to Hipper's flagship.

As chief of staff to Admiral Hipper he was closely involved in a plan of Hipper's for a German battlecruiser squadron to sail across the Atlantic and sweep through the waters off Canada down to the West Indies and on to South America to sink the British cruisers operating in those waters, and thereby force the British to redeploy a substantial part of the Home Fleet to the New World. Though Hipper's plans were rejected as far too risky, they significantly influenced Raeder's later thinking.

On 14 October 1918, Raeder received a major promotion with appointment as deputy to Admiral Paul Behncke, the Naval State Secretary. Raeder had doubts about submarines, but he spent the last weeks of the war working to achieve the Scheer Programme of building 450 U-boats.

On 28 October 1918 the Imperial German fleet mutinied. Raeder played a major role in attempting to crush the mutiny.

Weimar Republic
Raeder's two younger brothers were both killed in action in the First World War, and in 1919 his first marriage, which had been under heavy strain due to war-related stress, ended in divorce. For the puritanical Raeder, the divorce was a huge personal disgrace, and for the rest of his life he always denied his first marriage. The years 1918–1919 were some of the most troubled in his life.

High Seas Fleet mutiny
In the winter of 1918–19, Raeder was closely involved in the efforts of the naval officer corps, strongly backed by the Defense Minister Gustav Noske to disband the sailors' councils established after the mutiny. Noske was a Majority Social Democrat with firm "law and order" views. During this period, Raeder served as the liaison between the naval officer corps and Noske, and it was Raeder who suggested to Noske on 11 January 1919 that Adolf von Trotha be appointed commander-in-chief of the Navy. Tirpitz's attacks on the Emperor's leadership during the war had caused a split in the officer corps between the followers of "the Master" and the Kaiser, and Raeder saw Trotha as the only officer acceptable to both factions. Noske in turn asked the Navy for volunteers for the Freikorps to crush uprisings from the Communists. The Navy contributed two brigades to the Freikorps. The price to the Navy for supporting the Freikorps was the continuation of the Navy's "state-within-the state" status, and the end of attempts to democratize the military. Under the Weimar Republic, the military considered itself überparteiliche (above party), which did not mean political neutrality as implied. The military argued that there were two types of "politics": parteipolitisch (party politics) which was the responsibility of the politicians, and staatspolitisch (state politics) which was the responsibility of the military. Staatspolitisch concerned Germany's "eternal" interests and the "historic mission" of winning world power, which was to be pursued regardless of what the politicians or the people wanted.

Kapp putsch

After the war, in 1920, Raeder was involved in the failed Kapp Putsch when, together with almost the entire naval officer corps, he declared himself openly for the "government" of Wolfgang Kapp against the leaders of the Weimar Republic. In the summer of 1920 Raeder married his second wife, with whom he was to have one son.

After the failure of the Kapp Putsch he was marginalized in the Navy, being transferred to the Naval Archives, where for two years he played a leading role in writing the official history of the Navy in World War I. After this, Raeder resumed his steady rise in the navy hierarchy, becoming Vizeadmiral (vice admiral) in 1925.

Commander-in-chief

On 1 October 1928, Raeder was promoted to admiral and made chief of the Naval Command (Chef der Marineleitung) of the Reichsmarine, the Weimar Republic Navy. On 1 June 1935, the Reichsmarine was renamed the Kriegsmarine and Raeder became its commander-in-chief with the title of Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine. On 20 April 1936, Raeder was promoted to the new rank of Generaladmiral and granted the rank and authority of a Reichsminister but without the formal title. On 30 January 1937, Hitler conferred the Golden Party Badge on Raeder, thereby enrolling him in the Party (membership number 3,805,228).

World War II

Raeder believed the navy was unprepared for the start of World War II by at least five years. The surface fleet was inadequate to fight the Royal Navy and instead adopted a strategy of convoy raiding. Raeder wanted the Kriegsmarine to play an active part because he feared the budget would be cut after the war. The smaller ships were dispersed around the world in order to force the Royal Navy to disperse their ships to combat them, while the battleships would carry out raids in the North Sea, with a view towards gradually reducing the Royal Navy's strength at home.

Raeder was unhappy with the outcome of the Battle of the River Plate and believed that Hans Langsdorff should not have scuttled the ship, but instead sailed out to engage the Royal Navy. Fleet commander Hermann Boehm was held responsible and was sacked by Raeder, who also issued orders that ships were to fight until the last shell and either win or sink with their flags flying.

The Allies were using Norwegian airfields to transfer aircraft to the Finns fighting against the Soviets in the Winter War, as well as mining Norwegian waters, and the Germans were alarmed by these developments.  If the Allies were to use Norwegian naval bases or successfully mine Norwegian waters, they could cut off Germany's vital iron ore imports from Sweden and tighten the blockade of Germany. The Allies had made plans to invade Norway and Sweden in order to cut off those iron ore shipments. Admiral Rolf Carls, commander of the Kriegsmarine in the Baltic Sea region, proposed the invasion of Norway to Raeder in September 1939. Raeder briefed Hitler on the idea in October, but planning did not begin until December 1939.  The operation was in low-priority planning until the Altmark incident in February 1940, during which a German tanker carrying 300 Allied prisoners in then-neutral Norwegian waters was boarded by sailors from a Royal Navy destroyer and the prisoners were freed. After this, plans for the Norwegian invasion took on a new sense of urgency. The invasion proved costly for the Kriegsmarine, which lost a heavy cruiser, two of its six light cruisers, 10 of its 20 destroyers and six U-boats.  In addition, almost all of the other capital ships were damaged and required dockyard repairs, and for a time the German surface fleet had only three light cruisers and four destroyers operational in the aftermath of the Norwegian campaign.

The swift victory over France allowed the Kriegsmarine to base itself in ports on France's west coast. This was strategically important as German warships would no longer have to navigate through the dangerous English Channel in order to return to friendly ports, as well as allow them to range farther out into the Atlantic to attack convoys. With the surrender of France, Raeder saw the opportunity to greatly enhance the navy's power by confiscating the ships of the French Navy and manning them with his crews.  Hitler however, vetoed this idea, afraid that doing so would push the French navy to join the Royal Navy.  British fears of Raeder's plan resulted in the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, in which the Royal Navy attacked the French navy despite being at peace with France.

On 11 July 1940, Hitler and Raeder agreed to continue building the battleships called for by Plan Z. Raeder also had bases built at Trondheim on the Norwegian Sea and at Saint-Nazaire and Lorient on the Bay of Biscay. At this time, Raeder and other senior officers began submitting memos to invade (among others) Shetland, Iceland, the Azores, Iran, Madagascar, Kuwait, Egypt and the Dutch East Indies.

In January 1941, the battlecruisers  and  were sent on a successful commerce-raiding mission in the Atlantic. On 18 March, following the beginning of Lend-Lease, Raeder wanted to start firing on US warships even if unprovoked. He declined to invade the Azores because of the surface ship losses the previous year. Raeder urged Hitler to declare war on the United States throughout 1941 so the Kriegsmarine could begin sinking American warships escorting British convoys.

In April 1941, Raeder planned to follow up the success of Scharnhorst and Gneisenaus commerce-raiding mission with an even larger mission involving a battleship, two battlecruisers and a heavy cruiser under the command of Lütjens, codenamed Operation Rheinübung. The original plan was to have the battlecruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau involved in the operation, but Scharnhorst was undergoing heavy repairs to her engines, and Gneisenau had just suffered a damaging torpedo hit days before which put her out of action for six months.  In the end only the  and  were sent out on the mission, which ended with Bismarcks sinking. The debacle almost saw the end of using capital ships against merchant shipping. Hitler was not pleased and saw the resources used in the construction and operation of the large Bismarck as a poor investment.

