Iraqi-Emirati relations (Arabic: العلاقات العراقية الإماراتية) are foreign relations between the Republic of Iraq and the United Arab Emirates. Iraq has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulates general in Dubai, while the United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Baghdad.

In 1991, the UAE joined the Arab states that opposed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and supported the use of force to compel Iraq's withdrawal of troops.

In June 2008, the Iraqi government announced that the United Arab Emirates would send an ambassador to Baghdad within a few days. This would become the first Arab ambassador in Iraq since the kidnapping and murder of Ihab el-Sherif in July 2005.  This announcement was made during a surprise visit by the United Arab Emirates' Foreign Minister Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan to Baghdad on 5 June 2008.  This marked the first time a high-ranking official from the Gulf Cooperation Council visited Iraq since March 2003.

On 31 July 2007 following Iraq's victory of the Asian Cup, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, vice-president and prime minister of the UAE awarded the Iraq National football team 20 million Dhs, ($5.2 million) for capturing the Asian Cup for the first time in the country's history.

See also
 Foreign relations of Iraq
 Foreign relations of the United Arab Emirates
 Iraqis in the United Arab Emirates

References

External links
Embassy of Iraq in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

United Arab Emirates
Bilateral relations of the United Arab Emirates

Iraq–United Arab Emirates relations


Geoffrey Fairbank Webb CBE (9 May 1898 – 17 July 1970) was a British art historian, Slade Professor of Fine Art and head of the Monuments and Fine Arts section of the Allied Control Commission during World War II.

Early life
Webb was born in Birkenhead, to John Racker Webb, who worked at Booth's Steamship Company, and his wife Elizabeth Hodgson Fairbank. Webb was the only child of his father's second marriage. Most of his step-brothers and -sisters were old enough to be his uncles and aunts. His mother died when he was fifteen and his father later married again. His closet ties growing up were with his eldest stepsister and her husband.

He was educated at Birkenhead School and in 1917 volunteered to join the Royal Navy as a Seaman until 1919. He went to Magdalene College, Cambridge in 1919 where he read English, and graduated in 1921. Webb also completed a MA here in 1929. Upon moving to London in 1921, Webb befriended members of the avant-garde, including art historian and critic Roger Fry of the Bloomsbury group. His involvement with the Bloomsbury Group inspired Webb to publish several writings on painting, architecture and sculpture. In 1947 he delivered the Henriette Hertz Trust Lecture on Aspects of Arts.

Career
Webb started to write articles on art for the Burlington Magazine. After completing his MA, Webb held a succession of appointments at Cambridge from 1929, including Lecturer in the Mural Department from 1929-1936 and Demonstrator at the School of Architecture in 1933 from which he was promoted to Lecturer which he held until 1948. In 1938, he was awarded the Slade Professor of Fine Art from 1938 - 1941; 1946-1949. At the same time, Webb was a lecturer at the Courtauld Institute of Art between 1934-1937.

When World War II broke out, he joined the Navy again, working for Naval Intelligence at the Admiralty. He was then in the historical section of the War Cabinet Office and joined the Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives program. He was awarded the Medal of Freedom with Bronze Palm in 1947 and a CBE in the 1953 Coronation Honours. Following the German surrender, Webb was named Chief of the MFAA Branch, British Element control Mission, He was integral to the post-war restitution effort in France and Germany. He also helped to expose notorious art forger, Hans Van Meegren, after being altered to his deception by "Monuments Man" Major Ellis Waterhouse. As a measure of gratitude for his role in revealing von Meegeren's deception, the Dutch government gifted Webb one of his forgeries, The Procuress. After modern testing, this assessment has now been doubted and it is largely believed that The Procuress is in fact an original Vermeer.

He resumed the Slade professorship in 1948, and then became secretary to the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments. He was also a member of the Royal Fine Arts Commission, and was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1957. In 1956 he wrote a volume on medieval British architecture for the Pelican History of Art.

Personal life
In 1934 he married Marjorie Isabel Batten, an architectural historian who later devoted her career to English eighteenth-century sculpture.

Webb retired to Solva, Pembrokeshire and died at Ffynone, Swansea.

Awards/Legacy
Webb was awarded the Medal of Freedom with Bronze Palm in 1947 by the United States and a CBE in the 1953 Coronation Honours. In appreciation of his service as a Monuments Officer, the French government awarded Webb the Croix de Guerre and named him an officer of the Legion of Honor.

Photographs contributed by Webb to the Conway Library are currently being digitised by the Courtauld Institute of Art, as part of the Courtauld Connects project.

Publications

The Complete Works of Sir John Vanbrugh. 4 vols. with Bonamy Dobrée, The Nonesuch Press, 1927–1928
"Architecture and sculpture" in Roger Fry Georgian Art (1760–1820), B. T. Batsford, 1929
The Letters and Drawings of Nicholas Hawksmoor Relating to the Building of the Mausoleum at Castle Howard, 1726–1742, Walpole Society 17 (1929)
Gothic Architecture in England, British Council/Longmans, Green, 1951
Baroque Art: Annual Lecture on Aspects of Art, Henriette Hertz Trust, 1947. British Academy, 1951
Architecture in Britain: the Middle Ages, (Pelican History of Art 12), Penguin Books, 1956

References

External links
 Dictionary of Art Historians
 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, John Crittall, Webb, Geoffrey Fairbank (1898–1970) 2004

1898 births
1970 deaths
Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge
British art historians
Fellows of the British Academy
Monuments men
Royal Navy personnel of World War I
Royal Navy personnel of World War II
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Academics of the Courtauld Institute of Art

Geoffrey Webb


Paul Jackson (born 1965?) is an English professional poker player from Birmingham.

Early years
Prior to poker, Jackson worked as a tax manager for a Chartered Accountant.

Poker career
Jackson started off playing brag and later played blackjack and roulette in casinos. At one casino, he saw poker being played and picked up the game in 1985, choosing a nickname based on the Carl Weathers film Action Jackson.

Jackson is best known as an online poker player (he once won two large online poker tournaments in the same night), but has also made numerous high finishes in major live events.

Jackson had intended to play in the 2005 London Open event, but had already booked a holiday that coincided. He went on to call Iwan Jones, whom he knew from playing online at Ladbrokes and bought a third of his action along with Nick Gibson. Jones won the $750,000 first prize, resulting in Jackson making $250,000 whilst in a caravan in Dorchester.

Jackson made a strong finish in the 2005 Monte Carlo Millions event. One hand from the event, where Phil Ivey's Q♥ 8♥ and Jackson's 6♠ 5♦ bluffed against each other continuously is considered to be one of the best hands of poker broadcast on television. Jackson also pointed out that Ivey stared him down for 7 minutes during the hand, which was edited out of the televised version. In the final hand, Jackson moved all-in with Q♥ J♥ and Ivey called with K♣ Q♦. The board of T♥ 6♣ 9♣ 2♠ 5♠ failed to improve either players' hand, and Jackson was eliminated in second place, for $600,000.

Jackson finished in the money of the World Heads-Up Poker Championship in 2005 (final 16) and 2006 (runner-up.) Along the way he eliminated Juan Carlos Mortensen in the quarter-final and Markus Golser in the semi-final. He also finished in the money of the 2004 World Series of Poker (WSOP) main event and the European Poker Tour (EPT) second season grand final.

As of 2013, his total live tournament winnings exceed $1,375,000.

Jackson has also appeared in The Poker Godfather series, travelling around Britain giving poker players advice.

Notes

References
 Swimming with the Devilfish by Des Wilson,

External links
UKPokerNews interview Part 1, Part 2

English blackjack players
English poker players
Living people
Year of birth uncertain
Year of birth missing (living people)

Paul Jackson (poker player)


Simon Lyle Wi Rutene (born 10 March 1966) is an alpine skier from New Zealand. He has competed for New Zealand at four Olympics. He decided to be a ski racer at 12, and went to a U.S. ski resort on his own. At 16 he was sponsored, and did his first downhill run at Wengen, Switzerland.

In the 1984 Winter Olympics at Sarajevo, he came 36th in the Giant Slalom.

In the 1988 Winter Olympics at Calgary, he came 17th in the Slalom. He was the flagbearer at the opening ceremony.

In the 1992 Winter Olympics at Albertville, he came 42nd in the Super G and 28th in the Giant Slalom.

In the 1994 Winter Olympics at Lillehammer, he came 20th in skiing combined, 23rd in the Downhill Combined and 18th in the Slalom Combined.

Wi Rutene retired from skiing in 1998.

Wi Rutene is an enrolled barrister and solicitor of the High Court of New Zealand and holds a Bachelor of Commerce in Maori business and a Post Graduate certificate in career counselling psychology.

Politics
In the 2005 general election he was a list candidate for the Māori Party. He was ranked fourth on the party list. The party gained four MPs at that election, but all from electorate seats and Wi Rutene was not elected.

References

 Mountain Mover by Bruce Ansley in The New Zealand Listener, 29 August 1987, pp. 20–23 Volume 118 No 2480.
 Black Gold by Ron Palenski (2008, 2004 New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame, Dunedin) p. 108

External links

Living people
1966 births
New Zealand male alpine skiers
Olympic alpine skiers for New Zealand
Alpine skiers at the 1984 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 1988 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 1992 Winter Olympics
Alpine skiers at the 1994 Winter Olympics
Māori Party politicians
21st-century New Zealand politicians
New Zealand Māori sportspeople
Unsuccessful candidates in the 2005 New Zealand general election
New Zealand sportsperson-politicians

Simon Wi Rutene


Desire Wire is the debut album by singer-songwriter and musician Cindy Bullens, released in 1978 on United Artists Records. It was produced by Tony Bongiovi and Lance Quinn.
AllMusic's William Ruhlmann calls it "one of the great lost rock albums of the '70s".

This album features the track, "Survivor", which peaked at number 56 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart in February 1979.

Track listing

All songs written by Cindy Bullens except where noted.

