The King of Kings is a 1927 American silent epic film produced and directed by Cecil B. DeMille. It depicts the last weeks of Jesus before his crucifixion and stars H. B. Warner in the lead role.

Featuring the opening and resurrection scenes in two-color Technicolor, the film is the second in DeMille's Biblical trilogy, preceded by The Ten Commandments (1923) and followed by The Sign of the Cross (1932).

Plot

Mary Magdalene is portrayed as a wild courtesan, entertaining many men around her. Upon learning that Judas is with a carpenter she rides out on her chariot drawn by zebras to get him back. Peter is introduced as the Giant apostle, and we see the future gospel writer Mark as a child who is healed by Jesus. Mary, the mother of Jesus, is shown as a beautiful and saintly woman who is a mother to all her son's followers. The first sight of Jesus is through the eyesight of a little girl, whom he heals. He is surrounded by a halo. Mary Magdelene arrives afterwards and talks to Judas, who reveals that he is only staying with Jesus in hopes of being made a high official after Jesus becomes the king of kings. Jesus casts the Seven Deadly Sins out of Mary Magdalene in a multiple exposure sequence.

Jesus is also shown resurrecting Lazarus and healing the little children. Some humor is derived when one girl asks if he can heal broken legs, and, when he says yes, she gives him a legless doll. Jesus smiles and repairs the doll. The crucifixion is foreshadowed when Jesus, having helped a poor family, wanders through the father's carpentry shop, and, himself a carpenter's son, he briefly helps carve a piece of wood. When a sheet covering the object is removed, it is revealed to be a cross towering over Jesus.

Jesus and his apostles enter Jerusalem, where Judas incites the people and rallies them to proclaim Jesus as the King of the Jews. Jesus, however, renounces all claims of being an Earthly king. Caiaphas the High Priest is also angry at Judas for having led people to a man whom he sees as a false prophet. Meanwhile, Jesus drives away Satan, who had offered him an Earthly kingdom, and he protects a woman caught in adultery. The words he draws in the sand are revealed to be the sins the accusers themselves committed.

Judas, desperate to save himself from Caiaphas, agrees to turn over Jesus. Noticeably at the Last Supper, when Jesus distributes the bread and wine saying that they are his body and blood, Judas refuses to eat or drink. Towards the end, Mary confronts her son and tells him to flee from the danger that is coming. Jesus replies that it must be done for the salvation of all peoples.

Jesus goes to the Garden of Gethsemane where he is soon captured by the Roman soldiers and betrayed by Judas. Judas' life is saved, but, upon seeing that Jesus is going to be killed as a result, he is horrified. Judas takes a rope that the Romans had used to bind Jesus' wrists and runs off. Jesus is beaten and then presented by Pontius Pilate to the crowd. Mary pleads for the life of her son and Mary Magdalene speaks for him but Caiaphas bribes the crowd to shout against Jesus.

Jesus is taken away to be crucified, though he pauses on the Via Dolorosa to heal a group of cripples in an alley, despite his weakened condition. Jesus is crucified and his enemies throw insults at him. (One woman even anachronistically eats popcorn and smiles with glee at Jesus' crucifixion.) When Jesus does die, however, there is a great earthquake. The tree where Judas had hanged himself, with the rope used to bind Jesus's wrists, is swallowed up amidst bursts of hellfire. The sky turns black, lightning strikes, the wind blows, the people who had mocked Jesus run in terror, and the veil covering the Holy of Holies in the Jerusalem Temple is torn in two.

The tumult ends when Mary looks up at heaven and asks God to forgive the world for the death of their son. The chaos ends and the sun shines. Jesus is taken down from the cross and is buried. On the third day, he rises from the dead as promised. To emphasize the importance of the resurrection, this scene from an otherwise black and white film is shot in color. Jesus goes to the Apostles and tells them to spread his message to the world. He tells them "I am with you always" as the scene shifts to a modern city to show that Jesus still watches over his followers.

Many of the film's intertitles are quotes (or paraphrases) from Scripture, often with chapter and verse accompanying.

Cast

H. B. Warner as Jesus
Dorothy Cumming as Mary, the mother of Jesus
Ernest Torrence as Peter
Joseph Schildkraut as Judas Iscariot
James Neill as James the Great
Joseph Striker as John the Apostle
Robert Edeson as Matthew the Apostle
Sidney D'Albrook as Thomas, the Doubter
 David Imboden as Andrew – a Fisherman
Charles Belcher as Philip the Apostle
 Clayton Packard as Bartholomew the Apostle
 Robert Ellsworth as Simon – the Zealot
 Charles Requa	as James the Less
 John T. Prince as Thaddeus
Jacqueline Logan as Mary Magdalene
Rudolph Schildkraut as Caiaphas – High Priest of Israel
Sam De Grasse as Pharisee
Casson Ferguson as Scribe
Victor Varconi as Pontius Pilate
Majel Coleman as Proculla – Wife of Pilate
Montagu Love as Roman Centurion
William Boyd as Simon of Cyrene
Micky Moore as Mark
Theodore Kosloff as Malchus – Captain of the High Priest's Guard
George Siegmann as Barabbas
Julia Faye	as Martha
 Josephine Norman as Mary of Bethany
Kenneth Thomson as Lazarus
 Alan Brooks as Satan
 Viola Louie as Adulterous Woman
 Muriel McCormac	as Blind Girl
Clarence Burton as Dysmas – the Repentant Thief
Jim Mason as Gestas – the Unrepentant Thief
May Robson	as Mother of Gestas
Dot Farley	as Maidservant of Caiaphas
 Hector V. Sarno as Galilean Carpenter
 Leon Holmes as Imbecile Boy
Otto Lederer as Eber – a Pharisee
Bryant Washburn as Young Roman
Lionel Belmore as Roman Noble
Monte Collins as Rich Judeaean
Lucio Flamma as Gallant of Galilee
Sôjin Kamiyama as Prince Of Persia
André Cheron as Wealthy Merchant
Willy Castello as Babylonian Noble
Noble Johnson as Charioteer
Jim Farley as Executioner
James Dime as a Roman soldier

Cast notes
Sally Rand was an extra in the film, years before becoming notorious for her "fan dance" at the 1933 World's Fair.
Writer Ayn Rand (no relation to Sally Rand) also was an extra in the film, and met her future husband Frank O'Connor on set.
Micky Moore was the last surviving cast member at his death in 2013.

Production

A giant gate built for this film was later used in the 1933 film King Kong, and was among the sets torched for the "burning of Atlanta" in Gone with the Wind (1939). Other sets and costumes were re-used for the 1965 Elvis Presley film, Harum Scarum.

The movie has two Technicolor sequences, the beginning and the resurrection scene, which use the two-color process invented by Herbert Kalmus.

The 1927 Cummings trial for divorce from her husband Frank Elliott revealed that DeMille, because Christians would not accept any reflections cast upon Christ or his mother, had Cummings sign a contract on August 21, 1926, that regulated her private life for seven years. It included clauses that prevented her from divorcing her husband for any act, to do anything that would give her husband grounds for divorce, or play a prostitute or similar role in any film. The contract did not prevent the divorce.

Release
The King of Kings was the first movie that premiered at the noted Grauman's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles, California on May 18, 1927. The film was screened there again on May 24, 1977, to commemorate the theater's 50th anniversary.

In what is considered one of the earliest applications of market segmentation to film promotion, students ranging from elementary to high school were dismissed early to attend afternoon screenings of the film. The King of Kings was seen by around 500 million viewers between its original release in 1927 and the remake released in 1961.

In the United Kingdom, the film was initially banned by the London County Council due to a rule that prohibited films from showing a materialized Christ, which led to a revision of the local censorship rules.

Critical reception
The King of Kings received rave reviews from the critics. The Film Daily stated: "There can be said nothing but praise for the reverence and appreciation with which the beautiful story has been developed. . . The King of Kings is tremendous from every standpoint. It is the finest piece of screen craftsmanship ever turned out by DeMille". Photoplay described the film as "Cecil B. DeMille's finest motion picture effort" and thought he took "the most difficult and exalted theme in the world's history—the story of Jesus Christ—and transcribed it intelligently and ably to the screen." Norbert Lusk of Picture Play believed "The King of Kings is Cecil B. DeMille's masterpiece, and is among the greatest of all pictures. It is a sincere and reverent visualization of the last three years in the life of Christ, produced on a scale of tasteful magnificence, finely acted by the scores in it, and possessed of moments of poignant beauty and unapproachable drama. This is a picture that will never become outmoded."

Accolades
In June 1927, Photoplay named the film one of "The Best Pictures of the Month". For their work in The King of Kings, H. B. Warner, Victor Varconi, Rudolph Schildkraut, and Ernest Torrence were included among "The Best Performances of the Month".

In 2008, AFI nominated this film for its Top 10 Epic Films list. It is widely considered to be among the most popular Hollywood biblical epic films depicting the life of Christ.

Lawsuit
In 1928, actress Valeska Surratt and scholar Mirza Ahmad Sohrab sued DeMille for stealing the scenario for The King of Kings from them. The case went to trial in February 1930 but eventually was settled without additional publicity. Surratt, who had left films to return to the stage in 1917, appeared to be unofficially blacklisted after the suit.

See also
 King of Kings (1961 film) directed by Nicholas Ray
 List of Easter films
 List of early color feature films
 List of early sound feature films (1926–1929)

References

External links

King of Kings: Showman of Piety an essay by Peter Matthews at the Criterion Collection
 Alternate lobby art

1927 films
1920s color films
American epic films
American silent feature films
Articles containing video clips
Film portrayals of Jesus' death and resurrection
Films directed by Cecil B. DeMille
Films partially in color
Portrayals of the Virgin Mary in film
Religious epic films
Silent films in color
Cultural depictions of Judas Iscariot
Cultural depictions of Pontius Pilate
Pathé Exchange films
Caiaphas
Portrayals of Mary Magdalene in film
Cultural depictions of Saint Peter
1920s American films
Silent adventure films

The King of Kings (1927 film)


Paula Mariana Oliveto Lago (born 10 February 1973) is an Argentine lawyer and politician. She is currently a member of the national Chamber of Deputies elected in the city of Buenos Aires for the 2021–2025 term. She is also president of Civic Coalition ARI (CC-ARI).

