Istishhad () is the Arabic word for "martyrdom", "death of a martyr", or "heroic death". (from the root  "to witness").

Traditionally martyrdom has an exalted place in Islam, and certainly Shi'i Islam.
It is widely believed among Muslims that the sins of believers who "die in the way of God" will be forgiven by Allah.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the term istishhad has been said to emphasize the "heroism" of sacrifice, rather than "victimization". It had been "developed...into a military and political strategy", often called "martyrdom operations", that contained "a central ideological pillar and organizational ideal" of waging "active jihad against the perceived enemies of Islam". Jihadist terror groups, in particular Al-Qaeda, have "employed innovative modes of action and raised suicide terrorism's level of destruction and fatalities to previously unknown heights".

One who martyrs themselves is given the honorific shaheed.

Importance

Significance in afterlife
Quranic verses 3:169-171  is said to indicate that the sins of believers who "die in the way of God" will be forgiven by Allah, and transported to paradise, without having to wait for Judgement Day like other believers.
And reckon not those who are killed in Allah's way as dead; nay, they are alive (and) are provided sustenance from their Lord; rejoicing in what Allah has given them out of His grace, and they rejoice for the sake of those who, (being left) behind them, have not yet joined them, that they shall have no fear, nor shall they grieve. They rejoice on account of favour from Allah and (His) grace, and that Allah will not waste the reward of believers. (Q.3:169-171)

At least one scholar, Shi'i cleric Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi, writes that while normally when a human being dies, their afterlife "depends on one's faith and deeds", but that "the moment a believer is slain in the way of Allah, his eternal life begins". With a martyr there is no

Contemporary significance
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the term istishhad has been said to  have "developed...into a military and political strategy", and often be translated as "martyrdom operations". The concept has also been described (by Yoram Schweitzer and Sari Goldstein Ferber) "as a means of warfare" that is "part of an overall philosophy that sees active jihad against the perceived enemies of Islam as a central ideological pillar and organizational ideal." Jihadist terror groups, in particular Al-Qaeda, have "employed innovative modes of action and raised suicide terrorism's level of destruction and fatalities to previously unknown heights".

Supporters have also described martyrdom/suicide operations as a military "equalizer" whereby pious Muslim martyrs  use their willingness to sacrifice for their faith and their certainty in their reward in the afterlife to counter the Western unbeliever, who has "at their disposal state-of-the-art and top-of-the-range means and weaponry to achieve their aims. [While] we have the minimum basics ... We ... do not seek material rewards, but heavenly one in the hereafter".

Tragically, by the early twenty first century,  martyrdom operations by Muslims had been turned against other  Muslims. Thousands of Muslims, particularly Shia, had become victims, not just initiators, of martyrdom operations, with many civilians and even mosques and shrines being targeted, particularly in Iraq. According to Scott Atran, in just one year in one Muslim country alone – 2004 in Iraq – there were 400 suicide attacks and 2000 casualties.  Salafi Jihadi ideologue Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi declared "all-out war" on Shia Muslims in Iraq in response to a US-Iraqi offensive on the town of Tal Afar. He described his view of the Sunni-Shia conflict in a February 2004 open letter to supporters where he argued for a cycle of attack and retaliation that would "awaken" those Sunnis who previously had not wanted a sectarian war to join his side.

In 2007 some of the Shia ulema have responded by declaring suicide bombing haram:

History

Southeast Asia
During the colonial era and up to World War II, Muslims in Aceh and Moro (what are now part of Indonesia and the Philippines) used suicide attacks their enemies (principally the Dutch, Japanese and Americans).

In Aceh
Muslim Acehnese from the Aceh Sultanate performed suicide attacks known as Parang-sabil against Dutch invaders during the Aceh War. It was considered as part of personal jihad in the Islamic religion of the Acehnese. The Dutch called it Atjèh-moord, which literally translates to Aceh murder. The Acehnese work of literature, the Hikayat Perang Sabil provided the background and reasoning for the "Aceh-mord" – Acehnese suicide attacks upon the Dutch, The Indonesian translations of the Dutch terms are Aceh bodoh (Aceh pungo) or Aceh gila (Aceh mord).

Terminology
Atjèh-moord was also used against the Japanese by the Acehnese during the Japanese occupation of Aceh. The Acehnese Ulama (Islamic clerics) fought against both the Dutch and the Japanese, revolting against the Dutch in February 1942 and against Japan in November 1942. The revolt was led by the All-Aceh Religious Scholars' Association (PUSA). The Japanese suffered 18 dead in the uprising while they slaughtered up to 100 or over 120 Acehnese. The revolt happened in Bayu and was centred around Tjot Plieng village's religious school. During the revolt, the Japanese troops armed with mortars and machine guns were charged by sword wielding Acehnese under Teungku Abduldjalil (Tengku Abdul Djalil) in Buloh Gampong Teungah and Tjot Plieng on 10 and 13 November. In May 1945 the Acehnese rebelled again.

