Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport , referred to colloquially as National Airport, Reagan, Reagan National, or simply DCA, is an international airport in Arlington County, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C. It is the smaller of two commercial airports owned by the federal government and operated by the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) that serve the Washington metropolitan area around Washington, D.C.; the larger is Dulles International Airport about  to the west in Fairfax and Loudoun counties. The airport is  from downtown Washington, D.C.

The airport opened in 1941 and was originally named Washington National Airport. Part of the original terminal is still in use as Terminal 1. A larger second terminal, now known as Terminal 2, opened in 1997. In 1998, Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed, a bill renaming it Ronald Reagan National Airport in honor of President Ronald Reagan. MWAA operates the airport with close oversight by the federal government due to its proximity to the national capital.

Long distance flights to and from the airport are limited by a perimeter rule which generally prohibits flights longer than  in any direction nonstop, in an effort to send coast-to-coast and overseas traffic to Dulles International Airport, though there are 40 slot exemptions to this rule. Planes are required to take unusually complicated paths to avoid restricted and prohibited airspace above sensitive landmarks, government buildings, and military installations in and around Washington, D.C., and comply with some of the tightest noise restrictions in the country.

Reagan National currently serves 91 nonstop destinations and is a hub for American Airlines. Though it is an international airport, it has no immigration and customs facilities, with international flights restricted to those with U.S. Customs and Border Protection preclearance facilities, including major airports in Canada and some destinations in the Caribbean. International passenger flights to and from the Washington metropolitan area primarily utilize Washington Dulles International Airport or Baltimore/Washington International Airport. Reagan National is also home to Coast Guard Air Station Washington.

The airport served 24.5 million passengers in 2022, the most of any of the three airports serving the region, and a new passenger record for the airport. The airport's main runway is the busiest in the nation.

History

20th century
The first airport in the area was Arlington's Hoover Field, which opened in 1926. Near the present site of The Pentagon, its single runway was crossed by a street; guards had to stop automobile traffic during takeoffs and landings. The following year, in 1927, Washington Airport, another privately operated field, began service next door. In 1930, the Great Depression led the two terminals to merge to form Washington-Hoover Airport. Bordered on the east by U.S. Route 1, with its accompanying high-tension electrical wires, and obstructed by a high smokestack on one approach and a dump nearby, the field was inadequate.

The need for a better airport was acknowledged in 37 studies conducted between 1926 and 1938, but a statute prohibited federal development of airports. When Congress lifted the prohibition in 1938, President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a recess appropriation of $15 million to build National Airport by reallocating funds from other purposes. Construction of Washington National Airport began in 1940–1941 by a company led by John McShain. Congress challenged the legality of FDR's recess appropriation, but construction of the new airport continued.

The airport is located southwest of Washington, D.C. in the Crystal City section of Arlington County, Virginia adjacent to National Landing. The western part of the airport was once within a large Virginia plantation, a remnant of which is now inside a historic site near the airport's Metrorail station. The eastern part of the airport was built in the District of Columbia on and near mudflats in the tidal Potomac River near Gravelly Point, about  from the United States Capitol, using landfill dredged from the Potomac River.

The airport opened June 16, 1941, just before U.S. entry into World War II. The public was entertained by displays of wartime equipment including a captured Japanese Zero war prize flown in with U.S. Navy colors. In 1945 Congress passed a law that established the airport was legally within Virginia, mainly for liquor sales taxation purposes, but under the jurisdiction of the federal government. On July 1 of that year the airport's weather station became the official point for D.C. weather observations and records by the National Weather Service, in Washington, D.C.

Until 1946, nonstop airline flights did not reach beyond New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Memphis, Atlanta, and Jacksonville. In 1946, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, and Miami were added; nonstops reached Denver in 1951 and Los Angeles in 1954. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 316 weekday departures: 95 Eastern (plus six per week to/from South America), 77 American, 61 Capital, 23 National, 17 TWA, 10 United, 10 Delta, 6 Allegheny, 6 Braniff, 5 Piedmont, 3 Northeast and 3 Northwest. Jet flights began in April 1966 (727-200s were not allowed until 1970). In 1974 the airport's key carriers were Eastern (20 destinations), United (14 destinations after subsuming Capital) and Allegheny (11 destinations).

The grooving of runway 18–36 to improve traction when wet, in March 1967, was the first at a civil airport in the United States.

Service to the airport's Metro station began in 1977.

The Washington National Airport Terminal and South Hangar Line were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.

Expansion and restrictions
The runway layout has changed little since the 1956 closure of the east–west runway at the south end of the field. Changes to the terminal complex over the years include:
 Extension of the original Main Terminal (today's Terminal 1) to the south in 1950
The construction of a North Terminal supplemented the original terminal in 1958; construction connected the two terminals in 1961.
 A United Airlines holdroom complex was built in 1965, a facility for American Airlines was completed in 1968, and a facility for Northwest Airlines and TWA (still in use today as the Terminal A concourse), along with a commuter terminal in 1970.
The Metrorail station serving the Airport opened in 1977.
 A major terminal expansion including a new air traffic control tower, officially called Terminals B/C, opened in 1997 giving the terminal its current configuration.
 Runways 18/36 and 3/21 were renumbered as 1/19 and 4/22 in 1999 as earth's magnetic field drifted.
 In March 2012 the main 1/19 runway was lengthened  to add Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) compliant runway safety runoff areas.

Despite the expansions, efforts have been made to restrict the growth of the airport. The advent of jets and traffic growth led Congress to pass the Washington Airport Act of 1950, which led to the opening of Dulles International Airport in 1962. To reduce congestion and drive traffic to alternative airports, the FAA imposed perimeter restrictions on National when jets arrived in 1966, and landing slot at DCA and four other high-density airports in 1969.

The airport originally had no perimeter rule; from 1954 to 1960, piston-engine airliners flew nonstop to California. Scheduled jet airliners were not allowed until April 1966, and concerns about aviation noise led to noise restrictions even before jet service began in 1966.

The perimeter rule was implemented in January 1966 as a voluntary agreement by airlines, to get permission to use short-haul jets at National. Dulles was to continue to serve the long haul markets, limiting traffic and noise at National; the FAA assumed that ground level noise would be reduced because planes would take off light on fuel and be up and away quickly. The agreement limited jet flights to , with 7 grandfathered exceptions under . The spirit of the agreement was regularly violated as flights left National to an airport within the perimeter and then immediately took off for a destination beyond it. Within a year there was a proposal to reduce the perimeter to , but it was widely opposed and never implemented. Overcrowding at National was later managed by the 1969 High Density Rule, thereby removing one of the justifications for the perimeter agreement.

