Hatha yoga () is a branch of yoga that uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठ haṭha literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques. Some hatha yoga style techniques can be traced back at least to the 1st-century CE, in texts such as the Hindu Sanskrit epics and Buddhism's Pali canon. The oldest dated text so far found to describe hatha yoga, the 11th-century Amṛtasiddhi, comes from a tantric Buddhist milieu. The oldest texts to use the terminology of hatha are also Vajrayana Buddhist. Hindu hatha yoga texts appear from the 11th century onward.

Some of the early hatha yoga texts (11th-13th c.) describe methods to raise and conserve bindu (vital force, that is, semen, and in women rajas – menstrual fluid). This was seen as the physical essence of life that was constantly dripping down from the head and being lost. Two early hatha yoga techniques sought to either physically reverse this process of dripping by using gravity to trap the bindhu in inverted postures like viparītakaraṇī, or force bindu upwards through the central channel by directing the breath flow into the centre channel using mudras (yogic seals, not to be confused with hand mudras, which are gestures).

Almost all hathayogic texts belong to the Nath siddhas, and the important early ones (11th-13th c.) are credited to Matsyendranatha and his disciple, Gorakhnath or Gorakshanath (11th c.). Early Nāth works teach a yoga based on raising kuṇḍalinī through energy channels and chakras, called Layayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like the Vivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the hatha yoga mudrās. Later Nāth as well as Śākta texts adopt the practices of hatha yoga mudras into a Saiva system, melding them with Layayoga methods, without mentioning bindu. These later texts promote a universalist yoga, available to all, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations."

In the 20th century, a development of hatha yoga focusing particularly on asanas (the physical postures) became popular throughout the world as a form of physical exercise. This modern form of yoga is now widely known simply as "yoga".

Origins

Earliest textual references

According to the Indologist James Mallinson, some haṭha yoga style techniques practised only by ascetics can be traced back at least to the 1st-century CE, in texts such as the Sanskrit epics (Hinduism) and the Pali canon (Buddhism). The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. However, there is no mention of the tongue being inserted further back into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā. The Buddha also used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini. In the Mahāsaccaka sutta (MN 36), the Buddha mentions how physical practices such as various meditations on holding one's breath did not help him "attain to greater excellence in noble knowledge and insight which transcends the human condition." After trying these, he then sought another path to enlightenment. The term haṭha yoga was first used in the c. 3rd century Bodhisattvabhūmi, the phrase na haṭhayogena seemingly meaning only that the bodhisattva would get his qualities "not by force".

Transition from tantric Buddhism to Nāth hatha yoga

Tantric Buddhism

The earliest mentions of haṭha yoga as a specific set of techniques are from some seventeen Vajrayana Buddhist texts, mainly tantric works from the 8th century onwards. In Puṇḍarīka's c. 1030 Vimalaprabhā commentary on the Kālacakratantra, haṭha yoga is for the first time defined within the context of tantric sexual ritual:

While the actual means of practice are not specified, the forcing of the breath into the central channel and the restraining of ejaculation are central features of later haṭha yoga practice texts.

The c. 11th century Amṛtasiddhi is the earliest substantial text describing Haṭha yoga, though it does not use the term; it is a tantric Buddhist work, and makes use of metaphors from alchemy. A manuscript states its date as 1160. The text teaches mahābandha, mahāmudrā, and mahāvedha which involve bodily postures and breath control, as a means to preserve amrta or bindu (vital energy) in the head (the "moon") from dripping down the central channel and being burned by the fire (the "sun") at the perineum. The text also attacks Vajrayana deity yoga as ineffective. According to Mallinson, later manuscripts and editions of this text have obscured or omitted the Buddhist elements (such as the deity Chinnamasta which appears in the earliest manuscripts and was originally a Buddhist deity, only appearing in Hindu works after the 16th century). However, the earliest manuscript makes it clear that this text originated in a Vajrayana Buddhist milieu. The inscription at the end of one Amṛtasiddhi manuscript ascribes the text to Mādhavacandra or Avadhūtacandra and is "said to represent the teachings of Virūpākṣa". According to Mallison, this figure is most likely the Buddhist mahasiddha Virupa.

Early Hindu texts

The c. 10th century Kubjikāmatatantra anticipates haṭha yoga with its description of the raising of Kundalini, and a 6-chakra system.

Around the 11th century, techniques associated with Haṭha yoga also begin to be outlined in a series of early Hindu texts. The aims of these practices were siddhis (supranormal powers such as levitation) and mukti (liberation).

In India, haṭha yoga is associated in popular tradition with the Yogis of the Natha Sampradaya. Almost all hathayogic texts belong to the Nath siddhas, and the important ones are credited to Gorakhnath or Gorakshanath (c. early 11th century), the founder of the Nath Hindu monastic movement in India, though those texts post-date him. Goraknath is regarded by the contemporary Nath-tradition as the disciple of Matsyendranath (early 10th century), who is celebrated as a saint in both Hindu and Buddhist tantric and haṭha yoga schools, and regarded by tradition as the founder of the Natha Sampradaya. Early haṭha yoga works include:

 The Amaraughaprabodha (12th century, attributed to Goraknath) describes three bandhas to lock the vital energy into the body, as in the Amṛtasiddhi, but also adds the raising of Kundalinī.
 The Dattātreyayogaśāstra, a Vaisnava text probably composed in the 13th century CE, is the earliest text which provides a systematized form of Haṭha yoga, and the earliest to place its yoga techniques under the name Haṭha. It teaches an eightfold yoga identical with Patañjali's 8 limbs that it attributes to Yajnavalkya and others as well as eight mudras that it says were undertaken by the rishi Kapila and other ṛishis. The Dattātreyayogaśāstra teaches mahāmudrā, mahābandha, khecarīmudrā, jālandharabandha, uḍḍiyāṇabandha, mūlabandha, viparītakaraṇī, vajrolī, amarolī, and sahajolī.
 The Vivekamārtaṇḍa, an early Nāth text (13th century) attributed to Goraknath, contemporaneous with the Dattātreyayogaśāstra, teaches nabhomudrā (i.e. khecarīmudrā), mahāmudrā, viparītakaraṇī and the three bandhas. It also teaches six chakras and the raising of Kundalinī by means of "fire yoga" (vahniyogena).
 The Gorakṣaśataka, a Nāth text of the same period (13th century), teaches śakticālanīmudrā ("stimulating Sarasvatī") along with the three bandhas. "Stimulating Sarasvat" is done by wrapping the tongue in a cloth and pulling on it, stimulating the goddess Kundalinī who is said to dwell at the other end of the central channel. This text does not mention the preservation of bindu, but merely says that liberation is achieved by controlling the mind through controlling the breath.
 The ̣Śārṅgadharapaddhati, an anthology of verses on a wide range of subjects compiled by Sharngadharain 1363, describes Haṭha yoga including ̣the Dattātreyayogaśāstra's teachings on five mudrās.
 The Khecarīvidyā (14th century) teaches only the method of khecarīmudrā, which is meant to give one access to stores of amrta in the body and to raise Kundalinī via the six chakras.
 The Yogabīja (c. 14th century) teaches the three bandhas and śakticālanīmudrā ("stimulating Sarasvatī") for the purpose of awakening Kundalinī.

The earliest haṭha yoga methods of the Amṛtasiddhi, Dattātreyayogaśāstra and Vivekamārtaṇḍa are used to raise and conserve bindu (semen, and in women rajas – menstrual fluid) which was seen as the physical essence of life that was constantly dripping down from the head and being lost. This vital essence is also sometimes called amrta (the nectar of immortality). These techniques sought to either physically reverse this process (by inverted postures like viparītakaraṇī) or use the breath to force bindu upwards through the central channel.

In contrast to these, early Nāth works like the Gorakṣaśataka and the Yogabīja teach a yoga based on raising Kundalinī (through śakticālanī mudrā). This is not called haṭha yoga in these early texts, but Layayoga ("the yoga of dissolution"). However, other early Nāth texts like the Vivekamārtaṇḍa can be seen as co-opting the mudrās of haṭha yoga meant to preserve bindu. Then, in later Nāth as well as Śākta texts, the adoption of haṭha yoga is more developed, and focused solely on the raising of Kundalinī without mentioning bindu.

Mallinson sees these later texts as promoting a universalist yoga, available to all, without the need to study the metaphysics of Samkhya-yoga or the complex esotericism of Shaiva Tantra. Instead this "democratization of yoga" led to the teaching of these techniques to all people, "without the need for priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia or sectarian initiations."

Classical haṭha yoga

Haṭhayogapradīpikā

The Haṭhayogapradīpikā is one of the most influential texts of Haṭha yoga. It was compiled by Svātmārāma in the 15th century CE from earlier Haṭha yoga texts. Earlier texts were of Vedanta or non-dual Shaiva orientation, and from both, the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpika borrowed the philosophy of non-duality (advaita). According to Mallinson, this reliance on non-duality helped Haṭha yoga thrive in the medieval period as non-duality became the "dominant soteriological method in scholarly religious discourse in India". The text lists 35 great yoga siddhas starting with Adi Natha (Hindu god Shiva) followed by Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath. It includes information about shatkarma (six acts of self purification), 15 asana (postures: seated, laying down, and non-seated), pranayama (breathing) and kumbhaka (breath retention), mudras (internalized energetic practices), meditation, chakras (centers of energy), kundalini, nadanusandhana (concentration on inner sound), and other topics. The text includes the contradictory goals of raising Bindu, inherited from the Amritasiddhi, and of raising Kundalini, inherited from the Kubjikamatatantra.