In late 1941, Raeder planned the "channel dash" which sent the remaining two battleships in the French ports to Germany, for further operations in Norwegian waters. The plan was to threaten the Lend-Lease convoys to the Soviet Union, to deter an invasion of Norway, and to tie down elements of the Home Fleet that might otherwise have been used in the Atlantic against the U-boat wolfpacks.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor Raeder, along with Field Marshal Keitel and Reichsmarschall Göring, urged Hitler to immediately declare war on the United States in view of the US war plan Rainbow Five, and to begin the U-boat attacks off the US east coast, which would be called the "Second Happy Time" by German submariners.

Resignation

On 30 January 1943, following Hitler's outrage over the Battle of the Barents Sea, Karl Dönitz, the supreme commander of the Kriegsmarine's U-boat arm, was promoted to grand admiral, and Raeder was named admiral inspector, a ceremonial office. Raeder had failed to inform Hitler of the battle, which Hitler learned about from the foreign press. Hitler thought the Lützow and  lacked fighting spirit, according to Albert Speer. The reorganisation fitted Speer's goal of working more closely with Dönitz.

After the war

Nuremberg trial

Raeder was captured by Soviet troops on 23 June 1945 and imprisoned in Moscow. At the end of July he was taken to Nuremberg to stand trial on the counts of: (1) conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity; (2) planning, initiating, and waging wars of aggression; and (3) crimes against the laws of war.

Raeder was found guilty on all counts and sentenced to life imprisonment. He was surprised as he had expected to be sentenced to death. His wife, supported by German veterans, led several campaigns to free him until, on account of his ill health, he was released on 26 September 1955.

Freedom

Raeder wrote his autobiography, Mein Leben, using a ghostwriter.

He died of natural causes in Kiel on 6 November 1960. His wife had died the previous year. He is buried in the Nordfriedhof (North Cemetery) in Kiel. Former Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz attended his funeral on 12 November 1960.

Service summary
Dates of rank
 Seekadett (Sea cadet): 26 Apr 1894
 Fähnrich zur See (Midshipman): 13 May 1895
 Leutnant zur See (Sub-lieutenant): 25 Oct 1897
 Oberleutnant zur See (Lieutenant): c. 1900
 Kapitänleutnant (Lieutenant-commander): c. 1905
 Korvettenkapitän (Commander): 15 Apr 1911
 Fregattenkapitän (Senior commander): c. 1915
 Kapitän zur See (Captain): 19 Nov 1919
 Konteradmiral (Rear admiral): 1 Aug 1922
 Vizeadmiral (Vice admiral): 1 Apr 1925
 Admiral (Admiral): 1 Oct 1928
 Generaladmiral (General admiral): 10 Apr 1936
 Grossadmiral (Grand admiral): 1 Apr 1939

Awards and decorations
 Order of the Double Dragon, 3rd class, 2nd Level (China, 10 October 1898)
 China Medal (German Empire, 12 December 1901)
 Order of the Red Eagle, 4th class (Prussia, 22 June 1907)
 Honorary Knight 2nd class of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis with Silver Crown (Oldenburg, 17 September 1907)
 Order of the Red Eagle, 4th class with Crown (Prussia, 5 September 1911)
 Commander's Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph (Austria, 16 September 1911)
 Commander's Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece, 14 May 1912)
 Order of Saint Stanislaus, 2nd class (Russia, 16 April 1913)
 Iron Cross (1914) 2nd Class (19 November 1914) & 1st Class (18 February 1915)
 Imtiyaz Medal in silver with Swords
 Ottoman War Medal (also known as the "Gallipoli Star" or "Iron Crescent")
 Friedrich August Cross, 1st and 2nd class (Oldenburg)
 Knight's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern with swords (5 June 1916)
 Military Merit Order, 4th class with swords and crown (Bavaria, 20 December 1916)
 War Commemorative Medal (Bulgaria, 20 November 1917)
 Military Merit Cross, 3rd class with war decoration (Austria-Hungary, 4 September 1918)
 Honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Kiel (31 May 1926)
 Grand Cross of the Order of Naval Merit (Spain, 16 November 1928)
 Commander's Cross with Star of the Order of Merit (Chile, September 1928)
 World War Commemorative Medal with swords on (Hungary, 3 June 1931)
 Grand Officer of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy, 7 May 1934)
 Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit (Bulgaria, 28 June 1934)
 Cross of Honour (9 October 1934)
 Order of Merit, 1st class (Hungary, 5 December 1934)
 Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (27 February 1936)
 Wehrmacht Long Service Award, 1st class (2 October 1936)
 Olympic Games Decoration, 1st class (16 August 1936)
 Golden Party Badge (30 January 1937)
 Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy, 20 September 1937)
 Order of the Rising Sun, 1st class (Japan, 9 November 1937)
 War Memorial Medal (Bulgaria, 30 November 1937)
 Golden Medal of Honour of Hamburg (1 April 1939)
 Grand Cross of the Order of Naval Merit in White (Spain, 21 August 1939)
 Sudetenland Medal (25 October 1938) with "Prague Castle" clasp (Sudetenspange) (19 September 1939)
 Memel Medal (26 October 1939)
 Clasp to the Iron Cross, 1st and 2nd class (30 September 1939)
 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (nr.1) (30 September 1939) as Großadmiral and Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword (Sweden, 18 October 1940)
 Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword (Sweden, 24 October 1940)
 Grand Cross of the Military Order of Savoy (4 April 1942)
 Grand Cross Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir with swords and other decorations (Croatia, 26 September 1942)
 Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Kingdom of Hungary with war ribbon with swords (Hungary, 8 February 1943)
 Grand Cross of Order of St Alexander with swords (Bulgaria, 3 September 1941)
 Order of Michael the Brave, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class (Romania, 14 October 1941)
 Grand Cross of the Order of the Cross of Liberty (Finland, 25 March 1942)

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Alexander, Bevin,  How Hitler Could Have Won World War II, New York: Three Rivers Press. 2000. .
 Bergen, Doris, "'Germany Is Our Mission: Christ Is Our Strength!' The Wehrmacht Chaplaincy and the 'German Christian' Movement" pp. 522–536 from Church History Volume 66, Issue # 3, September 1997.
 Bird, Eugene, The Loneliest Man in the World, Rudolph Hess, in Spandau, London: Sphere, 1976.
 Bird, Keith, Weimar, The German Naval Officer Corps and the Rise of National Socialism, Amsterdam: Grüner, 1977, .
 Bird, Keith, Erich Raeder Admiral of the Third Reich, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2006,
 Buchanan, Patrick, Churchill, Hitler and the Unnecessary War: How Britain Lost Its Empire and the West Lost the World, New York: Random House, 2008, .
 Dörr, Manfred (in German). Die Ritterkreuzträger der Überwasserstreitkräfte der Kriegsmarine – Band 2:L–Z. Osnabrück, Germany: Biblio Verlag. 1996. .
 Fischer, Kurt (in German). Großadmiral Dr. phil. h.c. Erich Raeder. In: Gerd R. Ueberschär (ed.): Hitlers militärische Elite Band 1: Von der Anfängen des Regimes bis zum Kriegsbeginn (pp. 185–194). Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. 1998. .
 Gilbey, Joseph,  Kriegsmarine: Admiral Raeder's Navy – A Broken Dream, 2006.
 Goda, Norman: Tomorrow the World: Hitler, Northwest Africa, and the Path Toward America, Texas A&M University, 1998, .
 Goda, Norman: "Black Marks Hitler's Bribery of his Senior Officers During World War II" pp. 96–137 from Corrupt Histories edited by Emmanuel Kreike and William Jordan, University of Rochester Press, 2005, .
 Goda, Norman, Tales from Spandau: Nazi Criminals and the Cold War, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007, .
 Hankey, Maurice Politics, Trials and Errors, Clark, New Jersey: Lawbook Exchange, 2002, .
 Hansen, Kenneth "Raeder versus Wegener Conflict in German Strategy" pp. 81–108 from U.S. Naval War College Review, Volume 58, Issue # 4, Autumn 2005.
 Herwig, Holger, "The Failure of German Sea Power, 1914–1945: Mahan, Tirpitz, and Raeder Reconsidered" pp. 68–105 from The International History Review, Volume 10, Issue #1, February 1988.
 Kallis, Aristotle, Fascist Ideology Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany 1922–1945, Routledge: London, 2000 .
 Kershaw, Ian, Fateful Choices Ten Decisions that Changed the World 1940–1941, Penguin: London, 2007, .
 Mulligan, Timothy P. "Ship-of-the-Line or Atlantic Raider? Battleship Bismarck Between Design Limitations and Naval Strategy" pp. 1013–1044 from The Journal of Military History, Volume 69, Issue # 4, October 2005.
 Murray, Williamson & Millet, Alan, A War to Be Won Fighting the Second World War, Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2000, .
 Padfield, Peter, Dönitz: the Last Führer, London: Victor Gollancz, 1984, .
 Rahn, Werner, "The War at Sea in the Atlantic and in the Arctic Ocean" pp. 301–441 from Germany and the Second World War Volume VI The Global War Widening of the Conflict into a World War and the Shift of the Initiative 1941–1943 edited by Günther Roth, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001 .
 Raeder, Erich, My Life, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1960.