In the 1960s and 1970s, several attempts were made to codify the perimeter rule, but it was not until Dulles was endangered that it actually become a strict rule. In 1970 the FAA lifted the ban at National of the stretched Boeing 727-200, which resulted in a lawsuit by Virginians for Dulles who argued that the airport's jet traffic was a nuisance. That suit resulted in a Court of Appeals order to create an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). In addition to the court order, there were economic problems at Dulles. Following the extension of Metrorail to National in 1977, and airline deregulation in 1978, traffic at Dulles began to plummet while it increased at National. As part of a slate of efforts to protect Dulles, including removing landing fees and mobile lounge user charges, the FAA proposed regulations as part of the EIS to limit traffic at National and maintain Dulles's role as the area's airport for long-haul destinations. In 1980, the FAA proposed codifying the perimeter rule as part of a larger rulemaking effort. When the rule was announced, airlines challenged it in court; the Metropolitan Washington Airports Policy of 1981 codified the perimeter rule on an interim basis "to maintain the long-haul nonstop service at Dulles and BWI which otherwise would preempt shorter haul service at National." At the same time, the perimeter was extended to  miles to remove the unfairness of having seven grandfathered cities. The perimeter rule was upheld by the Court of Appeals in 1982. In 1986, as part of the Metropolitan Washington Airports Act, which handed control of National over to the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority, the perimeter was extended to  to allow nonstop flights to Houston with Dallas also being permitted to be served nonstop.

Slots at the airport have been traded in several instances. In 2011 US Airways acquired a number of Delta's slots at National in exchange for Delta receiving a number of US Airways slots at LaGuardia Airport in New York. JetBlue paid $40 million to acquire eight slot pairs at auction in the same year. JetBlue and Southwest acquired 12 and 27 US Airways slot pairs, respectively, in 2014 as part of a government-mandated divestiture following the merger of US Airways and American.

Flights normally use Runway 1/19 (7169' x 150' / 2185 m x 46 m), as the shorter Runways 15/33 and 4/22 can accommodate them only under very windy conditions.

Transfer of control and renaming
In 1984, the Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole appointed a commission to study transferring National and Dulles Airports from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to a local entity, which could use airport revenues to finance improvements. The commission recommended that one multi-state agency administer both Dulles and National, over the alternative of having Virginia control Dulles and the District of Columbia control National. In 1987 Congress, through legislation, transferred control of the airport from the FAA to the new Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority with the Authority's decisions being subject to a Congressional review panel. The constitutionality of the review panel was later challenged in the Supreme Court and the Court has twice declared the oversight panel unconstitutional. Even after this decision, however, Congress has continued to intervene in the management of the airports.

On February 6, 1998, President Bill Clinton signed legislation changing the airport's name from Washington National Airport to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, to honor the former president on his 87th birthday. The legislation was drafted against the wishes of MWAA officials and political leaders in Northern Virginia and Washington, D.C. Opponents of the renaming argued that a large federal office building had already been named for Reagan, the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center, and that the airport was already named for George Washington, the first United States president.

The bill stated that it did not require the expenditure of any funds to accomplish the name change; however, state, regional, and federal authorities were later required to change highway and transit signs at their own additional expense as new signs were made.

21st century
In 2015, The Express conducted an online survey asking people what they call "the airport in Northern Virginia that's not Dulles." The results found that only 31% of people referred to the airport as "Reagan" and only 12% as "Reagan National", compared to 57% dropping the former president from the name. Political preference was shown to have a direct correlation with how people called the airport, with 72% of Republicans referring to the airport using "Reagan," while 64% of Democrats call it "National" or "DCA."

Given that Washington, D.C., is one of the most Democratic cities in the United States, the dominant name does not feature the name "Reagan".

Construction of current terminal buildings

With the addition of more flights and limited space in the aging main terminal, the airport began an extensive renovation and expansion in the 1990s. Hangar 11 on the northern end of the airport was converted into The USAir Interim Terminal, designed by Joseph C. Giuliani, FAIA. Soon after an addition for Delta Air Lines was added in 1989 and was later converted to Authority offices. These projects allowed for the relocation of several gates in the main terminal until the new $450 million terminal complex became operational. On July 27, 1997, the new terminal complex, Terminal 2, and two parking garages, opened. Argentine architect César Pelli designed the new terminals of the airport. The Interim Terminal closed immediately after its opening and was converted back into a hangar. One pier of the main terminal (now widely known as Terminal A), which mainly housed American Airlines and Pan Am, was demolished; the other pier, originally designed by Giuliani Associates Architects for Northwest and TWA remains operational today as gates A1–A9.

A land bridge is planned which would connect the airport with National Landing directly to Amazon HQ2.

Operations

Perimeter restrictions

Reagan National Airport is subject to a federally mandated perimeter limitation to keep it a short-haul airport and to keep most long-haul air traffic to Dulles International Airport. The rule was implemented in 1966 and originally limited nonstop service to , with some exceptions for previously existing service. Congress extended the limit in the 1980s to  and then again to . Congress and the United States Department of Transportation have created many "beyond-perimeter" exceptions that have weakened the rule.

Members of Congress repeatedly have sought to extend the limit and permit exceptions in order to allow nonstop service from National Airport to their home states and districts. In 1999, Senator John McCain of Arizona introduced legislation to remove the  restriction. In the end the restriction was not lifted, but in 2000 the FAA was permitted to add 24 exemptions, which went to Alaska Airlines for flights to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. America West later obtained exemptions for non-stop flights to Phoenix in 2004. In May 2012, the DOT granted new exemptions for Alaska to serve Portland, JetBlue to serve San Juan, Southwest to serve Austin and Virgin America to serve San Francisco. American, Delta, United and US Airways were also each allowed to exchange a pair of in-perimeter slots for an equal number of beyond-perimeter slots.

In 2023, representatives Chip Roy and Greg Casar, both of Austin, initiated a new bipartisan proposal to amend the perimeter under an FAA reauthorization bill; the current 1,250 mi perimeter passes through central Texas, giving the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex and Greater Houston access to Reagan while excluding Austin, El Paso and San Antonio, although Austin has a single daily nonstop flight under an exemption. Delta, Texas business interests, and Texas senator Ted Cruz back the amendment, while American Airlines and others oppose it, citing an FAA memo and statistics showing that Reagan has a high rate of delays and that additional flights may exceed its capacity.