Side one
 "Survivor" — 4:28
 "Anxious Heart" (Cindy Bullens, Trevor Veitch) — 2:58
 "Desire Wire" — 4:23
 "Time 'N Charges" (Cindy Bullens, Billy Mernit) — 2:50
 "High School History" — 4:15

Side two
 "Mean In Your Heart" – 4:58
 "Hot Tears" – 3:27
 "Knee Deep In Love" – 5:57
 "Finally Rockin'" – 3:26

Personnel
Cindy Bullens - acoustic guitar, electric guitar, lead vocals
Bob Babbitt, Neil Jason - bass
Allan Schwartzberg, Jerry Marotta - drums
Danny Gatton, David Mansfield, Jeff Mironov, Lance Quinn, Mark Doyle - electric guitar
George Young (tracks: A5), Lou Marini (tracks: A4, B4) - horns
Harold Wheeler (tracks: A4, B4), Wildwood Horns (tracks: A5) - horn arrangements
Jerry Peterson (tracks: B1) - horn arrangements, double saxophone
Harold Wheeler - string arrangements
Ken Bichel - synthesizer
Paul Shaffer, Rob Mounsey, Billy Mernit - keyboards
Leon Pendarvis, Jr. - keyboards, synthesizer
Jimmy Maelen - percussion
Cindy Bullens, Jon Joyce, Billy Mernit - backing vocals

References

External links
Desire Wire by Cindy Bullens at Vinyl History
Desire Wire by Cindy Bullens at Rate Your Music
Desire Wire by Cindy Bullens at Sharing Needles blogspot
Desire Wire by Cindy Bullens at Discogs
Desire Wire by Cindy Bullens at Bandcamp
Desire Wire by Cindy Bullens at CD Baby
Desire Wire by Cindy Bullens at MusicBrainz

1978 debut albums
Albums produced by Tony Bongiovi
United Artists Records albums

Desire Wire


Oil noodles or cooked noodles is a type of Chinese noodle. It is sometimes used in Cantonese cuisine.

Production
Oil noodles are made of wheat flour, eggs, egg whites, salt, corn oil, and sodium benzoate. In Hong Kong, United States and Canada, this is called yow mein if it is cylindrical in shape, and has a circular, or roundish cross-section. If it has a squarish cross-section, it is called mein. In Singapore, this is called mee. Used in Malay and Indonesian dishes, it is called mee after the Hokkien pronunciation of the word. It is also a popular dish in Burma, where it is called sigyet khauk swè, and was introduced by the Sino-Burmese community. In Southeast Asia, this type of noodle is often served with seafood or poultry and pork, while in Hong Kong and in China, it is often served In street food and street carts called "cart noodles". It is never served with chicken in Hong Kong. In Taiwan, as in Mandarin-speaking China, it is known as mian. In native Taiwanese Hoklo, it is known as mi, as opposed to bee which means "rice grains" that is uncooked.

Preparation
Oil noodles requires 15 minutes to cook and are relatively easy to make. First, some noodles and seasonal vegetables should be boiled in the same pot; then, they should be transferred to a bowl with some seasonings. As a final step, a couple of tablespoons of hot oil should be poured over everything, and then the contents of the bowl mixed.

Nutritional value
The noodles used in for oil noodles are hand-refined with high-quality flour, tea oil, potato powder, salt, and a variety of other materials. It is as thin as a hairspring and has the characteristics of refreshing but not greasy, slippery but not sticky, non-sticky in the mouth, and easy to digest. It is rich in nutrition and has the functions of strengthening the function of the spleen and stomach, lowering blood pressure, and promoting breast milk. It is an ideal food for the elderly, the weak, the sick, pregnant women, and babies. These claims derive from folklore and have no basis in fact.

History
There are two versions of the history of Oil noodles. The first version is that the oil noodle was seen in the market in the late Ming Dynasty. Then it was selected as court food in the Qing Dynasty, so they are called "Longxu tribute noodles". "Longxu" means "the beard of the dragon", and the dragon is a symbol of the Chinese emperor.

The second version is that a long time ago, a farmer's family walked and died to avoid the war. Only the grandfather and grandson remained dependent on each other. Due to years of drought and wars, crops have not been harvested. In order to survive the famine, Grandpa went hunting in the mountains every day. In a cold winter, Grandpa went out for half a day to hunt back a fat wild goat. Both grandma and grandpa enjoyed it until after the Spring Festival. Due to the heat, most of the leftover mutton could not be eaten. For storage, Grandpa thought of a way to cut the remaining mutton into chunks and store it after the oil exploded. When cooking, each time the oiled mutton and dried vegetables were fried into a dish, and it was mixed with potato noodles, corn noodles, and wheat noodles. The noodles made not only solved the food for the two people to survive the famine, but also made the little grandson shouted after eating. Later, the little grandson started a business and never forgets his grandfather's noodles with oil and meat. In order to commemorate his late grandfather, he opened a restaurant called "Fried Pork Noodles" in Qitai Lihuajian. When the guests ate, they all praised it. From then on, "Gao You Po Noodles" became famous, and it continues to this day.

Variety
Most oil noodles require boiling or cooking; however, some varieties can be purchased already cooked. The noodles can be served hot or cold; additionally, sauce, meat, broth or vegetables can be added.

See also
 Chinese noodle
 Youmian

References

Chinese noodles
Cantonese cuisine

Oil noodles


Vice Admiral William Fitzwilliam Owen (17 September 1774 – 3 November 1857), was a British naval officer and explorer.  He is best known for his exploration of the west and east African coasts, discovery of the Seaflower Channel off the coast of Sumatra and for surveying the Canadian Great Lakes.

The illegitimate son of Captain William Owen he was orphaned at the age of four, however, his father's friend Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Rich, kept an eye on both William and his elder brother Edward. In 1788 at age 13 he embarked as a midshipman in Rich's ship, , and from that time the Royal Navy was his life. Self-willed and boisterous, he had frequent difficulties early in his naval career.

He served at home and on ships in the East Indies. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1797. In 1801 he took command of the fireship . In late 1801 the hired armed cutter King George, under the command of a Mr. Yawkins, served under Nelson at his failed attack on Boulogne. On 25 August Nelson came aboard King George to conduct a reconnaissance of the French fleet. In October Nelson gave Owen command over the King George as well, with secret instructions to launch a burning Nancy at the French fleet. The fire attack did not occur and Nancy was sold in December.

After the resumption of war with France in 1803, Owen was given command of the 16-gun brig , which sailed to the East Indies. There he served under Rear-Admiral Sir Edward Pellew, Commander-in-Chief East Indies.

He explored the Maldive Islands in 1806, and in the same year discovered the Seaflower Channel, between the islands of Siberut and Sipora off the west coast of Sumatra.

He fought the Dutch in the East Indies, but on 28 September 1808 the French frigate Manche captured Seaflower. The French held Owen from 1808 to 1810 in Mauritius, during which time he was promoted to commander. After his release Owen was promoted to post captain in May 1811, before returning to England in 1813.

From 1815 to 1816, he surveyed the Upper Canadian Great Lakes with Lieutenant Henry Wolsey Bayfield, naming an inlet in southern Georgian Bay "Owen's Sound" in honour of his elder brother, Admiral Sir Edward William Campbell Rich Owen.  Between 26 October 1815 and 31 May 1816 he was the senior Royal Navy Officer on the Great Lakes.

Owen mapped the entire east African coast from the Cape to the Horn of Africa between 1821 and 1826 in the sloop Leven and in company with the brig . During this period, Owen established a one-man protectorate of Mombasa with the aim of disrupting the 'hellish trade' in slaves; but Owen was forced to shut down under orders from the Crown after only three years. When he returned in 1826, with 300 new charts, covering some 30,000 miles of coastline, over half of his original crew had been killed by tropical diseases. His survey of the east coast of Africa is regarded as one of the most challenging ever undertaken by the British Admiralty.

In 1827 he was in charge of settling a colony at Fernando Po. During the first year, he was joined by Lieutenant James Holman who was famous in his time as "the Blind Traveller".

In the mid-1830s, having little hope of further naval appointment, he removed with his family to New Brunswick.  He secured title to Campobello Island, which had been granted to his father and was lord proprietor of the same as well as being involved in other investments in New Brunswick.  From 1841 he served as a justice of the peace as well as concurrently as judge of the Inferior Court of Common Pleas.

Between 1837 and 1842 he was a very visible member of the New Brunswick House of Assembly for Charlotte County.  Following his defeat for reelection, he was appointed in December 1843 to the New Brunswick Legislative Council of which he was an active member through 1851. He was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1844.

In the final action of his naval career, between September 1842 and December 1847, he conducted the definitive survey of the Bay of Fundy for the Admiralty. Indeed, some charts of the area are still based upon his surveys.

Family
Vice Admiral Owen was twice married: first in January 1818 to Martha Evans with whom he had two daughters (see Captain John James Robinson-Owen), secondly 11 December 1852 in Saint John, New Brunswick to Amy (née Vernon) Nicholson widow of Captain Thomas L. Nicholson (see William Johnstone Ritchie).

Owen was promoted Rear Admiral in 1841 and Vice Admiral in 1854. He died on 3 November 1857 at St. John, New Brunswick.

Legacy
A species of African chameleon, Trioceros oweni, was named in his honor by British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1831.

See also

References

Further reading
Herman, Arthur, "To Rule the Waves", Hodder and Stoughton, 2004
Burrows, E. H., "Captain Owen of the African Survey", A. A. Balkema, 1978

External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

1774 births
1857 deaths
Military personnel from Manchester
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Royal Navy vice admirals
Explorers of Africa
Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
English hydrographers

William Fitzwilliam Owen


In computing a virtual printer is a simulated device whose user interface and API resemble that of a printer driver, but which is not connected to a physical computer printer.

When a document is "printed" by a virtual printer, instead of physically printing it on paper or other material the underlying software processes the images of its pages in some other way, often resulting in a file being produced or the images being transmitted.

History
In the early 1960s the B5500 Master Control Program (MCP) operating system included virtual printers, called "Printer Backups" in the form of Printer Backup Tapes (PBT) and Printer Backup Disks (PBD).  IBM's VM/370 operating system allows users to spool a virtual printer (or punch) file to another user, who can read it as input.  This provides a basic means of file transfer.

Functions
Typical uses of virtual printers include:
 Saving a document to another format such as a PDF or multi-page TIFF file.
 Sending documents to a fax server.
 Allowing user to control certain aspects of printing not supported natively, such as printing multiple pages per sheet without border, print letterhead, watermarks etc. This output can either be saved in a file for future printing or passed to another printer.
 Previewing a printed document before printing it, to save ink and paper. This functionality is also built into many GUI applications.
 Allowing remote printing of documents over the Internet. At least one example of this technology creates a virtual printer on one computer which actually converts the document and sends it to a remote server, from which the file can be printed to a printer attached to a PC in a remote location. Similar technology is also being used to allow printing from devices such as smart phones.