The original Jawi script Acehnese language work Hikayat Perang Sabil (w:ace:Hikayat Prang Sabi, w:id:Hikayat Prang Sabi) has been transliterated into the Latin alphabet and annotated by Ibrahim Alfian (Teuku.) published in Jakarta. Perang sabi was the Acehnese word for jihad, a holy war and Acehnese language literary works on perang sabi were distributed by Islamic clerics ('ulama) such as Teungku di Tiro to help the resistance against the Dutch in the Aceh War. The recompense awarded by in paradise detailed in Islamic Arabic texts and Dutch atrocities were expounded on in the Hikayat Perang Sabil which was communally read by small cabals of Ulama and Acehnese who swore an oath before going to achieve the desired status of "martyr" by launching suicide attacks on the Dutch. Perang sabil was the Malay equivalent to other terms like Jihad, Ghazawat for "Holy war", the text was also spelled "Hikayat perang sabi". Fiction novels like Sayf Muhammad Isa's Sabil: Prahara di Bumi Rencong on the war by Aceh against the Dutch include references ro Hikayat Perang Sabil. 	Mualimbunsu Syam Muhammad wrote the work called "Motives for Perang Sabil in Nusantara", Motivasi perang sabil di Nusantara: kajian kitab Ramalan Joyoboyo, Dalailul-Khairat, dan Hikayat Perang Sabil on Indonesia's history of Islamic holy war (Jihad). Children and women were inspired to do suicide attacks by the Hikayat Perang Sabil against the Dutch. Hikayat Perang Sabil is also known as "Hikayat Prang Sabi. Hikayat Perang Sabil is considered as part of 19th century Malay literature. In Dutch occupied Aceh, Hikayat Perang Sabil was confiscated from Sabi's house during a Police raid on September 27, 1917.

Against the Spanish in the Philippines
In the Philippines the Moro Muslims are reported to have engaged in suicide attacks against enemies as early as the 16th century. Those who performed suicide attacks were called mag-sabil, and the suicide attacks were known as Parang-sabil. The Spanish called them juramentado. The idea of the juramentado was considered part of jihad in the Moros' Islamic religion. During an attack, a Juramentado would throw himself at his targets and kill them with bladed weapons such as barongs and kris until he himself was killed. The Moros performed juramentado suicide attacks against the Spanish in the Spanish–Moro conflict of the 16th to the 19th centuries, against the Americans in the Moro Rebellion (1899–1913), and against the Japanese in World War II. The Moro Juramentados aimed their attacks specifically against their enemies, and not against non-Muslims in general. They launched suicide attacks on the Japanese, Spanish, Americans and Filipinos, but did not attack the non-Muslim Chinese as the Chinese were not considered enemies of the Moro people. The Japanese responded to these suicide attacks by massacring all the relatives of the attacker.

Contemporary use: after the Iranian Islamic Revolution

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the quantity and "innovation" of Istishhad  used against civilian and military targets has raised its level of "destruction and fatalities to previously unknown heights",  by one estimate totaling 3,699 suicide attacks in 40+ countries from 1982 to 2013.
This began in the 1980s with Shia revolutionaries in Iran fighting off Iraqi Baathist invaders, and Hezbollah's successful expulsion of Western peacekeepers and Israeli's from Lebanon. and spread to Al-Qaeda and other Sunni groups.

Iran-Iraq War
Scholars believe the origins of Istishhad attacks in the late 20th and early 21st centuries lie among the Shia of the newly formed Islamic Republic of Iran following the invasion by Iraq in 1980.  Vali Nasr writes that necessity may have been a motivation for use of suicidal or suicide attacks in the form of  "hundreds of thousands of volunteers" attacking Iraqi lines. At least early on in the war, many of the "most seasoned officers" in Iran's military had been purged, while the hostage crisis "left Iran internationally isolated", so that "conventional means of repelling the Iraqi invasion were hard to come by."

Defense of the motherland aside, Shia usually refer to the martyrdom of Hussain ibn Ali and his companions and family members in the Battle of Karbala as role models and inspiration for martyrdom as a glorious and noble death.

Mohammed Hossein Fahmideh, a 13-year-old boy who fought in the war, is said to be the first Muslim to have participated in such an attack in contemporary history. He strapped rocket-propelled grenades to his chest and blew himself up under an Iraqi tank in November 1980. Ayatollah Khomeini declared Fahmideh a national hero and inspiration for further volunteers for martyrdom.  Other Iranian basij volunteers ran through minefields to detonate buried landmines and clear a safe battlefield path for following soldiers.

Khomeini's encouragement
"Imam" Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the Iranian Revolution, is thought to have given a broader definition of martyrdom to include istishhad/"self-martyrdom".  He believed martyrdom could come not only from "inadvertent" death but "deliberate" as well. While martyrdom has always been celebrated in Islam and martyrs promised a place in heaven, (Q3:169–171), the idea that opportunities for martyrdom were important has not always been so common.

Khomeini not only praised the large numbers of young Shia Iranians who became "shahids" during the Iran–Iraq War  but asserted the war was "God's hidden gift", or as one scholar of Khomeini put it, "a vital outlet through which Iran's young martyrs experienced mystical transcendence." Khomeini explained:

"If the great martyr (Imam Husayn ibn Ali) ... confined himself to praying ... the great tragedy of Kabala would not have come about ... Among the contemporary ulema, if the great Ayatollah ... Shirazi ... thought like these people [who do not fight for Islam], a war would not have taken place in Iraq ... all those Muslims would not have been martyred."

Death might seem like a tragedy to some but in reality ...

If you have any tie or link binding you to this world in love, try to sever it. This world, despite all its apparent splendor and charm, is too worthless to be loved.

Khomeini never wavered from his faith in the war as God's will, and observers (such as Ayatollah Mehdi Haeri Yazdi, a grand ayatollah and former student with family ties to Khomeini) have related a number of examples of his impatience with those who tried to convince him to negotiate an end to the war even when it had become a stalemate with hundreds of thousands killed and civilian areas being attacked by missiles.