Early life and career
Paula Oliveto was born in Buenos Aires on 10 February 1973, where she attended primary and secondary school. She studied law at the University of Buenos Aires, graduating in 1997, and specialized in state financial administration at the Argentine Budget Association.

Pre-political work
She directed the Pluralist Foundation's Lisandro de la Torre Center for Transparency in Public and Private Management from 2004 to 2007, and was an auditor of the city of Buenos Aires from 2007 to 2013. In the latter year, she was elected legislator.

Legislator of the City of Buenos Aires (2013–2017)
Oliveto was elected to the Buenos Aires City Legislature in September 2013, and took office on 10 December. In July 2017, as the president of the CC-ARI bloc, together with the PRO and  blocs, she formed the  Interbloc, creating a majority in the legislature.

This bloc brought accusations against various politicians and businessmen of Cristina Kirchner's government.

Oliveto was vice president of the Security Commission, and a voting member of the following commissions:
 Board of Ethics, Agreements, and Control Bodies
 Budget, Finance, Financial Administration, and Tax Policy
 Economic Development, Mercosur, and Employment Policy
 Justice

National deputy
Oliveto became president of CC-ARI on 25 October 2016. On 10 December 2017, she became a member of the Chamber of Deputies representing the city of Buenos Aires.

Fishy contributors scandal
Paula Oliveto was involved in events which came to light in July 2018, related to private contributions for the 2015 general and the 2017 legislative elections. This became known as the  ().

The journalistic portal  obtained access to a document that proved that Horacio Rodríguez Larreta's administration had set up a scheme to take money from the government of Buenos Aires and funnel it to Elisa Carrió's campaign.

Through resolution No. 91, the Buenos Aires government had decided to allocate remuneration units – that is, an extra salary supplement that is given in exceptional cases – to some 22 public employees in different areas. The amounts to be delivered ranged from 10,000 to 120,000 pesos. But just three months later, according to the National Electoral Chamber, all of the recipients made donations to Elisa Carrió's campaign. These all took place on the same day, in the same amount, and in the same form: 25,000 pesos in cash, thus totaling 300,000 pesos ( US dollars).

People came forward who denied having made financial contributions: from school counselors and retirees to city councilors. The victims expressed "fear of a possible loss of employment if their names are made known to public opinion." They worked for entities including the Federal Public Revenue Agency (AFIP), the security forces, and the City of Buenos Aires. Employees of the government of Buenos Aires, "said they were victims of the crime of identity theft," as they appeared as private contributors for the 2015 election campaign, "but also for the Cambiemos Buenos Aires alliance in 2017 and the Vamos Juntos political alliance also in 2017, and which led to the candidates Elisa Carrió and María del Carmen Polledo becoming deputies." Employees claimed to know of "a mechanism implemented repeatedly over time" to introduce illegal money and/or public funds to finance several of Carrió's campaigns. In this mechanism, according to the complaint, the city employees' personal data was falsely introduced, and the officials responsible for the different ministerial areas were listed as contributors.

Osvaldo Marasco, former Cambiemos candidate for mayor of Ituzaingó in the 2015 elections, maintained that Oliveto had proven knowledge of the existence of suspicious contributions in Macrist electoral campaigns, but that she avoided denouncing the maneuver before the judiciary. Marasco added "I had gone through people from the ARI who were on my list – they told Carrió and Paula Olivetto, and they said: 'With this we can do nothing.'" He also involved María Eugenia Vidal in his statements. According to Marasco, the maneuver originated with "the Capital boys", who had since become second-tier or third-tier directors and officials, "blocs" for the gnocchi of the Buenos Aires government, with contracts. "The campaign was banked with silver from the Federal Capital and there was María Eugenia Vidal, I was at the lunches. At that time they were (Horacio Rodríguez) Larreta, (Diego) Santilli, Rogelio Frigerio, Durán Barba, (Edgardo) Cenzón, who was fundamental because he handled the money." He received threats after making these statements.

Implication in political espionage case
The Parlasur deputy Eduardo Valdés denounced Elisa Carrió, Oliveto, and Mariana Zuvic to the judiciary for violation of the Intelligence Law, violation of secrecy, aggravated cover-up, slander, and false denunciation. Valdés said that in the framework of the , "the deputies of the Civic Coalition used transcriptions of illegal eavesdropping in the Ezeiza prison", and that "they wanted to take responsibility for instigating the complaint against ." In that sense, he said he was "certain that Marcelo D'Alessio was handed over to Oliveto", and recalled that "Oliveto herself acknowledged having spoken with the extortionist and spy after having been raided by Judge ." Thus, the disputed "used illegal material" to organize a press campaign "to curb and muddy the investigation of Ramos Padilla," so that for Valdés "they acted as covert agents of D'Alessio and his band."

In early April, , a former spy from the Federal Intelligence Agency (AFI) and right-hand man of Marcelo D'Alessio, was a fugitive. After his arrest, he was taken to testify before the judge in the case, where he showed messages and calls to Civic Coalition deputy Paula Oliveto. He said he knew that they met regularly and even that she also had several meetings in the National Congress with Cambiemos deputy Elisa Carrió. He said that deputies asked D'Alessio for information, and that the false lawyer provided them with facts obtained from illegal espionage about opposition leaders.

As a result of these events, the FpV-PJ bloc of deputies requested that legislators Elisa Carrió and Paula Oliveto be removed from the National Congress, "due to moral incapacity arising in the exercise of their functions." The draft resolution was formally presented on 21 March 2019.

Notes

References

External links

1973 births
21st-century Argentine politicians
Argentine women lawyers
20th-century Argentine lawyers
Civic Coalition ARI politicians
Living people
Members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies elected in Buenos Aires
Members of the Buenos Aires City Legislature
Politicians from Buenos Aires
University of Buenos Aires alumni
Women members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies
21st-century Argentine lawyers
20th-century women lawyers
21st-century women lawyers

Paula Oliveto


Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a thermoanalytical technique in which the difference in the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a sample and reference is measured as a function of temperature. Both the sample and reference are maintained at nearly the same temperature throughout the experiment. Generally, the temperature program for a DSC analysis is designed such that the sample holder temperature increases linearly as a function of time. The reference sample should have a well-defined heat capacity over the range of temperatures to be scanned. Additionally, the reference sample must be stable, of high purity, and must not experience much change across the temperature scan. Typically, reference standards have been metals such as indium, tin, bismuth, and lead, but other standards such as polyethylene and fatty acids have been proposed to study polymers and organic compounds, respectively.

The technique was developed by E. S. Watson and M. J. O'Neill in 1962, and introduced commercially at the 1963 Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy. The first adiabatic differential scanning calorimeter that could be used in biochemistry was developed by P. L. Privalov and D. R. Monaselidze in 1964 at Institute of Physics in Tbilisi, Georgia. The term DSC was coined to describe this instrument, which measures energy directly and allows precise measurements of heat capacity.

Types of DSC
There are two main types of DSC: Heat-flux DSC which measures the difference in heat flux between the sample and a reference (which gives it the alternative name Multi-Cell DSC) and Power differential DSC which measures the difference in power supplied to the sample and a reference.

Heat-flux DSC
With Heat-flux DSC, the changes in heat flow are calculated by integrating the ΔTref- curve. For this kind of experiment, a sample and a reference crucible are placed on a sample holder with integrated temperature sensors for temperature measurement of the crucibles. This arrangement is located in a temperature-controlled oven. Unlike the traditional design, the special feature of heat-flux DSC is that it uses flat temperature sensors placed vertically around a flat heater. This setup makes it possible to have a small, light, and low-heat capacity structure while still working like a regular DSC oven..

Power differential DSC
For this kind of setup, also known as Power compensating DSC, the sample and reference crucible are placed in thermally insulated furnaces and not next to each other in the same furnace as in heat-flux-DSC experiments. Then the temperature of both chambers is controlled so that the same temperature is always present on both sides. The electrical power that is required to obtain and maintain this state is then recorded rather than the temperature difference between the two crucibles.

Fast-scan DSC
The 2000s have witnessed the rapid development of Fast-scan DSC (FSC), a novel calorimetric technique that employs micromachined sensors. The key advances of this technique are the ultrahigh scanning rate, which can be as high as 106 K/s, and the ultrahigh sensitivity, with a heat capacity resolution typically better than 1 nJ/K. Nanocalorimetry  has attracted much attention in materials science, where it is applied to perform quantitative analysis of rapid phase transitions, particularly on fast cooling. Another emerging area of application of FSC is physical chemistry, with a focus on the thermophysical properties of thermally labile compounds. Quantities like fusion temperature, fusion enthalpy, sublimation, and vaporization pressures, and enthalpies of such molecules became available.

Temperature Modulated DSC
When performing Temperature Modulated DSC, the underlying linear heating rate is superimposed by a sinusoidal temperature variation. The benefit of this procedure is the ability to separate overlapping DSC effects by calculating the reversing and the non-reversing signals. The reversing heat flow is related to the changes in specific heat capacity (→ glass transition) while the non-reversing heat flow corresponds to time-dependent phenomena such as curing, dehydration and relaxation.

Detection of phase transitions
The basic principle underlying this technique is that when the sample undergoes a physical transformation such as phase transitions, more or less heat will need to flow to it than the reference to maintain both at the same temperature. Whether less or more heat must flow to the sample depends on whether the process is exothermic or endothermic. For example, as a solid sample melts to a liquid, it will require more heat flowing to the sample to increase its temperature at the same rate as the reference. This is due to the absorption of heat by the sample as it undergoes the endothermic phase transition from solid to liquid. Likewise, as the sample undergoes exothermic processes (such as crystallization) less heat is required to raise the sample temperature. By observing the difference in heat flow between the sample and reference, differential scanning calorimeters are able to measure the amount of heat absorbed or released during such transitions. DSC may also be used to observe more subtle physical changes, such as glass transitions. It is widely used in industrial settings as a quality control instrument due to its applicability in evaluating sample purity and for studying polymer curing.

DTA
An alternative technique, which shares much in common with DSC, is differential thermal analysis (DTA). In this technique it is the heat flow to the sample and reference that remains the same rather than the temperature. When the sample and reference are heated identically, phase changes and other thermal processes cause a difference in temperature between the sample and reference. Both DSC and DTA provide similar information. DSC measures the energy required to keep both the reference and the sample at the same temperature whereas DTA measures the difference in temperature between the sample and the reference when the same amount of energy has been introduced into both.