Approach patterns

Reagan National Airport has some of the strictest noise restrictions in the country. In addition, due to security concerns, the areas surrounding the National Mall and U.S. Naval Observatory in central Washington are prohibited airspace up to . Due to these restrictions, pilots approaching from the north are generally required to follow the path of the Potomac River and turn just before landing. This approach is known as the River Visual. Similarly, flights taking off to the north are required to climb quickly and turn left.

The River Visual airport approach is only possible with a ceiling of at least  and visibility of  or more. There are lights on the Key Bridge, Theodore Roosevelt Bridge, Arlington Memorial Bridge and the George Mason Memorial Bridge to aid pilots following the river. Aircraft using the approach can be observed from various parks on the river's west bank. Passengers on the left side of an airplane can see the Capitol, the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, the World War II Memorial, Georgetown University, the National Mall, portions of Downtown Washington, D.C. (including the roof of Capital One Arena), and the White House. Passengers on the right side can see CIA headquarters, Arlington National Cemetery, the Pentagon, eastern Arlington, including portions of Rosslyn, Clarendon, Ballston, Crystal City, and the United States Air Force Memorial.

When the River Visual is not available due to visibility or winds, aircraft may fly an offset localizer or GPS approach to Runway 19 along a similar course (flying a direct approach course on instruments as far as Rosslyn, and then turning to align with the runway visually moments before touchdown). Most airliners are also capable of performing a VOR or GPS approach to the shorter Runway 15/33. Northbound visual and ILS approaches to Runway 1 are also sometimes used; these approaches follow the Potomac River from the south and overfly the Woodrow Wilson Bridge.

Special security measures
In 1938, Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order No. 7910, creating the first restricted airspace around the District of Columbia. This would be superseded by a number of executive orders clarifying the boundaries of the airspace until 1966, when it was codified into Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations, part 73. Title 14 created Prohibited Airspace 56 A and B (P-56A and P-56B). P-56A restricted flight around the National Mall, White House, and United States Capitol Building, while P-56B restricted flight in a half-mile radius from the center of the U.S. Naval Observatory. Only aircraft supporting the United States Secret Service, Office of the President, or some government agencies are permitted within the prohibited airspace.

In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks, a Flight-Restricted Zone (FRZ) was put into effect. Extending approximately 15 nautical miles (or roughly 17 miles) around the airport, only scheduled commercial flights and governmental flights are allowed into the zone without a waiver from the Federal Aviation Administration. Charter flights for the U.S. government are permitted to land at the airport and Joint Base Andrews under certain conditions.

After the September 11 attacks, the airport was closed for several weeks, and security was tightened when it reopened. Increased security measures included:
 A ban on aircraft with more than 156 seats (lifted in April 2002)
 A ban on the "River Visual" approach (lifted in April 2002)
 A requirement that, 30 minutes prior to landing or following takeoff, passengers were required to remain seated; if anyone stood up, the aircraft was to be diverted to Washington Dulles International Airport under military escort and the person standing would be detained and questioned by federal law enforcement officials (lifted in July 2005)
 A ban on general aviation (lifted in October 2005, subject to the restrictions below)
On October 18, 2005, National Airport was reopened to general aviation on a limited basis (48 operations per day) and under restrictions: passenger and crew manifests must be submitted to the Transportation Security Administration 24 hours in advance, and all planes must pass through one of roughly 70 "gateway airports" where re-inspections of aircraft, passengers, and baggage take place. An armed security officer must be on board before departing a gateway airport. On March 23, 2011, the air traffic control supervisor on duty reportedly fell asleep during the night shift. Two aircraft on approach to the airport were unable to contact anyone in the control tower and landed unassisted.

Terminals and facilities

DCA has 59 gates with jetways: 9 gates in Terminal 1 and 50 gates in Terminal 2 (13 gates in Concourse B, 12 in Concourse  C, 11 in Concourse D and 14 in the new Concourse E). The two terminals are not connected to each other post-security.
A new terminal and gate numbering scheme was implemented in 2022. Previously Terminal 1 was Terminal A, and Terminal 2 was Terminal B/C, as it is one building. All gates also now have a letter, A through E for each of the five concourses. Therefore, Gate 33 became Gate C33. Other changes include B Parking and C Parking, becoming Parking 2 South and Parking 2 North.

Terminal 1

Designed by architect Charles M. Goodman, terminal 1 opened in 1941 and was expanded in 1955 to accommodate more passengers and airlines. The exterior of this terminal has had its original architecture restored, with the airside façade restored in 2004 and the landside façade restored in 2008. The terminal underwent a $37 million renovation that modernized the airport's look by bringing in brighter lighting, more windows, and new flooring. The project was completed in 2014 along with a new expanded TSA security checkpoint. In 2014, additional renovations were announced including new upgraded concessions and further structural improvements, the project was completed in 2015. Terminal 1 contains gates A1–A9 and houses operations from Air Canada Express, Frontier, and Southwest, with Southwest having the largest presence in Terminal 1.

Terminal 2

Terminal 2 is the airport's newest and largest terminal; the terminal opened in 1997 and replaced a collection of airline-specific terminals built during the 1960s. The new terminal (Concourses B-D) was designed by architect Cesar Pelli and houses 35 gates. The terminal is directly connected to the WMATA airport station via indoor pedestrian bridges. Concourse E, which expanded Terminal 2, opened in 2021 as a replacement for Gate 35X, which was a bus gate.

Terminals 2 has four concourses. Concourse B (Gates B10–B22) houses Alaska Airlines, Delta, and United. Concourse C (Gates C23–C34) houses  American and JetBlue. Concourse D (Gates D35–D45) is exclusive to  American for their hub at DCA along with Concourse E (Gates E46–E59) that houses American Eagle  and American. The corridor/hall connecting the four concourses of Terminal 2 is known as National Hall. Concourse B houses a Delta Sky Club and United Club, and there are three American Admirals Clubs in Terminal 2. The Delta Sky Club was renovated in summer 2018.

Lounges
There are currently six airport lounges at the airport in all the Terminals. There are three American Airlines Admirals Clubs: one near gate C24 in concourse C, one in concourse D near gate D36, and one in Concourse E near gate E47. In concourse B there is a Delta Sky Club near gate B15, and a United Club near gate B10. In Terminal 1 there is a USO lounge for retired and active military members pre-security. Originally scheduled for 2022, an American Express Centurion Lounge is scheduled to open in terminal 2 in 2023 by door 1 on the ticketing level. A Capital One lounge is also scheduled to open in 2023.