Post-Hathayogapradipika texts

Post-Hathayogapradipika texts on Haṭha yoga include:

 Amaraughasasana: a Sharada script manuscript of this Haṭha yoga text was copied in 1525 CE. It is notable because fragments of this manuscript have also been found near Kuqa in Xinjiang (China). The text discusses khecarimudra, but calls it saranas. It links the squatting pose Utkatasana, rather than the use of mudras, with the raising of Kundalini.
 Yogacintamani: an early 17th-century text on the eight auxiliaries of yoga; the asana section describes 34 asanas, and variant manuscripts add another 84, mentioning most of the non-standing asanas used in modern yoga.
The Śivasamhitā: a 17th-century text of Śaiva non-dualism and Śrīvidyā Śāktism. It teaches all ten mudrās taught in earlier works as well as Śākta practices such as repeating the Śrīvidyā mantrarāja and adopting the yonimudrā posture; its goal is the awakening of Kundalinī so that it pierces various lotuses and knots as it rises upwards through the central channel.
 Hatha Ratnavali: a 17th-century text that states that Haṭha yoga consists of ten mudras, eight cleansing methods, nine kumbhakas and 84 asanas. The text is also notable for dropping the nadanusandhana (inner sound) technique.
 Hathapradipika Siddhantamuktavali: an early 18th-century text that expands on the Hathayogapradipikạ by adding practical insights and citations to other Indian texts on yoga.
 Gheranda Samhita: a 17th or 18th-century text that presents Haṭha yoga as "ghatastha yoga", according to Mallinson. It presents 6 cleansing methods, 32 asanas, 25 mudras and 10 pranayamas. It is one of the most encyclopedic texts on Haṭha yoga.
 Jogapradipika: an 18th-century Braj-language text by Ramanandi Jayatarama that presents Haṭha yoga simply as "yoga". It presents 6 cleansing methods, 84 asanas, 24 mudras and 8 kumbhakas.

Modern era

According to Mallinson, Haṭha yoga has been a broad movement across the Indian traditions, openly available to anyone:

Haṭha yoga represented a trend towards the democratization of yoga insights and religion similar to the Bhakti movement. It eliminated the need for "either ascetic renunciation or priestly intermediaries, ritual paraphernalia and sectarian initiations". This led to its broad historic popularity in India. Later in the 20th century, states Mallinson, this disconnect of Haṭha yoga from religious aspects and the democratic access of Haṭha yoga enabled it to spread worldwide.

Between the 17th and 19th century, however, the various urban Hindu and Muslim elites and ruling classes viewed Yogis with derision. They were persecuted during the rule of Aurangzeb; this ended a long period of religious tolerance that had defined the rule of his predecessors beginning with Akbar, who famously studied with the yogis and other mystics. Haṭha yoga remained popular in rural India. Negative impression for the Hatha yogis continued during the British colonial rule era. According to Mark Singleton, this historical negativity and colonial antipathy likely motivated Swami Vivekananda to make an emphatic distinction between "merely physical exercises of Haṭha yoga" and the "higher spiritual path of Raja yoga". This common disdain by the officials and intellectuals slowed the study and adoption of Haṭha yoga.

A well-known school of Haṭha yoga from the 20th century is the Divine Life Society founded by Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh (1887–1963) and his many disciples including, among others, Swami Vishnu-devananda – founder of International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres; Swami Satyananda – of the Bihar School of Yoga; and Swami Satchidananda of Integral Yoga. The Bihar School of Yoga has been one of the largest Haṭha yoga teacher training centers in India but is little known in Europe and the Americas.

Theos Casimir Bernard's 1943 book Hatha Yoga: The Report of A Personal Experience provides an informative but fictionalised account of traditional Haṭha yoga as a spiritual path.

Yoga as exercise

Yoga as exercise, of the type seen in the West, has been greatly influenced by Swami Kuvalayananda and his student Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught from 1924 until his death in 1989. Both Kuvalayananda and Krishnamacharya combined asanas from Haṭha yoga with gymnastic exercises from the physical culture of the time, dropping most of its religious aspects, to develop a flowing style of physical yoga that placed little or no emphasis on Haṭha yoga's spiritual goals. Among Krishnamacharya's students prominent in popularizing yoga in the West were K. Pattabhi Jois famous for popularizing the vigorous Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga style, B. K. S. Iyengar who emphasized alignment and the use of props in Iyengar Yoga, and by Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T. K. V. Desikachar. Krishnamacharya-linked schools have become widely known in the Western world. Examples of other branded forms of yoga, with some controversies, that make use of Haṭha yoga include Anusara Yoga, Bikram Yoga, Integral Yoga, Jivamukti Yoga, Kundalini Yoga, Kripalu Yoga, Kriya Yoga, Sivananda Yoga and Viniyoga. After about 1975, yoga has become increasingly popular globally, in both developed and developing countries.

Practice
Haṭha yoga practice is complex and requires certain characteristics of the yogi. Section 1.16 of the Haṭha yoga Pradipika, for example, states these to be utsaha (enthusiasm, fortitude), sahasa (courage), dhairya (patience), jnana tattva (essence for knowledge), nishcaya (resolve, determination) and tyaga (solitude, renunciation).

In Western culture, Haṭha yoga is typically understood as exercise using asanas and it can be practiced as such. In the Indian and Tibetan traditions, Haṭha yoga integrates ideas of ethics, diet, cleansing, pranayama (breathing exercises), meditation and a system for spiritual development of the yogi.

Goals

The aims of Haṭha yoga in various Indian traditions have included physical siddhis (special powers, bodily benefits such as slowing age effects, magical powers) and spiritual liberation (moksha, mukti). According to Mikel Burley, some of the siddhis are symbolic references to the cherished soteriological goals of Indian religions. For example, the Vayu Siddhi or "conquest of the air" literally implies rising into the air as in levitation, but it likely has a symbolic meaning of "a state of consciousness into a vast ocean of space" or "voidness" ideas found respectively in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Some traditions such as the Kaula tantric sect of Hinduism and Sahajiya tantric sect of Buddhism pursued more esoteric goals such as alchemy (Nagarjuna, Carpita), magic, kalavancana (cheating death) and parakayapravesa (entering another's body). Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation–driven means to liberation in Indian religions. The majority of historic Haṭha yoga texts do not give any importance to siddhis. The mainstream practice considered the pursuit of magical powers as a distraction or hindrance to Haṭha yoga's ultimate aim of spiritual liberation, self-knowledge or release from rebirth that the Indian traditions call mukti or moksha.

The goals of Haṭha yoga, in its earliest texts, were linked to mumukshu (seeker of liberation, moksha). The later texts added and experimented with the goals of bubhukshu (seeker of enjoyment, bhoga).

Diet

Some Haṭha texts place major emphasis on mitahara, which means "measured diet" or "moderate eating". For example, sections 1.58 to 1.63 and 2.14 of the Haṭha Yoga Pradipika and sections 5.16 to 5.32 of the Gheranda Samhita discuss the importance of proper diet to the body. They link the food one eats and one's eating habits to balancing the body and gaining most benefits from the practice of Haṭha yoga. Eating, states the Gheranda Samhita, is a form of a devotional act to the temple of body, as if one is expressing affection for the gods. Similarly, sections 3.20 and 5.25 of the Shiva Samhita includes mitahara as an essential part of a holistic Haṭha yoga practice.

Verses 1.57 through 1.63 of the critical edition of Haṭha Yoga Pradipika suggests that taste cravings should not drive one's eating habits, rather the best diet is one that is tasty, nutritious and likable as well as sufficient to meet the needs of one's body and for one's inner self. It recommends that one must "eat only when one feels hungry" and "neither overeat nor eat to completely fill one's stomach; rather leave a quarter portion empty and fill three quarters with quality food and fresh water".

According to another text, the Goraksha Sataka, eating a controlled diet is one of the three important parts of a complete and successful practice. The text does not provide details or recipes. The text states, according to Mallinson, "food should be unctuous and sweet", one must not overeat and stop when still a bit hungry (leave a quarter of the stomach empty), and whatever one eats should please Shiva.

Purifications

Haṭha yoga teaches various steps of inner body cleansing with consultations of one's yoga teacher. Its texts vary in specifics and number of cleansing methods, ranging from simple hygiene practices to the peculiar exercises such as reversing seminal fluid flow. The most common list is called the shatkarmas, or six cleansing actions: dhauti (cleanse teeth and body), basti (cleanse rectum), neti (cleanse nasal passages), trataka (cleanse eyes), nauli (abdominal massage) and kapalabhati (cleanse phlegm). The actual procedure for cleansing varies by the Haṭha yoga text, some suggesting a water wash and others describing the use of cleansing aids such as cloth.

Breath control

Prāṇāyāma is made out of two Sanskrit words prāṇa (प्राण, breath, vital energy, life force) and āyāma (आयाम, restraining, extending, stretching).

Some Haṭha yoga texts teach breath exercises but do not refer to it as Pranayama. For example, section 3.55 of the GherandaSamhita calls it Ghatavastha (state of being the pot). In others, the term Kumbhaka or Prana-samrodha replaces Pranayama. Regardless of the nomenclature, proper breathing and the use of breathing techniques during a posture is a mainstay of Haṭha yoga. Its texts state that proper breathing exercises cleanse and balance the body.

