Jackson County Courthouse is an historic courthouse located at Sylva, serving Jackson County, North Carolina. It was designed by Smith & Carrier and built in 1913, when Sylva took over the county seat designation from Webster.

The building

The Jackson County Courthouse is situated on a hill at the end of main street, and there are 107 steps leading up to its front portico from the fountain and plaza at street level.  It is a two-story, Classical Revival style brick buildings with a three-stage cupola.  It was built after C. J. Harris pushed the county to vote for the removal of the county seat from Webster (where it had been since 1851) to Sylva, and the measure passed and the seat was relocated.  Harris then as part of the agreement built a courthouse with the sum of money not exceeding $30,000.  The building was patterned after the Madison County Courthouse in Marshall, North Carolina.  The 1913 Courthouse served as the county's courthouse from 1914 until the present Justice Center was built in 1994 on Grindstaff Cove Road east of town near US 74.  It had been previously renovated in 1950 when the mezzanine third floor was painted white and four windows were added to the front and back of the third floor.  It was renovated again in 1969, when the red bricks were painted white, a clock added to the dome, the pine trees along the steps that hid the building from the street and lined the steps were also removed.

In 2007, the Courthouse site was selected for the location of the new Jackson County Public Library.  The old Jail from 1963 was demolished at this time, and the original jail from 1913 was demolished in 2009, when the new library started being constructed.

The Jackson County Courthouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.

The jails

The original jail was small, about the size of a house.  It served as the main county jail until a big red brick structure was built between it and the courthouse in 1963.  They were both two floors tall and connected by a one floor tall office wing on the 1963 building.  The jails were abandoned in favor of a new facility around 2000.  Both jails were recently demolished in preparation for the construction of the new Library on their sites.

New Jackson County Public Library

Construction started in 2009 on a 20,000 sq. ft. two-story addition to house the library, which is being built onto the back of the historic courthouse, and will incorporate elements of the old building into it, and will connect with the back of the courthouse via large glass roofed atrium.  The new building will replace a small, sad, one story structure with a meager floorspace of 6,000SQ FT that was built in 1970 on Main Street.  The Courthouse is also being restored to house the Jackson County Genealogical Society, Arts Council, and Historical Society.  It will have an Auditorium in the former courtroom and it will also become the showplace of the county, and has had new windows and doors installed as part of the restoration.  The iconic dome and clocktower of the building was removed for the third time since its construction for renovation work (it was removed in 2010 and replaced in 2011, and it was previously removed in 1969 and 1994), and the entire complex was scheduled to open in May 2011, with a grand opening in June. The construction is mostly complete, but finishing work needs to be done on both the interior and exterior as of February 5, 2011.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Jackson County, North Carolina

References

Government buildings completed in 1913
Buildings and structures in Jackson County, North Carolina
County courthouses in North Carolina
Neoclassical architecture in North Carolina
Courthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in North Carolina
National Register of Historic Places in Jackson County, North Carolina
1913 establishments in North Carolina

Jackson County Courthouse (North Carolina)


An assistant referee, also known as linesman, is a referee that helps the main referee with areas that they cannot see or control. The assistant referee has the power to do things that the main referee cannot do. For example, in Football (soccer), the assistant referee can call offside, determine if a goal was valid based on the ball position, and determine who is in possession if the ball went out of play. However, assistant referees cannot overrule a referee's decision, such as if an assistant believes there was an offside but the referee believes there was not.

General duties

As outlined in Law 6 of the Laws of the Game, the officiating team works together to enforce the Laws during a game, though the referee remains final decision maker in all matters. All officials wear uniforms that match that of the referee, though the fourth official will often wear a tracksuit over the kit in colder weather.

Assistant referee


Hammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, meaning "the kinsman is a healer," from ˤAmmu, meaning "paternal kinsman", and Rāpi, meaning "healer"), was the sixth king of Babylon from 1792 BC to 1750 BC. He became king after his father abdicated, and was the first ruler of Babylonia. By winning wars against other kingdoms in Mesopotamia, Hammurabi created a large Babylonian empire. However, his son Samsu-iluna and later Babylonian rulers lost much of the land he had gained.

Hammurabi is most famous for his laws, which are known as the Hammurabi's Code. Hammurabi's Code was one of the first written codes of law in history.

History

Hammurabi became king of Babylon in around 1792 BC, when his father Sin-Muballit abdicated. Babylon was one of many small independent cities in ancient Mesopotamia. These cities often fought each other for control of land. Babylon was already one of the more powerful cities when Hammurabi became king. Earlier kings of Babylon had taken over the nearby city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.

Hammurabi did not fight any important wars in the early part of his reign. He instead improved the buildings of Babylon. He built taller city walls to make the city more difficult to attack, and expanded the temples. In around 1771 BC, the kingdom of Elam attacked Mesopotamia from the east. Elam invaded Eshnunna, a city-state to the north-east of Babylon, and destroyed its cities. It also tried to start a war between Babylon and Larsa, a city in southern Mesopotamia. However, Hammurabi instead made an alliance with Larsa against Elam. Hammurabi defeated Elam, but felt that Larsa had not given him enough help. He therefore attacked Larsa. Babylon had entirely conquered southern Mesopotamia by c. 1763 BC.

Hammurabi's allies in northern Mesopotamia had sent their armies to the south to help Babylon. This caused unrest in the northern area.  Hammurabi therefore returned north, stopping the unrest, and defeating Eshnunna. He then attacked and conquered the remaining cities in northern Mesopotamia, including Babylon's former ally Mari. It is possible that Mari surrendered to Babylon without any fighting happening. After this, Hammurabi was in control of most of Mesopotamia. Only Aleppo and Qatna, two western cities in modern Syria remained independent. When Hammurabi died in c. 1750 BC, his son Samsu-iluna became king.

Notes

Other websites

Mesopotamian people
18th-century BC people
Babylonian kings

Hammurabi


Damouré Zika (c. 1923 – 6 April 2009) was a Nigerien traditional healer, broadcaster, and film actor. Coming from a long line of traditional healers in the Sorko ethnic group of western Niger, Zika appeared in many of the films of French director Jean Rouch, becoming one of Niger's first actors.  As a practitioner of traditional medicine, he opened a clinic in Niamey, and was for many years a broadcaster and commentator on health issues for Niger's national radio.

Early life
Zika was the son of a Zarma speaking traditional healer and fisherman, near the town of Ayorou on the Niger River.  It was there, in the 1940s, that he began working with the French ethnographer and filmmaker Jean Rouch, who was then working as a French colonial hydrology engineer. Zika came from a long line of Sorko healers and spirit mediums.  He met Rouch after ten Sorko workers in a construction depot which Rouch supervised were killed by a lightning strike.  Zika's grandmother, a famous possession medium and spiritual advisor, presided over a ritual for the men, which Rouch later claimed sparked his desire to make enthographic film.

The two became friends, and Rouch began in 1950 to use Zika as the focus of his films demonstration the traditions, culture, and ecology of the people of the Niger River valley. The first of 150 in which Zika appeared was "Bataille sur le grand fleuve" (1950-52), portraying the lives, ceremonies and hunting of Sorko fishermen.

