The Little Foxes is a 1941 American drama film directed by William Wyler. The screenplay by Lillian Hellman is based on her 1939 play The Little Foxes. Hellman's ex-husband Arthur Kober, Dorothy Parker and her husband Alan Campbell contributed additional scenes and dialogue.

Plot
In 1900, in the cotton country of the deep South, beautiful and brilliant Regina Hubbard Giddens struggles for wealth and freedom within the confines of an early 20th-century society where fathers considered only sons as legal heirs. As a result, thanks to their ruthless tradesman father, her avaricious brothers, Benjamin and Oscar, are independently wealthy, while she is financially dependent upon her sickly husband, Horace, whose severe heart condition has confined him to a sanitarium in Baltimore for several years.

When the film begins, the Hubbards are expecting a dinner guest, William Marshall, a prominent businessman from Chicago. Ben and Oscar persuade him to build a cotton mill in their town, making them multimillionaires. Marshall invites Regina to visit him in Chicago. After he leaves, she reveals that she plans to move there, taking her daughter, Alexandra, with her.

Regina proceeds to drive a hard bargain with her brothers for a larger percentage of the mill in exchange for persuading Horace to help finance it, to the tune of $75,000. She sends Alexandra to Baltimore to bring her father home, supposedly because Regina misses him. Regina and Horace's reunion does not go well: She cannot wait to ask him for the money. He has an attack, and still she presses, destroying any illusion that she really wanted him home. Horace tells the three siblings he wants no part of it.

Oscar, having married and abused the sweet-souled, fragile, now-alcoholic Birdie to acquire her family's plantation and its cotton fields, now schemes to consolidate the family wealth by a marriage between his son, Leo, and Alexandra, but neither Horace nor Regina like the idea.

While the two of them argue upstairs, the brothers find an alternative. Leo, a teller at the bank, will "borrow" Horace's railroad bonds from his safe deposit box. They will use them as security for the construction, returning them long before it is time to clip the coupons. Gloating, Ben tells a furious, bewildered Regina they don't need her. Horace overhears. He is glad not to be a part of wrecking the town. Regina's anger is icy cold: "I hope you die soon," she says. Distraught, Alexandra tells her father not to listen.

After an impromptu trip to the bank, Horace discovers that the bonds are missing. When he tells Regina what happened, she is delighted at having a scandal to hold over her brothers' heads, until Horace tells her he will say he lent the bonds to Leo, on her behalf. He is changing his will, leaving the bonds to Regina and everything else to Alexandra. She admits to Horace she never loved him, and only married him for money, and the bitter, ugly words bring on a heart attack. He spills his medicine, and Regina sits, motionless, as he staggers to the stairs and collapses halfway up. Now Regina rushes to him, calling for the servants to take him to his room and go for Doctor Sloan. Horace dies leaving no one to contradict Regina if she accuses her brothers of theft. She forces them to give her 75% ownership of the business. A bewildered Alexandra overhears this. "What was Poppa doing on the staircase?" Ben accepts the deal philosophically. As they leave, he agrees with Alexandra, "What was Horace doing on the stairs?"

Regina is going to Chicago. Refusing to accompany her, Alexandra recalls their maid, Addie, saying that there are people who eat the earth and people who stand by and watch. She won't watch. Frustrated, Regina tells her daughter that she can not control her. She hopes that Alexandra will stay, but in any case she is going to have the life for which she has yearned all her life. Regina pauses on the stairs, staring at Horace's room, and asks Alexandra if she would like to sleep in her room.  "Why, mama, are you afraid?"

Alexandra's relationship with her childhood friend, journalist David Hewitt, her coming of age under his influence and their growing love arcs throughout the film. Now, she walks away with him, into the rainy night.

Cast

 Bette Davis as Regina Hubbard Giddens
 Herbert Marshall as Horace Giddens
 Teresa Wright as Alexandra "Zannie" Giddens
 Richard Carlson as David Hewitt
 Dan Duryea as Leo Hubbard
 Patricia Collinge as Birdie Hubbard
 Charles Dingle as Ben Hubbard
 Carl Benton Reid as Oscar Hubbard
 Jessica Grayson as Addie (as Jessie Grayson)
 John Marriott as Cal
 Russell Hicks as William Marshall
 Lucien Littlefield as Manders
 Virginia Brissac as Mrs. Hewitt
 Terry Nibert as Julia
 Henry 'Hot Shot' Thomas as Harold
 Charles R. Moore as Simon
 Hooper Atchley as Party Guest (uncredited)
 Al Bridge as Dawson (uncredited)
 Tex Driscoll as Bank Customer (uncredited)
 Jesse Graves as Headwaiter (uncredited)
 Lew Kelly as Train Companion (uncredited)
 Henry Roquemore as Depositor (uncredited)
 Kenny Washington as Servant (uncredited)

Production

The title comes from Chapter 2, Verse 15 in the Song of Solomon in the King James version of the Bible, which reads, "Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the vines: for our vines have tender grapes." The same passage also inspired the title of an unrelated film, Our Vines Have Tender Grapes.

Tallulah Bankhead had received critical acclaim for her performance in the 1939 Broadway production of Hellman's play, but director William Wyler, who previously had teamed with Bette Davis on Jezebel and The Letter, insisted on casting her in the lead role instead. Producer Samuel Goldwyn agreed, since none of Bankhead's films had been box office hits. (Coincidentally, Davis had recreated on film another of Bankhead's Broadway roles, Judith Traherne in Dark Victory.) However, Davis was reluctant: "On The Little Foxes I begged the producer, Samuel Goldwyn, to let Tallulah Bankhead play Regina because Tallulah was magnificent on the stage. He wouldn't let her." Initially Jack L. Warner refused to lend Davis to Goldwyn, who then offered the role to Miriam Hopkins. When Wyler refused to work with her, Goldwyn resumed negotiations with Warner and finally secured Davis for $385,000. As a contract player at Warner Bros., Davis was earning $3,000 a week, and when she discovered how much Warner had received for her appearance in Foxes, she demanded and ultimately received a share of the payment.

Wyler encouraged Davis to see Bankhead in the original play, which she did despite major misgivings. She later regretted doing so because after watching Bankhead's performance and reading Hellman's screenplay she felt compelled to create a totally different interpretation of the role, one she didn't feel suited the character. Bankhead had portrayed Regina as a victim forced to fight for her survival due to the contempt with which her brothers treated her, but Davis played her as a cold, conniving, calculating woman wearing a death mask of white powder she insisted makeup artist Perc Westmore create for her.

In her autobiography, A Lonely Life, Davis gave a different version about having to see Bankhead in the play. "A great admirer of hers, I wanted in no way to be influenced by her work. It was Willie's intention that I give a different interpretation of the part. I insisted that Tallulah had played it the only way it could be played. Miss Hellman's Regina was written with such definition that it could only be played one way." "I had to do that part exactly the way Tallulah did it, because that's the way Lillian Hellman wrote it. But I was always sad that Tallulah couldn't record Regina from the theatre, because she was marvelous."

Charles Dingle, Carl Benton Reid, Dan Duryea, and Patricia Collinge all reprised their critically acclaimed Broadway performances. Critics preferred Bankhead's rendition of the role to Davis's, though the supporting cast was highly praised. The character of David Hewitt was not in the original play. Hellman created him to add a second sympathetic male to stand alongside Horace among all the venomous Hubbard men.

Davis and Wyler frequently fought during filming, about everything from her appearance (Wyler thought she looked like a Kabuki performer, but Davis wanted to look older than her age as the part was written for a 40-year-old) to the set design (which Davis thought was far too opulent for a family supposedly struggling financially) to her interpretation of the role (Wyler wanted a more feminine and sympathetic Regina, akin to Tallulah's interpretation). Davis had yielded to Wyler's demands during production of The Letter, but this time she held her ground. Not helping the situation was the fact Los Angeles was experiencing its worst heat wave in years, and the temperature on the soundstages regularly rose above 100 degrees. Davis finally walked off the picture. "It was the only time in my career that I walked out on a film after the shooting had begun," she later recalled. "I was a nervous wreck due to the fact that my favorite and most admired director was fighting me every inch of the way ... I just didn't want to continue." The actress retreated to her rented house in Laguna Beach and "flatly refused to come back to work. It took a little courage, to say the least. Goldwyn had it in his power to sue me for the entire cost of the production." A week later she returned to the set after rumors she would be replaced by Katharine Hepburn or Miriam Hopkins began to circulate, although Goldwyn was not about to bear the expense of scrapping all the footage with Davis and refilming the scenes with a new actress. Even though the film was a critical and commercial success and nominated for nine Academy Awards, she and Wyler never worked together again.
The film premiered at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The New York Times reported it was seen by 22,163 persons on its opening day, setting what was then an all-time attendance mark for a normal opening day at the theatre.

In 1946, Hellman wrote the play Another Part of the Forest, a prequel to Foxes. It was adapted for the screen in 1948.

In 2003, the character of Regina Giddens, played by Davis, was ranked No. 43 on the American Film Institute list of the 50 Best Villains of American Cinema.

Critical reception
In his review in The New York Times, Bosley Crowther observed,

Variety said,

Box office
According to RKO records, The Little Foxes took in $1,317,000 in theater rentals from the United States and Canada and an additional $850,000 from foreign rentals, but because of the favorable terms Sam Goldwyn enjoyed with distributor RKO, RKO recorded a loss of $140,000 on the film.

Awards and nominations

The film received 9 Academy Award nominations and no wins, setting a record later tied by Peyton Place in 1957. The record was surpassed by The Turning Point in 1977, which received 11 nominations without a win; The Color Purple earned the same distinction in 1985.

Radio adaptation
The Little Foxes was presented February 11, 1946, on Screen Guild Theatre. The 30-minute adaptation starred Davis, Wright and Dingle in their roles from the film.
Tallulah Bankhead (reprising her Broadway role) also gave a radio adaptation.