 Shirer, William, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960, .
 Thomas, Charle,s The German Navy in the Nazi Era, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990, .
 Wette, Wolfram The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006, .
 Weinberg, Gerhard, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970, .
 Weinberg, Gerhard, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, .
 Wheeler-Bennett, John, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918–1945'', London: Macmillan, 1967, .

External links
 Raeder versus Wegener Conflicts in German Naval Strategy by Commander Kenneth Hansen

 Raeder, Erich Johann Albert at World War II Graves (includes the plot number)

1876 births
1960 deaths
Admirals of the Reichsmarine
Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword
Commanders of the Order of Franz Joseph
German people convicted of the international crime of aggression
German prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
German Protestants
Grand admirals of the Kriegsmarine
Grand Crosses of Naval Merit
Grand Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (military)
Grand Crosses of the Order of Military Merit (Bulgaria)
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Cross of Liberty
Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
Imperial German Navy personnel of World War I
Kapp Putsch participants
Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of Savoy
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Military personnel from Hamburg
Military personnel from the Province of Schleswig-Holstein
Naval history of World War II
People convicted by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg
People from Wandsbek
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by international courts and tribunals
Recipients of the clasp to the Iron Cross, 1st class
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross
Recipients of the Order of Michael the Brave, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir
Recipients of the Silver Imtiyaz Medal

Erich Raeder


Henri Milne-Edwards (23 October 1800 – 29 July 1885) was an eminent French zoologist.

Biography
Henri Milne-Edwards was the 27th child of William Edwards, an English planter and colonel of the militia in Jamaica and Elisabeth Vaux, a Frenchwoman. Henri was born in Bruges, in present-day Belgium, where his parents had retired; Bruges was then a part of the newborn French Republic. His father had been jailed for several years for helping some Englishmen in their escape to their country. Henri spent most of his life in France. He was brought up in Paris by his older brother Guillaume Frederic Edwards (1777–1842), a distinguished physiologist and ethnologist. His father was released after the fall of Napoleon. The whole family then moved to Paris.

At first he turned his attention to medicine, in which he graduated as an MD at Paris in 1823. His passion for natural history soon prevailed, and he gave himself up to the study of the lower forms of animal life. He became a student of Georges Cuvier and befriended Jean Victoire Audouin.

He married Laura Trézel. They had nine children, including the biologist Alphonse Milne-Edwards.

Name
Originally the name Milne was one of the first names of Henri, but, to avoid confusion with his numerous relatives, he added it to his surname Edwards. He usually wrote it as "Milne Edwards", whilst his son Alphonse always used "Milne-Edwards". In taxon-authorship, the hyphenated name "Milne-Edwards" is most often used for both father and son.

Works

One of his earliest papers (), which was presented to the French Academy of Sciences in 1829, formed the theme of an elaborate and eulogistic report by Cuvier in the following year. It embodied the results of two dredging expeditions undertaken by him and his friend Audouin during 1826 and 1828 in the neighbourhood of Granville, and was remarkable for clearly distinguishing the marine fauna of that portion of the French coast into four zones.

Also in 1829, working in the scientific field of herpetology, he described and named five new species of lizards.

He became professor of hygiene and natural history in 1832 at the . In 1841, after the death of Audouin, he succeeded him at the chair of entomology at the . In 1862 he succeeded Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in the long-vacant chair of zoology.

Much of his original work was published in the Annales des sciences naturelles, with the editorship of which he was associated from 1834. Of his books may be mentioned the  (3 vols., 1837–1841), which long remained a standard work; , published in 1858–1860, but begun many years before;  (1857–1881), in 14 volumes; and a little work on the elements of zoology, originally published in 1834, but subsequently remodelled, which enjoyed an enormous circulation.

In 1842, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society. The Royal Society in 1856 awarded him the Copley Medal in recognition of his zoological investigations. He was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society in 1860. He died in Paris. His son, Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1835–1900), who became professor of ornithology at the museum in 1876, devoted himself especially to fossil birds and deep-sea exploration.

An important early classification scheme for vertebrates, diagrammed as a series of nested sets, was illustrated in Milne-Edwards (1844).

Honour

The name of Henri Milne-Edwards is honoured in several names of genera and species, such as:

Edwardsia de Quatrefages, 1841
Edwardsiella Andres, 1883
Henricia J. E. Gray, 1840
Myrianida edwardsi (de Saint-Joseph, 1887)
Lophoura edwardsi Kölliker, 1853
Aristaeopsis edwardsiana (Johnson, 1868)
Plesionika edwardsii (Brandt, 1851)
Dynamene edwardsi (Lucas, 1849)
Grapsicepon edwardsi Giard & Bonnier, 1888
Glossocephalus milneedwardsi Bovallius, 1887
Onisimus edwardsii (Krøyer, 1846)
Diastylis edwardsi (Krøyer, 1841)
Neoamphitrite edwardsii (de Quatrefages, 1865)
Colpaster edwardsi (Perrier, 1882)
Milnesium Doyère, 1840
Jasus edwardsii (Hutton, 1875)
Odontozona edwardsi (Bouvier, 1908)
Milneedwardsia Bourguignat, 1877
Boeckosimus edwardsii (Krøyer, 1846)
Lithophyllon edwardsi (Rosseau, 1850)
Goniastria edwardsi Chevalier, 1971
Fedora edwardsi Jullien, 1882
Ciona edwardsi (Roule, 1886)
Maasella edwardsi (de Lacaze-Duthiers, 1888)
Forskalia edwardsi Kölliker, 1853
Costa edwardsii (Roemer, 1838)
Colobomatus edwardsi (Richiardi, 1876)
Salmincola edwardsi (Olsson, 1869)
Aristaeopsis edwardsianus (Johnson, 1867)
Sergestes edwardsii Krøyer, 1855
Odontozona edwardsi (Bouvier, 1908)
Alphaeus edwardsii (Audouin, 1826)
Ebalia edwardsii Costa, 1838
Fedora edwardsi Jullien, 1882
Teuchopora edwardsi (Jullien, 1882)
Calliostoma milneedwardsi Locard, 1898
Ocinebrina edwardsii Payraudeau, 1826
Discodoris edwardsi Vayssière, 1902
Tergipes edwardsii Nordmann, 1844
Sadayoshia edwardsii (Miers, 1884)
Periclimenes edwardsi (Paulson, 1875)
Ocenebra edwardsi Payraudeau, 1826
Conus milneedwardsi F. P. Jousseaume, 1894
Montipora edwardsi Bernard, 1879
Goniastrea edwardsi Chevalier, 1971
Pagurus edwardsi (Dana, 1852)
Chirostylus milneedwardsi (Henderson, 1885)
Pisoides edwardsi Bell, 1835
Cancer edwardsi Bell, 1835
Diogenes edwardsii (de Haan, 1849)
Archaeoniscus edwardsii (Westwood, 1854)

References

Bibliography
Marcelin Berthelot, Notice historique sur Henri Milne Edwards, Didot, Paris 1891.
Trevor Norton: Stars beneath the sea, Carroll & Graf, New York 2000.