Project Journey
MWAA began construction of a new concourse north of Terminal 2 in February 2018 to accommodate 14 new regional jet gates with jetways, bringing the total number of gates at DCA to 60. This replaced "Gate 35X," a bus gate formerly used to bring passengers to and from American Eagle flights that used parking spots on the ramp. Officially called Project Journey, construction was completed on April 20, 2021.

In addition, the individual security checkpoints for the four concourses in Terminal 2 were replaced with higher-capacity security checkpoints in two new buildings to the west of National Hall, located next to the two Metro station pedestrian bridges, and in between the two existing arrivals and departures roadways, placing all of National Hall within the secured area of the airport and allowing passengers to walk between concourses without re-clearing security. The new checkpoints were opened on November 9, 2021.

Ground transportation

The Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport station on the Washington Metro, served by the Yellow and Blue lines, is located on an elevated outdoor platform station adjacent to Terminal 2. Two elevated pedestrian walkways connect the station directly to the concourse levels of Terminal 2. An underground pedestrian walkway and shuttle services provide access to Terminal 1.

Metrobus provides service on weekend mornings before the Metro station opens or during any disruptions to regular Metro service.

Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is located on the George Washington Memorial Parkway, and connected to U.S. Route 1 by the Airport Viaduct (State Route 233). Interstate 395 is just north of the airport, and is also accessible by the G.W. Parkway and U.S. Route 1. Airport-operated parking garage facilities as well as economy lots are available adjacent to or near the various airport terminals.

The airport is accessible by bicycle and foot from the Mount Vernon Trail, as well as the sidewalk along the Airport Viaduct (State Route 233), which connects the airport grounds to U.S. Route 1. A total of 48 bike parking spots are available across six separate bike racks. The airport has a Capital Bikeshare station, making this the first major airport in the United States to have a dock-based bikeshare station.

Airlines and destinations

Statistics

Top destinations

Airline market share

Annual traffic

Abingdon plantation historical site
A part of the airport is located on the former site of the 18th and 19th century Abingdon plantation, which was associated with the prominent Alexander, Custis, Stuart, and Hunter families. In 1998, MWAA opened a historical display around the restored remnants of two Abingdon buildings and placed artifacts collected from the site in an exhibit hall in Terminal A. The Abingdon site is located on a knoll between parking Garage A and Garage B/C, near the south end of the Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Metrorail station.

Accidents and incidents

Page Airways
On April 27, 1945, a Page Airways Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar on a charter flight crashed into a deep ditch at the end of runway 33 after aborting a takeoff due to engine failure. There were strong gusts and ground turbulence at the time. Out of the 13 passengers and crew on board, six passengers were killed. Although a contemporary newspaper report indicated that the flight's intended destination had been Rochester, New York, the Civil Aeronautics Board's accident investigation report stated that the destination had been New York, N.Y.

Eastern Air Lines Flight 537

On November 1, 1949, a mid-air collision between an Eastern Air Lines passenger aircraft and a P-38 Lightning military plane took the lives of 55 passengers. The sole survivor was the Bolivian pilot of the fighter plane, Erick Rios Bridoux.

Bridoux's plane had taken off from National just 10 minutes earlier and was in contact with the tower during a brief test flight. The Eastern Air Lines DC-4 was on approach from the south when the nimble and much faster P-38 banked and plunged right into the passenger plane. Both aircraft dropped into the Potomac River.

Capital Airlines Flight 500
On December 12, 1949, Capital Airlines Flight 500, a Douglas DC-3, stalled and crashed into the Potomac River while on approach to Washington National. Six of the 23 passengers and crew on board were killed.

Air Florida Flight 90

On the afternoon of January 13, 1982, following a period of exceptionally cold weather and a morning of blizzard conditions, Air Florida Flight 90 crashed after waiting forty-nine minutes on a taxiway and taking off with ice and snow on the wings. The Boeing 737 aircraft failed to gain altitude. Less than  from the end of the runway, the airplane struck the 14th Street Bridge complex, shearing the tops off vehicles stuck in traffic before plunging through the  ice covering the Potomac River. Rescue responses were greatly hampered by the weather and traffic. Due to action on the part of motorists, a United States Park Service police helicopter crew, and one of the plane's passengers who later died, five occupants of the downed plane survived. The other 74 people who were aboard died, as well as four occupants of vehicles on the bridge. President Reagan cited motorist Lenny Skutnik in his State of the Union Address a few weeks later.

United Airlines Flight 2003 & Republic Airways 4736
On the morning of March 8, 2023, Republic Airways Flight 4736, an Embraer E175 (Registration N401YX) was given taxi instructions to cross Runway 4 at J but the airplane turned onto F and entered Runway 1. Meanwhile, a United Airlines Airbus A319 (Registration N819UA) started take-off from Runway 1. The Tower controller noticed that and cancelled takeoff clearence. Delta Airlines Flight 2476, an Airbus A321 that was on short final for Runway 1 was instructed to go-around. Originally, the DCA Ground Controller gave RPA4736 instructions to taxi to Runway 33 via taxiways; NOVEMBER, JULIET, FOXTROT, then Hold Short of Runway 1. The crew read these instructions back. As the crew approached Taxiway FOXTROT, the DCA Ground Controller gave them instructions to cross Runway 4 at JULIET and to monitor the Tower frequency. The crew read back these instructions. It is believed that this was a case of instruction bias. This incident took headlines as before this incident, two similar near-disastrous runway incursions occurred at two different airports around the United States.

References

External links

Airport Map Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority. June 2011
Historic American Engineering Record documentation:

KDCA - Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport at airnav.com

1941 establishments in Virginia
Aircraft hangars on the National Register of Historic Places
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command in North America
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Virginia
Airports established in 1941
Airports in Virginia
Airports on the National Register of Historic Places
Historic American Engineering Record in Virginia
Monuments and memorials to Ronald Reagan
Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority
National Register of Historic Places in Arlington County, Virginia
Transportation buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
Transportation in Arlington County, Virginia
Airports in the Washington metropolitan area


Kenneth Victor Campbell (10 December 1941 – 31 August 2008) was an English actor, writer and director known for his work in experimental theatre.  He has been called "a one-man dynamo of British theatre".

Campbell achieved notoriety in the 1970s for his nine-hour adaptation of the science-fiction trilogy Illuminatus! and his 22-hour staging of Neil Oram's play cycle The Warp. The Guinness Book of Records listed the latter as the longest play in the world.