Pranayama is one of the core practices of Haṭha yoga, found in its major texts as one of the limbs regardless of whether the total number of limbs taught are four or more. It is the practice of consciously regulating breath (inhalation and exhalation), a concept shared with all schools of yoga.

This is done in several ways, inhaling and then suspending exhalation for a period, exhaling and then suspending inhalation for a period, slowing the inhalation and exhalation, consciously changing the time/length of breath (deep, short breathing), combining these with certain focussed muscle exercises. Pranayama or proper breathing is an integral part of asanas. According to section 1.38 of Haṭha yoga pradipika, Siddhasana is the most suitable and easiest posture to learn breathing exercises.

The different Haṭha yoga texts discuss pranayama in various ways. For example, Haṭha yoga pradipka in section 2.71 explains it as a threefold practice: recaka (exhalation), puraka (inhalation) and kumbhaka (retention). During the exhalation and inhalation, the text states that three things move: air, prana and yogi's thoughts, and all three are intimately connected. It is kumbhaka where stillness and dissolution emerges. The text divides kumbhaka into two kinds: sahita (supported) and kevala (complete). Sahita kumbhaka is further sub-divided into two types: retention with inhalation, retention with exhalation. Each of these breath units are then combined in different permutations, time lengths, posture and targeted muscle exercises in the belief that these aerate and assist blood flow to targeted regions of the body.

Posture

Before starting yoga practice, state the Haṭha yoga texts, the yogi must establish a suitable place. This is to be away from all distractions, preferably a mathika (hermitage) distant from falling rocks, fire and a damp shifting surface. Once a peaceful stable location has been chosen, the yogi begins the posture exercises called asanas. These postures come in numerous forms. For a beginner, states the historian of religion Mircea Eliade, the asanas are uncomfortable, typically difficult, cause the body to shake, and are typically unbearable to hold for extended periods of time. However, with repetition and persistence, as the muscle tone improves, the effort reduces and posture improves. According to the Haṭha yoga texts, each posture becomes perfect when the "effort disappears", one no longer thinks about the posture and one's body position, breathes normally in pranayama, and is able to dwell in one's meditation (anantasamapattibhyam).

The asanas vary significantly between Haṭha yoga texts, and some of the names are used for different poses. Most of the early asanas are inspired by nature, such as a form of union with symmetric, harmonious flowing shapes of animals, birds or plants.

Mudras

According to Mallinson, in the earliest formulations, Haṭha yoga was a means to raise and preserve the bindu, believed to be one of the vital energies. The two early Haṭha yoga techniques to achieve this were inverted poses to trap the bindu using gravity, or mudras (yogic seals) to make breath flow into the centre channel and force bindu up. However, in later Haṭha yoga, the Kaula visualization of Kuṇḍalini rising through a system of chakras was overlaid onto the earlier bindu-oriented system. The aim was to access amṛta (the nectar of immortality) situated in the head, which subsequently floods the body, in contradiction with the early Haṭha yoga goal of preserving bindu.

The classical sources for the mudras are the Gheranda Samhita and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. The yoga mudras are diverse in the parts of the body involved and in the procedures required, as in Mula Bandha, Mahamudra, Viparita Karani, Khecarī mudrā, and Vajroli mudra.

Meditation

The Haṭha Yoga Pradipika text dedicates almost a third of its verses to meditation. Similarly, other major texts of Haṭha yoga such as the Shiva Samhita and the Gheranda Samhita discuss meditation. In all three texts, meditation is the ultimate goal of all the preparatory cleansing, asanas, pranayama and other steps. The aim of this meditation is to realize Nada-Brahman, or the complete absorption and union with the Brahman through inner mystic sound. According to Guy Beck – a professor of Religious Studies known for his studies on Yoga and music, a Hatha yogi in this stage of practice seeks "inner union of physical opposites", into an inner state of samadhi that is described by Haṭha yoga texts in terms of divine sounds, and as a union with Nada-Brahman in musical literature of ancient India.

Differences from Patanjali yoga

Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga. It shares numerous ideas and doctrines with other forms of yoga, such as the more ancient system taught by Patanjali. The differences are in the addition of some aspects, and different emphasis on others. For example, pranayama is crucial in all yogas, but it is the mainstay of Haṭha yoga. Mudras and certain kundalini-related ideas are included in Haṭha yoga, but not mentioned in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali yoga considers asanas important but dwells less on various asanas than the Haṭha yoga texts. In contrast, the Haṭha yoga texts consider meditation as important but dwell less on meditation methodology than Patanjali yoga.

The Haṭha yoga texts acknowledge and refer to Patanjali yoga, attesting to the latter's antiquity. However, this acknowledgment is essentially only in passing, as they offer no serious commentary or exposition of Patanjali's system. This suggests that Haṭha yoga developed as a branch of the more ancient yoga. According to P.V. Kane, Patanjali yoga concentrates more on the yoga of the mind, while Haṭha yoga focuses on body and health. Some Hindu texts do not recognize this distinction. For example, the Yogatattva Upanishad teaches a system that includes all aspects of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and all additional elements of Haṭha yoga practice.

See also
 Kriya Yoga
 Kundalini yoga

Notes

References

Bibliography

  (2009 Reprint)

External links

Hindu philosophy
Schools and traditions in ancient Indian philosophy

Hatha yoga


The Weeping Woman is an iconic painting. It was painted by Pablo Picasso. It is an oil painting done on canvas. Picasso painted this after his break-up with his mistress, Dora Maar. After the breakup he always said she was weeping there for creating the term of "Weeping Woman". Pablo Picasso used his skill for geometric shapes and design in the painting. You can see multiple dimensions in this picture. Made in 1937 it shows how old  Pablo Picasso would be now, though also how experienced he was then, being born in 1881. The level of experience it would take to be capable of such a level of geometric art work is surprisingly high considering there have been so many artists over the eras who have mastered it.

1930s paintings

The Weeping Woman


The Knut Erikson Three-Decker is a historic triple decker apartment building in Worcester, Massachusetts.  Built c. 1912, the building exhibits some well-preserved Colonial Revival features, although some (like the porches) have been lost.  The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.

Description and history
The Knut Erikson Three-Decker is located in Worcester's eastern Bell Hill neighborhood, on the west side of Stanton Street between Belmont and Ivan Streets.  It is a three-story wood frame structure, with a gabled roof and exterior finished in a combination of wooden clapboards and shingles.  The front-facing gable end has deep eaves, and is fully pedimented with a window opening at the center.  The facade is otherwise asymmetrical, with a three-story projecting polygonal window bay on the left, and the former site of a porch stack on the right.  The left side also has a projecting polygonal bay, and a single-story porch with a shed roof supported by turned posts near the rear.

The house was built about 1912, during the final phases of triple-decker construction in the Belmont Street area.  It originally had finely crafted porches on the right side, supported by paired round columns.  Early occupants of the house were of Swedish or Finnish extraction, and were typically skilled laborers working for the city's manufacturers.  The first documented owner, Knut Erikson, was a painter who lived here at least until 1930.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in eastern Worcester, Massachusetts

References

Apartment buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Colonial Revival architecture in Massachusetts
Houses completed in 1912
Apartment buildings in Worcester, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Worcester, Massachusetts
1912 establishments in Massachusetts

Knut Erikson Three-Decker


Albert Grieg Rutherford (January 3, 1879 – August 10, 1941) was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Albert G. Rutherford was born in Watford, Ontario, Canada.  He immigrated to the United States in 1883 with his parents, who settled in Carbondale, Pennsylvania.  He attended Blair Academy in Blairstown, NJ, and the Scranton-Lackawanna Business College. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania Law School at Philadelphia in 1904, where he became a member of the Delta Chi fraternity.

He served as deputy prothonotary of Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, from 1907 to 1914. He moved to Honesdale, Pennsylvania, in 1918 and continued the practice of law. He enlisted in the Pennsylvania National Guard in 1904, and served as a lieutenant colonel of the Second Pennsylvania Reserve Militia in 1918.

Rutherford was elected as a Republican to the Seventy-fifth, Seventy-sixth, and Seventy-seventh Congresses and served until his death in Washington, D.C. in 1941.

See also
 List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49)

Sources

The Political Graveyard

1879 births
1941 deaths
Canadian emigrants to the United States
People from Lambton County
Blair Academy alumni
University of Pennsylvania Law School alumni
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania

Albert G. Rutherford


"Only a God Can Save Us" () refers to an interview given by Martin Heidegger to Rudolf Augstein and Georg Wolff for Der Spiegel magazine on September 23, 1966. Heidegger agreed to discuss his political past but asked for the publication to be delayed until after his death. The interview went beyond personal questions to address the general connections between philosophy, politics, and culture (as indicated by the title quote). It was published five days after Heidegger's death, on 31 May 1976. The English translation was produced by William J. Richardson.

Summary concerning Heidegger's political past
The title derives from a passage of the interview in which Heidegger speaks of the impotence of philosophy in the face of the present crisis of civilization: "Only a god can save us. The only possibility available to us is that by thinknig and poetizing we prepare a readiness for the appearance of a god, or for the absence of a god in [our] decline, insofar as in view of the absent god we are in a state of decline".