Some scholars (Ervand Abrahamian) argue that the idea of martyrdom was transform by Khomeini from the traditional Shi'i belief  of "a saintly act", usually referring "the famous Shi'i saints who in obeying God's will, had gone to their deaths"; to "revolutionary sacrifice" done "to overthrow a despotic political order"; and that Khoemini was heavily influenced by Iranian leftists individuals and groups active in the 1960s such as Ali Shariati, the Tudeh Party, Mojahedin, Hojjat al-Islam Nimatollah Salahi-Najafabadi.

Hezbollah
While martydom operations did not lead to victory over Iraq, in Lebanon, Hezbollah, the Shia party/militia funded and assisted by Iran, was enormously successful in its attacks.
The group drove Israel out of South Lebanon,  killing approximately 600 Israeli soldiers in Southern Lebanon between 1982 and 1984, (a relatively large number for a small country like Israel). This "rare victory" over Israel "lionized" the group among Arabs in the region and added to "the aura of Shia power still glimmering amid the afterglow of the Iranian revolution." It also drove Western peacekeepers out of Lebanon, killing 243 U.S. Marines and 58 French troops in suicide attacks;  blew up the American embassy in 1983, killing the Middle East experts in the CIA, and then several months later blew up the annex the survivors of the US embassy had retreated to.

Spread to Sunni Muslims
The victory of Hezbollah is known to have inspired Hamas in Palestine, and al-Qaeda in its worldwide bombing campaign. Writing in 2006, Vali Nasr states that "until fairly recently" willingness to die for the cause" (with suicide bombing or other means) was seen as a "predominantly Shia phenomenon, tied to the myths of Karbala and the Twelfth Imam".

Inspired by the success of Hezbollah, the (Sunni) Palestinian Islamist group Hamas used suicide attacks as a model for in its fight in the Palestinian Territories. Hamas first carried out suicide attacks – involved strapping the body of the mission carrier with explosives – in the Israeli-inhabited towns of Afula and Khidara in the spring of 1994, it "described these operations as `amaliyat istishhadiya (martyrdom operations)" rather than the more secular a'maliyat fida'iyah (self-sacrifice operations).  The term 'amaliyat istishhadiya has caught on and "today, istishhad is the most frequently used term to refer to acts of sacrifice in the Palestinian resistance and is used by Islamic, secular, and Marxist groups alike".

Zabiullah Mujahid, deputy minister of information and culture and spokesperson of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan announced the formation of an Istishhad battalion, which will be part of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan special forces.

According to one scholar, Noah Feldman: "The vocabulary of martyrdom and sacrifice, the formal videotaped pre-confession of faith, the technological tinkering to increase deadliness—all are now instantly recognizable to every Muslim." Feldman sees a worrying trend in the steady expansion of the targets of Istishhad since its debut in 1983 when successful bombing of barracks and embassy buildings drove the U.S. military out of Lebanon.

First the targets were American soldiers, then mostly Israelis, including women and children. From Lebanon and Israel, the technique of suicide bombing moved to Iraq, where the targets have included mosques and shrines, and the intended victims have mostly been Shiite Iraqis. The newest testing ground is Afghanistan, where both the perpetrators and the targets are orthodox Sunni Muslims. Not long ago, a bombing in Lashkar Gah, the capital of Helmand Province, killed Muslims, including women, who were applying to go on pilgrimage to Mecca. Overall, the trend is definitively in the direction of Muslim-on-Muslim violence. By a conservative accounting, more than three times as many Iraqis have been killed by suicide bombings in the last 3 years as have Israelis in the last 10. Suicide bombing has become the archetype of Muslim violence—not just to frightened Westerners but also to Muslims themselves.

The Chicago Project on Security and Terrorism recorded a total of 3,699 suicide attacks in over 40 countries from 1982 to 2013.

Martyrdom operation

Militant groups term attacks on military or civilian targets in which the attacker is expected to die, most frequently by detonation of a bomb, as "martyrdom operations". The term is usually used by Muslim militants, although non-Muslim groups, such as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, have also engaged in suicide attacks. Islamist militants prefer the term "martyrdom operation" to "suicide attack", as suicide is forbidden under classical Islamic law.  While combat inherently involves a risk of death, a "martyrdom operation" implies a deliberate act leading to death as part of the attack.

Acts of istishhad are governed by Islamic legal rules associated with armed warfare or military jihad. The rules governing jihad, literally meaning struggle but often called "holy war" by non-Muslims, are covered in exquisite detail in the classical texts of Islamic jurisprudence. In orthodox Islamic law, jihad is a collective religious obligation on the Muslim community, when the community is endangered or Muslims are subjected to oppression and subjugation. The rules governing such conflicts include not killing women, children or non-combatants, and leaving cultivated or residential areas undamaged.Bernard Lewis and Buntzie Ellis Churchill, Islam: The Religion and the People, Wharton School Publishing, 2008, pp. 145–153

For more than a millennium, these tenets were accepted by Sunnis and Shiites; however, since the 1980s militant Islamists have challenged the traditional Islamic rules of warfare in an attempt to justify suicide attacks despite clear contradictions to established Islamic laws.

Religious-scholarly debate
Some Western and Muslim scholars of Islam find suicide attacks to be a clear violation of classical Islamic law.
Nevertheless, the militant groups that carry out "martyrdom operations" believe that their actions fulfill the obligation of jihad, and  some clerics support this view.