The Independent said that, "In the 1990s, through a series of sprawling monologues packed with arcane information and freakish speculations on the nature of reality, he became something approaching a grand old man of the fringe, though without ever discarding his inner enfant terrible."  The Times labelled Campbell a one-man whirlwind of comic and surreal performance.

Michael Coveney, in an obituary in The Guardian, described him as "one of the most original and unclassifiable talents in the British theatre of the past half-century. A genius at producing shows on a shoestring and honing the improvisational capabilities of the actors who were brave enough to work with him." The artistic director of the Liverpool Everyman and Playhouse said, "He was the door through which many hundreds of kindred souls entered a madder, braver, brighter, funnier and more complex universe."

Early life and career
Campbell was born in Ilford, Essex, the son of Elsie (née Handley) and Anthony Colin Campbell, who was a telegrapher. He staged his first performances in the bathroom of his childhood home: "I was three years old and helped by my invisible friend, Peter Jelp, I put on shows for the characters in the linoleum."

He was educated at Chigwell School (where he won the Drama prize) and then studied at RADA before joining Colchester Repertory theatre as an understudy to Warren Mitchell. In 1967 he became resident dramatist and acting company member at the Victoria Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent. He soon began writing and directing his own productions, including working with director Lindsay Anderson. After seeing the American Living Theatre at The Roundhouse in 1969 he was inspired to found The Ken Campbell Roadshow, a small theatre group that performed in unconventional venues such as pubs. Members included Bob Hoskins, Bernard Wrigley, Jane Wood, Dave Hill and Sylvester McCoy. Campbell was invited by John Cleese to appear with his Roadshow team in the first  Secret Policeman's Ball in June 1979.

Theatre director and playwright

In 1976, he and Chris Langham formed the Science Fiction Theatre of Liverpool in order to stage Illuminatus, a nine-hour cycle of five plays by himself and Langham based on the cult trilogy of avowedly anarchist science fantasy novels of the same name by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. Starring Campbell and Langham themselves, the production featured Neil Cunningham, David Rappaport, Jim Broadbent, Bill Nighy and Campbell's future wife Prunella Gee. It later moved to the National Theatre, where it opened the new Cottesloe Theatre in 1977.

Sir Peter Hall, director of the National at the time, writes of Campbell in his Diaries, "He is a total anarchist and impossible to pin down. He more or less said it was a crime to be serious."

The Warp, based on the real life experiences and adventures of author Neil Oram, is a dizzying trek through the nether reaches of gurudom and tireless post-sixties mind-expansion, directed by Ken Campbell, and opened at London's Institute of Contemporary Arts in January 1979. It was spawned by the encounter between Oram and Campbell after Oram gave his acclaimed performance as raconteur at the ICA. Campbell commissioned the cycle of ten plays after hearing Oram. The cycle's inordinate length when (as was intended to be possible) it is played together, 22 hours,  rendered the 9-hour Illuminatus! a mere bagatelle by comparison. For the first two weeks the performances were of one play per night, after which the impetus for a marathon performance, a real challenge to actors and audience, became irresistible. The success of this remarkable effort by all concerned led to three full marathon performances at the ICA. Five marathon performances followed at the Roundhouse in London in November 1979 also directed by Ken. Probably the most remarkable, and in terms of the ethos of the author and the work, the most attractive event in this episode was the five marathons that were performed, against the wishes of an army of local officialdom, during a squat of the Regent Theatre in Edinburgh during the Festival of 1979. The Scottish audiences were as enthusiastic as the London crowd. After one performance at Hebden Bridge in Yorkshire, a further performance was given at Liverpool Everyman Theatre in a ten-week run from 29 September – 6 December 1980. Cult status was established giving some credence to the publicity material - "The world may soon divide into those who have been through THE WARP and those who have not" More recently the cycle was revived in the 1990s in a production directed by Campbell's daughter Daisy.

In May 1979, again at the ICA, the company presented the first stage version of  The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.  One eye-popping aspect of the production was that for each set change the entire audience was wafted 1/2000th-of-an-inch above the floor aboard an industrial hovercraft. The cast cavorted on various ledges and platforms. The craft's carrying capacity meant that audiences were limited to a maximum of eighty each night. Langham was Arthur Dent, Richard Hope as Ford Prefect and narration of The Book was split between two usherettes. The problem of how to portray Zaphod Beeblebrox, the Betelgeusian blessed with three arms and two heads - not an issue in the original radio series - was assailed in typical Campbell fashion by simply (or not so simply) putting two actors inside one large costume.

Audience-carrying capacity was not a problem at London's vast Rainbow Theatre where Campbell mounted a yet more grandiose version of The Hitchhiker's Guide in July 1980. The venue had been renovated in the 1970s to take rock operas. Some reviewers, who in general did not greet the show favourably, labelled it a musical, since it now came with incidental music and audacious laser effects. It ran for over three hours, despite attempts to shorten the script, and was forced to close some four weeks early, losing a lot of money in the process.

For a year, 1980–1981, Campbell was artistic director of the Liverpool Everyman Theatre. From 1984, he made repeated efforts to adapt for the stage VALIS, the largely autobiographical cult science fiction novel by Philip K. Dick, but to the disappointment of fans, these efforts came to nothing.

Television, radio and film
Campbell played Alex Gladwell, a corrupt lawyer, in one of the TV events of the 1970s, Law & Order, the notorious but ground-breaking corruption drama by G.F. Newman, a luminary of British TV screenwriting. The series provoked such a press outcry at the time that the BBC banned its overseas sale, since it was deemed to have portrayed Britain's police and criminal justice system in such a wholly unfavourable light.

He played Alf Garnett's neighbour, Fred Johnson in the series of the 1980s sitcom In Sickness and in Health, which had the effect of cementing his career-long friendship with Warren Mitchell. He was memorable in Jack Pulman's 1981 television series Private Schulz as the acerbic Herr Krauss, an underwear factory owner hoping the war would continue so as not to jeopardise his contracts with the German army.

Campbell in 1987 unsuccessfully auditioned for the part of the Seventh Doctor in Doctor Who. He was beaten to the role by his old protégé Sylvester McCoy, but an independently written and produced episode, "The Lost Doctor", features the voice of Ken Campbell. The then script editor, Andrew Cartmel, later revealed that Campbell's interpretation had been considered "too dark" to put on television. Other roles included playing a mad scientist on the children's programmeErasmus Microman on ITV from 1988 to 1989. He also played Roger in "The Anniversary" episode of Fawlty Towers, buck-toothed blackmailer Ted Goat in "Lovejoy Loses It", a 1993 episode of Lovejoy and a thieving flower-show entrant in "Say It With Flowers", a 2004 episode of Heartbeat.