Films
By the late 1950s, these films became longer and more narrative. "Jaguar" (filmed 1954-1955) stars Zika as a Songhai noble traveling for work to the Gold Coast.  Filmed a silent ethnographic piece, Zika helped re-edit the film into a feature-length movie, and provided dialog and commentary for a 1967 release.  By that time Rouch was producing long narrative films, many of which Zika appeared in, becoming one of Nigerien cinema's first recognizable actors.  Zika was among those injured in the 2004 car accident near N'guigmi in which Rouch died.

Healthcare and broadcasting
Continuing his study of traditional medicine, Zika became a licensed practitioner and began a long career as a broadcaster, hosting a fortnightly show on Niger's state run Radio Voix du Sahel.  Zika used his fame to finance a clinic in Lamordé, a district on the right bank of the Niger in Niamey.  There he provided free care for the indigent for many decades.  Zika died in Niamey after a long illness on 6 April 2009, with his age reported as somewhere between 85 and 86. He is survived by four wives, 35 children and 80 grandchildren.

Notable films
Jaguar (filmed 1954-55, released 1967): Actor, editor, sound
Petit à petit "Little by Little" (1971): Actor
Cocorico! Monsieur Poulet "Cocka-doodle-doo Mr. Chicken" (1974): Actor
Babatu (1976)

References

Nigerien film actors
1920s births
2009 deaths

Damouré Zika


Nicolás Romero (born in Nopala, Hidalgo, 6 December 1827; died in Mexico City, 11 March 1865) was a Mexican military figure.

He had agricultural and textile businesses in what is the modern-day state of Hidalgo. Upon the outbreak of the Reform War in 1858, he jointed the Liberal forces under Aureliano Rivera.

When Napoleonic France invaded in 1861, he engaged the invaders in guerrilla warfare, fighting in the states of México, Guerrero, Querétaro and Michoacán under Gen. Vicente Riva Palacio; there, his exploits earned him the nom de guerre León de la Montaña ("mountain lion"). While he was hiding in a tree in Papazindán, Michoacán, he was sighted by a trumpeter and captured by the French. From there he was taken to Mexico City where he was court martialed and, after denouncing the French invasion and rejecting to recognize their jurisdiction, he was found guilty and executed by a firing squad.

Ciudad Nicolás Romero in the State of México and Tiquicheo de Nicolás Romero in Michoacán bear his name.

References
http://www.kokone.com.mx/tareas/biografias/nromero.html
http://www.afsedf.sep.gob.mx/efemerides/consulta_efemerides.jsp?dia=11&mes=3

Second French intervention in Mexico
Independent Mexico
Executed Mexican people
People from Hidalgo (state)
1865 deaths
1827 births
19th-century executions by Mexico
People executed by the Second French Empire

Nicolás Romero


Erich Moritz Warburg (15 April 1900 – 9 July 1990) was a German and American businessman and a member of the prominent Warburg family of German-Jewish bankers.

Early life and education
Warburg was born to a Jewish family in Hamburg, Germany on April 15, 1900 His parents were Alice (née Magnus) and Max Warburg, director of M. M. Warburg & Co. and scion of the Warburg banking family.

Warburg was educated at the  in Hamburg. In 1918, he served in the German Army. In 1938, he fled Germany for the United States and during World War II, he served as a lieutenant colonel and intelligence officer in the United States Army. As a German language speaker, he interrogated many prominent Nazis including Hermann Göring.

During the war, Warburg facilitated the migration of German scientists and their families to the United States. He was later awarded the Legion of Merit by the United States, the Order of the British Empire by Great Britain, and the Croix de Guerre by France.

Career
Warburg apprenticed in the banking business in Berlin, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, London and New York City. From 1929 to 1938 he was a managing partner of M. M. Warburg & Co. in Hamburg and of Warburg & Company of Amsterdam. In 1939, he founded E.M. Warburg & Co. in New York City (which later became the private equity firm Warburg Pincus).

Warburg is most known for his efforts to strengthen German-American relations, for which he was awarded the inaugural Eric M. Warburg Prize.

Personal life
He was married to Dorothea Thorsch. They had three children: Max of Hamburg, Germany; and two daughters, Dr. Marie Warburg of Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts and Erica Warburg also of Hamburg, Germany.

References

1900 births
1990 deaths
American bankers
Jewish American military personnel
United States Army personnel of World War II
German bankers
German Army personnel of World War I
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
Businesspeople from Hamburg
Private equity and venture capital investors
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Army officers
Eric M. Warburg
Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
20th-century American Jews

Eric M. Warburg


The Big Wood River is a  river in central Idaho, United States, that is a tributary of the Malad River (which in turn is tributary to the Snake River and Columbia River).

Course
From its source in the Sawtooth Range near Galena Summit in the Sawtooth National Recreation Area, the Big Wood River generally flows south between the Boulder Mountains to the north, Pioneer Mountains to the east, and the Smoky Mountains to the west.  Highway 75 accompanies the river southward from Galena Summit, to an area north of Shoshone. Here, it carved Black Magic Canyon.

The river flows by Sun Valley and Ketchum, where it receives the tributary streams of Warm Springs Creek and Trail Creek. Below Ketchum, it is joined by the East Fork Wood River at Gimlet before passing by the small cities of Hailey and Bellevue. Continuing south, the river enters the Wood River Valley, the northern part of Magic Valley, after which it flows into Magic Reservoir. A tributary stream, Camas Creek, joins the river in Magic Reservoir.

Below Magic Dam, the Big Wood River enters Lincoln County, passing by many lava beds and irrigation canals before entering Gooding County. Just west of Gooding, the Big Wood River joins the Little Wood River to form the Malad River.

Big Wood River's water flow is affected by numerous irrigation reservoirs and canals on the river itself and its tributaries.

Variant names of the Big Wood River, according to the USGS, include Malad River, Malade River, Wood River, Poisonous Beaver River, and Sickley River.

See also

 List of Idaho rivers
 List of longest streams of Idaho

Notes

References

External links

Rivers of Idaho
Rivers of Blaine County, Idaho
Rivers of Lincoln County, Idaho
Rivers of Gooding County, Idaho
Tributaries of the Snake River
Sawtooth National Forest
Bellevue, Idaho

Big Wood River


King Adongo Agada Akwai Cham (January 1, 1959 – November 30, 2011) was King of the approx. 96,000 Anuak people of South Sudan and the corresponding Western Ethiopian border region.  He is the 23rd King of the Anuak Nyiudola Royal Dynasty and was considered by some of the Anuak to be a demigod.

Former teacher in Sudan and factory-worker in Canada, he succeeded his father who was king for almost 60 years.  Cham had been living in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada as a refugee from Sudan's civil war when he was called back to Sudan to take the throne in 2001.  He ruled from the village of Otalo where he had constructed the kingdom's first school, clinic and airstrip.

The King died on November 30, 2011 at a hospital in Nairobi, Kenya.