Against suicide attacks

Suicide bombings as acts of terrorism have spurred some Muslims to provide scholastic refutations of suicide bombings and to condemn them. For example, Ihsanic Intelligence, a London-based Islamic think tank, published a study on suicide bombings that concluded, "suicide bombing is anathema, antithetical and abhorrent to Sunni Islam. It is considered legally forbidden, constituting a reprehensible innovation in the Islamic tradition, morally an enormity of sin combining suicide and murder and theologically an act which has consequences of eternal damnation".

Oxford-based Malaysian jurist Shaykh Afifi al-Akiti, issued his fatwa forbidding suicide bombing and targeting innocent civilians:
"If the attack involves a bomb placed on the body or placed so close to the bomber that when the bomber detonates it the bomber is certain [yaqin] to die, then the More Correct Position according to us is that it does constitute suicide. This is because the bomber, being also the Maqtul [the one killed], is unquestionably the same Qatil [the immediate/active agent that kills] = Qatil Nafsahu [killing oneself, i.e., suicide]."

In January 2006, a Shiite marja cleric, Ayatollah al-Udhma Yousof al-Sanei decreed a fatwa against suicide bombing declaring it as a "terrorist act" and the Saudi grand mufti as well as other Sunni scholars similarly denounced suicide attacks regardless of their offensive or defensive characterization."Interview  with Christiane Amanpour", CNN, February 2007

Scholar Bernard Lewis states, "At no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism. Nor indeed is there any evidence of the use of terrorism as it is practiced nowadays".  Similarly, Noah Feldman writes that the Islamic reasoning of suicide attackers is not convincing as martyrdom in Islam typically refers to another person killing a Muslim warrior, not the warrior pushing "the button himself".  In addition, "The killing of women and children has proved harder to explain away as a permissible exercise of jihad." This "illustrates the nature of the difficulty of reconciling suicide bombing with Islamic law".

As Charles Kimball, the University of Oklahoma's Director of Religious Studies, pointed out that Islam "clearly prohibits suicide" by citing "the hadith materials, which are the authoritative sayings and actions of the prophet, Muhammad, includes many unambiguous statements about suicide: one who 'throws himself off a mountain' or 'drinks poison' or 'kills himself with a sharp instrument' will be in the fire of Hell. Suicide is not allowed even to those in extreme conditions such as painful illness or a serious wound". Other Islamic groups such as the European Council for Fatwa and Research cite the Quran'ic verse Al-An'am 6:151 as a prohibition against suicide: "And take not life, which Allah has made sacred, except by way of justice and law". Dr. Hassan Ali El-Najjar says that the hadith unambiguously forbid suicide.

Proponents of suicide operations

Islamist militant organisations (including Al-Qaeda, ISIL, Hamas and Islamic Jihad) continue to argue that suicide operations are justified according to Islamic law."Fatwa of Sheikh Yousef Al-Qaradhawi" Irshad Manji, in a conversation with one leader of Islamic Jihad noted their ideology.

"What's the difference between suicide, which the Koran condemns, and martyrdom?" I asked. "Suicide," he replied, "is done out of despair. But remember: most of our martyrs today were very successful in their earthly lives." In short, there was a future to live for—and they detonated it anyway.

Another rationale provided for why istishhad is not against Islamic law is that the civilians caught in the crossfire "were destined to die". The Saudi exile Muhammad al-Massari explains that any civilian killed in an attack on the enemy "won't suffer [but instead]…becomes a martyr himself". During the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah war, Hezbollah secretary-general Hassan Nasrallah apologized for an attack on Nazareth that killed two Israeli-Arab children—but said the two children should be considered "martyrs".

Further justifications have been given by Iranian cleric Ayatollah Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi, "when protecting Islam and the Muslim community depends on martyrdom operations, it not only is allowed, but even is an obligation as many of the Shi'ah great scholars and Maraje', including Ayatullah Safi Golpayegani and Ayatullah Fazel Lankarani, have clearly announced in their fatwas". Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini of Iran showered those who performed martyrdom operations during the Iran–Iraq War and against Israel with accolades. Indeed, Sayyed Abbas al-Musawi, the second Secretary General of Hezbollah and student of Khomeini, created a supplication that became popular among the Hezbollah youths and fighters.

Other clerics have supported suicide attacks largely in connection with the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Sunni cleric Yusuf al-Qaradawi has supported such attacks by Palestinians in perceived defense of their homeland as heroic and an act of resistance.  Shiite Lebanese cleric Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, the spiritual authority recognized by Hezbollah, is reported to have similar views.

After the 7 July 2005 London bombings, journalist Mona Eltahawy published an op-ed in the Washington Post noting the fact that there were "22 imams and scholars who met at London's largest mosque to condemn the bombings but who would not criticize all suicide attacks", such as Sayed Mohammed Musawi, the head of the World Islamic League, who said "there should be a clear distinction between the suicide bombing of those who are trying to defend themselves from occupiers, which is something different from those who kill civilians, which is a big crime". After the knighting of Salman Rushdie in June 2007, Pakistan's acting Minister of Religious Affairs Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq publicly justified and called for a suicide attack against him.