In popular culture
In 1975, the eighth episode of the ninth season of The Carol Burnett Show featured a spoof of the film called "The Little Foxies", with Carol Burnett as "Virgina Grubber Gibbons", Roddy McDowall as "Morris Gibbons", Harvey Korman as "Bosco Grubber", Vicki Lawrence as "Burly Grubber" and Tim Conway as "Theo Grubber".

References

Bibliography

External links

 The Little Foxes at Reel Classics
 The Little Foxes on Screen Guild Theater: August 6, 1945
 Nighttime exterior of Radio City Music Hall, with marquis indicating that The Little Foxes starring Bette Davis, Herbert Marshall and Teresa Wright, is playing there.

1941 films
1941 drama films
American drama films
American black-and-white films
American films based on plays
Films based on works by Lillian Hellman
Films directed by William Wyler
Films set in Alabama
Films set in the 1900s
Samuel Goldwyn Productions films
Films with screenplays by Lillian Hellman
Films with screenplays by Dorothy Parker
1940s English-language films
1940s American films

The Little Foxes (film)


Gilbert de Moravia (died 1245), later known as Saint Gilbert of Dornoch, or Gilbert of Caithness, was the most famous Bishop of Caithness and founder of Dornoch Cathedral.  His name may suggest that he came from the semi-Gaelicized family of Flemish origin who were Lords of Duffus, and who during Gilbert's episcopate would create the Earldom of Sutherland under Gilbert's possible cousin, William de Moravia, 1st Earl of Sutherland.

Life

It is known that Gilbert was the son of one Muiredach, son of Alexander de Moravia ("of Moray", thus indicating the ancestral home and not necessarily a family name). If Gilbert was of purely Gaelic origin, his name may be a Francization of the Gaelic name Gille Brigte (modern: Gillebrìghde). Gilbert allegedly had a younger brother, Richard de Moravia, who was killed fighting against Scandinavians and whose effigy-sarcophagus currently resides in the cathedral. He is also known to have had an older brother John, and a younger brother, Simon.

As his name indicates, Gilbert very likely came from Moray.  The family owned extensive lands in Duffus and Strabok.  Gilbert was for a long time the Archdeacon of the Bishopric of Moray; it is probable that Gilbert was elected to the see sometime in the year 1223, in the presence of King Alexander II of Scotland and his army. He was certainly bishop of Caithness by the summer of 1224. King Alexander probably decided that, after the murder of Gilbert's predecessor Adam of Melrose, the bishopric's seat (cathedra) should be moved closer to royal protection. So it was that Gilbert's episcopate saw the move of the bishopric from Halkirk in the far north of the diocese to Dornoch in the far south. It was to the new cathedral that, in 1239, Gilbert would move Bishop Adam's body. Gilbert nevertheless continued to reside for much of his episcopate in the more violent north, and maintained a palace at Scrabster.

Achievements and death

Gilbert's achievements include the building of the cathedral at Dornoch, and the establishment of several hospices for the poor. He became known as a fine preacher, and he did much work to civilise his diocese.

Gilbert died in his palace at Scrabster in 1245, traditionally on 1 April. The latter day is his feast day. He was buried at Dornoch, and his relics were venerated until the Reformation, oaths being sworn on them at least until 1545. He is the last Scottish saint to appear in the Calendar of Saints, although it is not known if he was ever formally canonized.

Folklore surrounding St Gilbert was collected in Sutherlandshire in the late nineteenth century, including a legend of how he overcame a dragon—or salamander—that was terrorising the country.

See also

List of Catholic saints
Bishop of Caithness

References

Sources

 Dowden, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed. J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912)
 Ross-Harper, Ian, Notable Bishops and Ministers of Dornoch Cathedral, (Historylinks Museum, Dornoch)

12th-century births
1245 deaths
Bishops of Caithness
Medieval Gaels from Scotland
People from Moray
13th-century Scottish Roman Catholic bishops
13th-century Christian saints
Medieval Scottish saints
De Moravia family

Gilbert de Moravia


Briefs are a type of short underwear for males or females. They provide a close fit, and come in either white, or in other colors like blue, pink, or red.

For male briefs, before the 2000s, briefs often came with hard elastic waistbands. This would cause stretch marks, and this was eventually replaced by the soft elastic waistband. However, hard elastic waistbands are still found on generic store brand underwear (that save consumer and manufacturing costs by not being fashion forward).

Female briefs are also called knickers or panties.

Underwear
Bottoms (clothing)

Briefs


Connectomics is the production and study of connectomes: comprehensive maps of connections within an organism's nervous system. More generally, it can be thought of as the study of neuronal wiring diagrams with a focus on how structural connectivity, individual synapses, cellular morphology, and cellular ultrastructure contribute to the make up of a network. The nervous system is a network made of billions of connections and these connections are responsible for our thoughts, emotions, actions, memories, function and dysfunction. Therefore, the study of connectomics aims to advance our understanding of mental health and cognition by understanding how cells in the nervous system are connected and communicate. Because these structures are extremely complex, methods within this field use a high-throughput application of functional and structural neural imaging, most commonly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electron microscopy, and histological techniques in order to increase the speed, efficiency, and resolution of these nervous system maps. To date, tens of large scale datasets have been collected spanning the nervous system including the various areas of cortex, cerebellum, the retina, the peripheral nervous system and neuromuscular junctions.

Generally speaking, there are two types of connectomes; macroscale and microscale. Macroscale connectomics refers to using functional and structural MRI data to map out large fiber tracts and functional gray matter areas within the brain in terms of blood flow (functional) and water diffusivity (structural). Microscale connectomics is the mapping of small organisms' complete connectome using microscopy and histology. That is, all connections that exist in their central nervous system.

Methods

Macroscale Connectomics
Macroscale connectomes are commonly collected using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI or DW-MRI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). dMRI datasets can span the entire brain, imaging white matter between the cortex and subcortex, providing  information about the diffusion of water molecules in brain tissue, and allowing researchers to infer the orientation and integrity of white matter pathways. dMRI can be used in conjunction with tractography where it enables the reconstruction of white matter tracts in the brain. It does so by measuring the diffusion of water molecules in multiple directions, as dMRI can estimate the local fiber orientations and generate a model of the brain's fiber pathways. Meanwhile, tractography algorithms trace the likely trajectories of these pathways, providing a representation of the brain's anatomical connectivity. Metrics such as fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), or connectivity strength can be computed from dMRI data to assess the microstructural properties of white matter and quantify the strength of (long-range) connections between brain regions.

In contrast to dMRI, fMRI datasets measure cerebral blood flow in the brain, as a marker of neuronal activation. One of the benefits of MRI is it offers in vivo information about the connectivity between different brain areas. fMRI measures the blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal, which reflects changes in cerebral blood flow and oxygenation associated with neural activity, as regulated by the neurovascular unit. Resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) analysis is a common method to measure connectomes using fMRI that involves acquiring fMRI data while the subject is at rest and not performing any specific tasks or stimuli. RSFC examines the temporal correlation of the BOLD signals between different brain regions (after accounting for the confounding effect of other regions), providing insights into functional connectivity.

Neuromodulation allows clinicians to utilize stimulatory techniques to treat neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder (MDD), Alzheimer's, and schizophrenia while providing insights into the connectome. Specifically, Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique that applies strong magnetic pulses between scalp electrodes which target specific brain regions with electrical currents. This can temporarily disrupt or enhance the activity of specific brain areas and observe changes in connectivity. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is another non-invasive neuromodulation technique that applies a constant but relatively weak electrical current for a few minutes, modulating neuronal excitability. It allows researchers to investigate the causal relationship between targeted brain regions and changes in connectivity. tDCS increases the functional connectivity within the brain, with a bias towards specific networks (e.g., cortical processing), and may even cause structural changes to take place in the white matter via myelination and in the gray matter via synaptic plasticity. Another imaging technique is deep brain stimulation (DBS), an invasive neuromodulation technique that involves surgically implanting electrodes into specific brain regions in order to apply localized, high-frequency electrical impulses. This technique modulates brain networks and is often used to alleviate motor symptoms from disorders like Parkinson's, essential tremor, and dystonia. The functional and structural connectivity between electrodes can be used to predict patient outcomes and estimate optimal connectivity profiles.

Electrophysiological Methods
Electrophysiological methods measure the difference in signals from different parts of the brain to estimate the connectivity between them, a process that requires a low signal-to-noise ratio to maintain the accuracy of the measurements and sufficient spatial resolution to support the connectivity between specific regions of the brain. These methods offer insights into real-time neural dynamics and functional connectivity between brain regions. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the differences in the electrical potential generated by oscillating currents at the surface of the scalp, due to the non-invasive, external placement of the electrodes. Meanwhile, magnetoencephalography (MEG) relies on the magnetic fields generated by the electrical activity of the brain to collect information.

Macroscale connectomics has furthered our understanding of various brain networks including visual, brainstem, and language networks, among others.

Microscale Connectomics
On the other hand, microscale connectomes focus on resolving individual cell-to-cell connectivity within much smaller volumes of nervous system tissue. These datasets are commonly collected using electron microscopy (EM) and offer single synapse resolution. The first microscale connectome encompassing an entire nervous system was produced for the nematode C. elegans in 1986. This was done by manually annotating printouts of the EM scans. Advances in EM acquisition, image alignment and segmentation, and manipulation of large datasets have since allowed for larger volumes to be imaged and segmented more easily. EM has been used to produce connectomes from a variety of nervous system samples, including publicly available datasets that encompass the entire brain and ventral nerve cord of adult Drosophila melanogaster, the full central nervous system (connected brain and ventral nerve cord) of larval Drosophila melanogaster, and volumes from mouse and human cortex. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has now invested in creating an EM connectome of an entire mouse brain.