External links

1800 births
1885 deaths
French taxonomists
French carcinologists
French ornithologists
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
French people of English descent
Scientists from Bruges
19th-century French zoologists
National Museum of Natural History (France) people
Presidents of the Société entomologique de France
University of Paris alumni

Henri Milne-Edwards


De Aar railway station is a railway station serving the town of De Aar, in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. De Aar is a major junction where the Cape Town–Kimberley main line meets a line from Port Elizabeth and another from Upington and Namibia. As such, it is served by several routes of the Shosholoza Meyl inter-city service.

Transport in the Northern Cape
Shosholoza Meyl stations

De Aar railway station


West Australian Airways was an Australian airline based in Geraldton, Western Australia. Established on 5 December 1921 as Western Australian Airways by World War I pilot Norman Brearley, it was the first airline in Australia to establish a scheduled air service. The first service left Geraldton on 2 November 1922. On 12 June 1936, West Australian Airways was purchased by Adelaide Airways for £25,000. In July that year, it became part of Australian National Airways.

History

Following World War I, Norman Brearley, who had served with the Royal Flying Corps, returned to Australia in 1919. He brought with him two Avro 504J aircraft. In May 1921, the Federal Government advertised for tenders for a subsidised air-mail & passenger contract, operating a weekly service between Geraldton and Derby.  Brearley submitted multiple submissions and on 2 August 1921, was advised that one of his tenders had been accepted. Brearley then set about hiring 5 pilots; Val Abbott, Arthur Blake, Bob Fawcett, Charles Kingsford Smith and Leonard Taplin.

On 5 December 1921, on the first flight as an airline, Ted Broad and Bob Fawcett in the Bristol Tourer G-AUDI crashed  north of Geraldton. Brearley suspended flight operations until 21 February 1922.

On 3 December 1926, Western Australian Airways Ltd. changed its name to West Australian Airways Ltd., though for the majority of its existence it was usually referred to as simply Airways. On 2 July 1928, Australia's first interstate airmail contract, between Perth and Adelaide, was awarded to West Australian Airways, for 5 years. Services began on 26 May 1929. The service used four new DH-66 Hercules aircraft with space for 16 passengers and a cruising speed of . A hot luncheon was provided at Ceduna, dinner at the airline-owned hostel at Forrest and catering at Kalgoorlie.

On 19 April 1934, the Federal Government awarded the 5-year Perth – Daly Waters route contract to MacRobertson Miller Aviation Co. This decision left West Australian Airways with only the now unsubsidised Perth–Adelaide route. In April 1936, Adelaide Airways Ltd offered to purchase West Australian Airways and on 12 June the purchase was finalised for £25,000.  On 1 July, Adelaide Airways and West Australian Airways became part of the new Australian National Airways.

See also

List of defunct airlines of Australia
Aviation in Australia
MacRobertson Miller Airlines

References

External links
 West Australian Airways 1921-1936 Australia's first airline: a pictorial history (compiled by Geoff Goodall):
 Part One - The North-West Service archived version
 Part Two - Transcontinental Air Service Perth-Adelaide - and the end of the airline archived version

Australian companies established in 1921
Airlines established in 1921
Airlines of Western Australia
Companies based in Western Australia
Defunct airlines of Australia
Airlines disestablished in 1936
1936 mergers and acquisitions
1936 disestablishments in Australia

West Australian Airways


Zurg is a fictional character created for the movie Toy Story and is the enemy of Buzz Lightyear.

Role in Toy Story
Buzz Lightyear is a toy but thinks he's a real superhero trying to stop an evil emperor named Zurg from destroying the Galactic Alliance. Buzz says that Zurg wants to create a weapon that can destroy an entire planet.

Role in Toy Story 2
In Toy Story 2, Zurg is played by Andrew Stanton. Zurg is introduced in a Buzz Lightyear video game where Zurg kills Buzz but it turns out it is only a video game. Later on, a toy Zurg believes he's actually an evil emperor and fights Buzz Lightyear. When Buzz says he won't give up because Zurg killed Buzz's father, Zurg says he is Buzz's father. After Zurg falls out of an elevator and gets amnesia, then Zurg remembers he's Buzz's father and plays catch with him.

Role in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins
In the movie Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins, Zurg pays Buzz's friend Warp Darkmatter to become a supervillain called Agent Z, invades a planet, steals something called the Unimind and turns it into a mind control weapon that he uses to enslave every planet in the Universe but Buzz Lightyear beats Zurg and Zurg runs away. Zurg is played by Wayne Knight.

Role in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command
Zurg is the main villain of Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and is in most episodes. The episode Stranger Invasion reveals that Zurg was lying when he said he was Buzz's father.

Role in Toy Story 3
Zurg has a cameo appearance in Toy Story 3.

Role in Lightyear
In the movie Lightyear (movie), Zurg is played by James Brolin. Zurg turns to be an evil version of Buzz Lightyear who came from the future using time travel.

Movie characters

Zurg


The Roosevelt River (Rio Roosevelt, sometimes Rio Teodoro) is a Brazilian river, a tributary of the Aripuanã River about  in length.

Course

The Roosevelt River begins in the state of Rondônia and flows north through tropical rainforest. It is fed by the Capitão Cardoso River, which meets it at the state boundary.
In Mato Grosso the river forms the western boundary of the  Guariba-Roosevelt Extractive Reserve, a sustainable use unit created in 1996.
After entering Amazonas the river forms the border between the  Manicoré State Forest, a sustainable use conservation unit created in 2005 and the  Guariba State Park, also created in 2005.
The river then runs through the Campos Amazônicos National Park, a  protected area created in 2006 that holds an unusual enclave of cerrado vegetation in the Amazon rainforest.
It continues north until it joins the Aripuanã River.
The Aripuanã then flows into the Madeira River, thence into the Amazon.

History and exploration

Formerly called Rio da Dúvida ("River of Doubt"), the river is named after Theodore Roosevelt, who traveled into the central region of Brazil during the Roosevelt–Rondon Scientific Expedition of 1913–14. The expedition, led by Roosevelt and Cândido Rondon, Brazil's most famous explorer and the river's discoverer, sought to determine where and by which course the river flowed into the Amazon.

Roosevelt and his son Kermit undertook the adventure after the former U.S. president's failed attempt to regain the office as the "Bull Moose Party" candidate in 1912. The Roosevelt-Rondon expedition was the first non-Amazonian-native party to travel and record what Rondon had named the "Rio da Dúvida", then one of the most unexplored and intimidating tributaries of the Amazon. Sections of the river have impassable rapids and waterfalls, which hindered the expedition.

Roosevelt later wrote Through the Brazilian Wilderness recounting the adventure. After Roosevelt returned, doubts were raised on his account of the expedition. Roosevelt promptly rebutted them in a public forum in Washington, D.C., sponsored by the National Geographic Society. In 1927, British explorer George Miller Dyott led a second trip down the river, independently confirming Roosevelt's discoveries.