There have been conflicting reports about the stances of Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy (who was then the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar- he is now deceased) and Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb (who was then the Grand Mufti of Egypt and is now the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar). Shortly after the September 11 attacks Sheikh Tantawy issued a statement opposing suicide attacks. However, a translation from Al Azhar website quotes him as supporting suicide attacks on Jews in Israel as part of the Palestinian struggle "to strike horror into the hearts of the enemies of Islam". Yet, in 2003 he was quoted again as saying "groups which carried out suicide bombings were the enemies of Islam", and that all suicide attacks were sinful including those against Israelis. His comments condemning all suicide attacks were echoed by Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad and Lebanese cleric Husam Qaraqirah.

According to the Iranian Islamic theologian Mohammad-Bagher Heydari Kashani, "We had 36,000 student martyrs [in the Iran-Iraq War], 7,070 of whom were under the age of 14. [...] "They were a source of pride for us, and we must thank God for them."

Public opinion
In addition to the views of Muslim theologians, conflicting viewpoints are apparent among the public in Muslim-majority countries. As a reporter for The Guardian notes in an article written during the Second Intifada in August 2001, the Muslim world celebrates "martyr-bombers" as heroes defending the things held sacred. Polls in the Middle East in August 2001 showed that 75% of people had been in favor of martyr-bombings.

However, the Pew Research Center has found decreases in Muslim support for suicide attacks. In 2011 surveys, less than 15% of Pakistanis, Jordanians, Turks, and Indonesians thought that suicide bombings were sometimes/often justified. Approximately 28% of Egyptians and 35% of Lebanese felt that suicide bombings were sometimes/often justified.  However, 68% of Palestinians reported that suicide attacks were sometimes/often justified. In 2013, Pew found that "clear majorities of Muslims oppose violence in the name of Islam"; 89% in Pakistan, 81% in Indonesia, 78% in Nigeria, and 77% in Tunisia said that "suicide bombings or other acts of violence that target civilians are never justified".

See also

Notes

References
Citations

Bibliography

External links

 "The Culture of Martyrdom" How suicide bombing became not just a means but an end, by David Brooks in The Atlantic, June 2002
 "Defending the Transgressed", Fatwa against suicide bombing by Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti
 "The Logic of Suicide Terrorism" by Bruce Hoffman published in The Atlantic'', June 2003
 "Suicide Bombers" : Why do they do it, and what does Islam say about their actions?
 "The Hijacked Caravan" Study refuting suicide bombing in Islam by Ihsanic Intelligence
 'The Seekers of Martyrdom Command': Another State-Inspired Organization of Suicide Attackers in Iran (Official Website Based in U.S. and Germany)
 "The Supplication of the Second Secretary General of 'Hezbollah'"

Arabic words and phrases in Sharia
Sharia legal terminology
Suicide bombing
Terrorism tactics
Islamic terrorism

Istishhad


Henry John Hill (6 March 1847 – 18 September 1926), always known as John Hill, was a South Australian businessman. Hill owned a coach-horse business in the early days of South Australia. He was the father of Clem Hill, the noted cricketer.

History
Hill was born at Walkerville, the eldest son of businessman and parliamentarian Henry Hill, he was educated at the Alberton school of the Presbyterian Rev. Mercer.
Around 1858 he started work for his father in the goods department of Henry Hill & Co. which had a contract with the South Australian Railways. In 1866 the South Australian company Cobb & Co., an affiliate of the famous New South Wales stagecoach business, bought the business of William Rounsevell and John was put in charge. In 1873 Cobb & Co. sold this business to a company John Hill & Co., whose owners were Hill, H. R. Fuller and George Mills. Business expanded and in 1882 the firm was restructured as John Hill & Co., Limited. At various times more than 1,000 horses were in work at once across the State, but they were always just a few years ahead of the establishment of railways on the most profitable routes. The Mount Pleasant and Willunga coaches were the last of the familiar horse-drawn vehicles to be seen on the roads.

In April 1888 Hill was appointed a member of the Board of Railways Commissioners, a position which he held for seven years at a salary of £1,009 a year. His colleagues were J. H. Smith (a railway expert from England, who was chairman of the board) and A. S. Neill. He then returned to manage Hill & Co. In October 1911 Hill and erstwhile competitor Henry Graves founded Hill, Graves & Co., with a massive stone bulk store at Port Adelaide bounded by Timpson, Divett and Mempes Streets (later occupied by R. Mitchell & Co.) extensive stables in Pirie and Grenfell Streets (the largest in Australia) and offices on North Terrace and in Gouger and George Streets, Adelaide. The company ceased trading at the end of 1920, but with business rationalised and transferred to H. Graves & Company.

Hill was a prominent member of the Pirie Street Methodist Church for more than 60 years, and held numerous offices in connection with the church and Sunday school. and served on the General Wesleyan Conference in 1884, 1890 and 1894.

He was at one time a member of the Board of Trustees of the Savings Bank.

He took a keen interest in sports, particularly cricket, and (with 102 not out for North Adelaide against the Kent Club on 30 January 1878) scored the first century on the Adelaide Oval. He was a member of the Adelaide Oval Bowls Club for many years.

Hill was chairman of the finance committee and a member of the horse committee of the Royal Agricultural and Horticultural Society for more than 30 years and President in 1905 and 1908, and he was made a life member a few months before he died at his home in Stanley Street, North Adelaide.