" The Man Who Became King (2007 SAF): Adongo Adaga was just another South Sudanese exile living in Canada at the turn of the 21st century, until he received word that he was needed back home. This compelling documentary takes a look at the challenges facing Adaga, who desperately wanted to relocate his family from his homeland to Canada but was instead called to serve as the king of a tribe in his native South Sudan. A large tribe of several hundred thousand subsistence farmers, the Anyuak needed him to settle outstanding issues, such as their strained relationship with neighboring tribes and the difficulties faced by their fellow Anyuak across the border in Ethiopia. The film focuses on Adaga's efforts to balance the needs of his people with the needs and safety of his immediate family, and his grace under pressure should be a lesson for us all." 2

See also
South Sudanese Canadians

References

External links
The Man Who Became King - Sundance Channel documentary
Accession of the Refugee King
A Brief Moment with the King, Adongo Agada Akway Cham
Majesty King Adongo Agada Has Passed On

1959 births
South Sudanese refugees
Sudanese refugees
Nilotic peoples
South Sudanese expatriates in Canada
Sudanese expatriates in Canada
2011 deaths

Adongo Agada Cham


Baron Ritchie of Dundee, of Welders in the Parish of Chalfont St Giles in the County of Buckingham, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1905 for the Conservative politician Charles Ritchie. He was Home Secretary between 1900 and 1902 and Chancellor of the Exchequer between 1902 and 1903.

He was succeeded by his second but only surviving son, the second Baron. He was Chairman of the Port of London Authority from 1925 to 1941. His son, the third Baron, served as Chairman of the London Stock Exchange from 1959 to 1965 and was admitted to the Privy Council in 1965. When he died the title passed to his younger brother, the fourth Baron, who in his turn was succeeded by his younger brother, the fifth Baron.  the title is held by the latter's only son, the sixth Baron, who succeeded in 2008.

Another member of the Ritchie family was Sir James Thomson Ritchie, 1st Baronet, Lord Mayor of London from 1903 to 1904. He was the elder brother of the first Baron Ritchie of Dundee.

Barons Ritchie of Dundee (1905)
Charles Thomson Ritchie, 1st Baron Ritchie of Dundee (1838–1906)
Charles Ritchie, 2nd Baron Ritchie of Dundee (1866–1948)
John Kenneth Ritchie, 3rd Baron Ritchie of Dundee (1902–1975)
Colin Neville Ower Ritchie, 4th Baron Ritchie of Dundee (1908–1978)
Harold Malcolm Ritchie, 5th Baron Ritchie of Dundee (1919–2008)
Charles Rupert Rendall Ritchie, 6th Baron Ritchie of Dundee (b. 1958)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Hon. Sebastian Rendall Ritchie (b. 2004).

Arms

See also
Ritchie Baronets

Notes

References

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

Baronies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1905
Noble titles created for UK MPs

Baron Ritchie of Dundee


The Franck Report of June 1945 was a document signed by several prominent nuclear physicists recommending that the United States not use the atomic bomb as a weapon to prompt the surrender of Japan in World War II.

The report was named for James Franck, the head of the committee that produced it. The committee was appointed by Arthur Compton and met in secret, in all-night sessions in a highly secure environment. Largely written by Eugene Rabinowitch, the report spoke about the impossibility to keep the United States atomic discoveries secret indefinitely.  It predicted a nuclear arms race, forcing the United States to develop nuclear armaments at such a pace that no other nation would think of attacking first from fear of overwhelming retaliation. This prediction turned out to be accurate, as the nuclear arms race and the concept of mutual assured destruction became a major factor in the Cold War. The report recommended that the nuclear bomb not be used, and proposed that either a demonstration of the "new weapon" be made before the eyes of representatives of all of the United Nations, on a barren island or desert, or to try to keep the existence of the nuclear bomb secret for as long as possible.

In the first case, the international community would be warned of the dangers and encouraged to develop an effective international control on such weapons. In the latter case, the United States would gain several years time to further develop their nuclear armament before other countries would start their own production. The Franck Report was signed by James Franck (Chairman), Donald J. Hughes, J. J. Nickson, Eugene Rabinowitch, Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns, and Leó Szilárd.

Franck took the report to Washington June 12, where the Interim Committee, appointed by President Truman to advise him on use of the atomic bomb, met on June 21 to reexamine its earlier conclusions. However, this committee reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb and on August 6 and 9, the Americans dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The Report was declassified and released to the public in early 1946, but Manhattan Project officials required the censorship of some passages.

See also
 Szilárd petition - unsuccessful petition against use of the atomic bomb, signed by 70 Manhattan Project scientists in July, 1945.
 Ralph Austin Bard - containing description of memorandum by Under Secretary of the Navy Ralph A. Bard urging warning to Japan before using the atomic bomb.

References

External links
The text of the Franck Report is available at these online locations:
Federation of American Scientists
Nuclearfiles.org
Atomicarchive.com
Dannen.com
Internet Archive (original copy and transcribed copy)

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1945 documents

Franck Report


The Fytche Baronetcy, of Eltham in the County of Kent, was a title in the Baronetage of England. It was created on 7 September 1688 for Thomas Fytche, of Mount Markfall, Eltham, Kent. He died nine days after his preferment. His son, the second Baronet, was High Sheriff of Kent in 1709. The baronetcy became extinct on the death, without issue, of the third Baronet in 1736. The estate passed to Alice Fytche, daughter of the second Baronet, who in 1740 married Sir John Barker Bt of Grimston Hall and to their son John Fytche Barker.

Fytche baronets, of Eltham (1688)
Sir Thomas Fytche, 1st Baronet  (1637–1688)
Sir Comport Fytche, 2nd Baronet  (1676–1720)
Sir William Fytche, 3rd Baronet  (1704–1736)

References

Extinct baronetcies in the Baronetage of England

Fytche baronets


John I (1249 – 30 July 1285) ruled as duke of Saxony from 1260 until 1282.

John was the elder son of Duke Albert I of Saxony and his third wife Helen, a daughter of Otto the Child. John and his younger brother Albert II jointly ruled the Duchy of Saxony after the death of their father Albert I in 1260. In 1269, 1272, and 1282 the brothers gradually divided their land within the three territorially unconnected Saxon areas (one called Land of Hadeln around Otterndorf, another around Lauenburg upon Elbe and the third around Wittenberg), thus preparing a partition. As part of this arrangement John I became Burgrave of Magdeburg in 1269. In the imperial election in 1273, Albert II represented the jointly ruling brothers.

In 1270, John married Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Småland (*c. 1253–30 June 1302*, Mölln), a daughter or grandchild of Birger jarl. They had eight children, among them the following:
 Helen (c. 1272–1337), married firstly to Count Günther IX of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg (*?–1289*), secondly to Adolph VI, Count of Holstein-Schauenburg
 Elisabeth (c. 1274– before 1306), married to Valdemar IV, Duke of Schleswig
 John II (c. 1275–22 April 1321)
 Eric I (1280/1282–1359/1361)
 Albert III (c. 1281–October 1308)
 Sophia (died on 13 December 1319), prioress in Plötzkau

John I resigned in 1282 in favour of his three minor sons Eric I, John II and Albert III. Later John I entered the Franciscan monastery in Wittenberg, becoming its warden (guardian), which position he held until he died. John I's sons and their uncle Albert II continued the joint rule in Saxony. John died in Wittenberg.

Notes

|-

1249 births
1285 deaths
John 01
John 01
John 01

John I, Duke of Saxony


Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism) was a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born in Rome largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, at the time of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, but its popularity spread across Europe as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, latterly competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th and up to the 21st century.