See also
List of virtual printer software
Spooling

References

Computer printers
Device drivers

Virtual printer


Marion Junction is a railroad junction in western Jersey City, New Jersey. Currently, it connects CSX's River Line (via Conrail's Northern Branch) to Conrail's Passaic and Harsimus Line. The two lines merge towards the west, allowing through trains from upstate New York to continue towards the rest of the country. The track actually making the connection is known as the Marion Running Track.

History
The New Jersey Railroad (NJRR; later part of the Pennsylvania Railroad, PRR) and Paterson and Hudson River Railroad (later part of the Erie Railroad) both built their lines to this point in 1834 and November 28, 1833, respectively. It took four more years for the NJRR to cut through Bergen Hill, or the lower New Jersey Palisades; prior to that, passengers and freight transferred to horse-drawn carriages over the hill. The junction was a simple one, with both lines merging towards the east, allowing both railroads to access the east side of the Palisades and the Hudson River.

In 1861, due to congestion on the PRR cut, the Erie built the  Long Dock Tunnel through Bergen Hill and Marion Junction became a minor transfer point. In 1873 the newly opened  New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway (NYS&W) and Montclair Railway (later New York and Greenwood Lake Railway, NY&GL) began using trackage rights over the Erie route to Marion Junction in order to reach the PRR cut. NY&GL rerouted passenger trains to the Erie's Pavonia Terminal about 1890, and NYS&W did the same in 1911. NYS&W continued to maintain a freight house at Marion Junction.

With the decline of the passenger railroads in the mid-20th century, Marion Junction lost much traffic. Facing east, it was not in the best alignment for freight traffic between upstate New York and points south.

Around 1994, New Jersey Transit paid to modify the junction to point west, as part of moving the River Line to the west side of the Palisades, clearing the east side for the Hudson-Bergen Light Rail. This made the junction the preferred (and in some cases the only) route for freight traffic.

See also
Hudson Connecting Railway
 Croxton, Jersey City
 Long Dock Tunnel
 List of New Jersey railroad junctions

References

Rail infrastructure in New Jersey
Transportation in Hudson County, New Jersey
Rail junctions in the United States

Marion Junction (New Jersey)


The Church of Our Saviour is a historic Carpenter Gothic Episcopal church located at 2979 Coloma Street, in Placerville, El Dorado County, California, in the United States. The church is part of the Episcopal Diocese of Northern California. On November 17, 1977, it was listed in the National Register of Historic Places as the Episcopal Church of Our Saviour.

It was designed by English-born architect William Patton.

History
The Church of Our Saviour was originally organized by the Rev. Charles Caleb Peirce on July 20, 1861, in the midst of the California Gold Rush. Our Saviours' first services were conducted by The Rev. Mr. Peirce in the Old Court House in Placerville. The Rev. Mr. Peirce (he stated that he disliked being called "Father") expected to find a parish called "Saint Mary's Episcopal Church," that was allegedly begun in 1857. Unfortunately, the parish could not be found. There is no record of its demise.

The new congregation continued to use the Court House as a place of worship, and it was not until 1864 that a move to erect a church building was initiated. The ladies of the church on the Fourth of July of that year held a faire. They donated the proceeds from that event for the building fund. This was the first of many fairs that the Episcopal Church Women (ECW) held.

Following this were a series of events; the final effort occurring in May 1865 when a three-day fair and bazaar was held, netting $1,200. At this time, the lot on Coloma Street was purchased and work on the church building begun.

The Rev. Mr. Peirce was famous for his good character in that he is reported to "have looked for and found good in all people."  An excerpt from C. E. Upton's book, The Life and Work of the Rev. C. C. Peirce, illustrates this facet of his character.

The Mountain Democrat newspaper in June 1865, told how the El Dorado Lodge of Free & Accepted Masons laid the cornerstone of the Church of Our Saviour. On December 23 of the same year the newspaper reported: "The opening of the new, elegant and beautiful Episcopal Church on Coloma Street will take place this Saturday evening with the annual distribution of books by Rev. C. C. Peirce".

Bishop William Ingraham Kip of San Francisco consecrated the building on April 15, 1866. The completed church cost about $10,500.

Architect William Patton of San Francisco designed the structure. Mr. [O. Taylor of Placerville built the parish building.  When the Rev. Mr. Peirce died on March 14, 1903, schools and businesses closed in his memory.

The first renovation of the church was in 1927.  The cost of the work amounted to $10,000. In 1938, the second restoration of the church building was undertaken. The $4,000 project included repairs to the outside of the building, new paint and a new roof for the nave.  The interior also underwent extensive repairs.  A coal-burning furnace was added and the brickwork at the front of the church was laid.  The paneling for the sanctuary was designed and installed.  In 1957, chimes were given to the parish in the memory of Fr. Peirce and other additions, such as the aluminum roof, were added.

In 1976, the house behind the church was purchased and demolished to provide a much-needed parking lot.  The old rectory next to the church was torn down and a new one-story building was erected with classrooms and office space.

In 1982, more was accomplished.  New composition shingles were installed following a storm that blew off half of the old tin roof.  This happened during Holly Faire that year.  The stained glass windows were repaired and three new beautiful ones were installed.  Also a hand carved Corpus was hung on the plain wooden cross above the sanctuary.

The Sunday school building that was built in 1976 was not adequate to meet the needs of the growing parish, so a new two-story building was erected with a capital funds drive raising about $110,000 and completed in 1999.  A round stained glass window honoring the ministry of the Rev. Canon James Burnett was installed in 2003.  A columbarium was installed in 2005.

On this hill overlooking downtown Placerville, the Church of Our Saviour continues to be the landmark in the area that it has been since it was built. It is the oldest continually occupied church building in El Dorado County.  The church and parish celebrated their 150th anniversary in 2011.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in El Dorado County, California
List of Registered Historic Places in California

References

External links
Church of our Saviour website
National Register listings for El Dorado County

Churches in El Dorado County, California
Episcopal church buildings in California
Placerville, California
History of El Dorado County, California
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Religious organizations established in 1861
1861 establishments in California
19th-century Episcopal church buildings
Carpenter Gothic church buildings in California
National Register of Historic Places in El Dorado County, California
Churches completed in 1865

Church of Our Saviour (Placerville, California)


The Treaty of Gyalu was an agreement between Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I and Isabella Jagiellon the queen dowager of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom and the widow of John Zápolya, signed in Gyalu (today Gilău, Romania) by Gáspár Serédy captain of Upper Hungary and János Statileo bishop of Transylvania on December 29, 1541.
The participants tried to renegotiate John Sigismund Zápolya's possessions in connection with the previous Treaty of Nagyvárad. According to the treaty, Royal Hungary and the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom would have been re-united under Ferdinand's rule, in case he had recaptured Buda. However, the Diet of Torda negotiated the Ottoman disapproval in reference to the treaty in October and refused to accept the terms of the agreement on December 20, 1542.

The eastern territories of the former medieval Kingdom of Hungary ruled by King John Sigismund Zápolya were known as the  Eastern Hungarian Kingdom until the Treaty of Speyer (1570).

References

Gyalu
Gyalu
Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)
1541 treaties
1541 in the Holy Roman Empire
Eastern Hungarian Kingdom
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor

Treaty of Gyalu


An interrupt is when a microprocessor does something that it is not told to do because of things that happen outside what the program is supposed to do. Interrupts happen most often because the processor gets a signal from hardware, but they can also come from software that is running along with the program. Among the many things can cause interrupts are pressing keys on a keyboard, the built-in timer going off, a data transfer taking place, or any other event that needs an action from the processor right away. Interrupts can happen at any time while the processor is running a program, no matter where in the program's source code it is.

How interrupts work
A hardware or software call for an interrupt (known as an interrupt request, or IRQ) is taken care of by an "interrupt handler" or "interrupt service routine" (ISR) in the processor. It puts what is it doing at the time onto a stack and then follows certain instructions that does a given task on behalf of the system, which does not have to be part of the program it does. Once it is done following the instructions, the ISR then takes back what it put on the stack and continues with what it was doing before the interrupt happened.

Many interrupt controllers from today's processors use an interrupt vector to sort interrupts based on where it came from, among other ways. The vector typically contains the code that has to be run when the interrupt happens. ISRs are generally responsible for dealing with, or "servicing", the interrupt, along with keeping itself in working order.

Uses of interrupts
 Triggering tasks at regular intervals
 Servicing an external device that can happen at any time
 Remove the need for synchronous polling
 Triggering an operating system (OS) to take action

References

Computing

Interrupt


James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton, KT, FRS (1702 – 12 October 1768) was a Scottish peer and astronomer who was president of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh from its foundation in 1737 until his death in 1768. He also became president of the Royal Society on 24 March 1764, and was a distinguished patron of science, and particularly of astronomy.

He was born in Edinburgh as the son of George Douglas, 13th Earl of Morton and his second wife Frances Adderley.  He graduated MA from King's College, Cambridge, in 1722. In 1746 he visited France, and was imprisoned in the Bastille, probably as a Jacobite.
He had a long lasting tendency to protest against the actions of the British government.

Family
He was twice married: firstly to Agatha, daughter of James Halyburton of Pitcur, Forfarshire, by whom he was the father of three sons, two of whom died young, and three daughters.  The second son, Sholto Douglas, 15th Earl of Morton, succeeded him. Secondly, on 31 July 1755, at St James's Church, Piccadilly, he married Bridget, daughter of Sir John Heathcote, Bt., of Normanton, who bore him a son, John (b. 4 July 1756), and a daughter, Bridget (b. 3 May 1758).  His wife, Bridget, outlived him by thirty-seven years.

Legacy
Moreton Bay in Queensland, Australia, was named after Lord Morton by Lieutenant James Cook (the spelling being an error in the published account of Cook's voyage in ). Lord Morton had been influential in obtaining a grant of £4,000 to finance the voyage. With regards the native populations of the places he might visit, Cook was instructed by the Earl, with what are now called his "Hints": "To check the petulance of the Sailors, and restrain the wanton use of Fire Arms.