DSC curves

The result of a DSC experiment is a curve of heat flux versus temperature or versus time. There are two different conventions: exothermic reactions in the sample shown with a positive or negative peak, depending on the kind of technology used in the experiment. This curve can be used to calculate enthalpies of transitions. This is done by integrating the peak corresponding to a given transition. It can be shown that the enthalpy of transition can be expressed using the following equation:

where  is the enthalpy of transition,  is the calorimetric constant, and  is the area under the curve. The calorimetric constant will vary from instrument to instrument, and can be determined by analyzing a well-characterized sample with known enthalpies of transition.

Applications
Differential scanning calorimetry can be used to measure a number of characteristic properties of a sample. Using this technique it is possible to observe fusion and crystallization events as well as glass transition temperatures Tg. DSC can also be used to study oxidation, as well as other chemical reactions.

Glass transitions may occur as the temperature of an amorphous solid is increased. These transitions appear as a step in the baseline of the recorded DSC signal. This is due to the sample undergoing a change in heat capacity; no formal phase change occurs.

As the temperature increases, an amorphous solid will become less viscous. At some point the molecules may obtain enough freedom of motion to spontaneously arrange themselves into a crystalline form. This is known as the crystallization temperature (Tc). This transition from amorphous solid to crystalline solid is an exothermic process, and results in a peak in the DSC signal. As the temperature increases the sample eventually reaches its melting temperature (Tm). The melting process results in an endothermic peak in the DSC curve. The ability to determine transition temperatures and enthalpies makes DSC a valuable tool in producing phase diagrams for various chemical systems.

Differential scanning calorimetry can also be used  to obtain valuable thermodynamics information about proteins. The thermodynamics analysis of proteins can reveal important information about the global structure of proteins, and protein/ligand interaction. For example, many mutations lower the stability of proteins, while ligand binding usually increases protein stability. Using DSC, this stability can be measured by obtaining Gibbs Free Energy values at any given temperature. This allows researchers to compare the free energy of unfolding between ligand-free protein and protein-ligand complex, or wild type and mutant proteins. DSC can also be used in studying protein/lipid interactions, nucleotides, drug-lipid interactions. In studying protein denaturation using DSC, the thermal melt should be at least to some degree reversible, as the thermodynamics calculations rely on chemical equilibrium.

Experimental considerations
There are various experimental and environmental parameters to consider during DSC measurements. Exemplary potential issues are briefly discussed in the following sections. All statements in these paragraphs are based on the books of Gabbott  and Brown.

Crucibles
DSC measurements without crucibles promote the thermal transfer towards the sample and are possible if the DSC is designed for this purpose. Measurements without crucible should only be conducted with chemically stable materials at low temperatures, as otherwise there may be contamination or damage of the calorimeter. The safer way is to use a crucible, which is specified for the desired temperatures and does not react with the sample material (e.g. alumina, gold or platinum crucibles). If the sample is likely to evolve volatiles or is in the liquid state, the crucible should be sealed to prevent contamination. However, if the crucible is sealed, increasing pressure and possible measurement artefacts due to deformation of the crucible must be considered. In this case, crucibles with very small holes (∅~50 µm) or crucibles that can withstand very high pressures should be used.

Sample condition
The sample should be in good contact with the crucible surface. Therefore, the contact surface of a solid bulk sample should be plane parallel. For DSC measurements with powders, stronger signal might be observed for finer powders due to the enlarged contact surface. The minimum sample mass depends on the transformation to be analyzed. A small sample mass (~10 mg) is sufficient if the released or consumed heat during the transformation is high enough. Heavier samples could be used to obtain transformation associated with low heat release or consumption, as larger samples also enlarge the obtained peaks. However, the increasing sample size might worsen the resolution due to thermal gradients which may evolve during heating.

Temperature and scan rates
If the peaks are very small, it is possible to enlarge them by increasing the scan rate. Due to the faster scan rate, more energy is released or consumed in a shorter time which leads to higher and therefore more distinct peaks. However, faster scan rates lead to poor temperature resolution because of thermal lag. Due to this thermal lag, two phase transformations (or chemical reactions) occurring in a narrow temperature range might overlap. Generally, heating or cooling rates are too high to detect equilibrium transitions, so there is always a shift to higher or lower temperatures compared to phase diagrams representing equilibrium conditions.

Purge gas
Purge gas is used to control the sample environment, in order to reduce signal noice and to prevent contamination. Mostly nitrogen is used and for temperatures above 600 °C, argon can be utilized to minimize heat loose due to the low thermal conductivity of argon. Air or pure oxygen can be used for oxidative tests like oxidative induction time and He is used for very low temperatures due to the low boiling temperature (~4.2K at 101.325 kPa ).

Examples
The technique is widely used across a range of applications, both as a routine quality test and as a research tool. The equipment is easy to calibrate, using low melting indium at 156.5985 °C for example, and is a rapid and reliable method of thermal analysis.

Polymers

DSC is used widely for examining polymeric materials to determine their thermal transitions. Important thermal transitions include the glass transition temperature (Tg), crystallization temperature (Tc), and melting temperature (Tm). The observed thermal transitions can be utilized to compare materials, although the transitions alone do not uniquely identify composition. The composition of unknown materials may be completed using complementary techniques such as IR spectroscopy. Melting points and glass transition temperatures for most polymers are available from standard compilations, and the method can show polymer degradation by the lowering of the expected melting temperature. Tm depends on the molecular weight of the polymer and thermal history.

The percent crystalline content of a polymer can be estimated from the crystallization/melting peaks of the DSC graph using reference heats of fusion found in the literature. DSC can also be used to study thermal degradation of polymers using an approach such as Oxidative Onset Temperature/Time (OOT); however, the user risks contamination of the DSC cell, which can be problematic. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) may be more useful for decomposition behavior determination. Impurities in polymers can be determined by examining thermograms for anomalous peaks, and plasticisers can be detected at their characteristic boiling points. In addition, examination of minor events in first heat thermal analysis data can be useful as these apparently "anomalous peaks" can in fact also be representative of process or storage thermal history of the material or polymer physical aging. Comparison of first and second heat data collected at consistent heating rates can allow the analyst to learn about both polymer processing history and material properties. (see J.H.Flynn.(1993) Analysis of DSC results by integration. Thermochimica      Acta, 217, 129-149.)

Liquid crystals
DSC is used in the study of liquid crystals. As some forms of matter go from solid to liquid they go through a third state, which displays properties of both phases. This anisotropic liquid is known as a liquid crystalline or mesomorphous state. Using DSC, it is possible to observe the small energy changes that occur as matter transitions from a solid to a liquid crystal and from a liquid crystal to an isotropic liquid.

Oxidative stability
Using differential scanning calorimetry to study the stability to oxidation of samples generally requires an airtight sample chamber. It can be used to determine the oxidative-induction time (OIT) of a sample. Such tests are usually done isothermally (at constant temperature) by changing the atmosphere of the sample. First, the sample is brought to the desired test temperature under an inert atmosphere, usually nitrogen. Oxygen is then added to the system. Any oxidation that occurs is observed as a deviation in the baseline. Such analysis can be used to determine the stability and optimum storage conditions for a material or compound. DSC equipment can also be used to determine the Oxidative-Onset Temperature (OOT) of a material. In this test a sample (and a reference) are exposed to an oxygen atmosphere and subjected to a constant rate of heating (typically from 50 to 300 °C). The DSC heat flow curve will deviate when the reaction with oxygen begins (the reaction being either exothermic or endothermic). Both OIT and OOT tests are used as a tools for determining the activity of antioxidants.

Safety screening
DSC makes a reasonable initial safety screening tool. In this mode the sample will be housed in a non-reactive crucible (often gold or gold-plated steel), and which will be able to withstand pressure (typically up to 100 bar). The presence of an exothermic event can then be used to assess the stability of a substance to heat. However, due to a combination of relatively poor sensitivity, slower than normal scan rates (typically 2–3 °C/min, due to much heavier crucible) and unknown activation energy, it is necessary to deduct about 75–100 °C from the initial start of the observed exotherm to suggest a maximal temperature for the material. A much more accurate data set can be obtained from an adiabatic calorimeter, but such a test may take 2–3 days from ambient at a rate of a 3 °C increment per half-hour.

Drug analysis
DSC is widely used in the pharmaceutical and polymer industries. For the polymer chemist, DSC is a handy tool for studying curing processes, which allows the fine tuning of polymer properties. The cross-linking of polymer molecules that occurs in the curing process is exothermic, resulting in a negative peak in the DSC curve that usually appears soon after the glass transition.

In the pharmaceutical industry it is necessary to have well-characterized drug compounds in order to define processing parameters. For instance, if it is necessary to deliver a drug in the amorphous form, it is desirable to process the drug at temperatures below those at which crystallization can occur.

General chemical analysis
Freezing-point depression can be used as a purity analysis tool when analysed by differential scanning calorimetry. This is possible because the temperature range over which a mixture of compounds melts is dependent on their relative amounts. Consequently, less pure compounds will exhibit a broadened melting peak that begins at lower temperature than a pure compound.

See also

Chemical thermodynamics
Calorimetry
Endothermic
Exothermic
Forensic engineering
Forensic polymer engineering
Glass transition temperature
Phase transitions
Polymer
Pressure perturbation calorimetry
Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer

References

Further reading

External links
 The result of a DSC experiment is a curve of heat flux versus temperature or versus time.

Materials science
Biophysics
Scientific techniques
Calorimetry

Differential scanning calorimetry


Viscount , a.k.a.  was a Japanese Shishi, and later, a diplomat.
He attended a battle in the 1860s at Chōshū Domain. Especially, in 1865, he was the commander in Kōzan-ji uprising, as Hirobumi Ito, under Shinsaku Takasugi. He also served at the Second Chōshū expedition, and led the Chōshū Army to win.

In the 1870s served as Japanese Minister to Rome. In 1876 concluded successfully negotiations with Italian sculptor Vincenzo Ragusa to take a teaching position at the newly opened government sponsored art school in Tokyo. Served as Japanese Consul in London in 1884-1893. In 1894, Kawase became a member of the Privy Council till his death.