In the interview, Heidegger defended his entanglement with National Socialism in two ways: first, he argued that there was no alternative, saying that with his acceptance of the position of rector of the University of Freiburg he was trying to save the university (and science in general) from being politicized and thus had to compromise with the Nazi administration. Second, he admitted that he saw an "awakening" (Aufbruch) which might help to find a "new national and social approach," but said that he changed his mind about this in 1934, when he refused, under threat of dismissal, to remove from the position of dean of the faculty those who were not acceptable to the Nazi party, and he consequently decided to resign as rector.

In his interview Heidegger defended as double-speak his 1935 lecture describing the "inner truth and greatness of this movement." He affirmed that Nazi informants who observed his lectures would understand that by "movement" he meant National Socialism. However, Heidegger asserted that his dedicated students would know this statement was no apologia for the NSDAP. Rather, he meant it as he expressed it in the parenthesis that he did not read out yet claimed in the interview was present from the beginning (and included in his Introduction to Metaphysics (1953), namely, "the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity."

The Löwith account from 1936, according to which Löwith, in Rome, had exhibited an SS insignia during a conference, has been cited to contradict the account given in the Der Spiegel interview in two ways: that he did not make any decisive break with National Socialism in 1934, and that Heidegger was willing to entertain more profound relations between his philosophy and political involvement. The Der Spiegel interviewers did not bring up Heidegger's 1949 quotation comparing the industrialization of agriculture to the extermination camps. In fact, the interviewers were not in possession of much of the evidence now known for Heidegger's Nazi sympathies.

See also
Martin Heidegger and Nazism

References

External links
English text
Martin Heidegger and Nazism,  "Only A God Can Save Us"  by Jeffrey van Davis

Works by Martin Heidegger
Interviews
Works originally published in German magazines
Der Spiegel
1966 documents
1966 in philosophy
1976 in philosophy

Only a God Can Save Us


The Henry Samueli School of Engineering (HSSoE) is the academic unit of the University of California, Irvine (UC Irvine) that oversees academic research and teaching in disciplines of the field of engineering. Established when the campus opened in 1965, the school consists of five departments, each of which is involved in academic research in its specific field, as well as several interdisciplinary fields. The school confers Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees.

According to the UC Irvine academic catalogue, HSSoE research areas include: biochemical and bioreactor engineering, earthquake engineering, water resources, transportation, parallel and distributed computer systems, intelligent systems and neural networks, image and signal processing, opto-electronic devices and materials, high-frequency devices and systems, integrated micro and nanoscale systems, fuel cell technology, fluid mechanics, combustion and jet propulsion, materials processing, robotics, and modern control theory.

In 2000, the school, along with its counterpart at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), were renamed in honor of Henry Samueli, co-founder of Irvine-based Broadcom Corporation, for his 1999 donations of $20 million and $30 million to the schools of engineering at UC Irvine and UCLA, respectively.

The most recent permanent Dean of the HSSoE was Gregory Washington, who held the position from August 1, 2011 until July 1, 2020 when he resigned in order to accept appointment as President of George Mason University. Michael Green currently serves as interim dean, and Magnus Egerstedt will take over as dean in July 2021.

Departments
 Biomedical Engineering (BME)
 Chemical Engineering and Biomolecular Engineering (CBE)
 Civil and Environmental Engineering (CEE)
 Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS)
 Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (MAE)
 Materials Science and Engineering (MSE)

Degrees conferred
Each of the five departments confers Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees. The School of Engineering also offers a general B.S. degree in Engineering to upper-division students who wish to pursue an interdisciplinary program of study spanning more than one of the engineering departments, or a program not offered by one of the departments such as hydrology or project management.

The School of Engineering offers interdisciplinary degrees in conjunction with the Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences: a B.S. in computer science and engineering, and M.S. and Ph.D. in Networked Systems.

Most, but not all, undergraduate degree programs are accredited by ABET. The first program to receive accreditation was Electrical Engineering in 1968; the most recent was Biomedical Engineering in 2008. Programs not accredited include two of the aforementioned interdisciplinary degrees (general Engineering, Networked Systems).

Research centers

In keeping with the University of California's primary mission as a research institution, all of the HSSoE's departments are  involved in academic research. Additionally, HSSoE faculty and students are involved with several interdisciplinary research centers affiliated with UCI, other academic, research, or medical institutions, government agencies, and private industry. These research centers include:
Advanced Power and Energy Program (APEP)
Beckman Laser Institute
California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology (Calit2)
Carl Zeiss Center of Excellence for Electron Microscopy
Center for Advanced Monitoring and Damage Inspection (CAMDI)
Center for Biomedical Signal Processing and Computation (CBMSPC)
Center for Embedded Computer Systems
Center for Engineering Science in Design
Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS)
Center for Pervasive Communications and Computing
Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center
The Edwards Lifesciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology
Gavin Herbert Eye Institute
Integrated Nanosystems Research Facility (INRF)
Institute for Clinical and Translational Science (ICTS)
Institute of Transportation Studies
Lasers, Flames, and Aerosols Laboratory (LFA)
Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics (LFD)
LifeChips
Materials Characterization Center (MC2)
Micro/Nano Fluidics Fundamentals Focus Center (MF3)
National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC)
Networked Systems Center
RapidTech, National Center for Rapid Technologies
Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center
UCI Combustion Laboratory
Urban Water Research Center (UWRC)

Facilities

Most of the school's facilities occupy one of the "spokes" of the UC Irvine campus' "Ring Road", its main  circular pedestrian mall on which the university's academic schools (except for Arts, Business, and Medicine) are situated. This includes department offices, faculty offices, laboratories, classrooms and lecture halls, and a number of research facilities. Architecturally speaking, the school consists of a buildings ranging from brutalist to postmodern.

The brutalist Engineering Tower, designed by the Los Angeles firm Kistner, Wright & Wright and constructed in 1969-1970 during the campus' original building boom, is the tallest building on the main campus. It is noted for its cantilevered design which makes it nearly twice as wide at the top than at the base. Most of the remaining buildings, including the postmodern Engineering Gateway and flagship Calit2 facility, were built during the campus building boom that has lasted from the late 1980s until the present. The school also has portable classroom buildings that house classrooms, laboratories, and offices.

For many years Engineering shared some facilities with the Department of Information and Computer Science (ICS), including the Frank Gehry-designed ICS/Engineering Research Facility (IERF). However, following ICS' 2002 elevation to school status, as well as its 2004 endowment from Orange County real estate mogul Donald Bren, ICS moved many of its laboratories and offices out of shared space into the newly constructed Bren Hall located between Engineering and the Physical Sciences. IERF was demolished in 2007 and Engineering Hall was built in its place.

Figures
Founded as the School of Engineering in 1965 with just two faculty members and 75 students declaring engineering majors; the school today serves more than 4,500 students (3,598 undergraduates and 951 graduates) enrolled in 12 undergraduate degree majors and 13 graduate degree programs. The school was renamed The Henry Samueli School of Engineering in 1999 after Samueli, co-founder, chairman and chief technical officer of Broadcom Inc., made a generous donation.

Faculty members are scholars and leaders in their disciplines and have achieved worldwide honors and recognition for their pioneering research and dedicated teaching. Nearly a third are fellows in professional societies, and 13 are members of the National Academy of Engineering. The school has nine endowed chairs, seven Distinguished Professors and four Chancellor's Professors.

The school's emphasis on hands-on learning is attracting high-achieving students who want more than a classroom experience. This year's class of incoming freshmen had the highest-ever average SAT score of 1,980 and an average GPA of 4.09. Thirty-nine percent are first-generation college students and 27 percent are from low-income families. This past year, the school granted 805 bachelor's degrees, 284 master's degrees and 87 doctorates.

Undergraduate and graduate student diversity is a key initiative for the Samueli School, with efforts to increase both underrepresented students and women. The school is actively involved in STEM outreach, from teacher training and a variety of K-12 programs to a collaboration with local community colleges.

Research is integral to the school's mission to educate students and benefit society. Engineering faculty pursue investigations that are timely, socially responsible and forward thinking. They work in partnership with industry and state and federal agencies to promote the transfer of research to applications that improve lives. More than two-thirds of undergraduate students actively participate in faculty-led projects. Current research thrusts include communications and information technology, human health, energy and sustainability, and advanced manufacturing and materials.

The Samueli School of Engineering is ranked 21st in U.S. News & World Report's current listing of best public engineering graduate schools. Its undergraduate program is ranked 27th among publics. Rankings are based on a survey of engineering deans and senior faculty at ABET-accredited programs in which a doctorate is the terminal degree.

Private support from the community, alumni and corporations grew to $35.8 million in 2016–17. Gifts to the Samueli School help fund scholarships and fellowships for students, exciting research activities being conducted by faculty and graduate students, STEM outreach and critical academic programs.