Electron microscopy is the imaging technique that provides the highest spatial resolution, which is crucial for being able to recover presynaptic and postsynaptic sites as well as fine morphological details. However, other imaging modalities are approaching the nanometer-scale resolution necessary for microscale connectomics. X-ray nanotomography using a synchotron source can now reach <100 nm resolution, and can theoretically continue to improve. Unlike EM, this technique does not require the tissue being imaged to be stained with heavy metals or to be physically sectioned. Conventional light microscopy is constrained by light diffraction. Researchers have recently used stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy, a super-resolution light microscopy technique, to image the extracellular space of a sample from mouse hippocampus, allowing for reconstruction of all neurites within this volume. They then re-imaged the same tissue for fluorescently-tagged synaptic markers to find synaptic connectivity in the sample. However, this approach was limited to ~130 nm resolution, and was therefore not able resolve thin axons.

Tools
One of the main tools used for connectomics research at the macroscale level is MRI. When used together, a resting-state fMRI and a dMRI dataset provide a comprehensive view of how regions of the brain are structurally connected, and how closely they are communicating.

The main tool for connectomics research at the microscale level is chemical brain preservation followed by 3D electron microscopy, used for neural circuit reconstruction. Correlative microscopy, which combines fluorescence with 3D electron microscopy, results in more interpretable data as is it able to automatically detect specific neuron types and can trace them in their entirety using fluorescent markers.

To see one of the first micro-connectomes at full-resolution, visit the Open Connectome Project, which is hosting several connectome datasets, including the 12TB dataset from Bock et al. (2011).

Model systems
Aside from the human brain, some of the model systems used for connectomics research are the mouse, the fruit fly, the nematode C. elegans, and the barn owl.

Caenorhabditis Elegans
The Caenorhabditis Elegans roundworm is a highly researched organism in the field of connectomics, of which a full connectome has been mapped using various imaging techniques, mainly serial-electron microscopy; This process involved studying the aging process of the C. elegans brain by comparing varying worms from birth to adulthood. Researchers found the biggest change with age is the wiring circuits, and that connectivity between and within brain regions increases with age. Regardless of the massive achievement of mapping the full C. Elegans connectome, more information is yet to be discovered about this brain network; The researchers noted that this can be done using comparative connectomics, comparing and contrasting different species' brain networks to pinpoint relations in behavior.

The C. elegans has a simple nervous system, and data collection is more attainable. A study created a code that searches the connections within the C. elegans mapped connectome, as this data is already readily available. The findings were able to collect information about sensory neurons, interneurons, neck motor neurons, behavior, environmental influences, and more in deep detail. Overall, the experiment investigates the connection between neuroanatomy and behavior given that there is a lot of available information about the worm already discovered.

To provide context, the C. elegans roundworm has 302 neurons and 5000 synaptic connections, while the human brain has 100 billion neurons and more than 100 trillion chemical synapses. The human connectome has yet to be fully mapped with a limiting factor being the sheer amount of data collection that this will require in addition to the complexity in comparing individual connectomes given the great degree of variation in human neural circuits.

The drosophila connectome is mostly complete, allowing a visual representation of the anatomical structure and an easier way for researchers to study drosophila neural circuits. Already, this has allowed researchers to identify differences in compartments and their electrophysiology characteristics.

Mouse
An online database known as MouseLight displays over 1000 neurons mapped in the mouse brain based on a collective database of sub-micron resolution images of these brains. This platform illustrates the thalamus, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and hypothalamus based on single-cell projections. Imaging technology to produce this mouse brain does not allow an in-depth look at synapses but can show axonal arborizations which contain many synapses. A limiting factor to studying mouse connectomes, much like with humans, is the complexity of labeling all the cell types of the mouse brain; This is a process that would require the reconstruction of 100,000+ neurons and the imaging technology is advanced enough to do so.

Mice models in the lab have provided insight into genetic brain disorders, one study manipulated mice with a deletion of 22q11.2 (chromosome 22, a likely known genetic risk factor that leads to schizophrenia). The findings of this study showed that this impaired neural activity in mice's working memory is similar to what it does in humans.

Leading Connectomics Labs
The Lichtman Lab of Harvard University is a leading force in the field of connectomics, investigating how synaptic connectivity and competition change with age using advanced imaging techniques on model organisms such as mice, zebrafish, and C. elegans. This lab is led by neuroscientist, Harvard professor, and renowned researcher, Jeff Lichtman. The Lichtman Lab research had major impacts on the field of connectomics from their development of Brainbrow, which also had a spinoff expansion into Zebrabow technology from their work with zebrafish. This is an in vivo imaging technique that uses multicolor cell labeling that allows researchers to distinguish by cell type and pathway using different Cre lines.

Another notable lab is the Lee Lab of Harvard Medical School which aims to look at how neural networks are organized by function based on the observed activity of these circuits in model organisms, a field known as "functional connectomics".

Applications

By comparing diseased and healthy connectomes, we can gain insight into certain psychopathologies, such as neuropathic pain, and potential therapies for them. Generally, the field of neuroscience would benefit from standardization and raw data. For example, connectome maps can be used to inform computational models of whole-brain dynamics. Current neural networks mostly rely on probabilistic representations of connectivity patterns. Connectivity matrices (checkerboard diagrams of connectomics) have been used in stroke recovery to evaluate the response to treatment via Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Similarly, connectograms (circular diagrams of connectomics) have been used in traumatic brain injury cases to document the extent of damage to neural networks.

Looking into these methods of research, they can reveal information about different mental illnesses and brain disorders. The tracking of brain networks in alignment with diseases and illnesses would be enhanced by these advanced technologies that can produce complex images of neural networks. With this in mind, diseases can not only be tracked, but predicted based on behavior of previous cases, a process that would take an extensive period of time to collect and record. Specifically, studies on different brain disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with a focus on the connectomics involved reveal information. Both of these disorders have a similar genetic origin, and research found that those with higher polygenic scores for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have lower amounts of connectivity shown through neuroimaging. This method of research tackles real-world applications of connectomics, combining methods of imaging with genetics to dig deeper into the origins and outcomes of genetically related disorders.  Another study supports the finding that there is relation between connectivity and likelihood of disease, as researchers found those diagnosed with schizophrenia have less structurally complete brain networks. The main drawback in this area of connectomics is not being able to achieve images of whole-brain networks, therefore it is hard to make complete and accurate assumptions about cause and effect of diseases' neural pathways. Connectomics has been used to study patients with strokes using MRI imaging, however because such little research is done in this specific area, conclusions cannot be drawn regarding the relation between strokes and connectivity. The research did find results that highlight an association between poor connectivity in the language system and poor motor coordination, however the results were not substantial enough to make a bold claim. For behavioral disorders, it can be difficult to diagnose and treat because most situations revolve on a symptoms-based approach. However, this can be difficult because many disorders have overlapping symptoms. Connectomics has been used to find neuromarkers associated with social anxiety disorder (SAD) at a high precision rate in improving related symptoms. This is an expanding field and there is room for greater application to mental health disorders and brain malfunction, in which current research is building on neural networks and the psychopathology involved.

The human connectome can be viewed as a graph, and the rich tools, definitions and algorithms of the Graph theory can be applied to these graphs. Comparing the connectomes (or braingraphs) of healthy women and men, Szalkai et al. have shown that in several deep graph-theoretical parameters, the structural connectome of women is significantly better connected than that of men. For example, women's connectome has more edges, higher minimum bipartition width, larger eigengap, greater minimum vertex cover than that of men. The minimum bipartition width (or, in other words, the minimum balanced cut) is a well-known measure of quality of computer multistage interconnection networks, it describes the possible bottlenecks in network communication: The higher this value is, the better is the network. The larger eigengap shows that the female connectome is better expander graph than the connectome of males. The better expanding property, the higher minimum bipartition width and the greater minimum vertex cover show deep advantages in network connectivity in the case of female braingraph.

Local measures of difference between populations of those graph have been also introduced (e.g. to compare case versus control groups). Those can be found by using either an adjusted t-test, or a sparsity model, with the aim of finding statistically significant connections which are different among those groups.

Human connectomes have an individual variability, which can be measured with the cumulative distribution function, as it was shown in. By analyzing the individual variability of the human connectomes in distinct cerebral areas, it was found that the frontal and the limbic lobes are more conservative, and the edges in the temporal and occipital lobes are more diverse. A "hybrid" conservative/diverse distribution was detected in the paracentral lobule and the fusiform gyrus. Smaller cortical areas were also evaluated: precentral gyri were found to be more conservative, and the postcentral and the superior temporal gyri to be very diverse.

Comparison to genomics
The recent advancements in the field of connectomics have sparked conversation around its relation to the field of genomics. Recently, scientists in the field have highlighted the parallels between this project and large-scale genomics initiatives. Additionally, they have referenced  the need for integration with other scientific disciplines, particularly genetics. While genomics focuses on the genetic blueprint of an organism, connectomics provides insights into the structural and functional connectivity of the brain. By integrating these two fields, researchers can explore how genetic variations and gene expression patterns influence the wiring and organization of neural circuits. This interdisciplinary approach helps uncover the relationship between genes, neural connectivity, and brain function. Additionally, connectomics can benefit from genomics by leveraging genetic tools and techniques to manipulate specific genes or neuronal populations to study their impact on neural circuitry and behavior. Understanding the genetic basis of neural connectivity can enhance our understanding of brain development, neural plasticity, and the mechanisms underlying various neurological disorders.

The human genome project initially faced many of the above criticisms, but was nevertheless completed ahead of schedule and has led to many advances in genetics. Some have argued that analogies can be made between genomics and connectomics, and therefore we should be at least slightly more optimistic about the prospects in connectomics. Others have criticized attempts towards a microscale connectome, arguing that we don't have enough knowledge about where to look for insights, or that it cannot be completed within a realistic time frame.