References

Japanese diplomats
Ambassadors of Japan to Italy
1840 births
1919 deaths

Masataka Kawase


The Honeytrap is a 2002 British thriller film featuring Emily Lloyd as Catherine, a young woman about to marry her fiancé in London.  It was written and directed by Michael G. Gunther and shot in London, England. It also stars Anthony Green, Valerie Edmond, Stuart McQuarrie and Natalie Walter.

Synopsis
A woman is forced to confront her dark side when she investigates her husband's suspected infidelity.

Catherine (Emily Lloyd) returns to London to marry Jonathan (Anthony Green), whom she has only recently met. She moves into his apartment, and meets her next-door neighbor, Renee (Valerie Edmond), who soon becomes her friend and confidante.

When the first cracks start to appear in her relationship with Jonathan, Catherine starts to doubt his fidelity. Renee introduces her to Jeremy (Stuart McQuarrie), a private detective. Jeremy proposes setting up a "honeytrap" for Jonathan, a meeting with an attractive woman (Natalie Walter) to test his faithfulness. Catherine agrees to the test, but after a video surveillance reveals Jonathan's innocence, she feels embarrassed and tries to cut off her relationship with the detective.

Catherine and Jonathan get married, and on return from the honeymoon, all seems to be going well. But, slowly, Catherine's doubts about Jonathan start coming back. Anonymous telephone calls and nightly visits from Jeremy threaten to disturb the couple's happiness; and when Catherine receives photos of the woman from the "honeytrap" and her husband having an intimate dinner together, she is thrown back into her old paranoia, only this time it seems warranted.

As she sets to discover the truth about her husband, events take an altogether more sinister turn.

External links
The Honeytrap Official Site

2002 films
2002 thriller films
Films scored by Dominik Scherrer
British thriller films
2000s English-language films
2000s British films
English-language thriller films

The Honeytrap


Midtown is a neighborhood in Wichita, Kansas, United States. A mixed commercial and residential area on the east bank of the Little Arkansas River, it is the oldest neighborhood in the city.

History

Present-day Midtown was the original town site of Wichita, first platted in 1865 and initially settled in the late 1860s and 1870s. Postmaster, surveyor, and hotelkeeper Darius Munger built the city's first house in 1868 at the corner of what are today Waco and 9th Streets. Constructed from cottonwood logs, his house went on to serve as a hotel, justice hall, community center, and post office. By 1869, Munger had built and owned several more buildings. In 1870, he and Bill "Dutch Bill" Griffenstein filed plats laying out the first portions of the city's street grid, including what would become Main Street and Broadway. Griffenstein attracted businesses by offering free lots on Main Street. Also during this period, the city's first jail, the Wyatt Earp Jail, and first school both opened in what is today Midtown.

The city subsequently grew northward with settlers initially building Victorian homes on large estates. Property taxes increased with the demand for city services, and residents responded by subdividing and selling off their lots, increasing building density. Further development of Midtown continued through the 1940s when workers from Wichita's burgeoning aviation industry moved into the neighborhood. By the 1960s, however, Midtown had entered a period of decline.

Beginning in 1972, local residents organized to preserve the neighborhood and worked with the city government to have multiple areas declared to be historic districts.

Geography
Midtown consists of the area between 21st Street to the north, Central Avenue to the south, the Little Arkansas River to the west, and the BNSF/Union Pacific rail corridor to the east. It overlaps with a portion of the Riverside neighborhood to the west. Located immediately north of Downtown Wichita, it lies south of El Pueblo, west of McAdams, and east of North Riverside.

Government

For the purposes of representation on the Wichita City Council, Midtown lies within Council District 6.

The Sedgwick County government bases its operations and has several of its offices in Midtown. The old and current county courthouses as well as the sheriff's office are located in the far southern part of the neighborhood.

For the purposes of representation in the Kansas Legislature, Midtown is located in the 29th district of the Kansas Senate and the 92nd and 103rd districts of the Kansas House of Representatives.

Education

Primary and secondary education
Wichita Public Schools operates five facilities in Midtown:
 Gateway Alternate Program Center
 Horace Mann Dual Language Magnet
 Irving Elementary School
 Park Elementary School
 Wichita North High School

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Wichita oversees one Catholic elementary school in the neighborhood, St. Patrick School.

Infrastructure

Health care
Ascension Via Christi St. Francis, one of the city's primary hospitals, is located in Midtown at 9th Street and St. Francis Avenue. Select Specialty Hospital-Wichita, an acute long-term care facility, is also located on the St. Francis campus.

Media
KSNW, the NBC television affiliate in Wichita, broadcasts from studios on North Main Street in Midtown.

Parks and recreation
The city government's Park and Recreation Department maintains six parks in Midtown:  Emporia Park, Hope Park, North Woodland Park, Otis Park, Prospect Park, and Victoria Park. Located on North Emporia Avenue, Emporia Park covers  and includes a playground. Hope Park, formerly named the Midtown Mini-Park, occupies  at the corner of North Emporia Avenue and East 14th Street and hosts a playground. The  North Woodland Park lies on West 21st Street along the east bank of the Little Arkansas River. It includes a playground, a softball diamond, a basketball court, and the Hispanic Senior Center. Otis Park is a small,  park located at the intersection of North Market Street and 13th Street along the former path of a rail line. Across 13th Street to the south from Otis Park is Prospect Park, a similar  space with a playground. Victoria Park is a  space on a traffic island at the intersection of 17th Street and Park Place. It is the site of a National Humane Alliance fountain.

Culture

Points of interest
 Kansas African American Museum

Transportation
Broadway is the main north-south street through Midtown. 13th Street and Murdock Street are primary east-west streets. Other arterial roads include: Waco Avenue, which runs north-south several blocks west of Broadway; 21st Street, which runs east-west along the northern edge of the neighborhood; and Central Avenue, which runs east-west along the southern edge of the neighborhood.

Wichita Transit offers bus service in Midtown on its 13, 17, 25, and 27 routes.

BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad operate freight rail lines which run north-south immediately east of Midtown, parallel to Santa Fe Avenue.

Gallery

References

External links
 Historic Midtown Citizens Association

Geography of Wichita, Kansas
Neighborhoods in Kansas

Midtown, Wichita, Kansas


The 2011 Slovenian YouTube incident was the publication of three clips of the recordings of closed sessions of the Government of Slovenia on the video-sharing website YouTube on 3 December 2011. The clips were published under the title Stari obrazi (Old Faces) by someone who signed himself as stariobrazi (oldfaces). The publication happened during the term of the Prime Minister Borut Pahor, just before the early 2011 Slovenian parliamentary election on 4 December.

The first of the clips published was dated to 31 January 2008, when Janez Janša was the Prime Minister. The second and the third clip was dated to 23 April 2009, respectively 23 April and 30 April 2009, when Borut Pahor was the Prime Minister. The original recordings were produced in audio and video. They were stored on DVDs and locked in a safe available only to authorised personnel. They were also available at home to three people via the Spectiva remote viewing software, but due to their low quality, the probability of Spectiva being the source of the leaked data has been estimated as low, and it was not used during the term of Pahor's government. Spectiva could be misused until July 2009. It seems most probable that the recordings originated from the recording room or were transferred with additional equipment from the press room of the government; till 2009, sessions were broadcast live there so that extracts of resolutions could be made by the authorised personnel.

Marjan Miklavčič, an expert in intelligence services and a lecturer at the University of Maribor, compared the publication to WikiLeaks. He particularly stressed that it was not known which data had been stolen and whether they could be used for extortion. Iztok Prezelj, who lectures on intelligence at the University of Ljubljana, stated that the publication showed a parallel state to exist in Slovenia. Miklavčič confirmed that all the data publicly available indicate the thesis about a parallel state to be correct.

Content
The ministers of Janša's government, Andrej Vizjak and Mojca Kucler Dolinar, were discussing the wages of judges. The recordings of Pahor's sessions showed the Foreign Minister Samuel Žbogar reporting about the pressures from the European Union on Slovenia regarding the Slovenian blockade of Croatian entry to the Union and the Interior Minister Katarina Kresal discussing the acquisition of water cannons for the Slovenian Police.

Investigation
On 9 December, it was reported that the Slovenian Police had started investigation about the clips. On 14 December, the Government spokesperson Darijan Košir explained that in 2006, government areas were renovated. He said that the recorded sessions were held at Gregorčič Street 20 (; Government and Presidential Palace) and the recording room was at Gregorčič Street 25. The buildings were connected with  of cable. The system could be abused at several points. The works at Gregorčič Street 25 were carried out by the construction company SCT, and the computer infrastructure was set up by the companies ADM and TSE. Košir told that all the people with access to the data were thoroughly checked. On 12 December, after the Secretariat filed a criminal complaint, the Police requested an internal report from the Secretary-General Kamnar.

On 15 December, TSE denied having spotted any anomalies in the computer system since it had been installed. They told that all their employees were checked and that they never received any instruction that would allow for an illegal access. They also pointed out that the Government was responsible for the security of the system after it had been taken over. The telephone number of ADM was unavailable. Rumors about a slow investigation due to long preparation of report by the Secretary-General appeared. Both the minister of interior and the Secretary-General denied this.

On 11 January 2012, an inspectional surveillance, ordered by the Information Commissioner Nataša Pirc Musar, was carried out by the Inspectorate for Protection of Personal Data at the Secretary–General. As of 27 January 2012, the findings were not available yet. The results will influence the decision of the Government about the destruction of the original session recordings.

On 26 January 2012, the Secretariat-General of the Government issued a report about an internal investigation that failed to find the perpetrator. However, it was found out that the clips were carefully chosen and taken out of context, giving them a different meaning than they would have in the whole. They were alienated after they had been processed in the recording room. This significantly narrowed the number of supply locations and the circle of possible suspects. The highest risk was associated with the human factor. The Secretariat–General identified the crimes of betrayal of secrets, misuse of position, unauthorized image recording, and an information system attack. Due to lack of jurisdiction of the Government, further investigation would be carried out by the police.

On 27 January 2012, Helena Kamnar, the Secretary-General of the Government, unofficially told for media that three people had access to the Spectiva remote viewing software, and could also watch the sessions from their home. Kamnar also explained that it was possible to find out who had access in which period but had no information due to the police having confiscated one of the computers. On 28 January 2012, she told that according to the information she had received from the person who allocated the right to use the system, the three people were Janez Janša, the former Secretary-General Božo Predalič, and the former Secretary-General Milan M. Cvikl. They only had the possibility to use it in their respective terms. Predalič told that he used it perhaps twice, because he was present at Janša's sessions and did not have the option to use it during Pahor's sessions. Cvikl told that he refused to use it as it seemed redundant to him and due to security reasons even demanded it to be uninstalled.