European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began  in opposition to the then-dominant Rococo style. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace, ornamentation and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts of Rome and Ancient Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism. Each "neo"-classicism selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. The Neoclassical writers and talkers, patrons and collectors, artists and sculptors of 1765–1830 paid homage to an idea of the generation of Phidias, but the sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity. The "Rococo" art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Wood's The Ruins of Palmyra. Even Greece was all-but-unvisited, a rough backwater of the Ottoman Empire, dangerous to explore, so Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was mediated through drawings and engravings, which subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" the monuments of Greece, not always consciously.

The Empire style, a second phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts, had its cultural centre in Paris in the Napoleonic era. Especially in architecture, but also in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the United States and Russia.

History
Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period, which coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other areas of the Age of  Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style. While the movement is often described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology.

The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. His books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur", and praised the idealism of Greek art, in which he said we find "not only nature at its most beautiful but also something beyond nature, namely certain ideal forms of its beauty, which, as an ancient interpreter of Plato teaches us, come from images created by the mind alone". The theory was very far from new in Western art, but his emphasis on close copying of Greek models was: "The only way for us to become great or if this be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".

The Industrial Revolution saw global transition of human economy towards more efficient and stable manufacturing processes. There was tremendous material advancement and increased prosperity. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe. "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of a "classical" model.

In English, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar movement in English literature, which began considerably earlier, is called Augustan literature. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar. In music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and "Neoclassicism" is used of 20th-century developments. However, the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score of Alceste (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removing ornamentation, increasing the role of the chorus in line with Greek tragedy, and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.

The term "Neoclassical" was not invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the style was described by such terms as "the true style", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded as being revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the style could also be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a return to the more austere and noble Baroque of the age of Louis XIV, for which a considerable nostalgia had developed as France's dominant military and political position started a serious decline. Ingres's coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, to the disapproval of critics.

Neoclassicism was strongest in architecture, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann's writing found in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the dissemination of knowledge of the first large Roman paintings to be discovered, at Pompeii and Herculaneum and, like most contemporaries except for Gavin Hamilton, was unimpressed by them, citing Pliny the Younger's comments on the decline of painting in his period.

As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through bas-relief friezes, mosaics and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of the High Renaissance of Raphael's generation, frescos in Nero's Domus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed admiration of Nicolas Poussin. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side.

Painting, drawing and printmaking

It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences; it now strikes even those writers favourably inclined to it as "insipid" and "almost entirely uninteresting to us"—some of Kenneth Clark's comments on Anton Raphael Mengs' ambitious Parnassus at the Villa Albani, by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his own, and perhaps of later times". The drawings, subsequently turned into prints, of John Flaxman used very simple line drawing (thought to be the purest classical medium) and figures mostly in profile to depict The Odyssey and other subjects, and once "fired the artistic youth of Europe" but are now "neglected", while the history paintings of Angelica Kauffman, mainly a portraitist, are described as having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" by Fritz Novotny.  Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped away but many artists struggled to put anything in their place, and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting, other than the Greek vases used by Flaxman, Raphael tended to be used as a substitute model, as Winckelmann recommended.

The work of other artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style, and form part of the history of both movements.  The German-Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann's prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur". Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable, and taken back by those making the Grand Tour to all parts of Europe. His main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of his Vedute (views) becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints of Carceri d'Invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration". The Swiss-born Johann Heinrich Füssli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of Romanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement.

Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. The central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera, and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic period, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration.

David's many students included Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except by the primacy his works always give to drawing. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism, but his style, once formed, changed little.

Sculpture

If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them. Although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the "Classical Period" beginning in about 500 BC were then very few; the most highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies. The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day, but are now less regarded, with the exception of Jean-Antoine Houdon, whose work was mainly portraits, very often as busts, which do not sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter's personality to idealism. His style became more classical as his long career continued, and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Unlike some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress, or being unclothed. He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce a statue of George Washington, as well as busts of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and other founders of the new republic.

Antonio Canova and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome, and as well as portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the Three Graces. All these, and Flaxman, were still active in the 1820s, and Romanticism was slow to impact sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the dominant style for most of the 19th century.

An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel. John Flaxman was also, or mainly, a sculptor, mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he also designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood for several years. Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph, one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young, were the leading German artists, with Franz Anton von Zauner in Austria. The late Baroque Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, shortly before he appears to have suffered some kind of mental crisis, after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions. Like Piranesi's Carceri, these enjoyed a great revival of interest during the age of psychoanalysis in the early 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome.

Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not have a sculpture tradition of its own, save in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and ship figureheads, the European Neoclassical manner was adopted there, and it was to hold sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of  Horatio Greenough, Harriet Hosmer, Hiram Powers, Randolph Rogers and William Henry Rinehart.

Architecture and the decorative arts

Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modern, conservative and progressive all at the same time.

Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden, Poland and Russia. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for Catherine II's lover, Count Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian stuccadori: only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas-relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo.

A second Neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI style", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.

In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in Biedermeier furniture made in Austria; in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built "capitol" in Washington, D.C.; and in Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases. The style was international; Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great, in Russian St. Petersburg.

Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.

Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze-like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the Goût grec ("Greek style"), not a court style; when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the "Louis XVI" style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. At the same time the Empire style was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States, the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleon style in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces". An earlier phase of the style was called the Adam style in Great Britain and "Louis Seize", or Louis XVI, in France.

Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —, although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles. The centres of several European cities, notably St. Petersburg and Munich, came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural movement), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and order, Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often made to have a rustic, "romantic" appearance.

France

Louis XVI style (1760–1789)

It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis XIV, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, i.e. laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided. The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis. Even so, ébénistes often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.

The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by antiquity, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs (rosettes, beads, oves), trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, acanthus leaves, gadrooning, interlace, meanders, cornucopias, mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, chimeras, and gryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also very used: flutings, pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced by caryathids), volute corbels, triglyphs with guttae (in relief and trompe-l'œil).

Directoire style (1789–1804)

Empire style (1804–1815)

It's representative for the new French society that has exited the revolution which set the tone in all life fields, including art. The Jacquard machine is invented during this period (which revolutionises the entire sewing system, manual until then). One of the dominant colours is red, decorated with gilt bronze. Bright colours are also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, bleu, dark red, with little ornaments of gilt bronze. Interior architecture includes wood panels decorated with gilt reliefs (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs are placed geometrically. The walls are covered in stuccos, wallpaper pr fabrics. Fireplace mantels are made of white marble, having caryatids at their corners, or other elements: obelisks, sphinxes, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including mantel clocks. The doors consist of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a bleu or brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather is also used for upholstery).

All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis XIV style. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not, the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like Louis XIV, Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator) and N (for Napoleon), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Victory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti, mascarons of Apollo, Hermes and the Gorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged chimeras, sphinxes, bucrania, sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux, rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat acanthus leaves, palmettes, cornucopias, beads, amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury, vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially lyres). Despite their antique derivation, the fluting and triglyphs so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period: scarabs, lotus capitals, winged disks, obelisks, pyramids, figures wearing nemeses, caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.

Italy

From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century, Italy went through a great deal of socio-economic changes, several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento, which resulted in the Italian unification in 1861. Thus, Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style.

The Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as Neoclassicism and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the Baroque style around  and lasted until . Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of Pompeii and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the Grand Tour in Italy with rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. It first centred in Rome where artists such as Antonio Canova and Jacques-Louis David were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of Vedute, like Canaletto and Giovanni Paolo Panini, also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. Neoclassical architecture was inspired by the Renaissance works of Palladio and saw in Luigi Vanvitelli and Filippo Juvarra the main interpreters of the style.

Classicist literature had a great impact on the Risorgimento movement: the main figures of the period include Vittorio Alfieri, Giuseppe Parini, Vincenzo Monti and Ugo Foscolo, Giacomo Leopardi and Alessandro Manzoni (nephew of Cesare Beccaria), who were also influenced by the French Enlightenment and German Romanticism. The virtuoso violinist Paganini and the operas of Rossini, Donnizetti, Bellini and, later, Verdi dominated the scene in Italian classical and romantic music.

The art of Francesco Hayez and especially that of the Macchiaioli represented a break with the classical school, which came to an end as Italy unified (see Italian modern and contemporary art). Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, after the Renaissance and Baroque, to spread to all Western Art.

Romania

During the 19th century, the predominant style in Wallachia and Moldavia, later the Kingdom of Romania, was Classicism which lasted for a long time, until the 20th century, although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles. Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century. Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition. Usually using Classicism, they start building together with Romanian artisans, usually prepared in foreign schools or academies. Romanian architects study in Western European schools as well. One example is Alexandru Orăscu, one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania.

Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture. A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace on Calea Victoriei (Bucharest), built around the year 1835, after the plans of French architect Michel Sanjouand. It received a new level in 1882, designed by Austrian architect Joseph Hartmann

Russia and the Soviet Union

In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period of Neoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of alexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, Palladian and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, like Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky. When economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily modernist environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, Ilya Golosov) developed their own modernized styles.

With the crackdown on architects independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the Palace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices in Stalinist architecture, although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of Boris Iofan, bordering with contemporary Art Deco (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.

Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the USSR since it did not rely on modern construction technologies (steel frame or reinforced concrete) and could be reproduced in traditional masonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material rationing. Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.

The United Kingdom

The Adam style was created by two brothers, Adam and James, who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, with stuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include festoons, pearls, egg-and-dart bands, medallions, and any other motifs used during the Classical antiquity (especially the Etruscan ones). Decorative fittings such as urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a pediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window, with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure to Louis XVI furniture.

Besides the Adam style, when it comes to decorative arts, England is also known for the ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material called jasperware, a hard and fine-grained type of stoneware. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in most cases the figures being white and the background blue.

The United States

On the American continent, architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes Islamic, Turkish or Asian, were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of the Queen Anne style, and an Chippendale one. A style of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral marquetry and bronze or brass inlays (sometimes gilded).

Gardens
In England, Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape design. The links are clearly seen in the work of Alexander Pope. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are Chiswick House, Stowe House and Stourhead.

Fashion

In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was not until after it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in particular there was a rash of such portraits of the young model Emma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade balls until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at home. But the styles worn in portraits by Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian trend-setters were for going-out in public as well. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: "Il n'est pas possible de s'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not be more sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics. Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead.

Very light and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly bare arms, rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie round the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as the Empire silhouette although it predates the First French Empire of Napoleon, but his first Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.  By the start of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely across Europe.

Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for hair, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, but outside the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to abandon it. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or pantaloon, over the culotte or knee-breeches of the Ancien Régime. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the request of the government during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included fairly tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the knee. A high proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the key period in military service because of the French Revolutionary Wars, and military uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles.

The trouser-problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporary history paintings; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758) by Gavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga-like Arab robes.  In Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley, the main figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown, only one shows a single breeched leg prominently.  However the Americans Copley and Benjamin West led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works like West's The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley's The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was still being carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819.

Classically inspired male hairstyles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV of the United Kingdom. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire's Brutus (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus).  In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs, and the style was also worn by women, the  reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig à la Titus.

Music
Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century movement; in this case it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the ancient world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical period.) The movement was a reaction  in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-Romanticism and Impressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style, which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cut sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in ballet and physical education.

The 17th–18th century dance suite had had a minor revival before World War I but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing. Respighi's Ancient Airs and Dances (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the use of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the best-known composer using this style; he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach-like Octet for Wind Instruments (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well is Prokofiev's Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart. Neoclassical ballet as innovated by George Balanchine  de-cluttered the Russian Imperial style in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations.

Later Neoclassicism and continuations

After the middle of the 19th century, Neoclassicism starts to no longer be the main style, being replaced by Eclecticism of Classical styles. The Palais Garnier in Paris is a good example of this, since despite being predominantly Neoclassical, it features elements and ornaments taken from Baroque and Renaissance architecture. This practice was frequent in late 19th and early 20th century architecture, before WW1. Besides Neoclassicism, the  well known for this eclecticism of Classical styles.

Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I.

In American architecture, Neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its final large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community as being backward thinking and old fashioned in its design), and the American Museum of Natural History's Roosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. World War II was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical time.

There was an entire 20th-century movement in the non-visual arts which was also called Neoclassicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of World War II. (For information on the musical aspects, see 20th-century classical music and Neoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, see Great Books.)

This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example) Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in English literature were laid by T. E. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists were T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name of Acmeism, with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam as the leading representatives.

Art Deco

Although it started to be seen as 'dated' after WW1, principles, proportions and other Neoclassical elements were not abandoned yet. Art Deco was the dominant style during the interwar period, and it corresponds with the taste of a bourgeois elite for high class French styles of the past, including the Louis XVI, Directoire and Empire (the period styles of French Neoclassicism). At the same time, this French elite was equally capable of appreciating Modern art, like the works of Pablo Picasso or Amedeo Modigliani. The result of this situation is the early Art Deco style, which uses both new and old elements. The Palais de Tokyo from 1937 in Paris, by André Aubert and Marcel Dastugue, is a good example of this. Although ornaments are not used here, the facade being decorated only with reliefs, the way columns are present here is a strong reminiscence of Neoclassicism. Art Deco design often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky commodes by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann or Louis Süe & André Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance of Isadora Duncan. Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings.

The oscillation of Art Deco between the use of historic elements, shapes and proportions, and the appetite for 'new', for Modernism, is the result of multiple factors. One of them is eclecticism. The complexity and heterogeneity of Art Deco is largely due to the eclectic spirit. Stylized elements from repertoire of Beaux-Arts, Neoclassicism, or of cultures distant in time and space (Ancient Egypt, Pre-Columbian Americas, or Sub-Saharian African art) are put together with references to Modernist avant-guard artists of the early 20th century (Henri Matisse, Amedeo Modigliani or Constantin Brâncuși). The Art Deco phenomenon owes to academic eclecticism and Neoclassicism mainly the existence of a specific architecture. Without the contribution of the Beaux-Arts trained architects, Art Deco architecture would have remained, with the exception of residential buildings, a collection of decorative objects magnified to an urban scale, like the pavilions of the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts from 1925, controversial at their time. Another reason for the swinging between historical elements and modernism was consumer culture. Objects and buildings in the puritan International style, devoid of any ornamentation or citation of the past, were too radical for the general public. In interwar France and England, the spirit of the public and much architectural criticism could not conceive a style totally deprived of ornament, like the International style.