Notable faculty
Satya N. Atluri, distinguished professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Michael W. Berns, professor of Biomedical Engineering
Daniel Gajski, The Henry Samueli "Turing" Endowed Chair in Computer Systems Design, professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Enrico Gratton, professor of Biomedical Engineering
Payam Heydari, professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Syed Ali Jafar, professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Hamid Jafarkhani, professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Michelle Khine, associate professor of Biomedical Engineering
Abraham P. Lee, professor of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
G.P. Li, professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Robert H. Liebeck, adjunct professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
James H. Mulligan Jr., former dean and professor of Electrical Engineering
Henry Samueli, adjunct professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Scott Samuelsen, professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Frank Shi, professor of Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Materials Science and Computer Science
Soroosh Sorooshian, distinguished professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth System Science
Lee Swindlehurst, professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Bruce J. Tromberg, professor of Biomedical Engineering and of Surgery and Physiology and Biophysics (School of Medicine)
Jasper A. Vrugt, assistant professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
H. Kumar Wickramasinghe,  professor of electrical engineering and computer science
Albert F. Yee, professor of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science

See also
 Engineering education

References

External links

University of California, Irvine
Henry
Engineering schools and colleges in the United States
1965 establishments in California
Educational institutions established in 1965
Science and technology in Greater Los Angeles

Henry Samueli School of Engineering


Ellipsometry is a measurement method used by scientists who want to study solid materials or the surface of solids. It works by shining polarized light on a thin slice of a material and then looking to see how the nature of that light is changed when it is reflected by the sample.

Ellipsometry can be used to investigate different thin films of many different  materials, of organic or inorganic origin.  Inorganic subjects are things  such as metals, semiconductors, insulators and also liquid crystals.

The frequency range used covers not just visible light but whole the spectrum from the microwave range, the terahertz range, infrared light, visible light up to the range of ultraviolet light.

References

Electromagnetism
Measuring tools
Optical devices
Spectroscopy

Ellipsometry


All Saints' Blackheath is an Anglican parish church in Blackheath, London. Today a Grade II listed building, it was opened in November 1858 by the Bishop of London and was designed by Benjamin Ferrey.

History
Until the early 19th century, the hamlet of Blackheath south of the common was served by churches in nearby Greenwich, Lee, Lewisham and Charlton. In 1854, residents appealed for the building of their own church, and, in 1857, construction of a parish church was agreed. Land on the southern edge of the common was donated by William Legge, 5th Earl of Dartmouth, and he laid the foundation stone on 26 October 1857. On All Saints' Day, 1 November 1858, the Bishop of London, Archibald Campbell Tait, consecrated the church, which had been designed by the architect Benjamin Ferrey; construction continued until 1867. From 1867 to 1905, the church formed part of the Diocese of Rochester; it now falls under the Diocese of Southwark.

The church hosted choirs assembled by Sir Arthur Sullivan and Gustav Holst; the opera composer Alfred Cellier was organist from 1862 to 1866, playing an organ made by Hill & Son in 1859 (and later enlarged by them).

A memorial screen commemorating local people who died in World War I was unveiled inside the church in April 1920.

All Saints' was given listed building status in August 1954.

Terry Waite, humanitarian and a hostage in Lebanon between 1987 and 1991, lived in Blackheath and worked at All Saints' Blackheath. For the five years of Waite's detention the vicar, Rev Henry Burgin, kept a candle lit in the church.

Architecture

Ferrey designed a church which was constructed with Kentish ragstone and has a spire on its south-west corner. Vestries were added in 1890 and a porch in 1899, both to designs by Arthur Blomfield.

Pevsner described it as "Puginian … already old fashioned", adding it was "Remarkable for the way in which it is placed right into the heath. Surrounded on all sides by grass, it stands as if it were a model."

Associated buildings
A National School of Industry, founded in Blackheath Vale in 1825, was taken over by the All Saints' parish in 1867, becoming All Saints' Girls School. This moved to a new site in Blackheath Vale in 1878, and in 1939 became an infants and junior mixed school, All Saints' C of E Primary School.

In 1924 the church appointed the recently retired London County Council architect Charles Canning Winmill (1865-1945), who lived locally at 2 Eliot Place and attended the church, to design All Saints' Parish Hall, which was constructed on land donated by the 6th Earl of Dartmouth in nearby Tranquil Vale and opened in 1928.

References

19th-century Church of England church buildings
Anglican Diocese of Southwark
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Lewisham
Grade II listed churches in London

All Saints' Blackheath


Cunipert (also Cunibert or Cunincpert) was king of the Lombards from 688 to 700. He succeeded his father Perctarit, though he was associated with the throne from 680.

Life
Soon after his assumption of the sole kingship, Cunipert was ousted by Alahis, duke of Brescia (who had previously been duke of Trento). Alahis had also rebelled during the reign of Perctarit, but it was Cunipert who, according to Paul the Deacon in the Historia Langobardorum, had persuaded his father to show mercy. Perctarit is reported to have warned his son of the consequences. It was thus soon after Perctarit's death that Alahis forced Cunipert to flee to Isola Comacina, an island in the middle of Lake Como.

The only extant record of the rule of Alahis is contained in Book V of Paul the Deacon's Historia Langobardorum. His rule is portrayed as burdensome and tyrannical, and particularly antagonistic to the Catholic Church. Having lost the support of the Church and, crucially, of the 'people' (notably the brothers Aldo and Grauso of Brescia), Cunipert was able to return to Pavia and resume control. Alahis, however, was able to acquire sufficient support to bring the matter to battle. Cunipert, with the men of Piedmont, defeated Alahis and the men of Venetia at the Battle of Coronate, on the Horn of the Adda, near Lodi, in 689.  Alahis was slain in battle.

Cunipert suppressed other insurrections during his reign, including that of the usurper Duke Ansfrid of Friuli.

He also successfully settled the schism of the Three Chapters in the Italian Church between the patriarch of Aquileia and his rival patriarch of Grado.

He died in 700 and was succeeded by his young son Liutpert, the regent Ansprand, and many rebels. Many wars took place during his reign. He is notably the first Lombard monarch to strike coins in his image. (For his epitaph, see Latin rhythmic hexameter.) He was buried in the Basilica of Santissimo Salvatore in Pavia.

References

Further reading
Antonopoulos, Panagiotis. The Reign of Cunincpert: Saga, Reality, Stability and Progress in Lombard Italy at the End of the Seventh Century. Camberley, Surrey: Porphyrogenitus Ltd., 2010.

700 deaths
7th-century Lombard monarchs
Lombard warriors
Bavarian dynasty
Year of birth unknown

Cunipert


George Archibald McCall (March 16, 1802 – February 25, 1868) was a United States Army officer who became a brigadier general and prisoner of war during the American Civil War.  He was also a naturalist.

Biography
McCall was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Archibald McCall (1767–1843), a descendant of the Schuyler family and the Van Cortlandt family through his ancestors Stephanus Van Cortlandt and Gertrude Schuyler, and Elizabeth Cadwalader.

He was appointed from Pennsylvania to the United States Military Academy at West Point, graduating in 1822, 26th in his class of 40. His service took him to Florida, especially the Pensacola area. He enjoyed his time in Pensacola, writing frequently of his life there as a 2nd Lieutenant. He was promoted to 1st Lieutenant after seven years and, in 1846, to the rank of captain. He was assigned to the 1st U.S. Infantry then the 4th U.S. Infantry before serving as aide-de-camp to Gen. Edmund P. Gaines into the beginning of the Second Seminole War. He distinguished himself during the Mexican–American War under Zachary Taylor, receiving brevet promotions to major for gallantry at Palo Alto and to lieutenant colonel for Resaca de la Palma. Appreciative leading Philadelphians presented him a sword upon his return to the city in 1847. On August 30, 1851, at the age of 49, he was married to Elizabeth McMurtrie. The marriage was a happy one, and at least two sons and one daughter were born to the couple. He retired with 31 years service as colonel and Inspector General of the Army in 1853.

He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1854.

At the beginning of the Civil War, McCall helped organize Pennsylvania volunteers as major general of the state militia and was commissioned brigadier general of volunteers in May 1861. He helped organize and led the famous Pennsylvania Reserves Division, which served as the 2nd Division, I Corps, Army of the Potomac, and 3rd Division, V Corps. He was one of the oldest West Point graduates to serve in the war.

McCall served in the Peninsula Campaign and was wounded and captured at Frayser's Farm, Virginia, in June 1862. While trying to ascertain his position without his staff officers, he instead met the 47th Virginia, part of General James Longstreet's command. Longstreet had served as a brevet Second Lieutenant under Mccall in the 4th U.S. Infantry. He was imprisoned in Libby Prison in Richmond, Virginia. Previous illness was aggravated by his confinement in prison, and after his exchange (for Simon Bolivar Buckner) in August, McCall resigned due to poor health in March 1863.

In retirement, McCall farmed in Pennsylvania. He died at his "Belair" estate in West Chester, Pennsylvania on February 25, 1868, and is buried in the Christ Church Burial Ground in his native Philadelphia.

McCall School in Society Hill, Center City, Philadelphia is named after him.

McCall is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of lizard, Phrynosoma mcallii.

Family tree

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Union)

References

Boatner, Mark M. III, The Civil War Dictionary: Revised Edition, David McKay Company, Inc., 1984.
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
 McCall, George Archibald, "Letters from the Frontiers", Applewood Books, Bedford Mass, www.awb.com, 1868, 538 p.,
 Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, Louisiana State University Press, 1964, .

External links
 The McCall Family Papers, including correspondence, accounts, papers and other printed materials belonging to George A. McCall, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

1802 births
1868 deaths
Cadwalader family
Schuyler family
American people of Dutch descent
People from West Chester, Pennsylvania
Military personnel from Philadelphia
Union Army generals
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
United States Military Academy alumni
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
American Civil War prisoners of war
Pennsylvania Reserves
Burials at Christ Church, Philadelphia

George A. McCall


Alexander Petrovich Kazhdan (; 3 September 1922 – 29 May 1997) was a Soviet-American Byzantinist. Among his publications was the three-volume Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, a comprehensive encyclopedic work containing over than 5,000 entries.