To have it still in view that sheding the blood of those people is a crime of the highest nature  –  They are human creatures, the work of the same omnipotent Author, equally under his care with the most polished European perhaps being less offensive; more entitled to his favor.

They are the natural, and in the strictest sense of the word, the legal possessors of the several Regions they inhabit.

No European nation has the right to occupy any part of their country, or settle among them without their voluntary consent. Conquest over such people can give no just title: because they could never be the Aggressors."

In popular media
Actor Brian Cox was cast as Lord Morton in the TV series, Longitude in 2000.

See also
 List of presidents of the Royal Society

References

1702 births
1768 deaths
Earls of Morton
Knights of the Thistle
Presidents of the Royal Society
Scottish representative peers
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Members of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Scottish astronomers
Scottish Jacobites
Grand Masters of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
Prisoners of the Bastille

James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton


José Miguel Domínguez Alemán (January 14, 1756 most likely in Mexico City – April 22, 1830 in Mexico City) was a New Spanish colonial official in New Spain who played a part in the Mexican independence movement. He was also a member of a transitional governing committee in the period between the abdication of Mexican Emperor Agustín de Iturbide and the installation of Guadalupe Victoria as the first president of independent Mexico. His wife, Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez, also known as La Corregidora, was a heroine of Mexican independence.

Background
Domínguez was a Criollo (a Spaniard born in America), although his parents were from Spain. He studied law in the College of San Ildefonso, graduating and entering the legal profession. In 1791 he met Josefa Ortiz in the College of the Vizcainas and married her the same year. She was 12 years younger than him.

Domínguez occupied various positions in the treasury office and in other offices of the viceregal government. Viceroy Félix Berenguer de Marquina named him corregidor of the city of Querétaro. Domínguez was an opponent of Viceroy José de Iturrigaray's appropriation of the religious estates in 1805. In 1808, he proposed to the city government of Querétaro that they join with the government of Mexico City in establishing a junta for the colony, to govern New Spain in the name of the deposed King Ferdinand VII. Viceroy Iturrigaray at least tacitly supported this effort.

Independence conspiracy
In Querétaro both Domínguez and his wife were involved in the independence conspiracy organized after the French occupation of Spain. Meetings were held in the guise of a literary society at the home of the priest José María Sánchez, and were under the protection of the corregidor himself. Besides the Domínguezes and Sánchez, the other conspirators included the licenciados Parra, Laso and Altamirano and the military officers Joaquín Arias, Francisco Lanzagorta Inchaurreri, Ignacio Allende and Juan Aldama. The latter two were stationed in San Miguel el Grande, Guanajuato. They were in contact with Father Miguel Hidalgo in Dolores, Guanajuato, as was Domínguez. Also part of the conspiracy in Querétaro were the brothers Emeterio and Epigmenio González, as arms-makers for the rebels.

In addition there were organized conspiracies in San Miguel, Celaya, Guanajuato, San Felipe, San Luis Potosí and Mexico City. Father Hidalgo was chosen to lead. December 1, 1810 was chosen as the date for the insurrection, but this was later advanced to October 2.

However, the denunciations of Arias in Querétaro on September 10 and of Juan Garrido in Guanajuato on the 13th, forced the conspirators to take faster action. The corregidor was ordered to arrest the conspirators. He raided the house of Epigmenio González. Finding arms, he had González arrested. Aware of his wife's commitment, he had her locked in an upstairs room while he went to alert the militia. Josefa Ortiz was able to alert a fellow conspirator in the house next door, Ignacio Pérez. On September 15, 1810, Pérez rode to San Miguel, and from there to Dolores to give the warning.

In the early morning of the following day, September 16, 1810, Hidalgo gave the Grito de Dolores, signaling the beginning of the war for Mexican independence.

This led to the arrest of both the corregidor and the corregidora. They were held in the convent of La Cruz (Querétaro). Three years later, in 1813, the corregidora was sent to Mexico City, where she was held for several more years in the convent of Santa Clara. No longer a prisoner himself but deprived of his office, Domínguez moved to Mexico City to be near his wife. He was allowed to visit her occasionally. Recognizing his earlier service, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca later granted him a small pension.

In the executive of the Republic
In 1823 he served as a replacement in the triumvirate that exercised executive power in Mexico after the fall of Emperor Iturbide and before the selection of Guadalupe Victoria as president under the Constitution of 1824. From 1825 to 1827, he was named president of the Supreme Court. He was the President of the Chamber of Deputies in 1830.

He died in Mexico City in 1830, he was 74 years old, one year after the death of his wife.

See also

List of heads of state of Mexico

References

External links
Short biography

Mexican people of Spanish descent
Mexican judges
People of the Mexican War of Independence
Politicians from Mexico City
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
1756 births
1830 deaths

Miguel Domínguez


When aa material starts to become weakened, because of heavy use, this is known as material fatigue. As an example, a screw may be able to hold an object that weights a metric ton. When it is used for an object that weights only  one hundred times it may start to wear out and show signs of fatigue

Solid mechanics

Fatigue (material)


The Norilsk railway connects the river port of Dudinka with  the mining towns of Kayerkan, Norilsk,  and Talnach. Different ore mines and industries are also connected to the line. The line has a single track. Originally, it was done as a narrow-gauge railway (gauge: 1m); later it was re-done as a Russian standard gauge (of 1.5m). It used to be electrified, but this was removed in the 1990s. Since then it only runs freight trains.

A paved highway from Dudinka to Norilsk was built in the 1990s; since then, the Norilsk railway no longer runs passenger services.

The railway is owned by the mining company.

The line has a length of a bit over , in total there are over  of track.

Transport in Russia
Railway lines
Siberia

Norilsk railway


The Iraqi Turkmen (also spelled as Turkoman and Turcoman; ), also referred to as Iraqi Turks, Turkish-Iraqis, the Turkish minority in Iraq, and the Iraqi-Turkish minority (; ) are Iraq's third largest ethnic group.

The Iraqi Turkmen are believed to have originally emerged in Iraq as garrisons established by multiple rulers in various time periods. They are likely descendants of various waves of Turkic settlement in Mesopotamia starting in the 7th century, followed by 1055's Seljuk conquest, and during Ottoman rule. Iraqi Turkmen share close ties with Turkish people and do not commonly identify with the Turkmen of Turkmenistan and Central Asia.

Ethnonyms

According to Iraqi Turkmen scholar Professor Suphi Saatçi, Prior to the mid-20th century the Turkmens in Iraq were known simply as "Turks". It was not until after the military coup of July 14, 1958, that the ruling military junta officially introduced the name "Turkman/Turkmen":

The state-imposed terms on the Turks of Iraq were not resisted, for the word "Turkmen" had historically been designated to the Oghuz Turks who had accepted Islam and migrated westwards from Central Asia to the Middle East, and had continued to be used in the region. Thus, the Iraqi Turkmen (as well as the Syrian Turkmens and Anatolian Turkmens) do not identify themselves with the Turkmen people of Turkmenistan. Rather, the term "Turkmen" in the Middle East is often used to designate Turkic-speakers, particularly in the Arab areas, or where Sunni Turks live in Shiite dominated areas.

Despite the modern usage of the term "Turkmen", Professor David Kushner has pointed out that the term "Turks" continues to be used in referring to the "Outside Turks" of the former Ottoman Empire, including the Turks in Iraq, which is in contrast to the terms used for other Turkic peoples who did not share this Ottoman history:

In literature
Professor Orit Bashkin has observed that within Iraqi Turkmen literature, poets have managed to "remain loyal to Iraq as a state" whilst they have also "concurrently upheld their Turkish distinctiveness":

History

Origin
The exact origin of the Iraqi Turkmen is uncertain, but several possible explanations and theories of settlement in the region indicate that they likely originally emerged in Iraq as garrisons established by multiple rulers in various time periods.

The Iraqi Turkmen are believed to be the descendants of various waves of Turkic settlement in Mesopotamia beginning from the 7th century until the end of Ottoman rule (1919). The first wave of migration dates back to the 7th century, followed by migrations during the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194), the fleeing Oghuz during the Mongol destruction of the Khwarazmian dynasty (see Kara Koyunlu and Ag Qoyunlu), and the largest migration, during the Ottoman Empire (1535–1919). With the conquest of Iraq by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1534, followed by Sultan Murad IV's capture of Baghdad in 1638, a large influx of Turks—predominantly from Anatolia—settled down in Iraq. It is believed that many of today's Iraqi Turkmen are the descendants of the Ottoman soldiers, traders and civil servants who were brought into Iraq during the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

Migration under Arab rule
The presence of Turkic peoples in what is today Iraq first began in the 7th century when approximately 2,000–5,000 Oghuz Turks were recruited in the Muslim armies of Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad. They arrived in 674 with the Umayyud conquest of Basra. More Turkic troops settled during the 8th century, from Bukhara to Basra and also Baghdad. During the subsequent Abbasid era, thousands more of Turkmen warriors were brought into Iraq; however, the number of Turkmen who had settled in Iraq were not significant, as a result, the first wave of Turkmen became assimilated into the local Arab population.

Seljuk migration
The second wave of Turkmens to descend on Iraq were the Turks of the Great Seljuq Empire. Large scale migration of the Turkmen in Iraq occurred in 1055 with the invasion of Sultan Tuğrul Bey, the second ruler of the Seljuk dynasty, who intended to repair the holy road to Mecca. For the next 150 years, the Seljuk Turks placed large Turkmen communities along the most valuable routes of northern Iraq, especially Tal Afar, Erbil, Kirkuk, and Mandali, which is now identified by the modern community as Turkmeneli. Many of these settlers assumed positions of military and administrative responsibilities in the Seljuk Empire.

Ottoman migration

The third, and largest, wave of Turkmen migration to Iraq arose during the four centuries of Ottoman rule (1535–1919). By the first half of the sixteenth century the Ottomans had begun their expansion into Iraq, waging wars against their arch rival, the Persian Safavids. In 1534, under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, Mosul was sufficiently secure within the Ottoman Empire and became the chief province (eyalet) responsible for all other administrative districts in the region. The Ottomans encouraged migration from Anatolia and the settlement of immigrant Turkmen along northern Iraq, religious scholars were also brought in to preach Hanafi (Sunni) Islam. With loyal Turkmen inhabiting the area, the Ottomans were able to maintain a safe route through to the southern provinces of Mesopotamia. Following the conquest, Kirkuk came firmly under Turkish control and was referred to as "Gökyurt", it is this period in history whereby modern Iraqi Turkmen claim association with Anatolia and the Turkish state.