The use of historic styles as sources of inspiration for Art Deco starts as far back as the years before WW1, through the efforts of decorators like Maurice Dufrêne, Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, André Groult, Léon Jallot or Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, who relate to the prestigious French artistic and handicraft tradition of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the Louis XVI, Directoire and Louis Philippe), and who want to bring a new approach to these styles. The neo-Louis XVI style was really popular in France and Romania in the years before WW1, around 1910, and it heavily influenced multiple early Art Deco designs and buildings. A good example of this is the Château de Sept-Saulx in Grand Est, France, by Louis Süe, 1928–1929.

Neoclassicism and Totalitarian regimes

In Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, Romania under the rule of Carol II and the Soviet Union, during the 1920s and 1930s, totalitarian regimes chose Neoclassicism for state buildings and art. Architecture was central to totalitarian regimes' expression of their permanence (despite their obvious novelty). The way totalitarian regimes drew from Classicism took many forms. When it comes to state buildings in Italy and Romania, architects attempted to fuse a modern sensibility with abstract classical forms. Two good examples of this are the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana in Rome, and the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46). In contrast, the Classicism of the Soviet Union, known as Socialist Realism, was bombastic, overloaded with ornaments and architectural sculptures, as an attempt to be in contrast with the simplicity of 'Capitalist' or 'bourgeois' styles like Art Deco or Modernism. The Lomonosov University in Moscow is a good example of this. Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader that succeeded Stalin, did not like this pompous Socialist Realist architecture from the reign of his predecessor. Because of the low speed and cost of these Neoclassical buildings, he stated that 'they spent people's money on beauty that no one needs, instead of building simpler, but more'.

In the Soviet Union, Neoclassicism was embraced as a rejection of Art Deco and Modernism, which the Communists saw as being too 'bourgeois' and 'capitalist'. This Communist Neoclassical style is known as Socialist Realism, and it was popular during the reign of Joseph Stalin (1924–1953). In fine art. Generally, it manifested through deeply idealized representations of wiry workers, shown as heroes in collective farms or industrialized cities, political assemblies, achievements of Soviet technology, and through depictions happy children staying around Lenin or Stalin. Both subject matter and representation were carefully monitored. Artistic merit was determined by the degree to which a work contributed to the building of socialism. All artists had to join the state-controlled Union of Soviet Artists and produce work in the accepted style. The three guiding principles of Socialist Realism were party loyalty, presentation of correct ideology and accessibility. Realism, more easily understood by the masses, was the style of choice. At the beginning, in the Soviet Union, multiple competing  avant-garde movements were present, notably Constructivism. However, as Stalin consolidated his power towards the end of the 1920s, avant-garde art and architecture were suppressed and eventually outlawed and official state styles were established. After Boris Iofan won the competition for the design of the Palace of the Soviets with a stepped classical tower, surmounted by a giant statue of Lenin, architecture soon reverted to pre-Revolutionary styles of art and architecture, untainted by Constructivism's perceived Western influence. Although Socialist Realism in architecture ended more or less with the death of Stalin and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, paintings in this style continued to be produced, especially in countries where there was a strong personality cult of the leader in power, like in the case of Mao Zedong's China, Kim Il Sung's North Korea, or Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania.

The Nazis suppressed Germany's vibrant avant-garde culture once they gained control of the government in 1933. Albert Speer was set as Adolf Hitler's architectural advisor in 1934, and he tried to create an architecture that would both reflect the perceived unity of the German people and act as backdrop to the Nazis' expressions of power. The Nazis' approach to architecture was riffled with contradictions: while Hitler and Speer's plans for reordering Berlin aspired to imitate imperial Rome, in rural contexts Nazi buildings took inspiration from local vernaculars, trying to channel an 'authentic' German spirit. When it come to fine art, the Nazis created the term 'Degenerate art' for Modern art, a kind of art which to them was 'un-German', 'Jewish' or 'Communist'. The Nazis hated modern art and linked it to 'cultural bolshevism', the conspiracy theory that art (or culture broadly) was controlled by a leftist Jewish cabal seeking to destroy the aryan race. Hitler's war on Modern art mostly consisted of an exhibition that tried to discredit Modern artists, called the 'Degenerate Art exhibition' (). This exhibition was displayed next to the Great Exhibition of German Art, which consisted of artworks that the Nazis approved of. This way, the visitiors of both exhibitions could compare the art labeled by the regime as 'good' and 'bad'. With a similar atitude, the regime closes in 1931 the Bauhaus, an avant-garde art school in Dessau that will prove extremely influential in the future. It reopens in Berlin in 1932, but it's closed again in 1933.

Compared to Germany and the Soviet Union, in Italy the avant-garde contributed to state architecture. Classical architecture was also an influence, echoing Benito Mussolini's far cruder attempts to create links between his Fascist regime and ancient Rome. Some Italian architects tried to create fusions between Modernism and Classicism, like Marcello Piacentini with the Sapienza University of Rome, or Giuseppe Terragni with Casa del Fascio in Como.

In Romania, towards the late 1930s, influenced by the Autocratic tendency of king Carol II, multiple state buildings are erected. They were Neoclassical, many very similar with what was popular in the same years in Fascist Italy. Examples in Bucharest include the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), the Kretzulescu Apartment Building (Calea Victoriei no. 45), the CFR Building (Bulevardul Dinicu Golescu no. 38) or the Victoria Palace (Piața Victoriei no. 1). The Royal Palace, whose interiors are mostly done in a neo-Adam style, stands out by being more decorated, a little closer to the architecture before WW1.

Postmodernism

An early text questioning Modernism was by architect Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966), in which he recommended a revival of the 'presence of the past' in architectural design. He tried to include in his own buildings qualities that he described as 'inclusion, inconsistency, compromise, accommodation, adaptation, superadjacency, equivalence, multiple focus, juxtaposition, or good and bad space.' Robert Venturi's work reflected the broader counter-cultural mood of the 1960s which saw younger generations begin to question and challenge the political, social and racial realities with which they found themselves confronted. This rejection of Modernism is known as Postmodernism. Robert Venturi parodies Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's well-known maxim 'less is more' with 'less is a bore'. During the 1980s and 1990s, some Postmodern architects found a refuge in a sort of Neo-Neoclassicism. Their use of Classicism was not limited only to ornaments, using more or less proportions and other principles too. Post-Modern Classicism had been variously described by some people as 'camp' or 'kitsch'. An architect who has been remarked through Post-Modern Classicism is Ricardo Bofill. His work includes two housing projects of titanic scale near Paris, known as Les Arcades du Lac from 1975 to 1981, and Les Espaces d'Abraxas from 1978 to 1983. A building that stands out through its revivalism is the J. Paul Getty Museum, in Malibu, California, from 1970 to 1975, inspired by the ancient Roman Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. The J. Paul Getty Museum is far closer to 19th century Neoclassicism, like the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Germany, than to Post-Modern Classicism of the 1980s.

Architecture in the 21st century

After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.

As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism. Also, a number of pieces of postmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona among them. Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum.