Family
Henry John Hill married Rebecca Eliza Saunders (ca. 1847 – 25 February 1921) on 9 October 1867. They had eight sons and eight daughters, including:
Peter Hill (East Adelaide)
Arthur Hill (Plympton)
Frank Hill (East Adelaide)
Clement (Millswood), the famous cricketer
Roy Hill (Eastwood) was also a fine batsman; the first to score a century at Norwood Oval.
Stanley Hill (London)
Mrs W. G. Smith (Angaston)
Mrs. W. G. Kither (Sydney)
Mrs. A. H. Goode (Unley Park)
Mrs. A. R. Watson (Walkerville)
Gwen Adela Hill married Lionel Watson Hack, son of Charles Hack, on 16 March 1916
Lily Hill (North Adelaide)
May Hill (North Adelaide).

All 16 children are as follows (not including their married names):
Percy HILL      (1868–1950)
Ida HILL        (1869–1954)
Arthur HILL     (1871–1936)
Lilian HILL     (1872–1970)
Annie May HILL  (1874–1940)
Frank HILL      (1875–1943)
Clement HILL    (1877–1945)
Henry John HILL Jnr (1878–1906)
Gertrude HILL   (1879–1953)
Leonard HILL    (1881–1896)
Marianne HILL   (1882–1960)
Leslie Roy HILL (1884–1952)
Stanley HILL    (1885–1970)
Dorothea HILL   (1887–1896)
Marjorie HILL   (1889–1976)
Adela Gwen HILL (1891–1970)

References

1847 births
1926 deaths
Australian businesspeople
Businesspeople from Adelaide

John Hill (businessman)


Reidar Sognnaes (November 6, 1911 – September 21, 1984) was  Dean of the Harvard School of Dental Medicine, founding Dean of the UCLA School of Dentistry and scholar in the field of oral pathology.

Biography
Reidar Fauske Sognnaes was born in Bergen, Norway. Sognnæs grew up in Bergen and took his final exams at Tanks gymnas in 1931. He took the first part of dental education in Leipzig, and concluded with an examination at the Norwegian Dental School (Norges Tannlegehøyskole) in 1936. He participated in a Norwegian scientific expedition to Tristan da Cunha during 1937-38.
Sognnaes came to America in 1938 as an intern at the Forsyth Dental Infirmary for Children in Boston. He continued on as a Carnegie Dental Fellow at the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry  in New York, where he earned a master of science degree in physiology and a Ph.D. in pathology in 1941.

Following World War II, in which he served in the Royal Norwegian Air Force, Sognnaes accepted a teaching position at Harvard University. There he occupied an endowed chair as the Charles A. Brackett professor of oral pathology and eventually served Director of Postdoctoral Studies at the Harvard School of Dental Medicine between 1956 and 1960, when he came to UCLA. Sognnaes guided the founding of the UCLA School of Dentistry, which was established in 1960. Sognnæs also put his name on scientific publications, primarily on research on tooth enamel and fluoride. Later he published several articles on education and research. He stepped down as dean in 1968, but continued as professor.

Sognnaes will perhaps be best remembered for his work as a gifted forensic scientist. He is credited with identifying the remains of Adolf Hitler and Martin Bormann, through examination of American and Soviet documents. Sognnaes also disproved the theory that President George Washington had wooden teeth. When the original dentures were stolen from the Smithsonian Institution during 1981, he was able to produce a duplicate.

Reidar Sognnaes was President of the International Association for Dental Research, a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and held an honorary doctorate from the University of Oslo. The Reidar Sognnaes Award of Excellence is awarded annually by the American Academy of Forensic Sciences in honor of Dr. Reidar F. Sognnaes, L.D.S., D.M.D., Ph.D.

Personal life
Reidar Sognnaes married Edel Marie Johanna Holand (1916–2010), the daughter of  Jorgen Kristian Holand and Annette Marthea Foldvik in Kristiania (now Oslo) Norway on June 29, 1939. They were the parents of four children, Solveig, Reidun, Thor, and Annelise.

Selected works
Oral health survey of Tristan da Cunha ) (1954)
Microstructure and histochemical characteristics of the mineralized tissues  (1955)
Calcification in Biological Systems (1960)
Chemistry and prevention of dental caries  (1962)
Mechanisms of Hard Tissue Destruction (1963)
America's most famous teeth (1974)
Dental evidence in the postmortem identification of Adolf Hitler, Eva Braun, and Martin Bormann (1977)

References

Other sources
 In memoriam, Reidar Sognnaes (1911-1984)--34th President of the IADR, 1957-58 (Journal of Dental Research. 1984 Nov; 63. 11)
 Reidar Fauske Sognnaes, MA, DMD, PhD, schools of medicine and dentistry University of California, Los Angeles. (Scanodont. 1975 May;3(2):20.) PMID: 801292.

1911 births
1984 deaths
American forensic scientists
Harvard Medical School faculty
UCLA School of Dentistry faculty
Norwegian emigrants to the United States
Health professionals from Bergen
Members of the National Academy of Medicine

Reidar Fauske Sognnaes


The Welland Canal - bridge 13, or as more commonly known locally, the Welland  bridge is a vertical lift bridge located in the heart of downtown Welland, Ontario. The bridge crosses an abandoned portion of the Welland Canal known as the Welland Recreational Waterway.

Previous bridges at this site

The channel passing under this bridge is the fourth Welland Canal.  A bridge has existed at this location ever since the first canal was constructed.  The bridge is the location of a major historical intersection in the original roads of the Niagara Peninsula.  As well as being important to local traffic in Welland, the bridge also links East Main Street (leading towards  Niagara Falls) and West Main Street (providing access to roads leading along the Welland River to Wainfleet and Wellandport.  It also provides a link between Niagara Street (formerly known as North Main Street leading to Thorold and St. Catharines, and King Street (formerly South Main Street, and also Canal Street), formerly leading to the Canada Southern Railway station, and on to Port Colborne.