Early life and education
Born in Moscow, Kazhdan was educated at the Pedagogical Institute of Ufa and the University of Moscow, where he studied with the historian of medieval England, Eugene Kosminsky. A post-war Soviet initiative to revive Russian-language Byzantine studies led Kazhdan to write a dissertation on the agrarian history of the late Byzantine empire (published in 1952 as Agrarnye otnosheniya v Vizantii XIII-XIV vv.) Despite a growing reputation in his field, anti-Semitic prejudice in the Joseph Stalin-era Soviet academy forced Kazhdan to accept a series of positions as a provincial teacher (in Ivanovo, 1947–49, and Tula, 1949–52). Following the death of Stalin in 1953, however, Kazhdan's situation improved, and he was hired by a college in Velikie Luki. In 1956 he finally secured a position in the Institute for History of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, where he remained until leaving the Soviet Union in 1978. In the USA Kazdan brought up a lot of Byzantologists, among them M. V. Bibikov, S. A. Ivanov and I. S. Chichurov.

Academic career

Soviet Union
Kazhdan was a prolific scholar throughout his career in the Soviet Union, publishing well over 500 books, articles, and reviews, and his publications contributed to the growing international prestige of Soviet Byzantine studies. His 1954 article, "Vizantiyskie goroda v VII-XI vv.," published in the journal Sovetskaya arkheologiya, argued on the basis of archaeological and numismatic evidence that the seventh century constituted a major rupture in the urban society of Byzantium. This thesis has since been widely accepted and has led to intensive research on discontinuity in Byzantine history and the subsequent rejection of the earlier conception of the medieval Byzantine empire as a frozen relic of late antiquity. Other major studies dating from this first half of Kazhdan's career include Derevnya i gorod v Vizantii IX-X vv. (1960), a study of the relationship between city and countryside in the ninth and tenth centuries; Vizantiyskaya kul'tura (X-XII vv.) (1968), a study of Middle Byzantine culture; and Sotsial'ny sostav gospodstvujushchego klassa Vizantii XI-XII vv. (1974), an influential prosopographical and statistical study of the structure of the Byzantine ruling class in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Kazhdan also contributed heavily to the field of Armenian studies, notably writing about the Armenians who formed the elite ruling classes that governed the Byzantine Empire during the Middle Byzantine Era in his Armiane v sostave gospodstvuyushchego klassa Vizantiyskoy imperii v XI-XII vv. (1975).

United States
In 1975, Kazhdan's son, the mathematician David Kazhdan, emigrated to the United States, where he accepted a position at Harvard University. This produced an immediate change in Kazhdan's situation in the Soviet Union; his wife, Musja, was fired from her position at a Moscow publishing house and censorship of his work by his superiors in the Soviet academic establishment increased. In October 1978 Alexander and Musja left the Soviet Union, having received a visa for immigration to Israel, coming to the United States three years afterward. In February 1979 they arrived at Dumbarton Oaks, a center for Byzantine studies in Washington, D.C., where Kazhdan held the position of senior research associate until his death.

Kazhdan's first major publications in English were collaborative: People and Power in Byzantium (1982), a broad ranging study of Byzantine society, was written with Giles Constable; Studies in Byzantine literature (1984) with Simon Franklin; and Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries (1985) with Ann Wharton Epstein. His greatest English-language project was likewise a massive collaborative effort: the three-volume Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1991), edited by Kazhdan, was the first reference work of the sort ever to be published, and remains an indispensable point of departure for all areas of Byzantine studies. He wrote approximately 20%, or about 1,000, of the entries in the Dictionary, which are signed with his initials A.K.

As Kazhdan became more comfortable with English, his pace of publication once again matched that of his Russian years. His later scholarship is above all marked with a growing concern with Byzantine literature, particularly hagiography.

Kazhdan died in Washington, D.C., in 1997. His death cut short his work on a monumental History of Byzantine Literature; however, the first volume of this work, covering the period from 650 to 850, was published in 1999.

Selected works
  Volume=1. Volume=2. Volume=3.

Notes

Further reading

1922 births
1997 deaths
Writers from Moscow
American Byzantinists
Moscow State University alumni
Soviet historians
Soviet emigrants to the United States
Soviet Jews
Soviet Byzantinists
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers
Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
Scholars of Byzantine literature
American male non-fiction writers
Russian scientists

Alexander Kazhdan


Linckia multifora is a variously colored starfish in the family Ophidiasteridae that is found in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. Its common names include the Dalmatian Linckia, mottled Linckia, spotted Linckia, multicolor sea star and multi-pore sea star.

Description
Linckia multifora has a small disk and five long, slim cylindrical arms that taper slightly towards the tips. The colour is variable and includes brown, pink, red, or gray with small red spots. The surface has a rough texture and is covered in granulations. This starfish can grow to a diameter of 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 cm).

Distribution
Linckia multifora is circumtropical. It is found in the Indian Ocean,  Red Sea, the western Pacific north to Japan, south to Lord Howe Island, east to the Pitcairn Islands, and northeast to Hawaii.  Maps at World Register of Marine Species showing the distribution limited to the western Indian Ocean and at the Encyclopedia of Life showing an observation in the Caribbean seem to be incorrect. It is found on the sea floor at depths down to about 700 feet (213 metres) and favors coral reefs.

Biology
Linckia multifora exhibits autotomy (self amputation) and often sheds one or more arms. In this process, the arms become detached at various positions and each can grow into a new individual. This happens with such frequency that it is considered to be a means of asexual reproduction. Few individuals are found that do not exhibit some evidence of prior autotomy.

In a study on Hawaii, it was found that the detachment of an arm is not caused by a sudden snap. Most fractures take place about 1 inch (2.5 cm) from the disk. A small crack appears on the lower surface which spreads to adjacent parts, then the tube feet on the arm and the body pull the two parts of the animal in opposite directions. The event may take about one hour to complete. The damaged tissues take about 10 days to heal and the animal grows a new arm over the course of several months. The detached arm is known as a "comet" and moves about independently. It takes about 10 months to regenerate a new disk with arms 0.5 inch (1 cm) in length. When arms were severed into several parts in the laboratory, it was found that those over 0.5 inch (1 cm) in length were capable of regenerating including the tips of the arms and central sections with multiple injuries. Occasionally aberrant individuals developed with the wrong number of arms or with limbs in the wrong place.

Parasitic snails are sometimes found in or on the body of this starfish. The snail Stylifer linckiae in the family Eulimidae has been shown to be a parasite by its uptake of materials from the seastar.

Use in aquaria
Linckia multifora is an omnivore but the diet in aquaria mostly consists of the bacterial surface films and sponges which are usually present in established tanks. This species is more tolerant of varying levels of pH, salinity and temperature than other Linckias but needs careful acclimatization at the time of introduction.

References

External links

Linckia
Fauna of the Indian Ocean
Animals described in 1816

Linckia multifora


Hawaiite is an olivine basalt with a composition between alkali basalt and mugearite.  It was first used as a name for some lavas found on the island of Hawaii.

It occurs during the later stages of volcanic activity on oceanic islands such as Hawaii, which happens to be when the alkaline metals are most present.

In gemology, hawaiite is a colloquial term for Hawaii-originated peridot, which is a gem-quality form of the mineral olivine.

Description

Hawaiite is an aphanitic (fine-grained) volcanic rock produced by rapid cooling of lava moderately poor in silica and enriched in alkali metal oxides (potassium oxide plus sodium oxide). It is often impractical to determine the mineral composition of such a fine-grained rock, and so hawaiite is defined chemically. Under the TAS classification, hawaiite is sodic trachybasalt, with a silica content close to 49 wt%, a total alkali metal oxide content close to 6%, and  wt% >  wt% + 2. This places hawaiite in the S1 field of the TAS diagram.

Hawaiite is not a recognized rock type in the QAPF classification of igneous rock, which is based on the relative proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase in the mineral composition. However, hawaiite is composed mostly of andesine (plagioclase feldspar with an albite content of 50% to 70%) and pyroxene with smaller amounts of olivine. This would fall into the andesite/basalt field of the QAPF diagram.

Occurrence
Hawaiite is erupted in the late stages of ocean island volcanism, forming part of the alkaline magma series characteristic of such eruptions. It is preceded by silica-poor ankaramite and followed by intermediate-silica mugearite as the magma evolves by crystallization in the underlying magma chamber. These rocks form an alkalic cap over the older rocks of the island. Hawaiite can occur at earlier stages in the evolution of some volcanoes in other tectonic settings, for example during the middle stage of volcanic activity in the Kekuknai volcanic massif (in Kamchatka, Russia) that formed in a volcanic back-arc basin.

Other settings in which hawaiite and other alkaline volcanic rocks are found include regions of continental extension, such as the Basin and Range Province of western North America and the Red Sea Rift.

References

Basalt
Mafic rocks
Aphanitic rocks

Hawaiite


The College of Engineering Chengannur  commonly known as CEC, is an engineering institute in the state of Kerala, India that was established by the Government of Kerala under the aegis of the  Institute of Human Resources Development (IHRD) in 1993. The college is located in Chengannur, Alappuzha. The college  is affiliated to the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University and the courses are recognised by AICTE and accredited by NBA, the National Board of Accreditation, India.

Location
CEC is situated in the heart of Chengannur.