Campbell's radio career included playing Poodoo in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, a part specifically written for him. The Radio 3 literary programme The Verb included Campbell as a regular contributor; in such spots as Campbell's Book Soup he became an upturner of bibliographic rocks, revealing unconsidered trifles to the hilarity of fellow contributors.

His film work included Derek Jarman's The Tempest (1979), Breaking Glass (1980), Joshua Then and Now (1985), The Bride (1985), Chris Bernard's Letter to Brezhnev (1985), Peter Greenaway's A Zed and Two Noughts (1985), Charles Crichton's A Fish Called Wanda (1988), Hard Men (1996), Alice in Wonderland (1999), Saving Grace (2000) and Creep (2004).

In the final years of his life Campbell suddenly found himself cast in a whole new TV role: that of doggedly curious sceptic called upon to probe the outer realms of particle physics and cognitive science on behalf of the casual viewer, particularly where the science bordered on the paranormal. Campbell's idiosyncratic presentation in Brainspotting, Reality On the Rocks  and Six Experiments that Changed the World, each made for Channel 4, owed much to the influence of one of his heroes, the American Charles Fort. Campbell became a star turn at the annual Fortean Times convention, UnCon.

Later career and one-man shows
From the late eighties onwards Campbell wrote and performed a series of one-man shows, each a mélange of autobiographical stand-up comedy, ontological speculation and popular-science rant. They include Recollections of a Furtive Nudist, Jamais Vu, Mystery Bruises and Pigspurt. Several were published by Methuen. He toured them worldwide.  Three of them were performed together at the National Theatre in 1993, as The Bald Trilogy: Furtive Nudist, Jamais Vu and Pigspurt.

Campbell was later commissioned by the National's director Trevor Nunn to write The History of Comedy Part One: Ventriloquism. The two had previously fallen out when Nunn had been director of the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1981. Campbell had carefully concocted a press release and a string of personal letters complete with forged signature: Nunn appeared to be announcing that henceforth, as a consequence of the huge success of its recent adaptation of Nicholas Nickleby, the Royal Shakespeare Company would be changing its name to the Royal Dickens Company. Several grandees of the English theatre had been taken in by the hoax. Only when an exasperated Nunn called in Scotland Yard did Campbell finally own up.

In 1999, Campbell starred with Warren Mitchell and John Fortune in Art in London's West End.

In 2001 Campbell staged a version of Macbeth in pidgin English, called Makbed (blong Willum Sekspia). It was the big gun in his campaign to get Bislama, first language of 6,000 inhabitants of the South Pacific islands of Vanuatu, formally adopted as a world language (wol wantok). The virtue of Bislama was that with a bit of determination you could pick it up in an afternoon. Campbell argued that, in certain respects, Macbeth in pidgin was better than the original. If nothing else, the campaign had the effect of bringing to a wider public the Bislama for Prince Philip: Nambawan bigfala emi blong Misis Kwin ("Number one big fellow him belong Mrs Queen").

With Alan Moore, Bill Drummond, Mixmaster Morris and Coldcut, he appeared at the Royal Festival Hall in 2007 in a memorial tribute to Robert Anton Wilson, co-author of the Illuminatus! novels.

In July 2008 Staffordshire University awarded Campbell an honorary doctorate, labelling him one of Staffordshire's "greatest living success stories", a reference to his time as artist in residence in 1967 at Stoke-on-Trent's Victoria Theatre.

Campbell final television appearance was on 6 September 2009, over a year after his death, in the first of a new series of Marple on ITV. He played Crump; his wife was played by Wendy Richard.

The School of Night
On 23 April 2005, Ken Campbell was asked by Mark Rylance, the artistic director of Shakespeare's Globe, to stage a celebration of Shakespeare's work. Campbell responded with Shall we Shog?, a show in which actors played competitive improvisational games against each other in the idiom of Shakespeare. These included games like 'flyting' (a tournament of increasingly outrageous insults); an explanation and demonstration of the 'Nub' (a piece of poetic-sounding doggerel an actor uses to give himself a breathing space when he has forgotten his lines - the first sentence should contain the word 'nub' to warn the others that the actor is in trouble, and it should end with the words "Milford Haven"); and fastest recitation of Hamlet's To be, or not to be soliloquy; among many others.

Campbell continued working with some of the actors from Shall We Shog, shedding and adding more along the way. He presented a series of literary improvisation shows, including a run at the Royal Court Theatre called Décor Without Production, in which the cast would create scenes and songs in the styles of poets, playwrights, novelists and songwriters.

In 2006 Campbell worked with Adam Meggido's theatre company the Sticking Place (now Extempore Theatre) and staged a run of In Pursuit of Cardenio at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, during which the cast were supposed to re-create a lost Shakespeare play through improvisational techniques. In practice it turned into a nightly-changing series of literary challenges for the performers. By the latter part of the run, a large section of the show was devoted to improvised songs. One example of the extent to which Campbell pushed the actors was that by the end, each member of cast had developed four musical styles in which they could improvise, each corresponding to a different Elizabethan humour. They would then perform fully sung-through scenes, swapping humours and song styles mid-sentence as the scene or Campbell demanded.

The Cardenio shows used Campbell's now well-established "Goader and Rhapsodes" technique, in which the goader (Campbell) pushed the rhapsodes (the cast) into feats that they would not be able to achieve without the pressure he could apply.

The group eventually consolidated and settled on the name "The School of Night", after Sir Walter Raleigh's secret society. Raleigh's School of Night (also called The School of Atheism) was a group of highly literate and intellectual men who would meet to discuss forbidden topics. Campbell's take on it was that the group, which included playwrights and poets, were steeped in the art of extemporisation and would create from scratch, in perfect meter, plays and poems.

Campbell's School of Night group has become well known in the improvisational theatre and comedy scene, putting on shows and workshops and appearing in festivals as far afield as Elisnore Castle, the Wiesbaden Summer Improv Festival and the Improvaganza festival in Edmonton, Canada, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe; and returning several times to Shakespeare's Globe.

In 2007, the work on singing in various styles of music that Campbell developed also led two of the members of the School of Night—Adam Meggido and Dylan Emery—to develop an improvised musical. The resulting show, which while not directed by Campbell, was enormously influenced by him, became Showstopper! The Improvised Musical. Its first run in Edinburgh was in 2008; it returned in subsequent years and has become something of a fringe institution. The show continues to tour and has had a BBC Radio 4 series. A West End run in 2016 won the Olivier for Best Entertainment and Family.