Human Connectome Project
The Human Connectome Project (HCP) is an initiative launched in 2009 by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to map the neural pathways that underlie human brain function. The goal was to obtain and distribute information regarding the structural and functional connections within the human brain, improving imaging and analysis methods to enhance resolution and practicality in the realm of connectomics. By understanding the wiring patterns within and across individuals, researchers hope to unravel the electrical signals that give rise to our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Additional programs within the Connectome Initiative, such as the Lifespan Connectome and Disease Connectome, focus on mapping brain connections across different age groups and studying connectome variations in individuals with specific clinical diagnoses. The Connectome Coordination Facility serves as a centralized repository for HCP data and provides support to researchers. The success of this project has opened the door to understanding how connectomics might be influential in other areas of neuroscience. The potential of a "Connectome II" project has been referenced recently, which would focus on developing a scanner designed for high-throughput studies involving multiple subjects. The project would aim to utilize recent advancements in visualization technologies towards a higher spatial resolution in imaging structural connectivity. Advancements in this area might also involve incorporating wearable mobile technology to acquire various types of behavioral data, complementing the neuroimaging information gathered by the scanner.

Eyewire game

Eyewire is an online game developed by American scientist Sebastian Seung of Princeton University. It uses social computing to help map the connectome of the brain. It has attracted over 130,000 players from over 100 countries.

Business Development
Omniscient Neurotechnology, a startup out of Australia co-founded by Michael Sughrue and Stephane Doyen, is currently the primary business endeavor incorporating connectomics into their development of neuronal brain maps. These maps provide a comprehensive understanding of neural connections and cell-to-cell communication, which were previously inaccessible through MRI and CT scans. This technology is targeted at surgeons and researchers who might utilize the maps to identify abnormal neural connections and misfiring neurons to make more precise decisions regarding surgeries and therapies. The technology behind the brain maps was developed using machine learning algorithms applied to MRI scans, and it has been likened to "Google Maps for the brain". They have launched two products, "Quicktome'' and "Infinitome". Quicktome is a digital brain mapping platform intended to provide neurosurgeons with insights into a patient's brain networks before performing brain surgery, ultimately working to streamline the process of neurosurgical planning and provide greater insights for patient care. The platform uses data from a single non-invasive MRI scan, which is processed automatically and delivered through an intuitive web-based app. The platform allows visualization of critical brain networks and helps neurosurgeons make more informed decisions, reduce surgical uncertainty, and have better patient conversations about surgical outcomes. In 2021, Quicktome received regulatory clearance from the FDA, Health Canada, and the Therapeutic Goods Administration of Australia. The company's other product, "Infinitome", defines a neuroscience research platform that allows for revolutionary data and image analysis of the brain using computational neuroscience6. It is a cloud-based platform that complies with HIPAA regulations, and it can generate network maps of the human brain from original MRI data. By utilizing machine learning to automate the extraction of insights from brain data specific to individual patients, Infinitome is intended to accelerate the research and clinical trial processes related to complex diseases. Ultimately, Omniscient Neurotechnology is aimed at improving the diagnosis and treatment processes of brain-related disorders. Recently, Omniscient Neurotechnology raised $30 million in a Series B funding round, helping to support further research and technological development.

Public Datasets

Websites to explore publicly available connectomics datasets:

Macroscale Connectomics (Healthy Young Adult Datasets)

 Human Connectome Project Young Adult
 Amsterdam Open MRI Collection
 Harvard Brain Genomic Superstruct Project

For a more comprehensive list of open macroscale datasets, check out this article

Microscale Connectomics

 Whole C. elegans connectome
 NeuPRINT  Fly Hemibrain
 Flywire (whole fly brain)
 MICrONS Explorer (mouse cortical data)
 H01 Browser Release (human cortical data)

See also
 Dynamic Functional Connectivity
 List of Functional Connectivity Software
 Human Connectome Project
 Budapest Reference Connectome
https://eyewire.org/explore

References

Further reading

External links
  The NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research
 TED talk by Sebastian Seung: "I am my connectome".
 braingraph.org: a database of hundreds of braingraphs, computed from the data of the Human Connectome Project

Omics
Neuroscience

Connectomics


Howard Ray Johnson (born 16 August 1964) is a Jamaican born American former cricketer. A right-handed batsman and right-arm medium-fast bowler, he played for the United States national cricket team from 2002 until 2005 and played two One Day Internationals (ODIs) during the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy.

Biography

Born in Jamaica in 1964, Howard Johnson first played for the US in the 2002 Americas Championship in Buenos Aires. He made his List A debut in 2004 when he played in the ICC 6 Nations Challenge in the United Arab Emirates and his first-class debut later in the year when he played in the ICC Intercontinental Cup against Canada and Bermuda.

In between the two matches in the Intercontinental Cup, he played in the Americas Championship in Bermuda, winning the man of the match award against the Cayman Islands when he took 5/12.

He last played for the US in the 2005 ICC Trophy in Ireland. After playing a warm-up game against Namibia he played three matches in the tournament proper, against the UAE, Bermuda and Oman. Those three matches also represent the end of his List A career.

References

1964 births
Living people
United States One Day International cricketers
American cricketers
Jamaican emigrants to the United States
American sportspeople of Jamaican descent

Howard Johnson (cricketer)


The International Peace Gardens is a botanical garden located in Jordan Park in Salt Lake City, Utah.

Part of Utah's history, the garden was conceived in 1939 and dedicated in 1952. The International Peace Gardens has welcomed tens of thousands of travelers from every corner of the globe, including exchange partners from Salt Lake's several Sister Cities. The project was brought to fruition by Utah citizen Mrs. Otto (Ruey) Wiesley, working with the Salt Lake City Superintendent of Parks, the Mayor, and the Salt Lake Council of Women. Today, the garden remains under the direction of the Salt Lake Council of Women Past Presidents Council. Each participating Utah-based nation group is allotted a plot in which to create a garden with native plantings and garden architecture and statues of world peace leaders typical of the homeland and its culture. The Peace Gardens currently represents the cultural diversity of 28 gardens and encourages pleasant wandering and meditation by visitors.

Description and history

The purpose of the Salt Lake Council of Women is to take an active interest in community affairs and to promote whatever may contribute to the general welfare of the communities on the Wasatch Front.

The gardens comprise 11 acres and are located in Jordan Park along the banks of the Jordan River at 9th West and 10th South in Salt Lake. They symbolize the true spirit of democracy and world peace, brotherly love, history, literature, and cultural heritage of many lands.

The project was initiated in 1939 by Mrs. Otto Wiesley, Citizenship Chair, for good citizenship and to give foreign origin groups a specific part in the beautification of the city for the coming Centennial Celebration of 1947. It was presented to the City Commission and the Parks department and was given their approval and support.

The garden project was stopped before anything was planted because of the onset of World War II, but was resumed in 1947.

Each of the nationality groups is allotted a garden section which they design, create and plant at their own expense. Plans have to be approved by the City Parks Director before they are implemented. As each garden is completed, it is dedicated and presented to the city, who then assumes the permanent maintenance of the garden.

The United States became the first country represented in the gardens. Its section is the largest of the sections representing countries from the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia. The second section to be organized, planted, and dedicated was the Japanese garden. Others followed every year until there were 28 countries represented with others who would like to have a garden, but unfortunately space ran out. Land has opened up on the northwest side of the gardens across the river and has been deeded to the city by Union Pacific; some hope that the gardens will obtain use of it for purposes of expansion.

Sculptures include: A Monument to Peace: Our Hope for the Children, Bauta Stone, the bust of Mahatma Gandhi, The Little Mermaid, Irish Cross, Olmec Head Replica, Peace Cradle, Preaching Buddha, and Spirit Poles.

See also

 List of botanical gardens in the United States

External links

 Salt Lake City Parks & Public Lands - International Peace Gardens
 International Peace Gardens Website
  Independent Site of the Peace Gardens in Salt Lake City
Utah Office of Tourism - International Peace Gardens

1952 establishments in Utah
Botanical gardens in Utah
Geography of Salt Lake City
Peace gardens
Protected areas of Salt Lake County, Utah
Tourist attractions in Salt Lake City

International Peace Gardens


In industrial organization, the minimum efficient scale (MES) or efficient scale of production is the lowest point where the plant (or firm) can produce such that its long run average costs are minimized. It is also the point at which the firm can achieve necessary economies of scale for it to compete effectively within the market.

Measurement of the MES
Economies of scale refers to the cost advantage arise from increasing amount of production. Mathematically, it is a situation in which the firm can double its output for less than doubling the cost, which brings cost advantages. Usually, economies of scale can be represented in connection with a cost-production elasticity, Ec.

The cost-production elasticity equation can be rewritten to express the relationship between marginal cost and average cost.

The minimum efficient scale can be computed by equating average cost (AC) with marginal cost (MC).i.e.. The rationale behind this is that if a firm were to produce a small number of units, its average cost per unit would be high because the bulk of the costs would come from fixed costs. But if the firm produces more units, the average cost incurred per unit will be lower as the fixed costs are spread over a larger number of units; the marginal cost is below the average cost, pulling the latter down. The efficient scale of production is then reached when the average cost is at its minimum and therefore the same as the marginal cost.

Relationship to market structure
The concept of minimum efficient scale is useful in determining the likely market structure of a market. For instance, if the minimum efficient scale is small relative to the overall size of the market (demand for the good), there will be a large number of firms. The firms in this market will be likely to behave in a perfectly competitive manner due to the large number of competitors. However, if the minimum efficient scale can only be achieved at a significantly high levels of output relative to the overall size of the market, the number of firms will be small, the market is likely to be a oligopoly or monopoly market.

MES in L-shaped cost curve
Modern cost theory and recent empirical studies suggest that, instead of a U-shaped curve due to the presence of diseconomies of scale, the long run average cost curve is more likely to be L-shaped. In the L-shaped cost curve, the long run cost would keep fixed with a significantly increased scale of output once the firm reaches the minimum efficient scale (MES).
However, the average cost in an L-shaped curve may further decrease even though most economies of scale have been exploited when firms achieve the MES because of technical and production economies.
For instance, the firm may obtain further economies of scale from skill improvement by training the employees, decentralization in management. Secondly, repair cost and scrap rate will decrease when the firm reaches a certain size. Thirdly, improvement in the firm's vertical integration, producing by a firm itself some of the materials and equipment it needs at a lower cost for its production process instead of buying them from other firms.