The confiscated computers were returned to the Secretary-General on 31 January 2012. The next morning, Kamnar found the doors of the secretary open and reasoned that someone had broken in. Nothing was stolen. The Government officially denied any evidence that a criminal act had happened. There were guesses whether the two events could be related, but Kamnar decided there would be no investigation, as the possibility of it being successful was slim and she was to be replaced by the new government. Since February 2012, the government is again led by Janša, and the Secretary-General is again Predalič.

On 27 March 2012, the information commissioner reported that the measures for the safeguarding of the recordings were inadequate. Although the places where the recording device was situated and the recordings were kept were guarded, there were no revision marks on them, which would enable the tracing of their production, usage, viewing and processing. The law on the protection of personal data was not broken.

In September 2012, the pre-trial procedure had not been completed yet by the police.

Response by the Government
On 7 December, the Secretary-General of the Government filed a criminal complaint against the unknown perpetrator and notified about the incident the Criminal Police Directorate and the Office for the Protection of Classified Information. On 8 December, the Slovenian government demanded the removal of the clips from YouTube. On 9 December in the evening, when the publication was reported for the first time by media, there were three clips remaining of the allegedly original five although none had been removed by the host.  YouTube had removed the clips on 15 December 2011, after a copyright-related demand by the Slovenian Computer Emergency Response Team (SI–CERT). However, on the same day they appeared again, albeit shorter. They were removed again in less than 24 hours. The clips were republished by users who downloaded them after they have been found by media. The original perpetrator as well as the uploaders were unknown. The decision about the destruction of the original governmental recordings has not been made yet, pending the results of an inspectional surveillance. After the incident, the recordings were not produced until 26 January. Since then, they have been made only in audio and have been destroyed immediately after extracts had been made. They are not transmitted via cable to another building anymore. In April 2012, the deputy of the Secretary-General stated that the affair cannot repeat itself, because the government had implemented the traceability of users of governmental session video recordings.

Previous leakages
A tone clip of a closed government session was inadvertently leaked to the website of the Government already on 2 July 2009. It showed Katarina Kresal, the former Minister of the Interior, and Irma Pavlinič Krebs, the former Minister of Public Administration, in a wrangle about the number of the policemen in Slovenia, and had a large echo in the public. Krebs later commented: "I didn't know that our areas have ears."

References

2011 in Slovenia
2012 in Slovenia
Classified documents
Government of Slovenia
2011 controversies
YouTube controversies
2011 YouTube videos
Political controversies in Slovenia
National security in Slovenia
Signals intelligence
December 2011 events in Europe

2011 Slovenian YouTube incident


Sweat equity refers to work one does to build up value without a salary. This ownership interest, or increase in value, is created as a direct result of hard work by the owner. For example, homeowners who renovate or repair their house themselves are investing in sweat equity that increases the value of their home.
Or it could be a non-monetary benefit that a company's stakeholders give in labour and time, rather than a monetary contribution, that benefit the company.
In some cases, sweat equity may be rewarded in the form of sweat equity shares. These are shares given out by a company in exchange for labour and time rather than a monetary amount.

Sweat equity in real estate

Sweat equity has an application in business real estate, for example, where the owners put in effort and toil to build the business, in real estate where owners can perform D.I.Y. improvements and increase the value of the real estate, and in other areas such as an auto owner putting in their own effort and toil to increase the value of the vehicle.

The term sweat equity explains the fact that value added to someone's own house by unpaid work results in measurable market rate value increase in house price. The more labor applied to the home, and the greater the resultant increase in value, the more sweat equity has been used. The concept of sweat equity was first employed in the United States by the American Friends Service Committee in the Penn Craft self-help housing project beginning in 1937. The AFSC began using the term in the 1950s when helping migrant farmers in California to build their own homes. It is perhaps most popularly associated today with a successful model used by Habitat for Humanity, in which families who would otherwise be unable to purchase a home contribute sweat equity hours to the construction of their own home or the homes of other Habitat for Humanity partner families, or by volunteering to assist the organization in other ways. Once living in their new home, the family then make interest-free mortgage payments into a revolving fund which then provides capital to build homes for other families.

Sweat equity in U.S. private business

Private businesses in the U.S. make up 60% of yearly business net income. Recent data has shown the sweat equity in the private business sector equals 1.2 times the U.S. GDP. Theories have been put out to the public to say that lowering income tax rates on private businesses is significantly understated when considering smaller firms' sweat equity effects.

Sweat equity shares

Sweat equity shares are discounted shares issued by a company to its employees or directors. The shares are given in exchange for a value-add by an employee or director. Sweat equity shares are essential when creating a startup with low amounts of funding.

Sweat equity shares can be used as motivation for the startup's employees and will create a more level playing field against large corporations. In a startup company formed as a corporation, employees may receive stock or stock options, becoming part-owners of the firm, in exchange for accepting salaries that are below their respective market values (this includes zero wages). The term used to refer to a form of compensation by businesses to their owners or employees.

The term is sometimes used to describe the efforts put into a start-up company by the founders in exchange for ownership shares of the company. This concept, also called "stock for services" and sometimes "equity compensation" or "sweat equity,"  can also be seen when startup companies use their shares of stock to entice service providers to provide necessary corporate services in exchange for a discount or for deferring service fees until a later date; see, e.g., "Idea Makers and Idea Brokers in High Technology Entrepreneurship" by Todd L. Juneau et al., Greenwood Press, 2003, which describes equity for service programs involving patent lawyers and securities lawyers who specialize in start-up companies as clients. The "Slicing Pie" model, outlined in Mike Moyer's 2012 book Slicing Pie: Funding Your Company Without Funds, outlines a formula based entirely on sweat equity by observing the relative value of each person's unpaid fair market compensation and reimbursement.

Valuing sweat equity

There are many ways to value sweat equity. A Venture Capital way of measuring sweat equity is to look at the entrepreneur's initial cash investment plus anything personally guaranteed and allocate 20% of that as sweat equity. Venture capitalists will also consider what industry you are in and how much growth potential there is. Although VCs have their way of sorting out the sweat equity brought into a company, it is essential to note that this world is not perfect. There are no ways to measure one's sweat equity. A few things should be brought up when giving sweat equity, and that's the importance of keeping people happy and not losing relationships. Sometimes splitting up equity in a business is vital to continuing it, and sweat equity should be considered. Think about the work the employer or partner put in, not only the cash value put up.

Risks
The risks of sweat equity come with larger rewards. For instance, a person who is willing to take less pay in exchange for stock options or ownership in the company can later make more money. This obviously comes with higher risks because the company may not be as profitable yet to pay you the money that comes of it. Nevertheless, an entrepreneur/founder can use this as an advantage to incentivize their employees or incoming hires that may be getting offers from larger companies.

See also
 To each according to his contribution

References

Further reading

Corporate finance
Habitat for Humanity
Entrepreneurship

Sweat equity


In physics, the Josephson effect is a phenomenon that occurs when two superconductors are placed in proximity, with some barrier or restriction between them. The effect is named after the British physicist Brian Josephson, who predicted in 1962 the mathematical relationships for the current and voltage across the weak link. It is an example of a macroscopic quantum phenomenon, where the effects of quantum mechanics are observable at ordinary, rather than atomic, scale. The Josephson effect has many practical applications because it exhibits a precise relationship between different physical measures, such as voltage and frequency, facilitating highly accurate measurements.

The Josephson effect produces a current, known as a supercurrent, that flows continuously without any voltage applied, across a device known as a Josephson junction (JJ). These consist of two or more superconductors coupled by a weak link. The weak link can be a thin insulating barrier (known as a superconductor–insulator–superconductor junction, or S-I-S), a short section of non-superconducting metal (S-N-S), or a physical constriction that weakens the superconductivity at the point of contact (S-c-S).

Josephson junctions have important applications in quantum-mechanical circuits, such as SQUIDs, superconducting qubits, and RSFQ digital electronics. The NIST standard for one volt is achieved by an array of 20,208 Josephson junctions in series.

History
The DC Josephson effect had been seen in experiments prior to 1962, but had been attributed to "super-shorts" or breaches in the insulating barrier leading to the direct conduction of electrons between the superconductors.

In 1962 Brian Josephson became interested into superconducting tunneling. He was then 23-year-old and a second year graduate student of Brian Pippard at the Mond Laboratory of the University of Cambridge. On that year, Josephson took a many-body theory course with Philip W. Anderson, a Bell Labs employee on sabbatical leave for the 1961–1962 academic year. The course introduced
Josephson to the idea of broken symmetry in superconductors, and he "was fascinated by the idea of broken symmetry, and wondered whether there could be any way of observing it experimentally.". Josephson studied the experiments by Ivar Giaever and Hans Meissner, and theoretical work by Robert Parmenter. Pippard initially believed that the tunneling effect was possible but that it would be too small to be noticeable, but Josephson did not agree, especially after Anderson introduced him to a preprint of "Superconductive Tunneling" by Cohen, Falicov, and Phillips about the superconductor-barrier-normal metal system.

Josephson and his colleagues were initially unsure about the validity of Josephson's calculations. Anderson later remembered:
We were all—Josephson, Pippard and myself, as well as various other people who also habitually sat at the Mond tea and participated in the discussions of the next few weeks—very much puzzled by the meaning of the fact that the current depends on the phase.
After further review, they concluded that Josephson's results were valid  he submitted "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling" to Physics Letters on June 1962. The newer journal Physics Letters was chosen instead of the better established Physical Review Letters due to their uncertainty about the results. John Bardeen, by then already Nobel Prize winner, was initially publicly skeptical of Josephson's theory in 1962, but came to accept it after further experiments and theoretical clarifications. See also: .

In January 1963 Anderson his Bell Labs colleague John Rowell submitted to Physical Review Letters the first paper to claim the experimental observation of Josephson's effect "Probable Observation of the Josephson Superconducting Tunneling Effect". These authors were awarded  patents on the effects that were never enforced, but never challenged.