In 1992 a third (modern) expedition was organized, funded, and led by Charles Haskell and Elizabeth McKnight of New Century Conservation Trust, a non-profit environmental education organization in Maine, and sponsored in part by the Theodore Roosevelt Association, the American Museum of Natural History, and the National Wildlife Federation.
This expedition consisted of a total of twenty persons including professional river guides Joe Willie Jones, Kelley Kalafatich, Jim Slade, and Mike Boyle, photographers Carr Clifton and Mark Greenberg, cinematographer Joe Kaminsky, Haskell's son Charles 'Chip' Haskell Jr. who served as the expedition's communications expert, Brazilian scientists Geraldo Mendes dos Santos and João Ferraz (ichthyologist and pharmacologist), and chiefs Oita Mina and Tatataré of the Cinta Larga tribe whose land borders much of the river. The expedition took 33 days to complete the nearly 1000-mile journey.  While the Roosevelt-Rondon Expedition had to portage almost all of the many rapids on the river with their heavy dugout canoes, the Haskel-McKnight Expedition was able to safely navigate all of the rapids except for one which was portaged. Haskell reported that his expedition "found spots chronicled by the original team, saw plants and insects they described, and went down the rapids that crushed the dugout canoes of 1914". The expedition members were awarded the Theodore Roosevelt Association's Distinguished Service Medal for their achievement. A documentary of the expedition was subsequently produced and aired on PBS called the New Explorers: The River of Doubt narrated by Bill Kurtis and Wilford Brimley. Since this time, the expedition has inspired others to undergo its challenges such as Materials Science Professor Marc A. Meyers, Col. Huram Reis, Col. Ivan Angonese, and Jeffery Lehmann.

Inhabitants
The upper reaches of the Roosevelt River are inhabited by the Cinta Larga people, who were first contacted in the 1960s. The Roosevelt Indigenous Reserve (reserva Roosevelt) was created in 1973 and is managed by FUNAI, occupies , and has a population of 1,200.

References

Sources

External links
Through the Brazilian Wilderness

Rivers of Amazonas (Brazilian state)
Rivers of Mato Grosso
Rivers of Rondônia

Roosevelt River


Bruce Greyson, M.D. (born  October 1946) is professor of psychiatry at the University of Virginia. He wrote Irreducible Mind (2007) and The Handbook of Near-Death Experiences (2009). Greyson also wrote the overview of near death experiences for the Encyclopædia Britannica and was the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Near-Death Studies from 1982 through 2007. Greyson has written many journal articles and has given media interviews.

Related pages
Ian Stevenson
Parapsychology
Life Before Life
Raymond Moody
Life After Life
Frederic William Henry Myers

Other websites
The Division of Perceptual Studies (DOPS) at the University of Virginia
Bruce Greyson bio

1946 births
Living people
American parapsychologists
University of Virginia faculty

Bruce Greyson


Duke Wenceslaus II of Opava (also known as Wenceslaus of Głubczyce; ;  – between 1445 and 1447) was a member of the Opavian branch of the Přemyslid dynasty.  He was Duke of Opava from 1433 until his death.  From 1435 until his death, he was also Duke of Głubczyce and Lord of Fulnek.

Life
His parents were Duke Przemko I of Opava and his first wife, Anna of Lutz (d. 1405).  Around 1420, Wenceslaus II married to Elisabeth of Kravař.

After his father's death in 1433, Wenceslaus II took up the guardianship of his younger half-brothers William, Ernest and Przemko II, while his younger brother Nicholas IV styled himself Lord of Zlaté Hory.  Although their father had stipulated in his will that they should rule the duchy jointly, the brothers divided their inheritance around 1435.  William and Ernest received shares of Opava; the Duchy of Głubczyce was split off for Wenceslas and a palace at Charles Square in Prague.  The youngest brother, Przemko II, was destined for an ecclesiastical career and did not receive a share of the duchy.  When Nicholas IV died in 1437, Wenclaus II inherited Zlaté Hory.

In late February 1428, during the Hussite Wars, Wenceslaus II managed to stave off the complete destruction of Głubczyce by concluding a treaty with the Hussites.  On 27 December 1428, he participated in the Battle of Stary Wielisław, in which John I, the last Piast duke of Münsterberg, died.  In 1436, Duke Nicholas V of Krnov occupied Głubczyce without giving any justification.  Wenceclaus II then occupied the city of Żory in return.  In 1437, a compromise was reached.  Due to financial difficulties, Wenclaus had to mortgage Zlaté Hory and Edelštejn Castle to Duke Bolko V of Opole in 1440.

Wenceslaus II died between 1445 and 1447.  His possessions were inherited by his sons John I and John II.  John I died in 1454 and John II inherited his share.  John II sold his share of Opava in 1464 to George of Poděbrady, who had already purchased the other shares in 1454 from Wenceslaus's half-brother Ernest.

Marriage and issue
Wenceslaus II married Elisabeth of Kravař around 1420.  They had three children:
 John I Hanuš (1420–1454)
 John II the Pious, Duke of Opava and Głubczyce (d. ), married with a Catherine of unknown parentage
 Anna (d. 1478 ), married around 1460 with John Zajícové z Hazmburka (d. 1495), who had earlier been married to Catherine, a daughter of Půta III of Častolovice.

References
 Ludwig Petry et al.: Geschichte Schlesiens, vol. 1, Sigmaringen, 1988, , p. 191, 197f., 202 and 212
 Hugo Weczerka: Handbuch der historischen Stätten — Schlesien, Stuttgart, 1977,  and genealogical tables at p. 600 and 601
 Rudolf Žáček: Dějiny Slezska v datech, Prague, 2004, , p. 438

External links

Footnotes

Moravian nobility
Medieval Bohemian nobility
Opavian Přemyslids
14th-century births
15th-century deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
15th-century German people

Wenceslaus II, Duke of Opava


In mathematics, an orientation of a curve is the choice of one of the two possible directions for travelling on the curve. For example, for Cartesian coordinates, the -axis is traditionally oriented toward the right, and the -axis is upward oriented.

In the case of a planar simple closed curve (that is, a curve in the plane whose starting point is also the end point and which has no other self-intersections), the curve is said to be positively oriented or counterclockwise oriented, if one always has the curve interior to the left (and consequently, the curve exterior to the right), when  traveling on it. Otherwise, that is if left and right are exchanged, the curve is  negatively oriented or clockwise oriented. This definition relies on the fact that every simple closed curve admits a well-defined interior, which follows from the Jordan curve theorem.

The inner loop of a beltway road in a country where people drive on the right side of the road is an example of a negatively oriented (clockwise) curve.  In trigonometry, the unit circle is traditionally oriented counterclockwise.

The concept of orientation of a curve is just a particular case of the notion of orientation of a manifold (that is, besides orientation of a curve one may also speak of orientation of a surface, hypersurface, etc.).

Orientation of a curve is associated with parametrization of its points by a real variable. A curve may have equivalent parametrizations when there is a continuous increasing monotonic function relating the parameter of one curve to the parameter of the other. When there is a decreasing continuous function relating the parameters, then the parametric representations are opposite and the orientation of the curve is reversed.

Orientation of a simple polygon

In two dimensions, given an ordered set of three or more connected vertices (points) (such as in connect-the-dots) which forms a simple polygon, the orientation of the resulting polygon is directly related to the sign of the angle at any vertex of the convex hull of the polygon, for example, of the angle ABC in the picture. In computations, the sign of the smaller angle formed by a pair of vectors is typically determined by the sign of the cross product of the vectors. The latter one may be calculated  as the sign of the determinant of their orientation matrix. In the particular case when the two vectors are defined by two line segments with common endpoint, such as the sides BA and BC of the angle ABC in our example, the orientation matrix may be defined as follows:

A formula for its determinant may be obtained, e.g., using the method of cofactor expansion:

If the determinant is negative, then the polygon is oriented clockwise.  If the determinant is positive, the polygon is oriented counterclockwise.  The determinant  is non-zero if points A, B, and C are non-collinear.  In the above example, with points ordered A, B, C, etc., the determinant is negative, and therefore the polygon is clockwise.