See also
Diseconomies of scale
Economies of scale
Free entry
Barriers to entry
Socially optimal firm size
Cost curve

References

Microeconomics
Industrial organization
Costs

Minimum efficient scale


"All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight" is a song written and recorded by American musician Hank Williams Jr. It was released in October 1984 as the second single from his album Major Moves. It peaked at number ten on the country music charts. From 1989 to 2011, Williams performed a version of the song (reworked as "All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night") as the opening theme to Monday Night Football. The song was reinstated in 2017, with a new version by Williams Jr., Florida Georgia Line and Jason Derulo.

Music video
Directed by John Goodhue, the music video for the song features artists such as George Jones driving a riding mower; Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings playing poker; Little Jimmy Dickens and Paul Williams carrying a keg of beer; Cheech & Chong stumbling out of a smoke-filled limousine; William Lee Golden (of The Oak Ridge Boys) hitchhiking; Duane Allen (The Oak Ridge Boys) as a chauffeur; and George Thorogood entertaining other celebrities like Mel Tillis, Kris Kristofferson, Grandpa Jones, Porter Wagoner, Jim Varney,  at Hank Jr.'s "party pad out in the woods." At the end of the video, a ghostly Cadillac flies into the night sky, referencing the fact that his father, Hank Williams, died while riding in a Cadillac.

Single and album versions
The album version is different from the single (and video) version, which changes the lines "ready to get the summer/summertime started" in the last two choruses to "ready to get the music started" in the second chorus and "c'mon and get your motor started" in the final chorus.

Commercial and critical success
The single would go on to become one of Williams' signature songs (thanks to Monday Night Football) and became his 26th career Top 10 single on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. It also garnered a number of prestigious music industry awards and nominations. The music video became the inaugural winner for both the Country Music Association and Academy of Country Music Music Video of the Year award. Williams' vocal performance earned him a nomination for Country Music Association Awards as well as Grammy Award nominations for Grammy Awards for Best Country Song and Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance in 1985.

Chart performance

References

1984 singles
Hank Williams Jr. songs
National Football League music
ABC Sports
ESPN
Songs written by Hank Williams Jr.
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Bowen
Warner Records singles
Curb Records singles
Blues rock songs
1984 songs


Chesterfield County is located just south of Richmond in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The county's borders are primarily defined by the James River to the north and the Appomattox River to the south. Its county seat is Chesterfield Court House.

Chesterfield County was formed in 1749 from parts of Henrico County. It was named for Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, a prominent English statesman who had been the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.

As of the 2020 census, the population was 364,548  making it the fourth-most populous county in Virginia (behind Fairfax, Prince William, and Loudoun, respectively). Chesterfield County is part of the Greater Richmond Region, and the county refers to much of the northern portion of the county as "North Chesterfield".

History

Part of Henrico Citie, Henrico Shire, Henrico County
During the early 17th century, shortly after the settlement of Jamestown in 1607, English settlers and explorers began settling other areas. One of the more progressive developments in the colony was Henricus, founded under the guidance of Sir Thomas Dale. It was to include a college to help educate Virginia Indians, as well as the children of settlers.
Dale was accompanied by men known as the "Hammours". These veterans of the Low Country wars were heavily armed and better trained than settlers of Jamestown.

Dale wrote about the site: "Eighty miles up our river from Jamestown, I have surveyed a convenient, strong, healthie and sweete site to plant a new towne (according as I had instructions upon my departure) there to build whence might be removed the principal site."  Today known as Farrars Island, the site was on a neck of land with  and a shoreline of  on the James River. The English settlers soon built a palisade and moat-like ditch to protect entrance to the  wide neck from the shore area.

Dale named the new settlement Henricus in honor of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, the elder son of King James I. When finished in 1619, "Henricus Citie" contained three streets of well-framed houses, a church, storehouses, a hospital, and watchtowers. 1619 was a watershed year for the Virginia Colony. Henrico and three other large citties (sic) were formed, one of which included what is now Chesterfield County. That year Falling Creek Ironworks, the first in what is now the United States, was established slightly west on the creek near its confluence with the James River. In the Indian Massacre of 1622, Native Americans destroyed Henrico City and the ironworks to try to drive away the English. These were not rebuilt. The colony did not gain a college until 1693, when the College of William and Mary was awarded a royal charter in the capital.

In 1634, the King of England directed the formation of eight shires (or counties) in the colony of Virginia. One of these was Henrico County, which incorporated a large area on both sides of the James River.

Chesterfield County formed
On 25 May 1749, the Virginia House of Burgesses separated Chesterfield from Henrico County and created the new county. The first county seat was established at Chesterfield Court House. It has continued as county seat except for 1870–1876, during Reconstruction, when the county government was located at Manchester. The latter community has been subsumed by South Richmond.

The legislature named the county for the former British Secretary of State, Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield. Lord Chesterfield was famous for his "good manners and writings". One of his most frequently used sayings implies avoiding rudeness; "An injury is much sooner forgotten than an insult." Many years later, Chesterfield Cigarettes were named after this county.

In 1939 during the Great Depression, the Virginia State Police moved their offices from downtown Richmond to a seven-room farmhouse located on  of land 3½ miles west on route 60. This structure served as administrative headquarters and barracks. The State Police have since built a new administrative headquarters and an academy here.

Early ports, coal, roads, turnpikes and railroads
Prior to the American Revolutionary War, a thriving port town named Warwick was located at the northwestern confluence of Falling Creek and the James River. It was destroyed during that war, and not rebuilt. (Near the present-day DuPont facility at Ampthill, the site is not open to the public.) Another early port town was Port Walthall on the north shore of the Appomattox River, near the current Point-of-Rocks Park.

Coal mining in the Midlothian area of Chesterfield County began in the 18th century. Around 1701, French Huguenot settlers to the area discovered coal. In a 1709 diary entry William Byrd II, the wealthy planter who had purchased  of land in the area, noted that "the coaler found the coal mine very good and sufficient to furnish several generations." Commercially mined beginning in the 1730s, the coal fueled the production of cannon at Westham (near the present Huguenot Memorial Bridge) during the American Revolutionary War.  In 1831, the Chesterfield Railroad was constructed to transport coal by gravity and mule power to Manchester, Virginia on the south side of the James River across from Richmond, Virginia.

From the 1740s through the 1800s rivers above the Fall Line were used for transportation to the West with James River bateau, which could carry about a ton, and boats several times larger from Eppington.  The Appomattox River on the Southern border was the lower end of the Upper Appomattox Canal Navigation System connecting to Farmville, Virginia.  The James River and Kanawha Canal on the northern border of Chesterfield connected past the Blue Ridge Mountains. Port Walthall connected ships that carried more than 200 tonnes to the East with Ports on the Atlantic Ocean.  A canal was built in the Manchester section of Chesterfield to enable transporting coal around the James River falls. Portions are extant and may be seen near the south end of Richmond's Mayo Bridge.

The Manchester Turnpike in Chesterfield County, completed in 1807, was the first graveled roadway of any length in Virginia. The toll road ran between the coal mining area of Midlothian near the headwaters of Falling Creek and the James River port of Manchester. The current Midlothian Turnpike (U.S. Route 60) generally follows the earlier route.

Created in 1816, the Virginia Board of Public Works was a governmental agency which oversaw and helped finance the development of Virginia's internal transportation improvements, including canals, during the 19th century. In that era, it was customary to invest public funds in private companies, which were the forerunners of the public service and utility companies of modern times. Claudius Crozet (1789–1864), a civil engineer and educator who helped found the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), was Principal Engineer and later Chief Engineer for the Board of Public Works. He supervised the planning and construction of many of the canals, turnpikes, bridges and railroads in Virginia, including the area which is now West Virginia.

The Board partially engineered and funded new turnpikes, which were operated by private companies to collect tolls. The Manchester and Petersburg Turnpike, which preceded much of the current Jefferson Davis Highway (U.S. Routes 1–301), was one of these.

To improve access to markets, in 1825, a group of mine owners, including Nicholas Mills, Beverley Randolph and Abraham S. Wooldridge, resolved to build a tramway. (The Wooldridge brothers hailed from East Lothian and West Lothian in Scotland, and named their mining company Mid-Lothian, the source of the modern community name). In 1831, the Chesterfield Railroad opened as the first railroad in Virginia; it carried coal from mines near Falling Creek to the docks at the fall line on the James River. By the early 1850s, railroad lines connecting these areas included the Richmond and Danville Railroad (R&D) (which put the Chesterfield Railroad out of business) and the Richmond and Petersburg Railroad. They were both completed before the American Civil War, in which they provided important transportation for Southern supplies and men.

The Clover Hill Railroad was built to haul coal, mined in Chesterfield at the Clover Hill Pits to ports at Osborne's Landing. This railroad was replaced by the Brighthope Railway, which was, in 1881, narrowed into a narrow gauge railroad and rerouted to the tiny village of Bermuda Hundred, a port on the James River near the mouth of the Appomattox River. The Brighthope Railway was sold in foreclosure and restructured as the Farmville and Powhatan Railroad, later renamed the Tidewater and Western Railroad, extended to Farmville in Prince Edward County. Although long gone, portions of the old rail bed may be seen along Beach Road near the entrance to Pocahontas State Park. A water stop station in the Park remains and Beach Station remains as a national historic landmark.

American Civil War
During the American Civil War (1861–1865), Drewry's Bluff became a key defensive point for Confederate forces to block the Union's vastly superior Navy from taking Richmond by way of the James River. During the Siege of Petersburg (1864–65), a long defensive works through the county was part of the Confederacy's Richmond-Petersburg line of land defenses. Railroad lines passing through Petersburg finally proved the key to the fall of Richmond in 1865, effectively ending the War.