Before Josephson's prediction, it was only known that single (i.e. non-paired) electrons can flow through an insulating barrier, by means of quantum tunneling. Josephson was the first to predict the tunneling of superconducting Cooper pairs. For this work, Josephson received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973. John Bardeen was one of the nominators.

Applications
 Types of Josephson junction include the φ Josephson junction (of which π Josephson junction is a special example), long Josephson junction, and superconducting tunnel junction.  A "Dayem bridge" is a thin-film variant of the Josephson junction in which the weak link consists of a superconducting wire with dimensions on the scale of a few micrometres or less. The Josephson junction count of a device is used as a benchmark for its complexity. The Josephson effect has found wide usage, for example in the following areas.

SQUIDs, or superconducting quantum interference devices, are very sensitive magnetometers that operate via the Josephson effect. They are widely used in science and engineering.

In precision metrology, the Josephson effect provides an exactly reproducible conversion between frequency and voltage. Since the frequency is already defined precisely and practically by the caesium standard, the Josephson effect is used, for most practical purposes, to give the standard representation of a volt, the Josephson voltage standard.

Single-electron transistors are often constructed of superconducting materials, allowing use to be made of the Josephson effect to achieve novel effects. The resulting device is called a "superconducting single-electron transistor".

The Josephson effect is also used for the most precise measurements of elementary charge in terms of the Josephson constant and von Klitzing constant which is related to the quantum Hall effect.

RSFQ digital electronics is based on shunted Josephson junctions. In this case, the junction switching event is associated to the emission of one magnetic flux quantum  that carries the digital information: the absence of switching is equivalent to 0, while one switching event carries a 1.

Josephson junctions are integral in superconducting quantum computing as qubits such as in a flux qubit or others schemes where the phase and charge act as the conjugate variables.

Superconducting tunnel junction detectors (STJs) may become a viable replacement for CCDs (charge-coupled devices) for use in astronomy and astrophysics in a few years. These devices are effective across a wide spectrum from ultraviolet to infrared, and also in x-rays. The technology has been tried out on the William Herschel Telescope in the SCAM instrument.

Quiterons and similar superconducting switching devices.

Josephson effect has also been observed in superfluid helium quantum interference devices (SHeQUIDs), the superfluid helium analog of a dc-SQUID.

The Josephson equations

The Josephson effect can be calculated using the laws of quantum mechanics. A diagram of a single Josephson junction is shown at right. Assume that superconductor A has Ginzburg–Landau order parameter , and superconductor B , which can be interpreted as the wave functions of Cooper pairs in the two superconductors. If the electric potential difference across the junction is , then the energy difference between the two superconductors is , since each Cooper pair has twice the charge of one electron. The Schrödinger equation for this two-state quantum system is therefore:

where the constant  is a characteristic of the junction. To solve the above equation, first calculate the time derivative of the order parameter in superconductor A:

and therefore the Schrödinger equation gives:

The phase difference of Ginzburg–Landau order parameters across the junction is called the Josephson phase:

The Schrödinger equation can therefore be rewritten as:

and its complex conjugate equation is:

Add the two conjugate equations together to eliminate :

Since , we have:

Now, subtract the two conjugate equations to eliminate :

which gives:

Similarly, for superconductor B we can derive that:

Noting that the evolution of Josephson phase is  and the time derivative of charge carrier density  is proportional to current , when , the above solution yields the Josephson equations:

where  and  are the voltage across and the current through the Josephson junction, and  is a parameter of the junction named the critical current. Equation (1) is called the first Josephson relation or weak-link current-phase relation, and equation (2) is called the second Josephson relation or superconducting phase evolution equation. The critical current of the Josephson junction depends on the properties of the superconductors, and can also be affected by environmental factors like temperature and externally applied magnetic field.

The Josephson constant is defined as:

and its inverse is the magnetic flux quantum:

The superconducting phase evolution equation can be reexpressed as:

If we define:

then the voltage across the junction is:

which is very similar to Faraday's law of induction. But note that this voltage does not come from magnetic energy, since there is no magnetic field in the superconductors; Instead, this voltage comes from the kinetic energy of the carriers (i.e. the Cooper pairs). This phenomenon is also known as kinetic inductance.

Three main effects

There are three main effects predicted by Josephson that follow directly from the Josephson equations:

The DC Josephson effect
The DC Josephson effect is a direct current crossing the insulator in the absence of any external electromagnetic field, owing to tunneling. This DC Josephson current is proportional to the sine of the Josephson phase (phase difference across the insulator, which stays constant over time), and may take values between  and .

The AC Josephson effect
With a fixed voltage  across the junction, the phase will vary linearly with time and the current will be a sinusoidal AC (alternating current) with amplitude  and frequency . This means a Josephson junction can act as a perfect voltage-to-frequency converter.

The inverse AC Josephson effect
Microwave radiation of a single (angular) frequency  can induce quantized DC voltages across the Josephson junction, in which case the Josephson phase takes the form , and the voltage and current across the junction will be:

The DC components are:

This means a Josephson junction can act like a perfect frequency-to-voltage converter, which is the theoretical basis for the Josephson voltage standard.

Josephson inductance
When the current and Josephson phase varies over time, the voltage drop across the junction will also vary accordingly; As shown in derivation below, the Josephson relations determine that this behavior can be modeled by a kinetic inductance named Josephson Inductance.

Rewrite the Josephson relations as:

Now, apply the chain rule to calculate the time derivative of the current:

Rearrange the above result in the form of the current–voltage characteristic of an inductor:

This gives the expression for the kinetic inductance as a function of the Josephson Phase:

Here,  is a characteristic parameter of the Josephson junction, named the Josephson Inductance.

Note that although the kinetic behavior of the Josephson junction is similar to that of an inductor, there is no associated magnetic field. This behaviour is derived from the kinetic energy of the charge carriers, instead of the energy in a magnetic field.

Josephson energy
Based on the similarity of the Josephson junction to a non-linear inductor, the energy stored in a Josephson junction when a supercurrent flows through it can be calculated.

The supercurrent flowing through the junction is related to the Josephson phase by the current-phase relation (CPR):

The superconducting phase evolution equation is analogous to Faraday's law:

Assume that at time , the Josephson phase is ; At a later time , the Josephson phase evolved to . The energy increase in the junction is equal to the work done on the junction:

This shows that the change of energy in the Josephson junction depends only on the initial and final state of the junction and not the path. Therefore the energy stored in a Josephson junction is a state function, which can be defined as:

Here  is a characteristic parameter of the Josephson junction, named the Josephson Energy. It is related to the Josephson Inductance by . An alternative but equivalent definition  is also often used.

Again, note that a non-linear magnetic coil inductor accumulates potential energy in its magnetic field when a current passes through it; However, in the case of Josephson junction, no magnetic field is created by a supercurrent — the stored energy comes from the kinetic energy of the charge carriers instead.

The RCSJ model
The Resistively Capacitance Shunted Junction (RCSJ) model, or simply shunted junction model, includes the effect of AC impedance of an actual Josephson junction on top of the two basic Josephson relations stated above.

As per Thévenin's theorem, the AC impedance of the junction can be represented by a capacitor and a shunt resistor, both parallel to the ideal Josephson Junction. The complete expression for the current drive  becomes:

where the first term is displacement current with  -  effective capacitance, and the third is normal current with   - effective resistance of the junction.

Josephson penetration depth

The Josephson penetration depth characterizes the typical length on which an externally applied magnetic field penetrates into the long Josephson junction. It is usually denoted as  and is given by the following expression (in SI):

where  is the magnetic flux quantum,  is the critical supercurrent density (A/m2), and  characterizes the inductance of the superconducting electrodes

where  is the thickness of the Josephson barrier (usually insulator),  and  are the thicknesses of superconducting electrodes, and  and  are their London penetration depths. The Josephson penetration depth usually ranges from a few μm to several mm if the critical supercurrent density is very low.

See also

Pi Josephson junction
φ Josephson junction
Josephson diode
Andreev reflection
Fractional vortices
Ginzburg–Landau theory
Macroscopic quantum phenomena
Macroscopic quantum self-trapping
Quantum computer
Quantum gyroscope
Rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ)
Semifluxon
Zero-point energy
Josephson vortex

References

Condensed matter physics
Superconductivity
Sensors
Mesoscopic physics
Energy (physics)

Josephson effect


Cesare Gianturco (February 12, 1905 – August 25, 1995) was an Italian-American physician and one of the earliest contributors to the specialty of interventional radiology. After many years as the radiology chief at the Carle Clinic in Illinois and a faculty member at the University of Illinois College of Medicine, Gianturco moved to Houston, where he conducted research at MD Anderson Hospital.

Several medical innovations bear his name, including the first coronary stent to be approved by the FDA; a wool coil that could be deployed inside blood vessels to stop bleeding; the self-expanding Z-stent; and a vena cava filter to trap blood clots in the venous system before they reached the heart.

Early life
Cesare Gianturco was born in Naples, the youngest of eight children. His father was the Italian scholar and politician Emanuele Gianturco. He attended college and medical school at the Royal University of Rome. He studied radiology in Rome, then went to Berlin for a year of training in pathology. In 1930, he came to the U.S. to continue his medical education by completing a residency at the Mayo Clinic. Gianturco had come to the Mayo Clinic to train in surgery, hoping to eventually join his brother in a surgical practice in Italy. However, shortly after Gianturco arrived in Minnesota, his brother died, so Gianturco decided to pursue a career in radiology.

Mayo Clinic physiologist Walter C. Alvarez exerted an early influence on Gianturco. Alvarez and Gianturco studied hunger contractions in the stomachs of cats using cineradiography. He also worked on some devices with radiologist John D. Camp on imaging technology, including techniques that would allow for visualization of the optic canal and hypoglossal canal.

Early career in Illinois
At the invitation of a friend, physician Vito Witting, Gianturco moved to Illinois to join the medical group at the Carle Clinic in Urbana. Witting had been ill, and he died of acute leukemia on the day that Gianturco arrived in Urbana. Gianturco became a U.S. citizen shortly after his arrival. In 1934, he was in the first group of physicians to achieve board certification from the fledgling American Board of Radiology. He soon became the chief of radiology at the Carle Clinic, a position he held for more than 30 years.