Overview
The college has been approved by the All India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi .  Being located in Chengannur town, Alleppey district, the college has access to transport, communication, and lodging facilities.  It was one of the five engineering colleges in Kerala selected by the government of India for the Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP). The college is listed as `CHN' in the allocation list of engineering seats maintained by the Commissioner for Entrance Examinations, Government of Kerala

Courses
Two year postgraduate course in:
M.Tech Electronics Engineering (VLSI and Embedded Systems) - 24 seats (from academic year 2010-11)
M.Tech Computer Science (Digital Image Processing) - 24 seats
MCA Master of Computer Application(from academic year 2022) - 60 seats

Four-year B.Tech. degrees in:
 Computer Science and Engineering - 120 seats (formerly, Computer Engineering)
 Electronics and Communication Engineering - 120 seats (formerly, Electronics Engineering)
 Electrical and Electronics Engineering - 120 seats (from academic year 2009-10)

About
Admission to the courses is on an annual basis and is based on the All Kerala Common Entrance Examination conducted by the Controller of Entrance Examinations, Government of Kerala. The admissions to the free/merit seats and management seats are through the Central Allotment Process conducted by the Controller of Entrance Examinations, Government of Kerala. The proportion of seats are as follows: free/merit seats 50%, management seats 35% (as aforementioned allotment to both these categories are through the Central Allotment Process ), the remaining 15% seats come under the NRI quota.

Annual intake
CEC has an annual intake of 420 students (+10% lateral entry students) through government allotment, divided among the four branches as follows:
 Computer Science and Engineering: 120 (+10% lateral entry students)
 Electronics and Communication Engineering: 120(+10% lateral entry students)
 Electrical and Electronics Engineering: 120 (+10% lateral entry students)
 Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering: 60 (+10% lateral entry students)

CEC technical and non-technical events

SUMMIT
Summit is a biennial technical festival conducted by the college, to providing a platform for improving the technical and non-technical skills of the students. The Summit offers events including seminars and workshops.

Technical organizations

IEEE Student Branch
An IEEE student branch was formed in CEC in mid-1997, with the goal of keeping the students in touch with technological advances. An IEEE library was inaugurated in December 1999. The library houses journals and magazines of IEEE. The IEEE student branch comes under the IEEE Kerala Section
CEC's IEEE student members have presented projects at state and national level conferences and competitions. An IEEE Robotics Initiative Program has begun, with groups designing robots. IEEE-CEC is known for its consistent achievements since its inception in 1996. IEEE-CEC is also known for many firsts including being the first IEEE Student Branch in the world to win the IEEE WIE SB Affinity Group of the year award in 2005.

PRODDEC (Product Design and Development Center)

FOCES (Forum of Computer Engineering Students)
FOCES is an organization of CSE students of the college. The forum aims at improving the technical and industrial knowledge of the students. It organizes talks by personalities in the industry on evolving technologies in computing, workshops on developing platforms, languages and software packages in the IT industry..

ExESS (Electronics Engineering Students Society)
The activities of ExESS have helped students in attending state and national level contests. Apart from conducting technical learning sessions for Component familiarisations and Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools, ExESS also does hands-on training sessions for soldering and PCB fabrication.

FLOSS (Free/Libre/Open-Source Software) Cell
The FLOSS cell has been organized to explain Open Source and Linux. The cell conducts Linux familiarisation classes, installation sessions and other activities. FLOSS Cell helps install and maintain systems and LAN in the nearby government school.

Innovation and Entrepreneurship Development Cell [IEDC]
The Innovation and Entrepreneurship Development Cell [IEDC] Bootcamp College of Engineering Chengannur came into existence in June 2015.They aim at promoting entrepreneurial spirit among students.IEDC seeks to inculcate the entrepreneurial culture among the students which would, in turn, inspire them to go a step further and take up the challenge of entrepreneurship.

Non-technical organizations

National Service Scheme

NSS CEC now consists of 3 units with a maximum volunteer strength of 300, in which each student embraces the idea of everyone belonging to the same family.

Each year volunteers take part in 'Punarjani', the event where they aid community service centers such as hospitals in repairing damaged machinery and extend their assistance in whatever ways possible. The social commitments of our volunteers are evident from the Friday food serving programme at District hospital Chengannur to provide food for those in need. As directed by the Cell the three units conduct campus programmes exploring the talents in youth, awareness sessions brushing up their knowledge and community programmes that improvise their social skills. The units also extend their aid in helping with the internal duties of the college such as active participation during admission procedures and campus cleaning programmes. Our vivid spirit is not only seen in such commitments. The college hosts a plethora of talents whose skills are displayed in a variety of cultural events such as flash mobs, street plays on relevant topics, etc. We successfully hosted the second edition of UYILO, a techno-cultural fest with astounding feedback and plans to conduct further editions of the same in the years to come. The units have shown their active participation in almost every aspect pertaining to social and cultural welfare, and as the years progress it sets on reaching more milestones and prove to be an exemplary model for both its own volunteers and those outside.

Santhwanam
Integrated with the NSS unit, it undertakes campus cleaning drives, sending volunteers to the Pulse-Polio Immunization programs of the Government of India, and organizes orphanage visits.

Nature Club
CEC has joined hands with the "Save the Earth" global movement through the `Aranyam' forestry club. Group discussions, awareness camps and visits to nearby sanctuaries are some of the activities.

Arts Club
ACE (Arts Club for Engineers) provides a platform for students to develop their creative skills. It runs the Music club, Quiz and Debate club, and Audio Visual club. The Arts Club organizes "Utsav", the college arts festival.

The Students' Executive Senate (CEC Senate)
The Students Executive Senate, simply known as 'CEC Senate', is the supreme student body. The members of the senate are elected by and from the students, with two representatives from each class. The objectives of the senate are: to train the students of the college in their duties, responsibilities, and rights, to organize debates, seminars, group discussions, work squads, and tours, and to encourage sports, arts and other cultural, social or recreational activities.

Training Placement Cell
The Training and Placement Cell (TPC) is a blend of faculty and students. With a group of students led by a Placement officer (Dr Raju M), the TPC helps the CECians choose their goal, prepare for it and find placements in work. The TPC of Chengannur Engineering College was the first of its kind, among the college placement units in the state, to introduce an 'Industry like' screening system for the selection of TPC student members.

Entrepreneurship

Present as well as former students of College of Engineering Chengannur, have shown excellent entrepreneurship capabilities. Over 30+  Companies (Registered) have been initiated from this institute.

Some of the noteworthy companies from College of Engineering Chengannur are :
 ExTravelMoney Technosol  - Online Forex Services Product
 Profoundis Labs - IT Solutions (Acquired by FullContact)
 Entri.me - Educational Tech Product Startup
 Praudyogiki Technolabs LLP - IT Solutions

Notable alumni
Anagha (actress), Indian film industry

See also
 List of Engineering Colleges in Kerala
 KEAM

References

Engineering colleges in Kerala
All India Council for Technical Education
Institute of Human Resources Development
Universities and colleges in Alappuzha district
Educational institutions established in 1993
1993 establishments in Kerala

College of Engineering Chengannur


All Day Music is the fourth album by American band War, released November 1971 on United Artists Records.

Release
The title single, issued in July 1971, was backed with "Get Down".

"Slipping Into Darkness", issued in November 1971 (backed with "Nappy Head"), War's first big hit since their name change from Eric Burdon and War, was on the Billboard Hot 100 for 22 weeks and so tied with Gallery's "Nice to Be With You" for most weeks on that chart all within the calendar year 1972. (The spelling was changed slightly to "Slippin' into Darkness" for the single, and is also used on a CD edition of the album.)  It became a gold record, and Billboard ranked it as the No. 23 song for 1972.
A subtitle for "Nappy Head" claims it is the theme from Ghetto Man, but there does not appear to be any notable film or television series with this title.  "Baby Brother" is a live track recorded at the Hollywood Bowl, June 30, 1971, at an event called the United Artists 99 Cent Spectacular; a studio version of this song retitled "Me and Baby Brother" appeared on a later album, Deliver the Word (1973).

The original cover art was printed with a metallic silver background, and features a group photo by Bob Gordon.

Critical reception

Village Voice critic Robert Christgau wrote: "I'm beginning to find that their slow groove has a winning depth of character—B.B. Dickerson and Papa Dee Allen get as personal on bass and congas as most rock and rollers do on guitar and piano, and their chants often say more than rock's so-called poetry. Nice to have a couple of hits for purposes of identification, too. But their very slow groove, the one that takes over side one with 'That's What Love Will Do,' makes me think they take the whole idea of Vanilla Fudge too seriously."

Track listing
All tracks composed by War (Papa Dee Allen, Harold Brown, B.B. Dickerson, Lonnie Jordan, Charles Miller, Lee Oskar, Howard E. Scott), except where indicated.