Reconstruction
A normal school founded by the state after the American Civil War primarily to help educate freed men eventually became Virginia State University, located in the Ettrick area near Petersburg and Colonial Heights. The U.S. Government rebuilt damaged railroads.

After Reconstruction, Chesterfield County used Convict lease to build roads in 1878.

The Richmond and Danville Railroad became part of the Southern Railway in 1894. It is now part of Norfolk Southern Railway. The Richmond and Petersburg Railroad became part of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. In 1900, a mostly parallel line was built by the Seaboard Air Line Railroad, with a branch line to Hopewell. Through the restructuring of the railroad industry beginning in 1960, the CSX Transportation system eventually absorbed parts of both these lines.

Former areas lost to new independent cities

Manchester (directly across the James River from the City of Richmond) was the county seat of Chesterfield County from 1870 until 1876, when it was moved to the present location at Chesterfield Court House. The City of Manchester had meanwhile left Chesterfield in 1874 to become an independent city, and merged with the City of Richmond by mutual agreement in 1910. It is now known as a part of South Richmond.

Colonial Heights was formerly an incorporated town in Chesterfield County, and became an independent city in 1948. Over half a century later, the two neighbors continued to share provision of some governmental services.

Annexation issues
Chesterfield County shares borders with three independent cities, and was long exposed to annexation suits from any of them under Virginia law. The county lost territory to the City of Richmond through several annexations in the 20th century, including one in 1944. The city tried to annex more of the county in 1970, an action that created controversy.

While the annexation lawsuit filed by Richmond in 1965 was being heard, with the city seeking  of the county, the leaders of the two jurisdictions, Irvin G. Horner, Chairman of the Chesterfield County Board of Supervisors, and Phil J. Bagley, Jr., the Mayor of Richmond, met privately and agreed to a compromise. In May 1969, the city and Chesterfield County approved what was called the Horner-Bagley Compromise, incorporated in a court decree of 12 July 1969. This effectively shut out a number of third parties attempting to block the annexation, and they believed they had been excluded from the process. A small commuter bus company held operating rights in the county, but the expanded city granted the franchise to a competitor.

Richmond annexed  of the county, including fire stations, parks, and other infrastructure, such as water and sewer lines. Under the agreement, the county school system also conveyed about a dozen public schools, support buildings, and future school sites to the City of Richmond to be operated by Richmond Public Schools. Residents of the annexed area were unhappy about this change, as Richmond Public Schools was already involved in a contentious racial desegregation lawsuit in the Federal courts because of its failure to integrate. The transferred schools included Huguenot High School, Fred D. Thompson Middle School, Elkhardt Middle School, and eight elementary schools. In 1971, the federal court ordered these schools included in a citywide desegregation busing program. This ended in the 1990s.

Many of the 47,000 residents who lived in the annexed area had been opposed to the action. They fought unsuccessfully for more than 7 years in the courts to have the agreement reversed. Some called the annexed  area "Occupied Chesterfield."

Many black residents of Richmond also opposed the annexation, claiming that it violated the National Voting Rights Act of 1965. They said the city had deliberately diminished their voting power by adding the white voters of the annexed area, which diluted the black vote within the city. In 1970 the pre-annexation population of the city was 202,359, of which 104,207 or 52% were black citizens. The annexation added 47,262 people, of whom 45,705 were non-black and 1,557 were black. The total post-annexation population was 249,621 and 42% black.

The plaintiffs prevailed in federal court. The city created an electoral ward system to ensure blacks did not lose their voting power, changing what had been a system of electing all city council positions at large (by which the majority population would more easily prevail). Under the ward system, four wards had a predominantly white population, four wards had a predominantly black population, and one ward had a population that was 59% white and 41% black. Soon after the ward system was established, the city elected its first black mayor.

Revisions in state annexation laws
Many political leaders have long believed that Virginia's annexation laws have created a barrier to regional cooperation among localities. The issues resulting from the 1970 Richmond-Chesterfield case were considered prime examples of obstacles to regional cooperation as the state legislators considered changes. In 1979, the Virginia General Assembly adopted legislation that allowed any county meeting certain population and density standards to petition the local circuit court to declare the county permanently immune from annexation. In 1981, Chesterfield County and several other counties in the state sought and received such immunity from further annexation by Richmond.

Recognizing the controversy surrounding annexations in Virginia, in 1987, the General Assembly placed a moratorium on future annexations of any county by any city. When this moratorium expires, Chesterfield County remains immune from annexation by Richmond because of the 1981 state grant of immunity. Unless new revenue sharing or other agreements are reached, the county is at risk to annexation suits by any of the smaller independent cities of Colonial Heights, Hopewell, and Petersburg which adjoin it.

Highways, transportation, tolls

Beginning especially in the second half of the 20th century, Chesterfield grew exponentially, most of all as a commuter town of Richmond. The Richmond-Petersburg Interurban Electric Railway, local streetcar service, and commuter rail service of the Southern Railway to Bon Air had all ended by 1957.

Although some bus routes extended into the county from both cities, the county did not fund transit bus service when the large systems in Richmond and Petersburg converted to governmentally subsidized operations in the 1970s. Privately owned suburban bus services, such as that operated by Virginia Overland Transportation could not operate profitably, even when funded with start-up money through state demonstration program grants. County leaders believed the Chesterfield residents were committed to individual auto use for most local, commuter, and through transportation of people. With the increases in population, traffic, and poor air quality, some residents have asked the county to fund commuter bus services. Further complicating the issue is the general lack of sidewalks along most roads, adding to residents' dependence on motor vehicles.

Although the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) built interstate, primary and secondary highways throughout the 20th century, they quickly filled with traffic as the population and use of autos increased. Customary funding sources were insufficient to raise the monies needed for highway construction. Opened in 1958, and funded through toll revenue bonds, the Richmond-Petersburg Turnpike was a toll highway which paralleled U.S. 1 and U.S. Route 301 between the northern edge of Richmond and the southern limits of Petersburg. Its portion through Chesterfield County was the longest section of its mileage. Conceived prior to the creation of the Interstate Highway System, the roadway was made toll-free in 1992. The former Richmond-Petersburg Turnpike forms a vital portion of Interstate 95 in central Virginia, including the northernmost portion of Interstate 85 near Petersburg.

The Powhite Parkway Extension of the Powhite Parkway in Richmond, Virginia (a toll road operated by the Richmond Metropolitan Authority) was built and opened in 1988. The extension in Chesterfield County is operated by and the tolls are collected by VDOT. (The entire route in Richmond and Chesterfield is signed as Virginia State Route 76). The county extension begins at the exit for State Route 150 (Chippenham Parkway), and includes major exits for U.S. Route 60 west of Richmond, and State Route 288 in the Midlothian area. The southern terminus of State Route 76 is near the Brandermill development. Today the Powhite Parkway features a new highspeed toll system that allows smart-tag and e-z pass holders to travel through at speeds of 45–50 mph.

The Pocahontas Parkway, a  toll road known as State Route 895, connects the junction of Interstate 95 and State Route 150 in Chesterfield County with Interstate 295 near Richmond International Airport in Henrico County, forming part of a southeastern bypass of Richmond. The roadway features the high-level Vietnam Veterans Memorial Bridge over the shipping channel of the James River downstream from the deep-water Port of Richmond, to allow ample clearance for ocean-going vessels.

Although Route 895 had been planned for many years, sufficient state and federal construction funds were not available at the time of construction, but the state encouraged innovative funding. In 1995, the Virginia General Assembly passed the Public-Private Transportation Act, to allow private entities to propose solutions for designing, constructing, financing and operating transportation improvements. A public-private partnership developed a proposal acceptable to the state. Since construction, the partnership has collected tolls to recover costs. The toll collection facility features one of the Richmond area's high-speed open lanes, enabling vehicles to travel through at highway speeds with a Smart Tag or other compatible electronic toll collection transponder.

The large planned community of Brandermill, which includes a conference center, was named in 1977 the "best planned community in America" by Better Homes and Gardens magazine and the National Association of Homebuilders.

The Greater Richmond Transit Company (GRTC), metro Richmond's bus transit organization, unveiled the Route 111 bus line in March 2020. The route runs 7.6 miles, from north of the Chippenham Parkway interchange to John Tyler Community College in Chester.

The Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) is planning two superstreets in Chesterfield County to address left turns at high traffic volume intersections. Anticipated completion is in 2022.

Planning
The Chesterfield County Planning Department oversees the parameters and scope of several economic development projects submitted in the county, including the development and implementation of the county's Master Plan that guides growth and commerce. The Planning Department introduced an online system in April 2020 to allow the submission and review of development plans via email.

The county launched the new Community Facilities and Infrastructure tool in June 2020, which allows the tracking of information related to the county's capital improvement plan including data regarding school enrollment.

Economy
The Chesterfield Economic Development Authority (CEDA), a seven-member board appointed by the Chesterfield County Board of Supervisors, works in conjunction with the Department of Economic Development to create new jobs, expand the tax base and diversify the economy of Chesterfield County. CEDA is chartered through a state law that allows cities and counties to create industrial or economic development authorities with wide-ranging powers not available to local governments in order to facilitate economic development opportunities within the community. CEDA has the power to buy, sell and develop land for business parks or other economic development purposes. It can also build facilities for sale or lease to private companies; issue taxable and tax-exempt Industrial Revenue Bonds to provide financing for facilities and machinery and provide incentives to attract new companies to Chesterfield County or to induce existing companies to expand.

Top 25 Private Employers

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (3.1%) is water.

Chesterfield County is largely bordered by two rivers which define miles of its boundaries. The major adjoining cities each originated at the head of navigation of these river, called the fall line. There, the hillier and rockier Piedmont region falls to the sandy and mostly flat eastern coastal plain Tidewater region, a change which creates barriers for ships going upstream on the rivers. Chesterfield County includes areas of both regions.