Practical considerations
In practical applications, the following considerations are commonly taken into account.

One does not need to construct the convex hull of a polygon to find a suitable vertex. A common choice is the vertex of the polygon with the smallest X-coordinate. If there are several of them, the one with the smallest Y-coordinate is picked. It is guaranteed to be a vertex of the convex hull of the polygon. Alternatively, the vertex with the smallest Y-coordinate among the ones with the largest X-coordinates or the vertex with the smallest X-coordinate among the ones with the largest Y-coordinates (or any other of 8 "smallest, largest" X/Y combinations) will do as well. Once a vertex of the convex hull is chosen, one can then apply the formula using the previous and next vertices, even if those are not on the convex hull, as there can be no local concavity on this vertex.

If the orientation of a convex polygon is sought, then, of course, any vertex may be picked.

For numerical reasons, the following equivalent formula for the determinant is commonly used:

The latter formula has four multiplications less. What is more important in computer computations involved in most practical applications, such as computer graphics or CAD, the absolute values of the multipliers  are usually smaller (e.g., when A, B, C are within the same quadrant), thus giving a smaller numerical error or, in the extreme cases, avoiding the arithmetic overflow.

When it is not known in advance that the sequence of points defines a simple polygon, the following things must be kept in mind.

For a self-intersecting polygon (complex polygon) (or for any self-intersecting curve) there is no natural notion of the "interior", hence the orientation is not defined. At the same time, in geometry and computer graphics there are a number of concepts to replace the notion of the "interior" for closed non-simple curves; see, e.g., "flood fill" and "winding number".

In "mild" cases of self-intersection, with degenerate vertices when three consecutive points are allowed be on the same straight line and form a zero-degree angle, the concept of "interior" still makes sense, but an extra care must be taken in selection of the tested angle.  In the given example, imagine point A to lie on segment BC. In this situation the angle ABC and its determinant will be 0, hence useless. A solution is to test consecutive corners along the polygon (BCD, DEF,...) until a non-zero determinant is found (unless all points lie on the same straight line). (Notice that the points C, D, E are on the same line and form a 180-degree angle with zero determinant.)

Local concavity
Once the orientation of a polygon formed from an ordered set of vertices is known, the concavity of a local region of the polygon can be determined using a second orientation matrix.  This matrix is composed of three consecutive vertices which are being examined for concavity.  For example, in the polygon pictured above, if we wanted to know whether the sequence of points F-G-H is concave, convex, or collinear (flat), we construct the matrix

If the determinant of this matrix is 0, then the sequence is collinear - neither concave nor convex.  If the determinant has the same sign as that of the orientation matrix for the entire polygon, then the sequence is convex.  If the signs differ, then the sequence is concave.  In this example, the polygon is negatively oriented, but the determinant for the points F-G-H is positive, and so the sequence F-G-H is concave.

The following table illustrates rules for determining whether a sequence of points is convex, concave, or flat:

See also
 Differential geometry of curves
 Directed line segment
 Orientability
 Convex hull
 Signed arc length

References

External links
 http://www.math.hmc.edu/faculty/gu/curves_and_surfaces/curves/_topology.html  (page is not found on 2023.07.27)
 Curve orientation at MathWorld

Orientation
Orientation (geometry)
Polygons

Curve orientation


The Quisling regime, or Quisling government are common names used to refer to the fascist collaboration government led by Vidkun Quisling in German-occupied Norway during the Second World War. The official name of the regime from 1 February 1942 until its dissolution in May 1945 was Den nasjonale regjering (). Actual executive power was retained by the Reichskommissariat Norwegen, headed by Josef Terboven.

1940 coup
Vidkun Quisling, Fører of the Nasjonal Samling party, first tried to carry out a coup against the Norwegian government on 9 April 1940, the day of the German invasion of Norway. At 7:32 p.m., Quisling visited the studios of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation and made a radio broadcast proclaiming himself Prime Minister and ordering all resistance to halt at once. He announced that he and Nasjonal Samling were taking power due to Nygaardsvold's Cabinet having "raised armed resistance and promptly fled". He further declared that in the present situation it was "the duty and the right of the movement of Nasjonal Samling to take over governmental power". Quisling claimed that the Nygaardsvold Cabinet had given up power, even though that it had only moved to Elverum, some 140 kilometers (85 miles) from  Oslo, and was carrying out negotiations with the Germans.

The next day, German ambassador Curt Bräuer traveled to Elverum and demanded King Haakon VII return to Oslo and formally appoint Quisling as prime minister. Haakon stalled for time, telling the ambassador that Norwegian kings could not make political decisions on their own authority. At a Cabinet meeting later that night, Haakon said that he could not in good conscience appoint Quisling as prime minister because he knew neither the people nor the Storting had confidence in him. Haakon further stated that he would abdicate rather than appoint a government headed by Quisling. By this time, news of Quisling's attempted coup had reached Elverum. Negotiations promptly collapsed, and the government unanimously advised Haakon not to appoint Quisling as prime minister.

Quisling tried to have the Nygaardsvold Cabinet arrested, but the officer he instructed to carry out the arrest ignored the warrant. Attempts at gaining control over the police force in Oslo by issuing orders to Kristian Welhaven, the chief of police, also failed. The coup failed after six days, despite German support for the first three days, and Quisling had to step aside in the occupied parts of Norway in favour of the Administrative Council (Administrasjonsrådet). The Administrative Council was formed on 15 April by members of the Supreme Court and supported by Norwegian business leaders as well as Bräuer as an alternative to Quisling's Nasjonal Samling in the occupied areas.

Provisional Councillors of State
On 25 September 1940, German Reichskommissar Josef Terboven, who on 24 April 1940 had replaced Curt Bräuer as the top civilian commander in Norway, proclaimed the deposition of King Haakon VII and the Nygaardsvold Cabinet, banning all political parties other than Nasjonal Samling. Terboven then appointed a group of 11 kommissariske statsråder () from Nasjonal Samling to help him in governing Norway. Although the provisional councillors of state did not form a government, the intention of the Germans was to use them to prepare the way for a Nasjonal Samling take-over of power in the future. Vidkun Quisling was made the political head of the councillors and all members of Nasjonal Samling had to swear a personal oath of allegiance to him. Most of the councillors worked diligently at introducing Nasjonal Samling ideals and politics. Amongst the schemes introduced during the council period was the introduction of labour duty, reforms of the labour market, the penal code and the system of justice, a reorganization of the police and the introduction of national socialist ideals in the Norwegian culture scene. The provisional councillors of state were intended as a temporary system while Nasjonal Samling built up its organization in preparation for assuming full governmental powers. On 25 September 1941, the one-year anniversary of the councillors, Terboven gave them the title of "ministers".

Government

With the establishment of Quisling's national government, Quisling, as minister-president, temporarily assumed the authority of both the King and the Parliament.