The Chippawa Road (as Main Street was then known) crossed the First Welland Canal (constructed between 1824 and 1829) via a wooden swing bridge with the pivot set to one side of the canal.  This was turned manually by pushing on heavy wooden beams extending from the end of the bridge.

The bridge over the Second Welland Canal (constructed 1840 to 1845) is recorded in at least one image (shown at left), which has been seen in several books, in the Welland Library and on a post card.  This was a swing bridge  of a design common to other locations on the second canal.  It can be seen from the picture that the pivot was to the west of the canal.  These bridges were painted white  and operated manually.

The Third Welland Canal was constructed between 1871 and 1881 and located slightly west of the second.  The bridge over this canal was constructed one block south of Main Street at Division Street.  This situation severed the primary commercial artery and caused hardship for local business.  In winter when the canal was closed, a floating plank bridge, just 1.2m (4 feet) wide allowed pedestrian access across the canal at Main Street, but significant pressure was placed on officials to build a permanent bridge at this location.   Eventually, a bridge known as the Alexandra Bridge was built at Main Street in 1903.  This Bridge is well documented at the Welland Public Library Local History Site.   In 1927, this bridge was moved one block south to Division Street to make room for construction of the current Bridge 13.

Construction

While the previous three canals were each at slightly different locations, the width of the greatly expanded fourth canal encompassed all of them.   Fourth canal construction started as early as 1913.  There were delays as a result of World War I, and this massive project was not completed until 1932.

Bridge 13 was constructed between 1927 and 1930, with steel work of the span being constructed on temporary pilings driven into the canal bed during the winter of 1929-30 (while the shipping season was closed).  The bridge was built by the Dominion Bridge Company, with most of the steel work being completed by members of the Mohawk First Nation, who have a long history of being some of the finest ironworkers in North America.

The bridge was the most expensive on the canal, with a construction cost of $986,363.  The bridge is  wide - significantly wider than most canal bridges.  It was designed to carry a streetcar track down the middle, but the Welland streetcar system (the Niagara, Welland and Lake Erie railway) was slated for abandonment before the bridge was actually opened and this track was never installed.

The bridge is  long and has a skew of approximately 22.5 degrees - meaning that the towers and span are off square by this amount.  The reason that the skew is required can be seen from the old picture of the second canal bridge above - the canal does not run at a 90 degree angle to Main Street.  While a bridge out of alignment with the road was acceptable in the 1840s, a straight road was considered essential in the 1920s.  No other canal bridge is skewed to this degree.

Operation and incidents

During its operational life, the bridge carried three lanes of traffic - two westbound (the middle lane being designated as through traffic to West Main Street and the right for a turn onto Niagara Street), and one eastbound lane, which was required to turn right onto King Street as East Main street has been one-way westbound since at least the mid-1950s.

The bridge is located on a curve in a congested area of the canal.  This led to several incidents over the years.  Ships failing to negotiate the curve, on at least a couple of occasions, collided with the western approach span.  The Welland Public Library holds a file of newspaper clippings regarding such collisions, including one where the ship Atomena collided with the bridge in 1970.

The last ship

The route through Welland which had crossed Main Street since the 1830s was winding and difficult.  The large number of bridges, and especially a railroad swing bridge (Welland Canal, Bridge 15) made the route difficult and dangerous.

In 1967, it was decided to re-route the canal to the east of the city via the Welland By-Pass.  Construction proceeded through the 1972 shipping season, and by the end of that season, work was close to completion.  In the late evening hours of December 15, 1972, the Main Street Bridge raised to allow the passage of the Georgian Bay - officially the last ship through the city of Welland.  In fact, the bridge was raised again the next day to allow a St. Lawrence Seaway service vessel to pass, but the Georgian Bay remains the official last passage under the bridge in most historical records.

After the last ship

Following the closure of the canal at the end of the 1972 shipping season, Bridge 13 was locked permanently in the lowered position.  The stairs leading to the control cabin were removed to prevent trespassing and vehicular traffic continued to cross the bridge, without interruption from passing ships.

In 1981, a parallel bridge was built at Division Street, and the Main Street bridge became a one-way road carrying west-bound traffic only.  The original three lanes were reduced to two wider lanes of traffic.

The concrete counterweights continued to hang over the road, and as time went on, they began to decay and drop chunks of concrete on the road below.  Initially, they were encased in plywood boxes, but eventually, it was deemed necessary to remove them.  In 1983, the bridge was closed to traffic and a contractor was brought in to lower, then break up the counterweights.  The closure caused significant traffic issues, and after a period of time, the City of Welland decided to temporarily change the adjacent Division Street Bridge to two way traffic

In 2006, the bridge was once again closed to traffic for several months to allow for major re-construction of the structural elements.  This was part of a three-year overhaul program on the bridge which was completed in late 2008.  Another closure occurred in 2014 to allow for repainting and preservation of the entire structure.

The bridge today, and the neighbourhood around it

The bridge has become the symbol of the City of Welland.  Even though the bridge towers no longer serve any practical purpose, their preservation has been given a priority owing to their historical significance.