Campbell performed with 'The Showstoppers' in August 2008 in their second Edinburgh Fringe, reprising his School of Night role as on-stage director of proceedings in the final six shows of the run. For these performances, instead of taking suggestions from the audience regarding the setting and title of the show, Campbell had previously asked a number of professional theatre critics to each write a review of an imaginary musical; after this review was read onstage, the company's task would be to realise the show whose details they had only just heard. Campbell's last performance was on 24 August 2008, one week before he died.

Personal life
Campbell married the actress Prunella Gee in 1978, and they had a daughter, Daisy. They divorced in 1983 but remained close friends. He was in a relationship with the ventriloquist and actress Nina Conti when she was 26 and he was 59; from him she inherited his collection of ventriloquist dummies.

Campbell lived in Loughton, adjacent to Epping Forest, in a nineteenth-century Swiss chalet. His funeral, a woodland burial in Epping Forest, was attended by mourners with whom he had worked in the theatre.

Filmography

Bibliography
1972 - You See the Thing Is This: A One Act Comedy ()
1972 - Old King Cole ()
1975 - Skungpoomery ()
1976 - Jack Sheppard ()
1991 - Recollections of a Furtive Nudist ()
1993 - Pigspurt: Or Six Pigs from Happiness ()
1995 - The Bald Trilogy () - a volume collecting together Furtive Nudist, Pigspurt and Jamais Vu
1996 - Violin time; or, the Lady from Montségur ()
2000 - Wol Wantok () - a pidgin English version of Macbeth
2011 - Coveney, Michael, Ken Campbell: The Great Caper, Nick Hern Books, London ()
2011 - Merrifield, Jeff, Seeker! Ken Campbell: His Five Amazing Lives, Playback Publications, Shetland ()

Legacy

Many contemporary performers cite Ken Campbell as an influence early in their careers, including Richard Herring, Nina Conti, Cariad Lloyd, Diane Morgan and Michael Brunström.

References

External links

 Campbell on BBC Radio 3, on the Library of the Peculiar  & Jeremy Beadle
 Jeff Merrifield on putting Illuminatus! on stage
 Macbeth in pidgin English, 1998
 Background to The Warp and full script
 Recording of performance in Manchester of The Captain sequence from Pigspurt, December 1992

Interviews
 2004 recording of Campbell on the origins of Science Fiction Theatre of Liverpool
 Interview with James Nye, 1991
 Guardian interview, 2005
 Guardian interview about Campbell's work in theatrical improvisation, 2005

Obituaries
 Michael Billington, The Guardian, with tributes from friends and fans, 1 September 2008
 Michael Coveney, The Guardian, 1 September 2008
 The Daily Telegraph, 1 September 2008
 Ian Shuttleworth, The Financial Times, 3 September 2008
 Fortean Times, November 2008
 Mark Borkowski, Chortle, UK comedy website, 1 September 2008
 Thompson's Bank of Communicable Desire - includes audio on origin of the pidgin Macbeth & the One-Minute Warp
 Gemma Bodinetz, artistic director of the Liverpool Everyman & Playhouse
 What's on Stage tribute from Simon McBurney of Complicite
 The Fortean Institute
 The Independent, 3 September 2008
 The Times, 1 September 2008
 Liverpool Confidential
 Oblomovka Danny O'Brien
 BBC News
 BBC Radio 4's Last Word
 My Much-Missed Madcap Friend by Richard Eyre, The Guardian, 11 October 2009

Alumni of RADA
English male comedians
English male film actors
English male radio actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English theatre directors
Forteana
People educated at Chigwell School
Actors from Ilford
People from Loughton
1941 births
2008 deaths
20th-century English comedians
English people of Scottish descent
English male comedy actors

Ken Campbell


Infanta Marie Anne of Portugal (; 13 July 1861 – 31 July 1942) was Grand Duchess of Luxembourg as the wife of Grand Duke Guillaume IV. She was the regent of Luxembourg between 1908 and 1912; first during the illness of her spouse, and then in the name of their daughter, Grand Duchess Marie-Adélaïde.

Family

Born at Schloss Bronnbach in Bronnbach, Wertheim am Main, Kingdom of Württemberg, Infanta Marie Anne (or Maria Ana) was the fifth child and second-youngest daughter of the deposed King Miguel of Portugal and his wife Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein. She was a member of the House of Braganza. At the time of her birth, her father had been exiled, and the family lived as guests in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

In spite of their circumstances, the daughters of Princess Adélaïde and Miguel made royal marriages, some to reigning monarchs and deposed heads of Roman Catholic European dynasties.

Marriage and children

Before her marriage with William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, she was considered by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria as a suitable bride to his only son and heir, Crown Prince Rudolf, but Rudolf did not like her, and she would remain single for the next years.

Maria Ana was married on 21 June 1893 at Schloss Fischhorn, Zell am See, to the Protestant Wilhelm, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, the son and heir apparent of Adolf, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, head of the House of Nassau. It was agreed that the children would be raised in their mother's Catholic faith, the religion of the overwhelming majority of Luxembourg's population.

The couple had six daughters.
 Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg (1894–1924), who remained unmarried and childless
 Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg (1896–1985), who married her first cousin Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma, a son of Marie Anne's younger sister.
 Princess Hilda  (Berg Castle, 15 February 1897 – Berg Castle, 8 September 1979), married in Berg Castle on 29 October 1930 Adolf 10te Fürst zu Schwarzenberg (Frauenberg, 18 August 1890 – Bordighera, 27 February 1950), without issue
 Princess Antonia (1899–1954), who married Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria as his second wife
 Princess Elisabeth (Luxembourg, 7 March 1901 – Schloss Hohenburg, 2 August 1950), married in Schloss Hohenburg on 14 November 1922 Prince Ludwig Philipp of Thurn and Taxis (Regensburg, 2 February 1901 – Schloss Niederaichbach, 22 April 1933), son of Albert I, Prince of Thurn and Taxis, and had issue
 Princess Sophie (Berg Castle, 14 February 1902 – Munich, 24 May 1941), married at Schloss Hohenburg on 12 April 1921 Prince Ernst Heinrich of Saxony (Dresden, 9 December 1896 – Edingen-Neckarhausen, West Germany, 14 June 1971), youngest son of king Frederick Augustus III of Saxony, and had issue

Grand Duchess and regent

Wilhelm IV became grand duke on the death of his father on 17 November 1905, and Marie Anne became grand duchess. Because Wilhelm was the last agnate of the House of Nassau, he had Marie-Adélaïde confirmed and proclaimed heir presumptive on 10 July 1907.