In 1942, after two years of direct civilian administration by the Germans (which continued de facto until 1945), he was finally put in charge of a collaborationist government, which was officially proclaimed on 1 February 1942. The official name of the government was "Den nasjonale regjering" (). The original intention of the Germans had been to hand over the sovereignty of Norway to the new government, but by mid-January 1942 Hitler decided to retain the civilian Reichskommissariat Norwegen under Terboven. The Quisling government was instead given the role of an occupying authority with wide-ranging authorisations. Quisling himself viewed the creation of his government as a "decisive step on the road towards the complete independence of Norway". Although having only temporarily assumed the King's authority, Quisling still made efforts to distance his regime from the exiled monarchy. After Quisling moved into the Royal Palace he took back into use the official seal of Norway, changing the wording from "Haakon VII Norges konge" to "Norges rikes segl" (in English, from "Haakon VII King of Norway" to "The Seal of the Norwegian Realm"). After establishing national government Quisling claimed to hold "the authority that according to the Constitution belonged to the King and Parliament".

Other important ministers of the collaborationist government were Jonas Lie (also head of the Norwegian wing of the SS from 1941) as Minister of the Police, Gulbrand Lunde as Minister of Culture and Enlightenment, as well as the opera singer Albert Viljam Hagelin, who was Minister of the Interior.

Politics

One of Quisling's first actions was to reintroduce the prohibition of Jews entering Norway, which was formerly a part of the Constitution's §2 from 1814 to 1851.

Two of the early laws of the Quisling regime, Lov om nasjonal ungdomstjeneste (English: 'Law on national youth service') and Lov om Norges Lærersamband (English: 'The Norwegian Teacher Liaison'), both signed 5 February 1942, led to massive protests from parents, serious clashes with the teachers, and an escalating conflict with the Church of Norway. Schools were closed for one month, and in March 1942 around 1,100 teachers were arrested by the Norwegian police and sent to German prisons and concentration camps, and about 500 of the teachers were forced to Kirkenes as construction workers for the German occupants.

Goal of independence
Even after the official creation of the Quisling government, Josef Terboven still ruled Norway as a dictator, taking orders from no-one but Hitler. Quisling's regime was a puppet government, although Quisling wanted independence and the recall of Terboven, something he constantly lobbied Hitler for, without success. Quisling wanted to achieve independence for Norway under his rule, with an end to the German occupation of Norway through a peace treaty and the recognition of Norway's sovereignty by Germany. He further wanted to ally Norway to Germany and join the Anti-Comintern Pact. After a reintroduction of national service in Norway, Norwegian troops were to fight with the Axis powers in the Second World War.

Quisling also fronted the idea of a pan-European union led, but not dominated, by Germany, with a common currency and a common market. Quisling presented his plans to Hitler repeatedly in memos and talks with the German dictator, the first time on 13 February 1942 in the Reich Chancellery in Berlin and the last time on 28 January 1945, again in the Reich Chancellery. All of Quisling's ideas were rejected by Hitler, who did not want any permanent agreements before the war had been concluded, and also wanted Norway's outright annexation into Germany as the northernmost province of a Greater Germanic Reich. Hitler did, however, in an April 1943 meeting promise Quisling that once the war was over Norway would regain its independence. This is the only known case of Hitler making such a promise to an occupied country.

The word Quisling has become synonymous with treachery and collaboration with the enemy.

Territorial claims

The regime looked nostalgically to the High Middle Ages of the country's history, known in Norwegian historiography as Norgesveldet, during which Norwegian territory extended beyond its current borders. Quisling envisioned an extension of the Norwegian state by its annexation of the Kola peninsula with its small Norwegian minority, so a Greater Norway spanning the entire North European coastline could be created. Further expansion was expected in Northern Finland, to link the Kola peninsula with Finnmark: Nasjonal Samling leaders had mixed views on the post-war Finnish-Norwegian border, but the potential Norwegian annexation of at least the Finnish municipalities of Petsamo (Norwegian: Petsjenga) and Inari (Norwegian: Enare) was under consideration.

Nasjonal Samling publications called for the annexation of the historically Norwegian Swedish provinces of Jämtland (Norwegian: Jemtland), Härjedalen (Norwegian: Herjedalen, see also Øst-Trøndelag) and Bohuslän (Norwegian: Båhuslen) In March 1944, Quisling met with Wehrmacht general Rudolf Bamler, and urged the Germans to invade Sweden from Finnish Lapland (using the forces delegated to the German Lapland Army) and through the Baltic as a preemptive strike against Sweden joining the war on the Allied side. Quisling's proposal was sent to both OKW chief Alfred Jodl and SS leader Heinrich Himmler.

Quisling and Jonas Lie, leader of the Germanic SS in Norway, also furthered irredentist Norwegian claims to the Faroes (Norwegian: Færøyene), Iceland (Norwegian: Island), Orkney (Norwegian: Orknøyene), Shetland (Norwegian: Hjaltland), the Outer Hebrides (historically a part of the Norse Kingdom of Mann and the Isles under the name Sørøyene, "South Islands") and Franz Josef Land (earlier claimed by Norway under the name Fridtjof Nansen Land), most of which were former Norwegian territories passed on to Danish rule after the dissolution of Denmark-Norway in 1814, while the rest were former Viking Age settlements. Norway had already claimed a part of Eastern Greenland in 1931 (under the name Eirik Raudes Land), but the claim was extended during the occupation period to cover Greenland as a whole. During the spring of 1941, Quisling laid out plans to "reconquer" the island using a task force of a hundred men, but the Germans deemed this plan unfeasible. In the person of propaganda minister Gulbrand Lunde the Norwegian puppet government further lay claim to the North and South Poles. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Norway had gained prestige as a nation active in polar expedition: the South Pole was first reached by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen in 1911, and in 1939 Norway had claimed a region of Antarctica under the name Queen Maud Land ().

After Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union preparations were made for establishing Norwegian colonies in Northern Russia. Quisling designated the area reserved for Norwegian colonization as Bjarmeland, a reference to the name featured in the Norse sagas for Northern Russia.

Dissolution
Quisling's regime ceased to exist in 1945, with the end of World War II in Europe. Norway was still under occupation in May 1945, but Vidkun Quisling and most of his ministers surrendered at Møllergata 19 police station on 9 May, one day after Germany's surrender. The new Norwegian unification government tried him on 20 August for numerous crimes; he was convicted on 10 September and was executed by firing squad on 24 October 1945. Other Nazi collaborators, as well as Germans accused of war crimes, were also arrested and tried during this legal purge.

Ministers of the Quisling regime

The ministers of the Quisling regime in 1942 were:
Eivind Blehr (Minister of Trade and Minister of Supplies)
Thorstein Fretheim (Minister of Agriculture)
Rolf Jørgen Fuglesang (Minister of Party Affairs)
Albert Viljam Hagelin (Minister of Domestic Affairs)
Tormod Hustad (Minister of Labour)
Kjeld Stub Irgens (Minister of Shipping)
Jonas Lie (Minister of Police)
Johan Andreas Lippestad (Minister of Social Affairs)
Gulbrand Lunde (Minister of Culture)
Frederik Prytz (Minister of Finance)
Sverre Riisnæs (Minister of Justice)
Ragnar Skancke (Minister for Church and Educational Affairs)
Axel Heiberg Stang (Minister of the Labour Service and Sports)

The Quisling regime's leadership saw significant reshuffling and replacements during its existence. When Gulbrand Lunde died in 1942, Rolf Jørgen Fuglesang took over his ministry as well as retaining his own. Eivind Blehr's two ministries were merged in 1943 as the Ministry of Commerce. On 4 November 1943 Alf Whist joined the government as a minister without portfolio.

Tormod Hustad was replaced by Hans Skarphagen on 1 February 1944. Both Kjeld Stub Irgens and Eivind Blehr were fired in June 1944. Their former ministries were merged and placed under the control of Alf Whist as Minister of Commerce. On 8 November 1944, Albert Viljam Hagelin was fired from his position and replaced by Arnvid Vasbotten. When Frederik Prytz died in February 1945, he was replaced by Per von Hirsch. Thorstein Fretheim was fired on 21 April 1945, to be replaced by Trygve Dehli Laurantzon.