With the conquest of Iraq by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1534, followed by Sultan Murad IV's capture of Baghdad in 1638, a large influx of Turks settled down in the region. After defeating the Safavids on December 31, 1534, Suleiman entered Baghdad and set about reconstructing the physical infrastructure in the province and ordered the construction of a dam in Karbala and major water projects in and around the city's countryside. Once the new governor was appointed, the town was to be composed of 1,000 foot soldiers and another 1,000 cavalry. However, war broke out after 89 years of peace and the city was besieged and finally conquered by Abbas the Great in 1624. The Persians ruled the city until 1638 when a massive Ottoman force, led by Sultan Murad IV, recaptured the city. In 1639, the Treaty of Zuhab was signed that gave the Ottomans control over Iraq and ended the military conflict between the two empires. Thus, more Turks arrived with the army of Sultan Murad IV in 1638 following the capture of Baghdad whilst others came even later with other notable Ottoman figures.

Post-Ottoman era

Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the Iraqi Turkmens wanted Turkey to annex the Mosul Vilayet and for them to become part of an expanded state; this is because, under the Ottoman monarchy, the Iraqi Turkmens enjoyed a relatively trouble-free existence as the administrative and business classes. However, due to the demise of the Ottoman monarchy, the Iraqi Turkmen participated in elections for the Constituent Assembly; the purpose of these elections was to formalise the 1922 treaty with the British government and obtain support for the drafting of a constitution and the passing of the 1923 Electoral law. The Iraqi Turkmens made their participation in the electoral process conditional on the preservation of the Turkish character of Kirkuk's administration and the recognition of Turkish as the official language of the liwa. Although they were recognized as a constitutive entity of Iraq, alongside the Arabs and Kurds, in the constitution of 1925, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status.

Since the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Iraqi Turkmen have found themselves increasingly mistreated under successive regimes, such as in the massacres of 1923, 1946, and 1959, and from 1980, when the Ba'th Party targeted the community.

Culture
The Iraqi Turkmens are mostly Muslims and have close cultural and linguistic ties with the Anatolian region of Turkey.

Language

The Iraqi Turkmen dialects fall under the Western Oghuz branch of Turkic languages and are often referred to as "Iraqi Turkmen Turkish" "Iraqi Turkish", and "Iraqi Turkic". The dialects possess their own unique characteristics, but have also been influenced by the historical standards of Ottoman Turkish (which was the official language of administration and lingua franca in Iraq between 1534 and 1920) and neighboring Azerbaijani Turkic. In particular, standard (i.e. Istanbul) Turkish as a prestige language has exerted a profound influence on their dialects; thus, the syntax in Iraqi Turkmen differs sharply from neighboring Irano-Turkic varieties. Collectively, the Iraqi Turkmen dialects also show similarities with Cypriot Turkish and Balkan Turkish regarding modality. The written language of the Iraqi Turkmen is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modern Turkish alphabet.

The Turkish language was recognized as a minority language in Kirkuk and Kifri in 1930, until the revolutionary government introduced the names "Turkman" and "Turkmanja" in 1959 with the aim of politically distancing the Turks of Iraq from Turkey. Then, in 1972, the Iraqi government banned the Turkish language and schools and media using Turkish were prohibited. Further bans on the Turkish language were made in the 1980s when the Baath regime prohibited the Iraqi Turkmens from speaking Turkish in public. It was not until 2005 that the Turkmen dialects were recognized under the Iraqi constitution; since then, the Iraqi Turkmens have opened numerous Turkish schools and media exposure from Turkey has led to the standardisation of their dialects towards Standard Turkish and the preferable language for adolescents associating with the Turkish culture.

Indeed, Iraqi Turkmens themselves (according to the 1957 census), as well as a range of linguistic sources, tend to view their language as a Turkish dialect (of Turkey), which they call Irak Türkmen Türkçesi, Irak Türkçesi, or Irak Türkmencesi. Studies have long noted the similarities between Iraqi Turkmen and certain Southeastern Anatolian dialects around the region of Urfa and Diyarbakır, or have described it as an "Anatolian" or an "Eastern Anatolian dialect". There are also linguists who have said that Iraqi Turkmen is closer to Azerbaijani, placing the Kirkuk dialect as "more or less" an "Azerbaijani Turkish" dialect. Yet, the Kirkuk dialect also shows comparable features with Urfa, and there are other regions in the Kirkuk Governorate, such as Altun Kupri, Taza Khurmatu, and Bashir, which are said to show unity with the Eastern Anatolian dialect of Urfa. Indeed, the dialects spoken in Turkmen-dominated regions in other parts of the country – including Amirli, Kifri, Tal Afar and Tuz Khurmatu – are all said to be similar to the Turkish dialect of Urfa. Hence, there are linguists who acknowledge similarities with Azerbaijani spoken in Iran but say that Iraqi Turkmen has "greater proximity to Turkish of Turkey". According to Christiane Bulut, Iraqi Turkman is neither Azeri nor Anatolian Turkish but "a transitional dialect group, displaying linguistic features similar to both".

Besides their traditional dialects, the Iraqi Turkmen diaspora also communicate in standard (Istanbul) Turkish, whilst the younger generations in Iraq (below the age of 18 in 2019) speak Istanbul Turkish with ease. In addition, diglossia in Iraq Turkmen dialects and Istanbul Turkish has become a widespread phenomenon. Most Iraqi Turkmen can also speak Arabic and/or Kurdish.

Dialects
Due to the existence of different Turkish migration waves to Iraq for over 1,200 years, the Iraqi Turkmen varieties are by no means homogeneous; dialects can vary according to regional features. Several prestige languages in the region have been particularly influential: Ottoman Turkish from 1534 onwards and then Persian after the Capture of Baghdad (1624). Once the Ottoman empire retook Iraq in 1640 the Turkish varieties of Iraq continued to be influenced by Ottoman Turkish, as well as other languages in the region, such as Arabic and Kurdish. Ottoman Turkish had a strong influence in Iraq until 1920, for it was not only the official language of administration but also the lingua franca. Indeed, Turkish has remained a prestige language among Iraqi Turkmen, exerting a profound historical influence on their dialect. As a result, Iraqi Turkmen syntax differs sharply from Irano-Turkic.

In general, the Iraqi Turkmen dialects of Tal Afar (approx 700,000 speakers), Altun Kupri, Tuz Khurmatu, Taza Khurmatu, Kifri, Bashir and Amirli show unity with the Eastern Anatolian dialect of Urfa; meanwhile, the dialects in Kirkuk, Erbil, Dohuk, Mandali and Khanaqin show similarities with Tehrani and Afshar Turkic dialects. Yet, the Kirkuk dialect also shows comparable features with Urfa, and 21.4% of Kirkuk province's population had self-declared their mother tongue as "Turkish" in the last census which asked about language. In particular, a cultural orientation towards Turkey prevails among Iraqi Turkmen intellectuals and diglossia (Turkish of Turkey) is very frequent in educated circles, especially in Kirkuk. In addition, the Erbil dialect shows similarities with Turkish dialects stretching from Kosovo to Rize, Erzurum and Malatya.

The Iraqi Turkmen generally also have an active command in standard Turkish due to their cultural orientation towards the Republic of Turkey. Turkish media outlets (especially satellite TV) has been influential; moreover, there are a number of private schools which teach in Turkish backed by Turkish institutions. Thus, diglossia in Iraq Turkmen and standard Turkish (of Turkey) has become a widespread phenomenon.

Politicization
Professor Christiane Bulut has argued that publications from Azerbaijan often use expressions such as "Azerbaijani (dialects) of Iraq" or "South Azerbaijani" to describe Iraqi Turkmen dialects "with political implications"; however, in Turcological literature, closely related dialects in Turkey and Iraq are generally referred to as "eastern Anatolian" or "Iraq-Turkic/-Turkman" dialects, respectively.

Furthermore, the terms "Turkmen/Turkman" are also considered to be historically political because in the early 20th century the minority were simply recognized as Turks who spoke the Turkish language, until after the military coup of 14 July 1958, when the ruling military junta introduced the names "Turkman/Turkmen" to distance the Turks of Iraq from those in Anatolia, and then banned the Turkish language in 1972.

Official status
Under the British Mandate over Iraq, the Turkish language was recognized as an official language in Kirkuk and Kifri under Article 5 of the Language Act of 1930. Article 6 of the Act permitted the language of education to be determined by the native language of the majority of students, whilst Article 2 and Article 4 gave Iraqi citizens the right to have court hearings and decisions verbally translated into Arabic, Kurdish, or Turkish in all cases.

Upon Iraq's entry into the League of Nations in 1932, the League demanded that Iraq recognize its ethnic and religious minorities. Consequently, the Turkish language, alongside Kurdish, was to be recognized as an official language under the Iraqi constitution of 1932: "in the liwa of Kirkuk, where a considerable part of the population is of Turkmen race, the official language, side by side with Arabic, shall be either Kurdish or Turkish". According to Article 1, no law, order, or act of government was allowed to contradict the terms of the 1932 constitution, nor could it be changed in the future.

However, in 1959 the military junta introduced the names "Turkman" and "Turkmanja". More recently, Article 4 of the 2005 Iraqi Constitution recognizes "Turkomen" as an official minority language in the "administrative units in which they constitute density of population" (alongside Syriac).

Adoption of the Turkish alphabet
In 1997 the Iraqi Turkmen Congress adopted a Declaration of Principles, Article Three states that "the official written language of the Turkmen is Istanbul Turkish, and its alphabet is the new Latin alphabet." By 2005 the Turkish language replaced traditional Turkmeni, which had used the Arabic script, in Iraqi schools.

Education in Turkish

Iraq's first two Turkmen schools were opened on November 17, 1993, one in Erbil and the other in Kifri.

In 2010 the Turkmen Federation of Scouts (Türkmen Izcilik Federasyonu) was founded, based in Kirkuk.