Side one
"All Day Music" (Jerry Goldstein, War) – 4:04
"Get Down" (Goldstein, War) – 4:29
"That's What Love Will Do" (Milton James, War) – 7:17
"There Must Be a Reason" – 3:50

Side two
"Nappy Head (Theme from Ghetto Man)" – 6:05
"Slippin' into Darkness" – 7:00
"Baby Brother" – 7:38

Personnel
War
Howard Scott – guitar, percussion, vocals
B.B. Dickerson – bass, percussion, vocals
Lonnie Jordan – organ, piano, percussion, vocals
Harold Brown – drums, percussion, vocals
Papa Dee Allen – conga, bongos, percussion, vocals
Charles Miller – flute, alto, tenor and baritone saxophones, percussion, vocals
Lee Oskar – harmonica, percussion, vocals
Technical
Jerry Goldstein, Chris Huston, War – producers
Chris Huston, Richard Moore – engineers

References

1971 albums
War (American band) albums
United Artists Records albums
Albums produced by Howard E. Scott
Albums produced by B. B. Dickerson
Albums produced by Lonnie Jordan
Albums produced by Harold Ray Brown
Albums produced by Charles Miller (musician)
Albums produced by Lee Oskar
Albums recorded at Wally Heider Studios
Albums produced by Jerry Goldstein (producer)
Progressive soul albums

All Day Music


Dr George B. Johnson (born 11 June 1942, in Newport News, Virginia) is a science educator who for many years has written a weekly column "On Science" in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. For over 30 years he was a biology professor at Washington University and a genetics professor at Washington University School of Medicine. He has authored 44 scientific papers and ten high school and college biology texts. Over 3 million students have learned biology from these texts.

Education
Johnson got his B.A. in English from Dartmouth College in 1964, and his M.A. in biology, also at Dartmouth College in 1966.

He was granted his Ph.D. in population biology from Stanford University in 1972, his thesis being on genetic variation in alpine butterflies.

Academic career
Johnson was hired as an assistant professor of biology at Washington University in St. Louis in 1972.  He was a visiting research fellow at Carnegie Institution of Washington, Department of Plant Biology, Stanford, California, 1975-1976. He was promoted to associate professor of biology at Washington University in St. Louis and also associate professor of genetics at their School of Medicine in 1976. He served as visiting lector, Genetisk Institute at Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark, in 1977.

In 1980 he was promoted to professor of biology at Washington University, a position he held until his retirement in 2004. He was also professor of genetics at the School of Medicine from 1981 to 2004. During the years 1987 to 1990 he served as founding director of The Living World education center, St. Louis Zoo.

Since 2004 he has continued at Washington University as professor emeritus of biology.

Writings

Research publications
 Wild type and mutant stocks of Aspergillus nidulans, (with R.W. Barratt and W.N. Ogata), 1965, Genetics 52: 233-234
 Purification and characterization of glutamic acid dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli strain K-12. Master's thesis, Dartmouth College, 1966
 Analysis of enzyme variation in natural populations of the butterfly Colias eurytheme, 1971, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 68: 997-1001
 The relationship of enzyme polymorphism to metabolic function, 1971, Nature 232: 347-348
 The selective significance of biochemical polymorphism in Colias butterflies, Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1972
 Enzyme polymorphisms: Evidence that they are not selectively neutral, 1972, Nature New Biology 237: 170-171
 The relationship of enzyme polymorphism to species diversity, 1973, Nature 242: 193-194
 Enzyme polymorphism and biosystematics: The hypothesis of selective neutrality, 1973, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4: 93-116
 The importance of substrate variability to enzyme polymorphism, 1973, Nature New Biology 243: 1 51-153
 On the hypothesis that polymorphic enzyme alleles are selectively neutral. I. The evenness of allele frequency distribution, (with M.W. Feldman), 1973, Theor. Pop. Biol. 4: 209-221
 Enzyme polymorphism and metabolism, 1974, Science 184: 28-37
 On the estimation of effective number of alleles from electrophoretic data, 1974, Genetics 78: 771-776
 Studying genetic variation in human populations, 1974, Jour. Heredity 65: 260-261
 The use of internal standards in electrophoretic surveys of enzyme polymorphism, 1975, Biochemical Genetics 13: 833-847
 Enzyme polymorphism and adaptation, 1975, Stadler Genetics Symposium 7: 91-116
 Mechanisms of evolution and speciation, 1975, In Life: The Individual and the Species (T. Lane, Ed.). Mosby Publishing Company, St. Louis, Missouri.
 Polymorphism and predictability at the alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase locus in Colias butterflies: Gradients in allele frequencies within a single population, 1976, Biochemical Genetics 14: 403-426
 Genetic polymorphism and enzyme function, 1976, In The Molecular Study of Biological Evolution, Chapter 3, pp. 46–59 (F. Ayala, Ed.), Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts.
 Hidden alleles at the alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase locus in Colias butterflies, 1976, Genetics 83: 149-167
 Enzyme polymorphism and adaptation in Alpine butterflies, 1976, In Evolution Within Populations, Ann. Mo. Bot. Garden 63: 248-261
 Enzyme polymorphism in the butterfly Colias: Selection on metabolic phenotypes, 1976, Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook 75: 440- 449
 Characterization of electrophoretically hidden variation in the butterfly Colias, 1976, Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook 75: 449-456
 Factors altering the gel sieving behavior of proteins: The effect of deuterium oxide, 1976, Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook 75: 456-459
 Evaluation of the stepwise mutation model of electrophoretic mobility: Comparison of the gel sieving behavior of alleles at the esterase-5 locus of Drosophila pseudoobscura, 1977, Genetics 87: 139–157. Abstract: Genetics 83: s36 (1976)
 Characterization of electrophoretically cryptic variation in the alpine butterfly Colias meadii, 1977, Biochemical Genetics 15: 665-693
 Hidden heterogeneity among electrophoretic alleles, 1977, In Measuring Selection in Natural Populations (F. Christiansen, T. Fenchel, Eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin: 223-244
 Assessing electrophoretic similarity: The problem of hidden heterogeneity, 1977, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 8: 309-328
 Isozymes, allozymes, and enzyme polymorphism: Structural constraints on polymorphic variation, 1978, Isozymes: Current Topics in Biological and Medical Research, Vol. 2: 1-21
 Enzyme polymorphism: Metabolic considerations, 1978, Metabolic Therapy, 7: l-4
 Structural flexibility of isozyme variants: Genetic variants in Drosophila disguised by cofactor and subunit binding, 1978, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75: 395–399. Abstract: Genetics 86: s33, (1977)
 Genetically controlled variation in conformation of enzymes, 1979, Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Molec. Biol. 22: 293-326
 Genetic variation in the physiological phenotype, 1979, In Population Biology of Plants (O. Solbrig, S. Jain, G. Johnson & P. Raven, Eds.), Columbia Univ. Press, N.Y.: p. 62-83
 Genetic polymorphism at enzyme loci, 1979, In Physiological Genetics (J. Scandalios, Ed.), Academic Press, N.Y.: 239-273
 Post-translational modification as a potential explanation of high levels of enzyme polymorphism (with V. Finnerty), 1979, Genetics 91: 695-722
 Gene expression in Drosophila: Characterization of the enzymes produced by certain complementary maroon-like heterozygotes (with V. Finnerty, and M. McCarron), 1979, Molec. Gen. Genet., 172: 37-43
 The genetics of electrophoretic variation: a response (with V. Finnerty), 1979, Genetics 92: 357-360
 Increasing the resolution of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis by varying the degree of gel cross-linking, 1979, Biochemical Genetics 7: 499-5l6
 Unvermutete Genetische Variation an Enzymorten (with V. Loeschcke), 1979, Biologisches Zentralblatt, 98: 163-173
 Structural vs. post-translational components of genic variation (with V. Finnerty), 1979, Genetics 92: 683-684
 Population Biology of Plants, 1980, Editor (with O. Solbrig, S. Jain & P. Raven), Columbia Univ. Press, N.Y.
 Polyploidy, plants, and electrophoresis (with B. Carr), 1980. In Polyploidy (W. Lewis, Ed.), Academic Press, N.Y.
 Post-translational modification of xanthine dehydrogenase in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster (with D. Hartl and V. Finnerty). 1981. Genetics 98: 817-831
 Gel sieving electrophoresis: A description of procedures and analysis. In Methods of Biochemical Analysis (D. Glick, Ed.), 1983, Interscience Publishers, New York.
 Phylogenetic Implications of Ribosomal DNA Restriction Site Variation in the Plant Family Onagraceae (with J. Crisci, E. Zimmer, P. Hoch, C. Mudd and N. Pan), 1990, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard 77: 523-538

Texts
 Biology (with P. Raven and latest edition with Ken Mason and Jonathan Losos and Susan Singer), 1986, 1989, 1992, 1996, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2011, 2014, 2017, 2020. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
 Understanding Biology (with P. Raven), 1988, 1991, 1995. Wm. C. Brown Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
 Environment (with P. Raven and L. Berg) 1993. Saunders Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
 Biology Visualizing Life. 1993, 1997. Holt Rinehart Winston, Austin, Texas.
 Human Biology: Concepts and Issues, 1994. W.C. Brown Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa.
 Biology: Principles and Explorations, 1995, 2000 (with P. Raven). Holt Rinehart Winston, Austin, Texas.
 How Scientists Think: Key Experiments in Genetics, 1995. W.C. Brown Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
 The Living World, 1996, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2018 McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
 Essentials of the Living World, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2013, 2017, 2020 McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
 Understanding Biology (with Ken Mason) 2015, 2018. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.

See also
Biology
Genetics

References

External links
George B. Johnson's homepage

American geneticists
American science writers
Dartmouth College alumni
People from Newport News, Virginia
Science teachers
Stanford University alumni
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
St. Louis Post-Dispatch people
Saint Louis Zoo people
1942 births
Living people
Journalists from Virginia
Scientists from Virginia
Washington University School of Medicine faculty
Academic staff of Aarhus University

George B. Johnson