Richmond and Manchester were formed at the fall line of the James River. Most of the northern portion of Chesterfield County is part of what is called Richmond's "South Side". As the James River flows east to Richmond and then turns almost due south below the fall line for about  before turning east, Henrico County encompasses much of Richmond's West End, North Side, and East End areas.

Chesterfield County borders on the Appomattox River to the south. Much of the southern and eastern portions of the county are considered part of the Tri-Cities area, which includes Petersburg, located at the fall line.

Adjacent counties

National protected areas
 Presquile National Wildlife Refuge
 Richmond National Battlefield Park (part)

Major highways

Government

Board of Supervisors
Bermuda District: Jim Ingle (R)
Clover Hill District: Christopher Winslow (R)
Dale District: James Holland (D)
Matoaca District: Kevin P. Carroll (R)
Midlothian District: Mark Miller (D)

Constitutional officers
Clerk of the Circuit Court: Wendy S. Hughes (R)
Commissioner of the Revenue: Jenefer Hughes (D)
Commonwealth's Attorney: Stacey Davenport (R)
Sheriff: Karl S. Leonard (R)
Treasurer: Rebecca Longnaker (R)

Law enforcement
The county-level law enforcement services are Chesterfield County Sheriff's Office (CCSO) and Chesterfield County Police Department (CCPD).  the sheriff is Karl S. Leonard and the Chief of Police is Jeffrey S. Katz. The CCSO has had 60 sheriffs since its formation in 1749, while the CCPD was founded in 1914 and has had eight chiefs. The CCSO and the CCPD are accredited by the Virginia Law Enforcement Professional Standards Commission.

In 1841 the original jail, which was commissioned in 1749, was destroyed in a fire. This resulted in a new jail, which was used until the 1940s when it was converted into an emergency communications (dispatch) office. From the 1940s to 1960 CCSO inmates were housed in other jails until a new, modern facility was built. In the 1970s an addition was built onto the jail. In 1994, a new building was constructed to hold those charged with misdemeanors. Those facing and/or convicted of felonies were still housed in the old 1960 building, which was torn down in 2002. A new building, along with the 1994 section, now constitute the men's jail. There is no longer a Chesterfield jail for female inmates. They all are held at Riverside Regional Jail.
In 1917 the original courthouse was demolished to make room for the new one. The 1917 courthouse is now on the National Register of Historic Places. It closed in 1989, when the current courthouse opened at the intersection of Courthouse and Iron Bridge roads.

In 2018, CCSO implemented a voluntary addiction recovery program in the county jail which utilizes peer-to-peer recovery support and professional counselors working to treat underlying conditions. The program is called the HARP program, an acronym for Helping Addicts Recover Permanently. Participants of the program are allowed to return to the jail and participate in group meetings after they have been discharged. The program has grown a robust recovery support network in the community.

In 2014, CCSO became the first county in Virginia to publicly state that it would not honor U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement detainer requests unless accompanied by a warrant.

A CCSO deputy was one of 6 law enforcement officers in Virginia found to be a member of the Oath Keepers organization when a list was leaked in 2022.

State and federal
Chesterfield County is represented by Republican Amanda F. Chase and Democrats Joe D. Morrissey and Ghazala F. Hashmi  in the Virginia Senate, Republicans Roxann L. Robinson, Carrie Coyner, R. Lee Ware, Jr., Kim Taylor and Mike Cherry and Democrats Dawn M. Adams, Betsy B. Carr, and Delores L. McQuinn in the Virginia House of Delegates, and Democrat Jennifer McClellan and Republican Rob Wittman in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Like most of Richmond's suburbs, Chesterfield County historically tilted conservative. After voting for Democratic incumbent Harry Truman over the Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey in 1948 presidential election, it voted for GOP candidates in every election through 2016. It was one of the first areas of Virginia where the old-line Byrd Democrats began splitting their tickets at the national level. However, conservative Democrats continued to hold most local offices, as well as most of its seats in the state legislature, well into the 1980s.

From 2008 on, however, the county began to be competitive; after 14 consecutive elections (including 1992 and 1996) in which Chesterfield had delivered double-digit margins to Republicans, John McCain won it in 2008 by just 7.4%, a margin which Mitt Romney expanded in 2012 only marginally to 7.8%. In 2016, Donald Trump became the first Republican in the county's post-1948 run of voting Republican to carry the county with only a plurality, as he received just 48.2% of the vote. In 2020, Joe Biden became the first Democrat in 72 years to carry the county, winning it by 6.6% (and with an absolute majority) over Donald Trump.

Demographics

2020 census

Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race.

2010 Census
At the 2010 census, there were 316,236 people, 115,680 households and 86,237 families residing in the county. The population density was .

There were 97,707 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 68.3% White, 21.9% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 3.3% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.4% from other races, and 2.6% from two or more races. 7.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

The largest ancestry groups in Chesterfield County include African American (18%), English (14.5%), German (12.5%), Irish (11%), Italian (4%) and Scots-Irish (3%).

There were 115,680 households, of which 35.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.9% were Husband-wife family living together, 4.4% had a male householder with no husband present, 13.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.5% were non-families. 20.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.69 and the average family size was 3.11.

Age distribution was 26.1% under the age of 18, 5.5% from 20 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 28.60% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.6 years. For every 100 people there were 52 females.

In, 2000, the median household income was $58,537, and the median family income was $65,058. Males had a median income of $43,030 versus $30,518 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,286. About 3.30% of families and 4.50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.60% of those under age 18 and 3.40% of those age 65 or over.

Town twinning
In 2005, Chesterfield County agreed to form a relationship with the Borough of Gravesham in Kent, England. The town of Gravesend on the River Thames is part of the borough. It was here that Pocahontas was buried after dying on a trip to England. Matoaca in Chesterfield County was traditionally believed to be her native village in North America. The "sister communities" were formed as part of Virginia's activities in 2007 to celebrate the founding of Jamestown.

Recognition
In May 2004, Chesterfield was named the "17th Best Place to Live in America" by the American City Business Journals.

Since 2009, the National Association of Counties (NACo) has awarded Chesterfield County several National Achievement Awards. NACo's membership includes more than 2,000 counties nationwide, representing more than 80 percent of the nation's population. Awards won by Chesterfield County by year include:
 2009: 10
 2010: 5
 2011: 12
 2012: 11
 2013: 10
 2014: 15
 2015: 11
 2016: 18
 2017: 17
 2018: 17
 2019: 7
 2020: 14
In 2020, Chesterfield County earned 14 National Achievement Awards from the National Association of Counties. Chesterfield County recipients of these awards included:
 Citizen Information and Resources:
 Access on Demand
 My Chesterfield Academy
 Parks and Recreation
 First Responders and Multicultural Community Cup
 Human Resources
 Position Description Questionnaire Collection Project
 Career Development Plan Program
 Libraries
 Museum Pass Bag
 American Creed Community Conversation
 Thinking Money for Kids
 Mental Health Support Services
 Coordinated Local Government Implementation of the Basics
 Planning
 Route 1 Residential Zoning Overlay
 Procurement
 Innovation and Efficiency Leader of the 21st Century Procurement
 Sheriff's Office
 Legacy Lane
 Utilities
 Call Center Training Program
 Enhancing Technology to Benefit Customer Service Experience

Education

Chesterfield County Public Schools is the local school system, and has received the U.S. Department of Education's Blue Ribbon Award.

Chesterfield County is the home to more than sixty public schools. There are 38 elementary schools, 12 middle schools, 11 high schools, and 2 technical schools for high school aged students. Each high school in Chesterfield has an internal school of a specific area of interest. For example, Clover Hill High School's internal school is focused on math and science. Programs at other schools include health science (Cosby High School), international baccalaureate (Midlothian and Meadowbrook High School), leadership and international relations (James River High School), and visual and performing arts (Thomas Dale High School), among many others. The Career and Technical Center allows high school students to attend vocational classes in various fields of interest. The goal of this school is to prepare students for future careers and post-secondary education. Some programs that the center offers include automotive, construction, and engineering courses, health and science course, personal service courses, and public safety courses. These programs are one-to-two years in duration and leave students with certifications and hands-on experience in the fields that they are interested in.

The Chesterfield Public Education Foundation, founded in 1989, is an additional funding source for Chesterfield County Public Schools. The Foundation funds programs such as scholastic, teacher recognition, and enrichment programs, as well as student scholarships.

The Chesterfield County Board of Supervisors established a library system in 1964. Chesterfield County Public Library currently has 10 branches located throughout the county.

John Tyler Community College, a two-year institution of higher learning, has two campuses in Chesterfield County; one in Chester and one in Midlothian.

Chesterfield County is home to Virginia State University, a historically Black University located in Ettrick.

Health
In March 2020, Chesterfield County leadership declared a local state of emergency in response to the COVID-19 pandemic at a regional press conference alongside representatives from the City of Richmond and Henrico, Hanover and Goochland counties. At that press conference, Richmond Mayor Levar Stoney announced the activation of the Central Virginia All Hazards Incident Management Team (CVAHIMT), of which Chesterfield County is a member. The CVAHIMT "was established to support the needs of the Central Virginia Region for management of major incidents and planned events that require a public safety response."

The county launched a dedicated webpage, County Response to COVID-19, as a repository of information pertaining to the virus's impact on county operations, public health guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Virginia Department of Health (VDH) as well as resources for citizens and businesses. In the following weeks, Chesterfield County took several actions to help safeguard residents, businesses and county employees against the public health risks posed by COVID-19, including closing many public offices and facilities to visitors and transitioning thousands county employees to work from home. On Thursday, March 19, 2020, Chesterfield County activated its Emergency Operations Center (EOC), which centralized county communications and coordination between departments. Additionally, the EOC provided a call center for residents and employees with general questions about county operations and services throughout the COVID-19 response.

On April 29, 2020, the Chesterfield Chamber of Commerce, on behalf of partners Chesterfield County and ChamberRVA, announced the joint initiative Relaunch Chesterfield which would focus "on issues for businesses and elected officials around the county to consider" as larger plans to reopen the commonwealth were made.