Gianturco's work at the Carle Clinic was interrupted by his service in Europe as a lieutenant colonel with the U.S. Army Medical Corps during World War II. While he was in active practice at the Carle Clinic, Gianturco was a clinical faculty member at the University of Illinois College of Medicine.

Move to Texas
Unsatisfied by a brief period of retirement in 1967, Gianturco sought to return to work as a radiologist. Through Robert Moreton, a radiologist in Houston who had become an administrator at MD Anderson Hospital, Gianturco secured a position at MD Anderson as a professor of experimental radiology and the radiology residency director. By 1969, Gianturco had given up his teaching responsibilities and focused on research. With radiologists Sidney Wallace and Gerald D. Dodd, Gianturco helped to establish the John S. Dunn Sr. Foundation Center for Research in Radiological Sciences.

Retaining a senior consultant position at the Carle Clinic even during his years at MD Anderson, he spent summers in Illinois for most of his later career, but he always returned to Texas before the cold weather hit Illinois.

Innovations
The holder of ten patents, Gianturco may have been best known for introducing the Gianturco-Roubin coronary stent used in angioplasty. However, he invented or improved upon several other devices. While in France during World War II, he had devised three-dimensional X-ray techniques that helped surgeons locate in advance shell fragments in the eyes of wounded soldiers. He introduced the Gianturco coil, a tiny piece of wool that could be deployed from a catheter into a blood vessel to stop bleeding, or to impede or block the blood supply to a tumor. He also invented a type of inferior vena cava filter known colloquially as a "bird's nest" filter. Cook Medical marketed the device as the Gianturco-Roehm Filter. His most enduring invention may have been the self-expanding Z-stent, originally patented and manufactured by Cook Medical.  After the expiration of the patent the Z-stent entered the public domain and has been replicated and adapted for use in various devices by a number of manufacturers.

Gianturco was honored with the Gold Medal of the Radiological Society of North America and the Gold Medal of the Italian Radiological Society. He became known for creating simple and inexpensive solutions to difficult problems. One day, a radiologist had come from another country to demonstrate an expensive solenoid device for regulating the flow of barium during a barium enema. Gianturco showed the radiologist how the same purpose could be achieved with a piece of string, an IV pole and a test tube clamp.

Later life
Though his activity at MD Anderson slowed over the years and he spent more time in Illinois with his family, he continued to visit his laboratory in Houston periodically until he was 88 years old. When he was not practicing medicine, Gianturco enjoyed sailing and he held a private pilot's license. He died in 1995. He was survived by his wife of 60 years, Verna, as well as two children and two grandchildren.

References

1905 births
1995 deaths
Physicians from Naples
Italian emigrants to the United States
American radiologists
University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center faculty
University of Illinois Chicago faculty

Cesare Gianturco


Cropped Out is an annual multi-venue music festival held in Louisville, Kentucky, co-founded in 2010 by Ryan Davis and James Ardery. According to the festival's website, "Cropped Out aims to celebrate a select fistful of contemporary musicians, artists, and artisans whom we feel reflect a greater undercurrent of sonic, visual, and conceptual exploration. It is our intention to turn heads toward the talents of those often omitted, overlooked, or cropped out of 'the big picture'. These are the minds most interesting to us, the minds most capable of emerging from and quickly returning to their lightlessness, if only to be briefly met by a niche appreciation...The fest is designed to highlight the creative efforts of Louisville natives, friends, family, and fellow thinkers from Nashville to Chicago to Brooklyn and beyond." The festival stays true to this ethos, presenting independent bands and a general DIY scene in an intimate, affordable setting. The primary genres featured in the festival are Indie rock and post-punk, but expands into other genres such as folk, avant-garde, free jazz, hardcore punk, noise rock and even hip-hop and alternative country. Cropped Out has close ties with Drag City Records, Thrill Jockey Records, Sophomore Lounge among other independent labels.

The inaugural festival was held in October 2010 both at Kingfish and American Turners Louisville, both located on the banks of the Ohio River just east of downtown Louisville. During the first year, the festival was staffed primarily by the two organizers and their parents, along with a group of close friends. The second year of the festival was held at a warehouse space in the NuLu which was nicknamed "The Crummy Den" by festival organizers. Due to noise complaints on the final night of the festival, the Louisville Police Department interrupted and cut Scratch Acid's set short.

Since 2012, the main part of the festival has taken place at American Turners Louisville, often with Thursday opening and Sunday closing parties held at different local bars and venues. Since 2013,  on-site camping has been available to ticket holders for a camping fee. Since 2016, Cropped Out has partnered with Against the Grain Brewery in Louisville to produce Hopped Out, the official beer of Cropped Out. Notably, on the emphasis of local artists, Cropped Out has hosted rare performances by Louisville bands and musicians such as Papa M, The Endtables, Bonnie 'Prince' Billy (performing Superwolf with Matt Sweeney), The Belgian Waffles! and more.

Cropped Out lineups by year

Cropped Out VIII
The 2018 edition of Cropped Out took place October 5 and 6 at American Turners Louisville.

Friday, October 5
 Bill Direen
 Bill Mackay / Nathan Bowles
 Charalambides
 Circuit Des Yeux
 Drunks With Guns
 Exek
 Exit III
 Honey
 Iron Bars
 Leggy
 Major Stars
 Michael Hurley
 Night Vapor
 Simon Joyner
 Spider Bags
 Taiwan Housing Project
 The Sal Show
 Träd, Gräs & Stenar
Saturday, October 6
 Anthony Braxton / Jacqueline Kerrod
 Catherine Irwin
 Cherry Death
 Endless Boogie
 Equipment Pointed Ankh
 Footings
 Graham Lambkin / Bill Nace
 Half Japanese
 Jana Rush
 Kal Marks
 Lié
 Protruders
 Quin Kirchner Group
 Sadie
 Sex Tide
 Shabazz Palaces
 Thee Open Sex
 The Possum
 The Web
 The World
 Tommy Wright III
 Winger Brothers

Cropped Out VII
The 2017 edition of Cropped Out took place September 22 & 23, 2017 at American Turners Louisville. A kick-off party is scheduled to take place September 21, 2017 at Nachbar, and a closing party is scheduled to take place September 24, 2017 at Kaiju.

Thursday, September 21 @ Nachbar
 Fever Hands
 King Cheetah
 Shawnthany Calypso
Friday, September 22 @ American Turners
 75 Dollar Bill
 Axis: Sova
 Bathroom Laws
 Circle X
 Crazy Doberman
 Dan Melchior
 Exacta Cube
 Heavy Dreams
 John Bender
 Limes
 Lung
 Neil Hamburger
 Pile
 Royal Trux
 The Cowboys
 The Stranger
 Tommy Jay's Latest Freak Show
 Wombo
Saturday, September 23 @ American Turners
 Attic Talent
 Billington / Shippy / Wyche
 David Nance
 Deep State
 Feedtime
 Frank Hurricane
 Fried Egg
 Le Fruit Vert
 Magik Markers
 Matt Jencik
 Peter Brötzmann
 Rays
 Sadat X
 Sarah Squirm
 Shit and Shine
 Shutaro Noguchi
 Tara Jane O'Neil
 Tashi Dorji & Tyler Damon
 The Other Years
 Tyvek
Sunday, September 24 @ American Turners
 Axel Cooper
 Jaye Jayle
 Justin Frye of PC Worship
 Mike Donovan of Peacers / Sic Alps
 Natural Man

Cropped Out VI
The 2016 edition of Cropped Out took place on September 23 & 24, 2016 at American Turners after a year-long hiatus, due largely to both Tropical Trash and State Champion (two bands that are composed mainly of the festival's organizers and staff) going on tours around the same time that year. The kick-off party took place at Nachbar in Louisville on September 22, and the closing party took place at Kaiju on September 25.

Thursday, September 22 @ Nachbar (Kickoff Party)

Friday, September 23 @ American Turners

Saturday, September 24 @ American Turner's

Sunday, September 25 @ Kaiju

Cropped Out V
The 2014 edition took place from September 26 to September 28, 2014, at Dreamland Film Center, American Turners Louisville, and Fresh Start.

Thursday, September 25 @ Dreamland Film Center (Kickoff Party)

Friday, September 26 @ American Turners

Saturday, September 27 @ American Turners

Sunday, September 28 @ Fresh Start Grower Supply

Cropped Out IV
The 2013 edition of Cropped Out took place entirely at American Turners from Friday, September 27 to Sunday, September 29, 2013.

Friday, September 27 @ American Turners

Saturday, September 28 @ American Turners

Sunday, September 29 @ American Turners

The Sunday show was originally intended to be held at the Workhouse Ballroom but was moved to the Phreedom Hall stage at American Turners. Tony Clifton was also scheduled to perform as the host for the main part of the festival at American Turners but ultimately cancelled due to personal reasons.

Cropped Out III
The 2012 edition took place at American Turners and the Workhouse Ballroom, a small cave near the Highlands area of Louisville, from Friday, September 28 to Sunday, September 30, 2012.

Friday, September 28 @ American Turners

Dahm Cipolla of The Phantom Family Halo was intended to play but cancelled due to illness. He was replaced by Virginia grindcore band Suppression.

Saturday, September 29 @ American Turners

Sunday, September 30 @ The Workhouse Ballroom

Cropped Out II
The 2011 edition took place entirely at The Crummy Den, a warehouse space that was turned into a DIY venue for the weekend, and took place from Friday, September 27 to Sunday, September 29, 2011.

Friday, November 11

Saturday, November 12

Sunday, November 1

Cropped Out I
The 2010 Edition took place at KingFish and American Turners Louisville from October 1 to October 3, 2010.

Friday, October 1 @ KingFish

Saturday, October 2 @ American Turners

Sunday, October 3 @ American Turners

See also
 List of attractions and events in the Louisville metropolitan area

References

External links
 Cropped Out's official website
 The site of Cropped Out

Music festivals in Louisville, Kentucky
Rock festivals in the United States
Indie rock festivals
Music festivals established in 2010
2010 establishments in Kentucky

Cropped Out


Colonel Brian Harold Thomson (21 November 1918 – 7 November 2006) was a newspaper proprietor of D. C. Thomson & Co. and soldier in the Fife and Forfar Yeomanry. He was widely known as "Mr Brian" within D. C. Thomson & Co. and throughout the business community of Dundee.