Marie Anne was regent for her husband during his terminal illness from 19 November 1908 to 15 February 1912. She then continued as regent for her daughter, Grand Duchess Marie-Adélaïde, during her minority from 25 February 1912 to 18 June 1912. Marie-Adélaïde eventually abdicated in favor of her younger sister, Marie Anne's second daughter Charlotte in 1919.

During World War II the grand ducal family left Luxembourg shortly before the arrival of Nazi troops, settling in France until their capitulation, in June 1940.

Subsequently, the family and Grand Duchess Charlotte's ministers received transit visas to Portugal from the Portuguese consul Aristides de Sousa Mendes, in June 1940. After travelling through Coimbra and Lisbon, the family first stayed in Cascais, in Casa de Santa Maria, owned by Manuel Espírito Santo, who was then the honorary consul for Luxembourg in Portugal. By July they had moved to Monte Estoril, staying at the Chalet Posser de Andrade. Marie Anne stayed in Monte Estoril with her daughter, the Grand Duchess Charlotte, until 3 October 1940. On the same day, they boarded the Pan Am Yankee Clipper headed for New York City, from where they then left for Canada. With them travelled Prince Félix's aide de camp Guillaume Konsbruck, his wife Nelly and their sons, Guy and Carlo.

Marie Anne died in exile in New York on 31 July 1942.

See also
 Descendants of Miguel I of Portugal

Ancestry

References

|-

1861 births
1942 deaths
Grand Ducal Consorts of Luxembourg
Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel
House of Nassau-Weilburg
20th-century women rulers
House of Braganza
Burials at Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg
Portuguese infantas
Luxembourg–Portugal relations
19th-century Portuguese people
19th-century Portuguese women
Female regents
Royal reburials
Daughters of kings
Mothers of monarchs
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
20th-century regents

Infanta Marie Anne of Portugal


Vadim Jean (born Bristol, 9 December 1963) is an English film director, producer, and executive producer.

Career
After graduating with a degree in history from Warwick University, he found work on Mike Figgis' Stormy Monday, before establishing his own production company in 1989 covering a wide variety of subjects, from sport to corporate videos.

He first came to public attention as a director when Leon the Pig Farmer won him the FIPRESCI International Critics' Prize at the 1992 Venice Film Festival, the Best Newcomer award from the London Critics' Circle, the Most Promising Newcomer at the Evening Standard British Film Awards, and the Chaplin Award for the best first feature from the Edinburgh International Film Festival.

He repeated his critical success in 1999 when One More Kiss won the Audience Award at the Atlantic Film Festival, and was nominated for Best Film at the International Filmfest Emden.

His Hollywood debut was Jiminy Glick in Lalawood starring Martin Short as his celebrity interviewing alter-ego, produced by Gold Circle films.  The film also features Steve Martin and Kurt Russell as themselves.  It was selected as the closing gala at the 2004 Toronto International Film Festival.

In 2010 he directed In the Land of the Free... a feature documentary narrated by Samuel L. Jackson.  It tells the story of three men known as the Angola Three who among them have spent over a century in solitary confinement in the Louisiana State penitentiary.  It was nominated best documentary at the 2011 Evening Standard British Film Awards.

Filmography

References

External links

1963 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Warwick
English film directors
English film producers
People associated with the Discworld series

Vadim Jean


The Cane Corso is an ancient mastiff breed from Italy.  It is a large size dog which is very muscular and loves to run.  It is an excellent watchdog. The Cane Corso has been used to hunt animals such as wild boar.

The Cane Corso is highly intelligent, very trainable, and has a stable temperament. It's skin is tough.  It has excellent hearing.  It is important that this dog be socialized early.  If carefully trained as a pup, it is very good with other people while always being highly protective of its owner. His name derives from the Latin "Cohors" which means "guardian," "protector." The dog is highly tolerant of pain and sometimes electric fences are ignored by the dog.  The dog also loves and needs daily exercise.

Early training of this dog is imperative. The owner must introduce the dog to his environment. This includes family, friends, nearby cats and dogs.  This is because the Cane Corso breed is first and foremost highly protective of its owner.

References

Molossers
FCI breeds
Dog breeds originating in Italy

Cane Corso


Alexander Carl Otto Westphal (18 May 1863, Berlin – 9 January 1941, Bonn) was a German neurologist and psychiatrist. He was the son of the psychiatrist Karl Friedrich Otto Westphal (1833–1890) and Clara Mendelssohn and the grandson of Otto Carl Friedrich Westphal.

Alexander Westphal studied at Heidelberg and Berlin, receiving his doctorate at Berlin in 1888. He then became an assistant to Wilhelm Heinrich Erb (1840-1921) in Heidelberg and to Heinrich Curschmann (1846–1910) in Leipzig. In 1892 he became the head physician of the department for nervous diseases at the Berlin Charité under Friedrich Jolly (1844–1904), subsequently qualifying in the fields psychiatry and neurology (1894). In 1902 he accepted an invitation to the  University of Greifswald as an associate professor, and two years later relocated to the University of Bonn as full professor.

Westphal made contributions towards the literature involving diabetes insipidus, leukaemia and pseudoleukaemia, as well as a variety of topics in psychiatry and neurology. He is eponymously associated with the "Westphal-Pilcz sign" (neurotonic pupillary reaction), a medical indicator named in conjunction with Polish neurologist Jan Pilcz (1870–1931).

He also produced a compilation of a complete edition of his father's scientific works. He trained a number of significant scientists, including Otto Lowenstein (1889–1965), with whom he was co-author of Experimentelle und klinische Studien zur Physiologie und Pathologie der Pupillenbewegungen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Schizophrenie (part of the series, Abhandlungen aus der Neurologie, Psychiatrie, Psychologie und ihren Grenzgebieten.

References

Sources
Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology - Fulltext: Volume 25(1) March 2005 p 44-49 Otto Lowenstein, Pioneer Pupillographer at www.jneuro-ophthalmology.com

External links

 Alexander Karl Otto Westphal @ Who Named It

1863 births
1941 deaths
19th-century German Jews
German psychiatrists
German neurologists
Mendelssohn family
Physicians from Berlin

Alexander Carl Otto Westphal