In 2005 Iraqi Turkmen community leaders decided that the Turkish language would replace the use of traditional Turkmeni in Iraqi schools; Turkmeni had used the Arabic script whereas Turkish uses the Latin script (see Turkish alphabet). Kelsey Shanks has argued that "the move to Turkish can be seen as a means to strengthen the collective "we" identity by continuing to distinguish it from the other ethnic groups. ... The use of Turkish was presented as a natural progression from the Turkmen; any suggestion that the oral languages were different was immediately rejected."

Parental literacy rates in Turkish are low, as most are more familiar with the Arabic script (due to the Ba'athist regime). Therefore, the Turkmen Directorate of Education in Kirkuk has started Turkish language lessons for the wider society. Furthermore, the Turkmen officer for the Ministry of Education in Nineveh has requested from the "United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq" the instigation of Turkish language classes for parents.

Media in Turkish
The current prevalence of satellite television and media exposure from Turkey may have led to the standardisation of Turkmeni towards Turkish, and the preferable language for adolescents associating with the Turkish culture.

In 2004 the Türkmeneli TV channel was launched in Kirkuk, Iraq. It broadcasts programmes in the Turkish and Arabic languages. As of 2012, Türkmeneli TV has studios in Kirkuk and Baghdad in Iraq, and in the Çankaya neighbourhood in Ankara, Turkey. Türkmeneli TV has signed agreements with several Turkish channels, such as TRT, TGRT and ATV, as well as with the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus's main broadcaster BRT, to share programmes and documentaries.

Religion
The Iraqi Turkmen are predominantly Muslims. The Sunni Turkmen form the majority (about 60–70%), but there is also a significant number of Turkmen practicing the Shia branch of Islam (about 30% to 40%). Nonetheless, the Turkmen are mainly secular, having internalized the secularist interpretation of state–religion affairs practiced in the Republic of Turkey since its foundation in 1923. Moreover, the fact that the Turkmen mainly live in urban areas, where they deal with trade and commerce, and their tendency to acquire higher education, the power of religious and tribal factors inherent in Iraq's political culture does not significantly affect the Turkmens. A small minority of the Iraqi Turkmens are Catholics, it is estimated their number at about 30,000. The Turkmen Bible Partnership translated the New Testament into the Iraqi Turkmen dialect and printed and distributed 2,000 copies of it in 2021.

Demographics

Population

Official statistics

The Iraqi Turkmens are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq. According to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning the Iraqi Turkmens have a population of about 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million (approximately 9% of the country's population).

Past censuses and controversies

According to Mesut Yeğen, documents from the British Foreign Office claim that the Turkmens made a majority in the city of Erbil in 1919 The 1957 Iraqi census (which is recognized as the last reliable census, as later censuses were reflections of the Arabization policies of the Ba'ath regime) recorded 567,000 Turks out of a total population of 6.3 million, forming 9% of the total Iraqi population. This put them third, behind Arabs and Kurds. However, due to the undemocratic environment, their number has always been underestimated and has long been a point of controversy. For example, in the 1957 census, the Iraqi government first claimed that there was 136,800 Turks in Iraq. However, the revised figure of 567,000 was issued after the 1958 revolution when the Iraqi government admitted that the Iraqi Turkmen population was actually more than 400% from the previous year's total. Scott Taylor has described the political nature of the results thusly:

Subsequent censuses, in 1967, 1977, 1987 and 1997, are all considered highly unreliable, due to suspicions of manipulation by the various regimes in Iraq. The 1997 census states that there was 600,000 Iraqi Turkmen out of a total population of 22,017,983, forming 2.72% of the total Iraqi population; however, this census only allowed its citizens to indicate belonging to one of two ethnicities, Arab or Kurd, this meant that many Iraqi Turkmen identified themselves as Arabs (the Kurds not being a desirable ethnic group in Saddam Hussein's Iraq), thereby skewing the true number of Iraqi Turkmen.

Other estimates
In 2004 Scott Taylor suggested that the Iraqi Turkmen population accounted for 2,080,000 of Iraq's 25 million inhabitants (forming 8.32% of the population) whilst Patrick Clawson has stated that the Iraqi Turkmen make up about 9% of the total population. Furthermore, international organizations such as the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization has stated that the Iraqi Turkmen community is 3 million or 9–13% of the Iraqi population. Iraqi Turkmen claim that their total population is over 3 million. It is estimated to be 2.7% of total Iraqi population at 2015 by Gulf/2000 Project of Columbia University.

Areas of settlement

The Iraqi Turkmen primarily inhabit northern Iraq,  in a region they refer to as "Turkmeneli" which stretches from the northwest to the east at the middle of Iraq. Iraqi Turkmen consider their capital city to be Kirkuk. Liam Anderson and Gareth Stansfield describe the Turkmeneli region as follows:

The Iraqi Turkmen generally consider several major cities, and small districts associated with these cities, as part of Turkmeneli. The major cities claimed to be a part of their homeland include: Altun Kupri, Badra, Bakuba, Diala, Erbil, Khanaqin, Kifri, Kirkuk, Kizilribat, Mendeli, Mosul, Salahaldeen, Sancar, Tal Afar, and Tuz Khurmatu. Thus, the Turkmeneli region lies between the Arab areas of settlement to the south and Kurdish areas to the north.

According to the 1957 census the Iraqi Turkmen formed the majority of inhabitants in the city of Kirkuk, with 40% declaring their mother tongue as "Turkish". The second-largest Iraqi Turkmen city is Tel Afar where they make up 95% of the inhabitants. The once mainly Turkoman cities of the Diyala Province such as Kifri have been heavily Kurdified and Arabized.

Some Iraqi Turkmen also live outside the Turkmeneli region. For example, there is a significant community living in Iraq's capital city of Baghdad, especially in the neighbourhoods of Adhamiyah and Ragheba Khatun.

The Turkmen population in Erbil is estimated to be around 300,000. They mainly reside in the neighbourhoods of Taci, Mareke and Three Tak in Erbil's city centre, around the citadel. Until 2006, they were living in the Tophane, Tekke and Saray neighborhoods of the Citadel, which contained almost 700 houses. In 2006, the citadel was emptied, and the Turkmen in the citadel were relocated to other neighbourhoods. Some Turkmen also participate in the political institutions of the KRG, including the Parliament. Erbil's citadel also contains the Turkmen Culture House.

Diaspora
Most Iraqi Turkmens migrate to Turkey, followed by Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. There are also Iraqi Turkmen communities living in Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Greece, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.

According to Professor Suphi Saatçi, in 2010 approximately 1,000 Iraqi Turkmen were living in Canada, 2,000 in Denmark, and 4,000 in the Netherlands. Since the European migrant crisis (2014–19) the number of Iraqi Turkmen has continued to increase in Europe.

There are many established Iraqi Turkmen diaspora communities, such as the Canadian Iraqi Turkmen Culture Association, based in Canada.

The Turkoman community in Chicago dates from the aftermath of the Iran-Iraq War and the Gulf War. They have tended to settle in the northern neighborhoods of the city and in the suburbs, and many have taken jobs as factory workers or cabdrivers. Owing to their small size, they attend the mosques of other communities. They maintain a distinct cultural identity and close ties with brethren outside of Chicago.

Persecution
The position of the Iraqi Turkmen has changed from being administrative and business classes of the Ottoman Empire to an increasingly discriminated against minority. Since the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Iraqi Turkmen have been victims of several massacres, such as the Kirkuk Massacre of 1959. Furthermore, under the Ba'th party, discrimination against the Iraqi Turkmen increased, with several leaders being executed in 1979 as well as the Iraqi Turkmen community being victims of Arabization policies by the state, and Kurdification by Kurds seeking to push them forcibly out of their homeland. Thus, they have suffered from various degrees of suppression and assimilation that ranged from political persecution and exile to terror and ethnic cleansing. Despite being recognized in the 1925 constitution as a constitutive entity, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status; hence, cultural rights were gradually taken away and activists were sent to exile.

Massacres

Massacre of 4 May 1924
In 1924, the Iraqi Turkmens were seen as a disloyal remnant of the Ottoman Empire, with a natural tie to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's new Turkish nationalist ideology emerging in the Republic of Turkey. The Iraqi Turkmen living in the region of Kirkuk were perceived as posing a threat to the stability of Iraq, particularly as they did not support the ascendancy of King Faisal I to the Iraqi throne. On May 4, these tensions boiled over into violence when soldiers from the Iraq Levies —a levied force raised by the British government after the First World War and consisting primarily of Assyrian — clashed with Turkmen in a Kirkuk market square after a dispute between an Assyrian soldier and a Turkmen shopkeeper. In the ensuing fracas, 200 Turkmen were killed by Assyrian soldiers.

Gavurbağı massacre of 1946
Around 20 Iraqi Turkmen civilians were killed by Iraqi policemen including women and children on 12 July 1946 in Gavurbağı, Kirkuk.

Kirkuk massacre of 1959
The Kirkuk massacre of 1959 came about due to the Iraqi government allowing the Iraqi Communist Party, which in Kirkuk was largely Kurdish, to target the Iraqi Turkmen. With the appointment of Maarouf Barzinji, a Kurd, as the mayor of Kirkuk in July 1959, tensions rose following the 14 July revolution celebrations, with animosity in the city polarizing rapidly between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen. On 14 July 1959, skirmishes broke out between the Iraqi Turkmen and Kurds, leaving some 20 Iraqi Turkmen dead. Furthermore, on 15 July 1959, Kurdish soldiers of the Fourth Brigade of the Iraqi army mortared Iraqi Turkmen residential areas, destroying 120 houses. Order was restored on 17 July by military units from Baghdad. The Iraqi government referred to the incident as a "massacre" and stated that between 31 and 79 Iraqi Turkmen were killed and some 130 injured.

Altun Kupri massacre of 1991

Over 135 Turkmen civilians were killed on 28 March 1991 during the Gulf War by Iraqi forces, in the Turkmen town of Altun Kupri.

Arabization

In 1980, Saddam Hussein's government adopted a policy of assimilation of its minorities. Due to government relocation programs, thousands of Iraqi Turkmen were relocated from their traditional homelands in northern Iraq and replaced by Arabs, in an effort to Arabize the region. Furthermore, Iraqi Turkmen villages and towns were destroyed to make way for Arab migrants, who were promised free land and financial incentives. For example, the Ba'th regime recognised that the city of Kirkuk was historically an Iraqi Arab city and remained firmly in its cultural orientation. Thus, the first wave of Arabization saw Arab families move from the centre and south of Iraq into Kirkuk to work in the expanding oil industry. Although the Iraqi Turkmen were not actively forced out, new Arab quarters were established in the city and the overall demographic balance of the city changed as the Arab migrations continued.