On May 13, 2020, the Chesterfield Health Department began hosting COVID-19 testing events, with tests being free for uninsured and underinsured individuals. These testing events continued into the month of June.

Chesterfield County began its phased reopening of government buildings on Monday, June 1, 2020.

Communities
There are no incorporated towns in Chesterfield County.

Census-designated places

 Bellwood
 Bensley
 Bon Air
 Brandermill
 Chester
 Enon
 Ettrick
 Manchester
 Matoaca
 Meadowbrook
 Rockwood
 Woodlake

Other unincorporated communities

 Belmont
 Bermuda Hundred
 Chesterfield Court House
 Deer Run
 Genito
 Gordon
 Hampton Park
 Harrowgate
 Hening
 Jefferson Davis North
 Midlothian
 Moseley
 Reams
 Robious
 Salisbury
 Skinquarter
 South Rockwood
 Spring Run
 Winterpock

Many of these areas or communities used to have a Richmond or a Colonial Heights mailing address. Recently, they have been changed to a "North Chesterfield" or "South Chesterfield" address, respectively, due to the confusion of residents sending their personal property taxes to the above listed cities instead of Chesterfield County. However, most of Ettrick has a Petersburg mailing address.

Notable people
 Denny Hamlin (b. 1980) – NASCAR driver
 Mark Parson  (b. 1986) – former NFL cornerback for the Houston Texans and New Orleans Saints
 Young M.A (b. 1992) – rapper
 Devin Robinson (b. 1995) – NBA player for Toronto Raptors
 Devin Druid (b. 1998) – actor best known for portraying Tyler Down in the TV show 13 Reasons Why
 Keldon Johnson (b. 1999) – NBA player for the San Antonio Spurs

See also
 USS Chesterfield County (LST-551)
 Chesterfield County Police Department
 Chesterfield County Sheriff's Office
National Register of Historic Places listings in Chesterfield County, Virginia

References

External links

1749 establishments in Virginia
Counties on the James River (Virginia)
Geography of Richmond, Virginia
Populated places established in 1749
Virginia counties
Virginia counties on the Chesapeake Bay

Chesterfield County, Virginia


The Wandering Swordsman is a 1970 Hong Kong wuxia film directed by Chang Cheh and produced by the Shaw Brothers Studio, starring David Chiang and Lily Li.

Plot
The wandering swordsman Yu Hsieh Erh travels around seeking adventure and meets a group of bandits who are planning to rob a convoy escorting some valuables. Initially, he is tricked by them into participating in the robbery but then realises his folly and he returns to take his revenge on them.

Cast
David Chiang as Wandering Swordsman
Lily Li as Jiang Ning / Siao Ning Ji
Cheng Lui as Chief Jiang Wei
Cheung Pooi-saan as "Fail Safe" Kung Wu
Wang Kuang-yu as Single Swordsman Jin Li Loi
Wu Ma as Foxy Hou Jiou
Chan Sing as Iron King Jung Sz Hu
Lau Gong as Flying Robber Fang Tien Lung
Hung Lau as Flying Robber Guo Tien Wan
Bolo Yeung as Unicorn
Tung Li as Chief Huang
Nam Wai-lit as Chief Wen
Tung Choi-bo as Chief Xie
Lau Kwan as casino gambler
Wong Pau-gei as Brother Choy
Wong Chung as Wei Sheng Security member
Cliff Lok as Wei Sheng Security member
Yuen Cheung-yan as Wei Sheng Security member
Yuen Shun-yi as Wei Sheng Security member / robber
Hsu Hsia as Wei Sheng Security member
Chan Siu-gai as Wei Sheng Security member
Yee Kwan as casino dealer
Wu Por as casino cashier
Chui Chung-hok as casino thug
Chan Keung as casino thug
Fuk Yan-cheng as casino gambler
Yue Man-wa as casino gambler
Chan Chuen as robber
Yuen Woo-ping as robber
Lo Wai as robber
Yen Shi-kwan as robber
Fung Hap-so as robber
Chan Seng-tong as robber
Lai Yan as robber
Wong Ching as robber
Tam Bo as robber
Ko Hung as robber
Ng Yuen-fan as Unicorn Clan member / robber
Wong Mei as Unicorn Clan member
Chin Chun as restaurant boss
Lok Ming as restaurant waiter
Lau Cheun as restaurant patron
Tsang Choh-lam as eatery waiter
Goo Chim-hung as eatery boss
Kwan Yan as eatery customer
Hao Li-jen as villager fleeing flood
Lau Kar-wing
San Sin
Kong Chuen
Wan Leng-gwong
Fan Dan

External links

The Wandering Swordsman at Hong Kong Cinemagic

1970 films
1970s action films
1970s martial arts films
Films directed by Chang Cheh
Hong Kong martial arts films
Shaw Brothers Studio films
Wuxia films
1970s Mandarin-language films
1970s Hong Kong films

The Wandering Swordsman


Walter Edwin Havighurst (November 28, 1901 – February 3, 1994) was a critic, novelist, and literary and social historian of the Midwest. He was a professor of English at Miami University.

History

The son of Lawrence College professors Freeman Alfred Havighurst and Winifred Weter, Havighurst was born in Appleton, Wisconsin and grew up in the Fox River Valley. Havighurst attended Ohio Wesleyan University, where he earned a bachelor of arts degree, and the University of Denver (1924). He attended King's College London from 1925 to 1926, obtained a bachelor of sacred theology from Boston University in 1928 and a master's degree from Columbia University in 1928. Havighurst was awarded honorary degrees from Lawrence College, Ohio Wesleyan University, Marietta College, and Miami University.

Havighurst joined the faculty of Miami University in Oxford, Ohio in 1928 and served interim terms on the faculties of Connecticut College, the University of Colorado and the University of British Columbia. In 1968, Miami named him Regents Professor of English Emeritus. He retired as research professor emeritus in 1969. In 1970, the Walter Havighurst Special Collections at Miami University was established and named in his honor.

Personal life

Havighurst married Marion Boyd, a poet and writer, in 1930 and resided in Oxford, Ohio. She died in 1974. He remained in Oxford until the last few years of his life when he moved to Richmond, Indiana to live with relatives, where he died of heart disease.

Havighurst's brother, Robert J. Havighurst, was a professor at the University of Chicago.

Works

Havighurst was the author of over 30 books, including Pier 17 and Annie Oakley of the Wild West. His writing earned awards from the Friends of American Writers, the American Association for State and Local History and the Rockefeller Foundation.  River Road to the West received the American History Prize of the Society of Midland Authors.

A major bequest from Havighurst created the Havighurst Center for Russian and Post-Soviet Studies at Miami University upon his death.

Published books

 Pier 17 (Macmillan Co.) (1935)
 The Quiet Shore (Macmillan Co.)  (1937)
 The Upper Mississippi (Farrar & Rinehart) (1937) (Volume 2 of the Rivers of America Series)
 The Winds of Spring (Macmillan Co.) (1940)
 No Homeward Course Doubleday, Doran) (1940)
 The Long Ships Passing: The Story of the Great Lakes (Macmillan Co.) (1942)
 High Prairie, Walter and Marion Havighurst, illustrated by Gertrude Howe (Farrar & Rinehart, 1944)
 Land of Promise: The Story of the Northwest Territory (Macmillan Co.) (1946)
 Signature of Time (Macmillan Co.) (1949)
 Song of The Pines: A Story of Norwegian Lumbering in Wisconsin, Walter and Marion Havighurst, illus. Richard Floethe (John C. Winston Co., 1949)
 George Rogers Clark Soldier in the West McGraw Hill) (1952)
 Climb a Lofty Ladder: A Story of Swedish Settlement in Minnesota, Walter and Marion Havighurst, illus. Jill Elgin  (Winston, 1952),
 Annie Oakley of the Wild West Macmillan Co.) (1954)
 Wilderness for Sale: The Story of the First Western Land Rush (Hastings House) (1956)
 Buffalo Bill's Great Wild West Show (Random House) (1957)
 Vein of Iron: The Picklands Mather Story (The World Publishing Co.) (1958)
 The Miami Years: 1809-1959] (G. P. Putnam) (1958)
 The First Book of Pioneers: Northwest Territory  (Franklin Watts, Inc.)(1959)
 Land of Long Horizons (Coward-McCann, Inc.) (1960)
 The First Book of the Oregon Trail  (Franklin Watts, Inc.) (1960)
 The Heartland (Harper) (1962)
 The First Book of The California Gold Rush (Franklin Watts, Inc.) (1962)
 Voices on the River: The Story of the Mississippi Waterways  Macmillan Co.) (1964)
 Proud Prisoner: Sir Henry Hamilton (Holt, Rinehart, Winston) (1964)
 Three Flags at the Straits: Forts of Mackinac (Prentice Hall) (1966) (Forts of America Series)
 The Great Lakes Reader (Collier Macmillan) (1966) (Editor)
 Alexander Spotswood: Portrait of a Governor ()Holt, Rinehart, Winston) (1967)
 River to the West: Three Centuries on the Ohio (G.P. Putnam) (1970)
 Men of Old Miami 1809-1873: A Book of Portraits (G. P. Putnam) (1974)
 From Six at First: A History of Phi Delta Theta 1848–1973 (George Banta Co., Inc.) (1975)
 Ohio: A Bicentennial Portrait (Norton) (1976)
 The Dolibois Years (Miami University Alumni Association)(1982)

References and sources

Eulogy by Phillip R. Shriver
 Dictionary of Midwestern Literature Volume One: General Editor, Philip A. Greasley

External links

 Havighurst Center for Russian and Post-Soviet Studies, Miami University
 Walter Havighurst Special Collections, Miami University

American academics of English literature
1901 births
1994 deaths
Miami University faculty
Writers from Appleton, Wisconsin
People from Oxford, Ohio
Writers from Richmond, Indiana
Writers from Ohio
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Journalists from Ohio
20th-century American male writers
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists

Walter Havighurst