For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Architecture (or vernacular) is mostly used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.

In the United States, various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style, with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being an example.

In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style. Examples of their work include two university libraries: Quinlan Terry's Maitland Robinson Library at Downing College and Robert Adam Architects' Sackler Library.

See also

1795–1820 in Western fashion
American Empire (style)
Antiquization
Nazi architecture
Neoclassical architecture
Neoclassicism in France
Neo-Grec, the late Greek-Revival style
Skopje 2014

Notes

References

 . Reprinted 1977.

Further reading
 Brown, Kevin (2017). Artist and Patrons: Court Art and Revolution in Brussels at the end of the Ancien Regime, Dutch Crossing, Taylor and Francis
 Eriksen, Svend. Early Neoclassicism in France (1974)
 Friedlaender, Walter (1952). David to Delacroix (originally published in German; reprinted 1980)
 Gromort, Georges, with introductory essay by Richard Sammons (2001). The Elements of Classical Architecture (Classical America Series in Art and Architecture)
 Harrison, Charles; Paul Wood and Jason Gaiger (eds) (2000; repr. 2003). Art in Theory 1648–1815: An Anthology of Changing Ideas
 Hartop, Christopher, with foreword by Tim Knox (2010).
The Classical Ideal: English Silver, 1760–1840, exh. cat. Cambridge: John Adamson .
 Irwin, David (1966). English Neoclassical Art: Studies in Inspiration and Taste
 Johnson, James William. "What Was Neo-Classicism?" Journal of British Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, 1969, pp. 49–70. online
 Rosenblum, Robert (1967). Transformations in Late Eighteenth-Century Art

External links

Neoclassicism in the "History of Art"

Neo-classical drawings in the Flemish Art Collection
19th Century Sculpture Derived From Greek Hellenistic Influence: Jacob Ungerer
The Neoclassicising of Pompeii

 01
18th century in art
18th century in the arts
19th century in art
19th century in the arts
Age of Enlightenment
Art movements
Decorative arts
Early modern period

Neoclassicism


Right-wing politics is a kind of politics that supports social or economic conservatism.

Beliefs
Someone who is "right-wing" usually supports tradition and keeping things the way that they already are. The right-wing supports tradition and authority.  The right-wing in some countries, like the United States, often supports social conservatism and a capitalist economy where the government has little influence.  Usually the right-wing thinks of society as similar to a living thing, what is called "organic society".  They believe that society's customs and traditions are a collection of things that we have learned from the past and are useful and should be maintained as much as possible.

Types
People who are very right-wing are called "reactionary", and want to either return to the way things were before, such as neoreaction, or more often start as a reaction against left-wing ideas which are spreading in a country.

Famous Right-wing politicians
 Silvio Berlusconi
 Boris Johnson
 Ronald Reagan
 Margaret Thatcher
 Donald Trump
 Janez Janša
 Jair Bolsonaro

Related pages
 Centrism
 Fascism
 Left-wing politics
 Nationalism
 Neoconservatism
 Paleoconservatism

Conservatism
Political movements

Right-wing politics


Panth-Piploda was a province of British India. It is located in present-day Ratlam district of Madhya Pradesh state of central India.

Panth-Piploda was British India's smallest province, with an area of , and a population of 5267 (male 2666, female 2601) (1941 census). It was located in the Malwa region, and consisted of several separate enclaves, bounded by the princely states of Gwalior, Jaora, and Dewas. The province was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the Governor-General of India.

History
In 1935 Panth Piploda was separated from Bombay. Panth-Piploda was a small tract of territory comprising only 10½ villages, which were held by five different thakurs. In  1765, the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire assigned the revenues from the villages to the family of Sambhaji Attaji, a Deshastha Brahmin. This ruling family was later known as the family of the Khandekar Pandits. The arrangement made by the Peshwa was respected by the British when they took over Panth Piploda from the Marathas in 1817. The ruling family did not have any proprietary rights whatever in these villages and were mere tankadars (recipients of the cash allowance). This cash allowance was paid to them by the Political Agent in Malwa Agency who realized it from the thakurs in whose territories the villages lay. The estate was managed by a Superintendent under the control of the Political Agent with headquarters at Kharua (also spelled as Kharwa). In 1936, there were two guaranteed tankadars, who received payments totaling Rs. 46,000. It became a province of British India in 1942. On 15 Aug 1947 it became part of independent India.

Chief Commissioners
1935–1940 Kenneth Samuel Fitze (1887–1960)
1940–1942 Gerald Thomas Fisher (1887–1965)
1942–1946 Walter Fendall Campbell  KCIE (1894–1973)
1946–1947 Henry Mortimer Poulton (1898–1973)

Notes

Provinces of British India
Malwa
Ratlam
History of Madhya Pradesh
Ujjain district
Provinces of India

Panth-Piploda Province


Windsurfing is a wind propelled water sport that is a combination of sailing and surfing. It is also referred to as "sailboarding" and "boardsailing", and emerged in the late 1960s from the aerospace and surf culture of California. Windsurfing gained a popular following across Europe and North America by the late 1970s and had achieved significant global popularity by the 1980s. Windsurfing became an Olympic sport in 1984.

Newer variants include windfoiling, kiteboarding and wingfoiling. Hydrofoil fins under the board allow the boards to safely lift out of the water and fly silently and smoothly above the surface even in lighter winds.

Windsurfing is a recreational, family friendly sport, most popular at flat water locations around the world that offer safety and accessibility for beginner and intermediate participants. Technique and equipment have evolved over the years

Major competitive disciplines include slalom, wave and freestyle. Increasingly, "foiling" is replacing traditional events and the IQfoil class is the new Olympic windsurfing racing class for France in 2024.

Modern windsurfing, as a sport and recreational activity, did not emerge until the latter half of the 20th century. The earliest version of a sailboard design utilizing a freely articulating sail on top of a board was created in 1962 by American Newman Darby. Independently, engineer Jim Drake invented and co-patented the version we all know today and called it Windsurfing- a new new concept in sailing.

References

Surfing
Wind energy

Windsurfing


Michael Liekmeier (born 22 July 1970) is a German bobsledder who competed in the late 1990s. He won a silver medal in the four-man event at the 1997 FIBT World Championships in St. Moritz.

His achievements in the four-man by Dirk Wiese was the silver medal at the 1997 World Championships in St. Moritz, the bronze medal at the European Championships in 1995 in La Plagne and 1997 at the Königssee and a total of six World Cup wins (twice Altenberg 1993, Calgary in 1994, St. Moritz 1995, Innsbruck in 1996 and La Plagne 1996).

References
Bobsleigh four-man world championship medalists since 1930

German male bobsledders
Living people
1970 births

Michael Liekmeier


Burke–Tarr Stadium is a football stadium located in Jefferson City, Tennessee on the campus of Carson–Newman University.

History
The original structure, consisting primarily of concrete-supported wooden bleachers and a small press box, was constructed in 1966 to serve as the home for the Carson–Newman Eagles football, then a member of the NAIA.