Several presidential decrees and directives from state security and intelligence organizations indicate that the Iraqi Turkmen were a particular focus of attention during the assimilation process during the Ba'th regime. For example, the Iraqi Military Intelligence issued directive 1559 on 6 May 1980 ordering the deportation of Iraqi Turkmen officials from Kirkuk, issuing the following instructions: "identify the places where Turkmen officials are working in governmental offices [in order] to deport them to other governorates in order to disperse them and prevent them from concentrating in this governorate [Kirkuk]". In addition, on 30 October 1981, the Revolution's Command Council issued decree 1391, which authorized the deportation of Iraqi Turkmen from Kirkuk with paragraph 13 noting that "this directive is specially aimed at Turkmen and Kurdish officials and workers who are living in Kirkuk".

As primary victims of these Arabization policies, the Iraqi Turkmen suffered from land expropriation and job discrimination, and therefore would register themselves as "Arabs" in order to avoid discrimination. Thus, ethnic cleansing was an element of the Ba'thist policy aimed at reducing the influence of the Iraqi Turkmen in northern Iraq's Kirkuk. Those Iraqi Turkmen who remained in cities such as Kirkuk were subject to continued assimilation policies; school names, neighbourhoods, villages, streets, markets and even mosques with names of Turkic origin were changed to names that emanated from the Ba'th Party or from Arab heroes. Moreover, many Iraqi Turkmen villages and neighbourhoods in Kirkuk were simply demolished, particularly in the 1990s.

Turkmen–Kurdish tension and Kurdification

The Kurds claimed de facto sovereignty over land that Iraqi Turkmen regard as theirs. For the Iraqi Turkmen, their identity is deeply inculcated as the rightful inheritors of the region as a legacy of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, it is claimed that the Kurdistan Region and Iraqi government has constituted a threat to the survival of the Iraqi Turkmen through strategies aimed at eradicating or assimilating them. The formation of the Kurdistan Region in 1991 created high animosity between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen, resulting in some Iraqi Turkmen being victims of Kurdification, according to Liam Anderson. The largest concentration of Iraqi Turkmen tended to be in the de facto capital of Erbil, a city which they had assumed prominent administrative and economic positions. Thus, they increasingly came into dispute and often conflict with the ruling powers of the city, which after 1996 was the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Massoud Barzani.

According to Anderson and Stansfield, in the 1990s, tension between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen inflamed as the KDP and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) were institutionalized as the political hegemons of the region and, from the perspective of the Iraqi Turkmen, sought to marginalize them from the positions of authority and to subsume their culture with an all-pervading Kurdistani identity. With the support of Ankara, a new political front of Turkmen parties, the Iraqi Turkmen Front (ITF), was formed on 24 April 1995. The relationship between the Iraqi Turkmen Front and the KDP was tense and deteriorated as the decade went on. Iraqi Turkmen associated with the Iraqi Turkmen Front complained about harassment by Kurdish security forces. In March 2000, the Human Rights Watch reported that the KDP's security attacked the offices of the ITF in Erbil, killing two guards, following a lengthy period of disputes between the two parties. In 2002, the KDP created an Iraqi Turkmen political organization, the Turkmen National Association, that supported the further institutionalization of the Kurdistan Region. This was viewed by pro-ITF Iraqi Turkmen as a deliberate attempt to "buy off" Iraqi Turkmen opposition and break their bonds with Ankara. Promoted by the KDP as the "true voice" of the Iraqi Turkmen, the Turkmen National Association has a pro-Kurdistani stance and has effectively weakened the ITF as the sole representative voice of the Iraqi Turkmen. Beginning in 2003, there were riots between Kurds and Turkmen in Kirkuk, a city that Turkmen view as historically theirs. According to United Nations reports, the KRG and Peshmerga were "illegaily policing Kirkurk, abducting Turkmen and Arabs and subjecting them to torture". Between 2003 and 2006, 1,350 Turkmens in Tal A'far died mainly from sectarian violence and war and thousands of houses were damaged or demolished, resulting in 4,685 displaced families.

Politics

Between ten and twelve Turkmen individuals were elected to the transitional National Assembly of Iraq in January 2005, including five on the United Iraqi Alliance list, three from the Iraqi Turkmen Front (ITF), and either two or four from the Democratic Patriotic Alliance of Kurdistan.

In the December 2005 elections, between five and seven Turkmen candidates were elected to the Council of Representatives. This included one candidate from the ITF (its leader Saadeddin Arkej), two or four from the United Iraqi Alliance, one from the Iraqi Accord Front and one from the Kurdistani Alliance.

Iraqi Turkmen have also emerged as a key political force in the controversy over the future status of northern Iraq and the Kurdistan Region. The government of Turkey has helped fund such political organizations as the Iraqi Turkmen Front, which opposes Iraqi federalism and in particular the proposed annexation of Kirkuk to the Kurdistan Regional Government.

Tensions between the two groups over Kirkuk, however, have slowly died out and on January 30, 2006, the President of Iraq, Jalal Talabani, said that the "Kurds are working on a plan to give Iraqi Turkmens autonomy in areas where they are a majority in the new constitution they're drafting for the Kurdistan Region of Iraq." However, it never happened and the policies of Kurdification by KDP and PUK after 2003 (with non-Kurds being pressed to move) have prompted serious inter-ethnic problems.

Notable people
 Farah Zeynep Abdullah, Turkish actress
 Jafar al-Askari, former Prime Minister of Iraq (1923–24 and 1926–27)
 Abbas al-Bayati, politician
 Mohammed Mahdi al-Bayati, Iraqi politician
 Yasin al-Hashimi, former Prime Minister of Iraq (1924–25 and 1935–36)
Khairi Al-Hindawi, poet
 Maruf al Rusafi, poet
 Nuri al-Said, former Prime Minister of Iraq (1930–32, 1938–40, 1941–44, 1946–47, 1949, 1950–52, 1954–57 and 1958)
 Arshad al-Salihi, politician
 Mohammed Abdullah al-Shahwani, Iraqi general
 Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi, Iraqi poet
 Saadeddin Arkej, politician
 Selim Bayraktar, Turkish actor
Ahmet bin Carlak, considered the first environmentalist in Turkey and called the "Tarzan of Manisa"
 Kamil Chadirji, Iraqi politician
 Rifat Chadirji, Iraqi architect
 David Chokachi, American actor
 Hijri Dede, poet
 İhsan Doğramacı, founder of Bilkent University and Hacettepe University
 Esad Erbili, Sufi sheikh
 Fuzûlî, 16th century poet, writer and thinker
 Gökböri, leading emir and general
 Amine Gülşe, Swedish model; crowned Miss Turkey (2014) and actress
 Muhammad Sadiq Hassan, Iraqi poet
 İsmet Hürmüzlü, Turkish actor
 Jasim Mohammed Jaafar, Minister for Youth & Sports
 Gökhan Kırdar, Turkish musician
 Lütfi Kırdar, Turkish politician
 Nemir Kirdar, billionaire businessman
 Fathi Safwat Kirdar, Iraqi painter and sculptor
 Rena Kirdar, author and socialite
 Üner Kırdar, Turkish diplomat and senior United Nations official
, Minister of State in Iraq (2020–present)
 Hidir Lutfi, poet
 Younis Mahmoud, football player
 , winner of Miss Germany (1996)
 Reha Muhtar, Turkish television personality
 Talib Mushtaq, poet and diplomat
 Salih Neftçi, Turkish economist
 Rashad Mandan Omar, Minister of Science and Technology (2003)
 Hasan Rıza Pasha, Ottoman general
 Fahmi Said, army officer
 Amel Senan, actress
 Hikmat Sulayman, former Prime Minister of Iraq (1936–37)
 Mehmet Türkmehmet, football player
 Ali Saip Ursavaş, Turkish politician
, American actor
Imad al-Din Zengi, ruler of the Zengid dynasty
Gökhan Kırdar, musician

See also
 Turkmeneli
 Turkish minorities in the former Ottoman Empire
 Turks in the Arab world
 Syrian Turkmen
 Turks in Lebanon
 Demographics of Iraq
 Minorities in Iraq
 Human rights in post-invasion Iraq
 Iraqi Turkmen Front
 2009 Taza bombing
 16th Turkmen Brigade
 Iraq–Turkey relations

References

Bibliography

.

.

External links

Ethnic groups in Iraq
Demographics of Iraq
Iraqi Turkmens
Muslim communities in Asia
Ethnic groups in the Middle East
Indigenous peoples of West Asia
Ethnic groups in the Arab world

Iraqi Turkmen


The "European Local Democracy Week" is an annual event with national and local events organised by participating local authorities in all Council of Europe member States. The purpose is to foster the knowledge of local democracy and promote the idea of democratic participation at a local level. While the week is overseen by the Council of Europe, it is each local and regional community which organizes events centered on the selected theme.

Background
The week of October 15 is chosen every year for European Local Democracy Week as the European Charter of Local Self-Government was opened for signature by member states on that date in 1985 and the date is considered symbolic for European Local Democracy. In recognition of the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the Conference of Local and Regional Authorities (the predecessor to today's Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, the first European Local Democracy Week took place in 2007.

Each year has had a unique and relevant theme for each community to work with which are very important on the local level with past themes including the issue of Sustainability on the local level. The theme for the European Local Democracy Week in 2011 was human rights at the local level. While the themes are universal for all of the local and regional communities, each community can interpret the theme is a manner that is more relevant to their specific needs. Events and activities organized can include poster campaigns, interactive websites, public meetings, exchanges, Open Days or specifically targeted events for different groups of people like children.

The leading theme in 2012 was human rights make for more inclusive communities. In 2012, some 150 partners from 29 countries joined the ELDW. For the first time, municipalities in Morocco and Tunisia also registered as ELDW partners, in order to strengthen local democracy.  A total of 342 activities and events were organised by towns, cities, regions, national and international associations. Motivating citizens to take part in decision-making processes at the grassroots level will be at the center of the 2013 edition of the European Local Democracy Week, under the leading theme "active citizenship:  voting, sharing, participating". This theme has been endorsed by the new ELDW Political Co-ordinator, Congress Vice-President and  member of the Municipal Council of Dubrovnik (Croatia),  Dubravka Suica, further to a co-ordination meeting assembling  representatives of European cities, regions and associations.