References

Further reading
Andenaes, Johs. Norway and the Second World War (1966)
 Dahl, Hans Fredrik. Quisling: a study in treachery (Cambridge University Press, 1999)
 Mann, Chris. British Policy and Strategy Towards Norway, 1941–45 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012)
 Riste, Olav, and Berit Nøkleby. Norway 1940–45: the resistance movement (Tanum, 1970)
 Vigness, Paul Gerhardt. The German Occupation of Norway (Vantage Press, 1970)

Norway in World War II
Government of Norway
1942 establishments in Norway
1945 disestablishments in Norway
States and territories established in 1942
States and territories disestablished in 1945
Nasjonal Samling
Cabinets established in 1942
Cabinets disestablished in 1945
Vidkun Quisling
Client states of Nazi Germany
German occupation of Norway
Axis powers
Collaboration with Nazi Germany
Totalitarian states

Quisling regime


Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium is the home of the Montgomery Biscuits of the Southern League. The minor league baseball ballpark opened in Montgomery, Alabama in 2004. Located in downtown Montgomery, the stadium can host up to 7,000 people a night.

Riverwalk Stadium is a converted century-old train shed. The actual train station is located two blocks away from the field. The abandoned train shed is what is on the exterior of the first base side of the park. Riverwalk Stadium is located near the Alabama River. Montgomery offers a riverfront area that is easily accessible from Riverwalk Stadium with a children's splash pad. There is also an amphitheater located behind the field.

Features
The stadium offers 20 luxury suites. Six of the suites are built into the old train terminal along the first-base line and the remaining 14 extend along the third base line. Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium offers picnic areas along the third-base line and in left-center field. The picnic area in left-center field can accommodate up to 4,000 fans. The stadium also has a full bar, called "The Club Car Bar", which is located down the first base line and a children's playground area located down the third base line. The stadium scoreboard is a video board with a LED screen capable of instant replay. The stadium also has a gift shop called "The Biscuit Basket" located under the grandstands. There is a notched curve in deep right field over which the American flag is flown.

Between 2004 and 2007, Riverwalk Stadium hosted the NCAA Division II baseball championship tournament; the tournament moved to Riverwalk Stadium from nearby Paterson Field, where it had been held since 1985. The tournament moved to Sauget, Illinois, in 2008.

History
Victor Mateo threw the stadium's first no-hitter on August 24, 2013, when he allowed just one baserunner on a walk (the runner was erased in a double play later in the inning) in the Biscuits' 3–0 defeat of the Jacksonville Suns.

The ballpark was scheduled to become the permanent home for the Sun Belt Conference baseball tournament in 2020, but as the season was postponed, it will begin during the 2021 season.

References

External links
 Montgomery Biscuits Park Info
 BaseballParks.com review

Minor league baseball venues
Baseball venues in Alabama
Sports venues in Montgomery, Alabama
2004 establishments in Alabama
Sports venues completed in 2004
Southern League (1964–present) ballparks

Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium


Willem Koekkoek (3 January 1839 – 29 January 1895) was a Dutch cityscape painter and marine artist.

Life and work

He was born in Amsterdam. He was a member of the famous ; son of the marine artist, Hermanus Koekkoek, and grandson of Johannes Hermanus Koekkoek. His brothers, Hermanus, Johannes Hermanus Barend, and  all became painters.

Following in the family tradition, his father gave all four brothers their first art lessons. Willem also received training as an architect, but practiced that profession for only a short time. It did, however, leave a lasting influence on his choice of subject matter.

From 1854 to 1878, he worked in The Hague, then in Amsterdam. His first exhibition was in 1859, in Leeuwarden. From 1865 to 1894, he held annual showings at the Royal Academy of Art and the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam. He had several showings at private galleries in London from 1885 to 1888. His brother, Hermanus, had moved to London and opened an art dealership in 1869, which made his works, and those of the entire family, popular in England.

In November, 1866, he married Johanna Hermina. They had two sons who became artists, Marinus Adrianus, known as "The Younger", who became an illustrator, and  Hermanus Willwm, who specialized in military subjects. Once again, following tradition, Willem provided their first lessons.

Sometime in the 1880s, he relocated to Amstelveen. By then, his brother, Hendrik Barend, had moved to London, and his son, Hermanus, eventually did as well. Although Willem painted almost entirely for his English clientele, he remained in the Netherlands. He stopped exhibiting, and painted little, after 1894, due to ill health, and died the following year, shortly after turning fifty-six.

References

Further reading
 Pieter A. Scheen: Lexicon Nederlandse beeldende kunstenaars, 1750–1950. Gravenhage 1981, pg.278
  Chris Stolwijk: Uit de schilderswereld : Nederlandse kunstschilders in de tweede helft van de negentiende eeuw. Primavera Pers, Leiden 1998,
 Toni Wappenschmidt: "Straszen im alten Holland", In: Die Weltkunst, #20, 1991, pp. 3000–3007

External links

 More works by Koekkoek @ ArtNet
 Brief biography @ Macconnal-Mason

1839 births
1885 deaths
19th-century Dutch painters
Dutch male painters
Painters from Amsterdam
19th-century Dutch male artists

Willem Koekkoek


A dreadnought is a navy battleship. A battleship is a large ship used in ocean battles between countries. The first dreadnoughts were made in the early 20th century. They were named after The HMS Dreadnought, of the Royal Navy, the first ship of this type.

The first dreadnought was launched in 1906 by the United Kingdom, and was a new design of battleship. These ships had bigger guns; they also had guns that could shoot longer distances. Heavy steel layers were built on to the dreadnoughts as protection, which made them very strong and hard to sink. They were also much faster than older battleships.

World War 1 was the first war in which dreadnoughts were used. After the war, a treaty was signed in Washington DC to limit the construction of battleships. This treaty helped stop the manufacturing of dreadnoughts. Japan, the UK, France, Italy and the United States signed this treaty. In the middle 1930s Italy and Japan renounced the treaty and started building larger ones, and the other countries followed.

Warships

Dreadnought


Alphitonia ponderosa is a species of flowering tree in the family Rhamnaceae, that is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.  It is locally known as kauila, as is the related Colubrina oppositifolia.

Description
Alphitonia ponderosa is a medium to large tree, reaching  high with a trunk  in diameter.

Leaves
The alternate leaves are ovate,  long, and have  petioles.  The leaves are shiny, hairless, and green on the top, but are a dull light green with rust-colored veins on the bottom.

Flowers
Flowers of A. ponderosa are polygamous and form cymes at the bases of leaves.  They are  in diameter; the five sepals are  and cover five  petals.

Fruit
The fruit of A. ponderosa is a  diameter drupe, which contain two to three seeds.  The seeds are shiny, oblong, and have a red covering.

Habitat
Alphitonia ponderosa inhabits dry, coastal mesic, and mixed mesic forests at elevations of  on all main islands, but is rare except on Kauai.  It grows as a shrub on exposed ridges.

Uses
The reddish-brown wood of A. ponderosa is highly prized for its beauty, strength, and density.  It was used as a replacement for metal by the Native Hawaiians, who made laau melomelo (fishing lures),  (daggers),  (short spears),  (long spears), ōō (digging sticks),  (round ,  ie kūkū (square  beaters),  (shark tooth clubs), and kii (tiki carvings) with it.

Conservation
Alphitonia ponderosa is considered a vulnerable species by the IUCN because of its fragmented distribution and declining population.  Major threats include rats, pigs, deer, competition with introduced species of plants, and wildfire.

See also
 Colubrina oppositifolia
 Kauila

References

ponderosa
Endemic flora of Hawaii
Trees of Hawaii
Biota of Kauai
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Alphitonia ponderosa