Education
Brian was educated at Charterhouse and spent a year in Germany before joining the family firm (D. C. Thomson & Co.) in 1937.

DC Thomson & Co.
Brian Thomson was a great-grandson of William Harold Thomson, a Dundonian who prospered first as a draper and later as a shipowner, and in 1884 became the major shareholder of The Dundee Courier & Daily Argus.

William's son, David Couper Thomson, became general manager of the paper, and in 1905 a growing portfolio of newspaper interests was consolidated as D. C. Thomson & Co..

David Couper Thomson remained chairman of the company until his death, aged 93, in 1954; but it was his nephew, Harold (Brian's father), who drove the expansion of its publishing interests, particularly in the field of comics. The Sunday Post, launched in 1914, introduced a "Fun" section in 1936 which became home to iconic cartoon characters such as Oor Wullie and the Broons.

Brian became a joint Managing Director in 1948 and succeeded his father as chairman in 1974. He conducted business according to strict principles of fairness and courtesy. He did not believe that his company's affairs were the concern of anyone but himself and his board, and he almost never spoke about them to the outside world.

His publications upheld traditional Scottish family values and tastes, typified by the homely tone of the Sunday Post and by magazine titles such as Classic Stitches.

Military service
In September 1939 he joined the Fife and Forfar Yeomanry. Posted to Montgomery's Eighth Army in early 1943 and served in armoured cars in North Africa and in the intense battles fighting up the spine of Italy.

After the war he continued to serve in the Yeomanry. He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and from 1953 to 1955 he commanded his Regiment, the Fife and Forfar Yeomanry.

Family life and private life
He married in 1947 Patricia Cunninghame (died 1991) and had one son Christopher, now chairman of D. C. Thomson & Co., and four daughters.

He loved his garden and woodlands, enjoyed shooting, and was a fine golfer at Royal and Ancient at St Andrews, where he reached the final of the Jubilee Vase in 1953; he continued to play regularly until he was well into his eighties.

Brian Thomson was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Fife in 1988.

See also
List of DC Thomson Publications
British comics

References

External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945

1918 births
2006 deaths
People educated at Charterhouse School
British newspaper publishers (people)
Deputy Lieutenants of Fife
Fife and Forfar Yeomanry officers
British Army personnel of World War II
20th-century British businesspeople
Military personnel from Fife

Brian Harold Thomson


In the classification of the archaeological cultures of North America, the Archaic period or "Meso-Indian period" in North America, starts from about 8000 BC, and it ends at about 1000 BC. In the sequence of North American pre-Columbian cultural stages, is a period defined by the archaic stage of cultural development.
The Archaic stage is characterized by subsistence economies. These economies were supported through the use of nuts, seeds, and shellfish. Because it ended when people started using sedentary farming, this date can be different by a lot across the Americas.

The rest of the Americas also have an Archaic Period.

Classifications
This classification system was first proposed by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in the widely accepted 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology.

In the organization of the system, the Archaic period is after the Lithic stage. THe Archaic period is before the Formative stage.
 The Lithic stage
 The Archaic stage
 The Formative stage
 The Classic stage
 The Post-Classic stage

References

More Reading

History of North America

Archaic period (North America)


The Combat Recognition Ribbon was a tentative military award of the United States Army which was first proposed in the mid 1980s as an Army equivalent to the United States Navy's Combat Action Ribbon.

The primary justification for the creation of the Combat Recognition Ribbon was that the Department of the Army recognizes combat service with the Combat Infantryman Badge; however, this decoration is closed to all but infantry personnel or special case requests
from members of other Army branches, provided a special order is issued for the Combat Infantryman Badge.  The Combat Recognition Ribbon was initially proposed as an award for Army personnel who had served in combat situations, but for a variety of reasons had failed to meet the criteria for the Combat Infantryman Badge.

The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) of 2005 required that the Secretary of the Army establish the Combat Recognition Ribbon (CRR).  As of February 2005, the Department of the Army began the very initial stages of developing the Combat Recognition Ribbon.  The proposed ribbon was eventually renamed and reclassed as the Combat Action Badge. The Combat Action Badge creation was approved by the U.S. Army on May 2, 2005 and can be retroactively awarded to soldiers who engaged in combat after September 18, 2001.

With the creation of the Combat Action Badge, the proposal for the Combat Recognition Ribbon was dropped by the United States Army and the ribbon is now considered obsolete.  The award itself was never actually officially created and a physical ribbon design was never proposed by the Institute of Heraldry.

Awards and decorations of the United States Army
Military ribbons of the United States

Combat Recognition Ribbon


Buddo, sometimes spelled as Budo, is a hill in Wakiso District, Central Uganda.  Phonetically, Buddo is the correct spelling in Luganda, the native language of the local area.

Location
Buddo is located in Busiro County, Wakiso District, off of the Kampala-Masaka Highway, approximately , by road, southwest of Kampala, Uganda's capital and largest city. The coordinates of Buddo Hill are: 00 15 22N, 32 29 10E (Latitude:0.2560; Longitude:32.4860).

Overview
With a peak at  above sea level, Buddo is an important hill in the environs of Kampala. It carries cultural and academic significance. The cultural coronation site, where the Kabaka of Buganda is enthroned in a traditional ceremony is located on Buddo Hill and is known as Naggalabi Buddo. The hill is also the location of several elementary, middle and high schools, including Kings College Budo, a prestigious mixed boarding high school, attended by Buganda's Kings starting with Captain Sir Daudi Chwa II, the thirty-fourth (34th) Kabaka of the Kingdom of Buganda, who reigned between 1897 and 1939.

Landmarks
Buddo boasts of the following landmarks:

 Kings College Budo - A prestigious mixed boarding high school
 Budo junior school
 Budo Senior Secondary School - A mixed non-residential high school
 Kisozi High School Buddo
 Naggalabi Buddo - The site where the Kabaka of Buganda is enthroned in a traditional ceremony.
 Matutu Memorial Primary School
 St. Jude Primary School
 Abatec Islamic School

External links
Challenges and Constraints to Planning and Development in Kampala

See also
 Wakiso District
 Kings College Budo
 Kingdom of Buganda
 Central Region, Uganda

References

Populated places in Central Region, Uganda
Wakiso District
Buganda

Buddo hill


Nicolaus Germanus () was a German cartographer who modernized Ptolemy's Geography by applying new projections, adding additional maps, and contributing other innovations that were influential in the development of Renaissance cartography.

Name
In the fifteenth century it was common for scholars and artisans to adopt a Latinized version of their birth name. Nicolaus Germanus is the Latin form of the name "Nicholas the German". His full birth name is unknown. His name is sometimes preceded by "Donnus" or "Donus", an abbreviated form of the Latin title Dominus ("Lord" or "Master").

Life
Nothing is known about the early life of Nicolaus Germanus. He first appears in the records of the Reichenbach Priory (now in Baden-Württemberg) where he was prior of the Benedictine monastery in 1442. It appears that he was trained in cosmography around 1460 and arrived in Italy by 1464.
He lived first in Florence where he compiled astrological tables and produced his first revision of Ptolemy's Geography in 1466. He later moved to Rome where created a pair of globes and a world map for the Vatican Library in 1477. He continued to prepare updates and revisions of Ptolemy's atlas for several years. The last contemporary record of his activity comes from a fellow German scholar, Conrad Celtes, who met him in Florence and wrote that Nicolaus complained bitterly about others getting the glory and profit for his work.

Works

Ptolemy's Geographia
Nicolaus Germanus was an influential figure in the modernization and popularization of Ptolemy's Geographia. At least fifteen manuscript copies of Geographia were authored by Germanus or immediately copied from his work. Except for the 1482 Florence edition, all versions printed in the fifteenth century were based on his manuscripts.

Scholars group his manuscripts into three recensions (versions), roughly based on the number of maps included and the type of map projection used. His first recension (ca. 1460 to 1466) contains only the original twenty-seven Ptolemaic maps (tabulae antiquae) drawn using a trapezoid projection of which Germanus claimed to be the author. In the so called "Donis projection", latitude is reflected by parallel lines while longitude lines converge towards the pole. This recension served as the basis for the Rome edition ofGeographia printed in 1478 and reprinted in 1490. Henricus Martellus Germanus also adopted the trapezoid projection in 1480 for his manuscript version of Geographia.

The second recension (1466 to 1468) includes the twenty-seven tabulae antiquae and three new maps (tabulae modernae) covering northern Europe, Spain and France. His representation of the Scandinavian region, including Iceland and Greenland, reflected a more accurate depiction provided by Danish cartographer Claudius Clavus. The world map in this recension was drawn using the homeotheric projection which Ptolemy called superior but more difficult to construct. This recension was the basis for the Ulm edition printed in 1482 and 1486 in Ulm. It was the first edition of Geographia to be printed north of the Alps and the first atlas to be colored in-house prior to sale. It was printed using woodcuts prepared by Johannes de Armsheim who first introduced the practice of engravers signing their maps.

His last recension (1468 to 1482) added two more maps depicting Italy and Palestine and extended the world map to include northern Europe, although his placement of Iceland and Greenland were notably less accurate than his previous portrayal. Printed in 1482, Berlinghieri's Geographia uses a mix of maps from this recension and earlier ones.

The 1482 editions of Ulm and Berlinghieri contain the first modern maps (derived from Germanus) to appear in print. Germanus introduced other cartographic innovations including the use of dots or circles to mark the exact position of localities and dotted lines to indicate frontiers.

Globes
In 1477, Nicolaus Germanus created a terrestrial and a celestial globe for inclusion in the new Vatican Library. Germanus was paid 200 ducats for the globes and an additional seven ducats to add the papal coat of arms and provide two covers. The globes were listed in an inventory of 1481 and kept in the Salle Pontifica until they were lost during the sack of Rome in 1527. The earth globe is the earliest documented modern globe and preceded the extant Behaim's globe by fifteen years.

Astrology
Nicolaus Germanus was also a competent astrologer. In 1466 while in Florence, he prepared an astrological table for the Duke Borso d'Este which demonstrated his ability to calculate the positions of the planets for several years in the future. In Rome he prepared a similar astrological table for Pope Paul II.

References

Citations

Bibliography

German cartographers
Medieval German geographers
1420s births
1490s deaths
Year of death unknown
15th-century geographers
15th-century German scientists
15th-century German writers

Nicolaus Germanus