Since 2013, the European Parliament has held an entirely separate event for members of national parliaments under the name "European Parliamentary Week".

Purpose and main messages
While there are many goals and purposes behind the European Local Democracy Week, the primary ones are the following (as listed in the Council of Europe literature):
to strengthen links between elected representative and their communities
to boost participation in the democratic process
to involve citizens in community affairs
to increase their knowledge of local democratic institutions and processes
to have local authorities that listen and understand the needs and expectations of their citizens
to facilitate co-operation and the exchange of good practices between communities

The overriding messages to the annual event include:
to raise awareness of European citizens of the workings of democracy in their communities
to raise awareness of local councilors and their staff of citizens' needs and concerns
to stress that local democracy is one of the major components for buildings a united and democratic Europe

See also
 Civic engagement
 Democracy Day in other countries
 International Day of Democracy
 UK Parliament Week

References

External links
Resolution 238 2007: Proposition for a European Local Democracy Week
Official Website
About ELDW

Local government organizations
Council of Europe

European Local Democracy Week


Indrechtach mac Muiredaig Muillethan (died 723) was a King of Connacht from the Uí Briúin branch of the Connachta. He was the son of Muiredach Muillethan mac Fergusso (died 702), a previous king. He was of the Síl Muiredaig sept of the Uí Briúin.

The king-lists for this period are contradictory  but the Laud Synchronisms give him a reign of 16 years. The annals mention him as king at his death obit in 723. Only the Chronicum Scotorum gives Domnall mac Cathail (died 715) a reign in between Indrechtach mac Muiredaig and Indrechtach mac Dúnchado Muirisci (died 707) and it is possible that Indrechtach mac Muiredaig was king from 707.
His reign saw the consolidation of the Ui Briun as the dominant dynasty in Connaught. One event which occurred during his reign was the defeat of the Corco Baiscind, a Thomond tribe, by the Connachta in 721. The annals do not specify what Connachta were victors.

Indrechtach died peacefully as a pilgrim to Clonmacnoise. This monastery favored the Ui Briun expansion. His known sons were Áed Balb mac Indrechtaig (died 742), a king of Connacht; Muiredach (died 732); Tadg; and Murgal. A daughter of Indrechtach named Medb is said by the Banshechas to have married Áed Oirdnide and to have been the mother of Niall Caille

Notes

See also
Kings of Connacht

Bibliography

 Annals of Tigernach
 Chronicum Scotorum
 Francis John Byrne, Irish Kings and High-Kings
 Laud Synchronisms
 The Chronology of the Irish Annals, Daniel P. McCarthy

External links
CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork

723 deaths
Kings of Connacht
Nobility from County Roscommon
8th-century Irish monarchs
Year of birth unknown

Indrechtach mac Muiredaig


Jalasjärvi is a former municipality in Southern Ostrobothnia, in Finland. There were about 7,950 people living there on January 31, 2014. It is next to the municipalities of Ilmajoki, Karvia, Kauhajoki, Kihniö, Kurikka, Parkano and Seinäjoki. Most of the people speak Finnish. Literally Jalasjärvi refers to water (järvi means "lake"), but only 1% of the area is water. On 1 January 2016, it was merged to the town of Kurikka.

Some villages
Alavalli, Hirvijärvi, Ilvesjoki, Taivalmaa and Ylivalli.

Other websites

 Villages
 Municipality site

Former municipalities of Finland

Jalasjärvi


Johann Friedrich Rochlitz (12 February 1769 – 16 December 1842) was a German playwright, musicologist and art and music critic. His most notable work is his autobiographical account Tage der Gefahr (Days of Danger) about the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 — in Kunst und Altertum, Goethe called it "one of the most wondrous productions ever to have been written". A Friedrich-Rochlitz-Preis for art criticism is named after him — it is awarded by the Leipzig Gesellschaft für Kunst und Kritik and was presented for the fourth time in 2009.

Life
Friedrich Rochlitz was born in Leipzig, where he attended the Thomasschule, and where, from 1789 to 1791, he studied theology, before working as a private tutor. In 1798 he founded the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, along with Gottfried Christoph Härtel, serving as its editor until 1818. He planned to marry the harpist Therese Emilie Henriette Winkel and so Duke Karl August made him a privy councillor of the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar on 14 September 1800, but the marriage did not materialise. Instead, on 23 February 1810 he married his childhood sweetheart Henriette Winkler née Hansen (1770–1834) on 23 February 1810. Her previous husband had been the Leipzig businessman Daniel Winkler and brought Winkler's precious art collection (including a Rembrandt painting) with her on her marriage to Rochlitz.

Rochlitz was a friend of several cultural figures of his era, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, E. T. A. Hoffmann and the composers Louis Spohr and Carl Maria von Weber — Weber dedicated his Piano Sonata No 4 in E minor (J287, Op 70) to Rochlitz. During a stay in Vienna, Rochlitz also got to know Beethoven and Franz Schubert, with the latter setting three poems by Rochlitz to music in 1827. Rochlitz died in Leipzig, aged 73.

Works
 Charaktere interessanter Menschen, 4 volumes, Züllichau 1799-1803
 Kleine Romane und Erzählungen, 3 volumes, Frankfurt 1807
 Neue Erzählungen, 2 volumes, Leipzig 1816
 Für ruhige Stunden, 2 volumes, Leipzig 1828
 Für Freunde der Tonkunst, 4 volumes, Leipzig 1824–1832; 3rd edition 1868 [a collection of music essays]
 Auswahl des Besten aus Rochlitz' sämtlichen Werken, 6 Bände, Züllichau 1821-1822 [a collection of music essays]

References
 Goethes Briefwechsel mit Friedrich Rochlitz, edited by W. v. Biedermann, Leipzig 1887.
Woldemar von Biedermann: Rochlitz, Johann Friedrich. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Volume 30, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1890, S. 85–91.

External links
  Johann Friedrich Rochlitz on German Wikisource
  Archivdatenbank des Goethe- und Schiller-Archivs
  Works on and by Johann Friedrich Rochlitz in the Deutschen Nationalbibliothek catalogue

1769 births
1842 deaths
German writers about music
German autobiographers
German military historians
Writers from Leipzig
German male dramatists and playwrights
18th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
18th-century German male writers

Johann Friedrich Rochlitz


The Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR) allows Indian Tribal Organizations (ITOs) to operate a food distribution program as an alternative to the Food Stamp Program for those living on or near an Indian reservation. The Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, administers FDPIR at the Federal level, and is locally operated through ITOs or State agencies(SAs). Eligibility for benefits is similar to the food stamp (SNAP) program,  and funds are drawn from food stamp appropriations. Food Distribution Program Nutrition Education (FDPIR) grants are also awarded to participating FDPIR ITOs. These grants are awarded to support nutrition education activities that are culturally relevant, promoting healthy food choices, and promoting physical activity among participants.

100 tribal organizations and 5 State agencies receive funding to administer the FDPIR. This supports approximately 276 tribes in receiving the programs benefits. The approximate number of people served by this program monthly in Federal Fiscal Year 2014 totaled to 85,400 individuals. Tribes do not compete with other entities for funding from the program, nor is there a recurring base fund for tribes. FDPIR is one of 15 nutrition assistance programs administered by USDA's Food and Nutrition Service, which also works with the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the National School Lunch and School Breakfast programs, and the Summer Food Service Program.

Foods contained in packages include frozen and/or canned meats and poultry, canned and fresh fruits and vegetables, juices, dry cereals, cornmeal, flour, butter, macaroni, cheese, evaporated and UHT lowfat milk, oats, peanuts and peanut butter, cereals, and oils. According to a 2008 USDA FNS report on the Health Eating Index [HEI] of foods provided in FDPIR, "Individuals consuming FDPIR foods in the quantities provided would achieve a HEI-2005 score of 81 out of 100, considerably better than Americans in general (58 out of 100) and SNAP participants (52 out of 100). "

The majority of the foods provided in this program are either frozen or canned, which require substantial food preparation, cooking experience, and education on designing a balanced diet. This program does not provide fresh produce, including vegetables and fruits. For households dependent on FDPIR, individual recipients may be susceptible to developing additional health consequences due to the absence of fresh produce in their diet.

Eligibility

American Indians who are classified as being low-income and non-Indians who reside on a reservation, and individuals in households living in approved areas near a reservation or in Oklahoma that contain at least one person who is a member of a federally recognized tribe, are eligible to participate in FDPIR.

Applicants may be required to provide documents including but not limited to: pay check stubs, Social Security, Supplemental Security Income benefits, TANF (Temporary Assistance to Needy Families), General Assistance, VA (Veterans benefits), Pensions or retirement benefits, Unemployment or Workers Compensation benefits, Child Support or Alimony, Dependent Care Expenses, and/or bank account statements.

Households are certified based on income and non-financial standards determined by the Federal government, and must be recertified at least every 12 months.  Elderly and disabled households may be certified for up to 24 months. Income standards vary by household size and are based on 100% of the Federal Poverty Guidelines adjusted by the applicable SNAP standard deduction. Households must be re-certified at least every 12 months, but elderly and disabled households may be certified for up to 24 months. Households may not participate in FDPIR and SNAP in the same month.

Evaluation

According to the USDA's evaluation of the FDPIR, half of local FDPIR programs serve fewer than 250 households per month. The average administrative costs per household ranged from $614 (small programs) to $287 among large programs. Federal regulations do not require local FDPIR programs to offer extensive nutrition education services to program participants. Of those programs evaluated, over 25% reported no nutrition education budget.

The FDPIRs design places a large responsibility on individual participants to create and prepare a nutritious diet from the foods provided. Participants are responsible for selecting their foods, developing cooking skills, and designing meals that constitute a nutritious diet.

In order for the success of the FDPIR to be accurately measured, additional and extensive research must be conducted.

References

External links
 http://www.fns.usda.gov/fdd/programs/fdpir
 https://web.archive.org/web/20100227213432/http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/412034_tribal_food_assistance.pdf
 http://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/FDPIR_FoodPackage_Summary_0.pdf
 http://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/FDPIREval_Summary_0.pdf

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
United States federal Indian policy