The new Burke–Tarr Stadium was erected within nine months of the original's demolition, and was dedicated on October 22, 2005 during Homecoming festivities as the Eagles defeated Lenoir–Rhyne, 33–6.  The facility's main stands consist primarily of steel and aluminum, as concrete prices at the time of construction made it impossible to afford a concrete structure.  The metal design allowed for four additional entrances to the main stands via stairwells from the ground level, in addition to the entrances on either end of the stadium. The stands contain press box supported by two steel and brick columns, leaving a great deal of space underneath for concessions stands, merchandise booths, and restroom facilities.

Although the new stadium incorporated the visiting side bleachers from the original stadium (erected much later on in the facility's life) a late donation by a local businessman enabled the college to replace the Bermuda grass field with FieldTurf, a modern artificial surface that is largely similar to grass.  The playing field was named for legendary C-N football coach Roy Harmon.  The full stadium name is Roy Harmon field at Burke–Tarr Stadium.

Due to the proximity of the Carson-Newman baseball complex, a nearby road, and the space needed for the operations center, the stadium was unable to hold a regulation track, so none was installed.  In July 2006, construction began on the football operations center, as well as the completion of the brick fencing in the North end zone and around the visiting side's bleachers.  The operations facility was completed in time for the 2008 season, though there is no word on the indoor practice facility funding.

The Eagles completed the 2006 season with an 8–3 record, and ran their record at the new Burke–Tarr Stadium to 7–0.  In the 2007 season, the Eagles extended their winning streak at the new stadium to ten games, but suffered their first loss on October 13, 2007 against Catawba College, 55–49.  The 2008 season saw the Eagles drop a non-conference home game to the University of North Alabama 20–13 on September 4.  Their record at the new stadium now stands at 15–2.

Eagles' success
From 1967 to 2004, the Eagles compiled a 192–37–2 record at the original stadium, which hosted three of the team's five NAIA National Football Championship victories in 1986, 1988, and 1989.  After the team moved to NCAA Division II in the early 1990s, the team ran off a home winning streak that stretched from a 62–31 loss to New Haven in 1993, to a 38–28 loss to conference foe Presbyterian on October 6, 2001, a span of 36 regular season games; Northern Colorado defeated the Eagles, 30–29, in a Division II semi-final game in 1997.  Since that loss, the Eagles have run off another 22-game home winning streak, discounting a 2005 loss at Jefferson County High School, including two playoff games against Fayetteville State.  Since moving up in classification, the Eagles are 63–2 at Burke–Tarr Stadium.

Much of the success at the stadium has come under the coaching era of Ken Sparks, who ranks fourth in most wins among active NCAA coaches.

References

College football venues
Carson–Newman Eagles football
Buildings and structures in Jefferson County, Tennessee
American football venues in Tennessee
Buildings and structures completed in 2005

Burke–Tarr Stadium


Cliff Marshall (4 November 1955 – 24 November 2021) was an English professional  footballer. Marshall began his career at Everton but found first-team opportunities limited. He joined the Miami Toros of the North American Soccer League in 1976, but returned to England to sign for Southport later that year.

He is often described as the first black Everton player, though sociologist Mark Christian notes that he was preceded by Mike Trebilcock, who may not have been recognised as such "due to his ambiguous black mixed heritage".

Marshall died on 24 November 2021, at the age of 66.

Career

Everton
Signed by manager Billy Bingham, Marshall joined Everton, his boyhood team, from youth football in 1973; he turned down interest from Liverpool and Manchester United to join the club, later saying, "I could have gone to Liverpool or Man United, but I was always going to choose Everton." He graduated to the club's first-team squad in the 1974–75 season, making his debut for the Toffees on 11 January 1975 after coming on as a substitute in a 3–0 win over Leicester City in the First Division. Marshall made his first start for the club the following week on 18 January in another 3–0 win, this time away to Birmingham City. He was awarded one further league start and one FA Cup appearance in the remainder of the season.

The 1975–76 season saw Marshall make four league starts. Frustrated by a lack of playing time, he looked for a transfer at the end of the season. Speaking in 2009, Marshall revealed that a dispute with coaching staff at Goodison Park also contributed to his exit: "In the end, I got a bit disillusioned [at Everton]. I loved playing football, football was my first love. But what disillusioned me was some of the coaches at Everton said 'your first priority is to defend', and I didn't like that. I'm an attacker; defending should be my second priority. I moved on."

Miami Toros
On 17 May 1976, The Miami News reported that Marshall had been "signed in England early last week by [Miami] Toros general manager John Young." The Miami Toros were playing in the North American Soccer League's Eastern Division, and had only existed as the Toros since 1972. Marshall made his debut on 14 May in a 4–2 loss to the Chicago Sting and two days later he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win over the Seattle Sounders; The Miami News praised his "speed and hustle", which had "changed the complexion of Miami's attack." The winger went on to record five goals and two assists that year, but was forced to leave Miami at the end of the season when the Toros folded. Marshall's spell in the US ended on a positive note, as he scored a hat-trick in his final Toros appearance, a 5–4 win over the Boston Minutemen on 15 August 1976.

References

1955 births
2021 deaths
English men's footballers
Footballers from Liverpool
Men's association football forwards
Everton F.C. players
Southport F.C. players
Miami Toros players
North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players
English sportspeople of Barbadian descent
Black British sportsmen
English Football League players
English expatriate men's footballers
English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States

Cliff Marshall


Hilda Múdra, née Hildegard Klimpel (1 January 1926 – 22 November 2021), was an Austrian-born Slovak figure skating coach. Her most notable student was Ondrej Nepela, the 1972 Olympic champion.

Early life
Múdra was born as Hildegard Klimpel to Paul and Anna Klimpel in Vienna. Múdra was coached by Rudolf Kurtzer and Will Petters in Vienna. She trained first in single skating and then ice dancing. In the mid-1940s, she toured with an Austrian ice show which visited Czechoslovakia, and then began coaching in Bratislava.

Career
The first of her students to win a medal at the European Championships was Jana Mrázková.

Múdra coached Ondrej Nepela for 15 years, having first met him in February 1958. He would win gold at five European Championships, three World Championships, and the 1972 Winter Olympics. In 2000, he was named Slovak athlete of the 20th century — Múdra accepted the award from the Slovak president, Rudolf Schuster, on behalf of her deceased student.

Múdra also worked with Jozef Sabovčík, Sanda Dubravčić, Jana Mrázková, Agnesa Wlachovská, Charlotte Walter, Martin Skotnický, Marián Filc, Eva Grožajová, Miroslav Šoška, Ľudmila Bezáková, Miljan Begović, and Eva Ďurišinová. In her 80s, she fractured vertebra as a result of a fall, preventing her from returning to the ice, but she continued to coach children from behind the boards in Dúbravka, Bratislava.

Personal life
She married Slovak manager Jozef Múdry on 26 October 1947 and gave birth to their daughter, Dagmar, in 1949, and to their son, Pavol, in 1950. Her husband died in November 2010. She spoke both Slovak and German. Mudra died on 22 November 2021 at the age of 95 in Bratislava.

References

1926 births
2021 deaths
Sportspeople from Vienna
Figure skaters from Bratislava
Slovak figure skating coaches
Austrian figure skating coaches
Austrian expatriate sportspeople in Slovakia
Austrian expatriate sportspeople in Czechoslovakia
Slovak people of Austrian descent
Female sports coaches

Hilda Múdra