Welland is making a concerted effort to revitalize the downtown area.  The new Civic Square is just a block to the east of the bridge, and an observation platform built beside the canal offers views of the bridge.  Nevertheless, business has not flocked back to the downtown area.  With the closure of many Welland industries and the resultant increase in numbers of persons in need, the downtown area has become home to organizations such as Goodwill and similar service groups, as opposed to significant private enterprise.

Recently, a community volunteer initiative has reclaimed a neglected parkette along the west bank of the Welland Recreational Canal, just south of Bridge 13. Named "Guerrilla Park" by the volunteers, it has become a destination for one of the best views of this bridge, especially when lit up at night. It has also hosted a few art events.

Recommendations for development of the bridge include installing elevators to provide access to the top of the towers as a lookout. Whatever historical significance the bridge has, it remains primarily a utilitarian transportation corridor linking major east, west, north and south corridors in the city.

The bridge has recently undergone a full structural re-coating rehabilitation in the summer of 2014. New LED lighting fixtures have been mounted on the bridge which can change colours to mark special holidays or occasions.

Further reading

A web site looking at this bridge, as well as many other historical bridges in Niagara is found at  Historic Bridges of Michigan and Elsewhere - Niagara Region, Ontario

References

External links

Buildings and structures in Welland
Road bridges in Ontario
Transport in Welland
Vertical lift bridges in Canada
Welland Canal

Welland Canal, Bridge 13


James Lewis Carter Ford (probably June 24, 1923 – July 16, 2013) was an American blues musician, using the name T-Model Ford. Unable to remember his exact date of birth, he began his musical career in his early 70s, and continuously recorded for the Fat Possum label, then switched to Alive Naturalsound Records. His musical style combined the rawness of Delta blues with Chicago blues and juke joint blues styles.

Biography
According to records, Ford was born in Forest, Mississippi, between 1921 and 1925. Researchers Bob Eagle and Eric LeBlanc indicate June 24, 1923, though at the time of his death his record company gave his age as 94, suggesting a birth in 1918 or 1919. According to an interview recorded for his album "The Ladies Man", Ford's passport gives his date of birth as June 24, 1921 but his Mississippi driver's licence gives it as June 27, 1924. Starting with an abusive father who had permanently injured him at eleven, Ford lived his entire life in a distressed and violent environment, towards which he was quite indifferent.

Ford, an illiterate, worked in various blue collar jobs as early as his preteen years, such as plowing fields, working at a sawmill, and later in life becoming a lumber company foreman and then a truck driver. At this time, Ford was sentenced to ten years on a chain gang for murder. Allegedly, Ford was able to reduce his sentence to two years. He spent many of his years following his release in conflicts with law enforcement.

Ford lived in Greenville, Mississippi and for a time wrote an advice column for Arthur magazine. Reportedly, he had twenty six children.

According to music writer Will Hodgkinson, who met and interviewed Ford for his book Guitar Man, Ford took up the guitar when his fifth wife left him and gave him a guitar as a leaving present. Ford trained himself without being able to read music or guitar tabs. Hodgkinson observed that Ford could not explain his technique. He simply worked out a way of playing that sounded like the guitarists he admired — Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf.

Ford toured juke joints and other venues, for a while opening for Buddy Guy. In 1995, he was discovered by Matthew Johnson of Fat Possum Records, under which he released five albums from 1997 to 2008.

In 1997 T-Model Ford was featured in a 26-minute documentary JUKE  Directed by Mary Flannery and produced by Yellow Cat Productions. T-Model appeared along with Farmer John and John Horton.

Since 2008, Ford worked with the Seattle-based band, GravelRoad.  The project began as a single event, with Ford needing assistance to play the Deep Blues Festival in Minnesota in July 2008.  GravelRoad, longtime fans of Ford and performers already scheduled for the festival, agreed to provide support for a ten-show United States tour for Ford through July.

Ford had a pacemaker inserted at the end of that tour, but appeared on stage again with GravelRoad in 2008, 2009 and 2010. He suffered a stroke in early 2010, but despite difficulty with right-hand mobility, managed to complete a successful tour with GravelRoad. This tour concluded with an  appearance at Pickathon Festival. Ford and GravelRoad opened the third day of the All Tomorrow's Parties Festival, in New York over Labor Day weekend, 2010, curated by American independent film-maker Jim Jarmusch.

GravelRoad backed Ford on his 2010 and 2011 albums, The Ladies Man and Taledragger, both released by Alive Naturalsound Records.

Ford suffered a second stroke in the summer of 2012 that limited his public appearances.  However, he was able to perform at that year's King Biscuit Blues Festival in October.

On July 16, 2013, Fat Possum announced that Ford died at home in Greenville of respiratory failure, after a prolonged illness.

The Mount Zion Memorial Fund, organised the placing of a headstone for Ford at Green Lawn Memorial Gardens Cemetery, near Greenville, Mississippi. The ceremony was on May 31, 2014. The grave marker was designed by Amos Harvey and engraved by Alan Orlicek.

Discography
 Pee-Wee Get My Gun - 1997 (Fat Possum)
 You Better Keep Still - 1999 (Fat Possum)
 She Ain't None of Your'n - 2000 (Fat Possum)
 Bad Man - 2002 (Fat Possum)
 Don't Get Out Talkin' It - 2008 (Fat Possum)
 Jack Daniel Time - 2008 (Mudpuppy)
 The Ladies Man - 2010 (Alive Naturalsound)
 Taledragger - 2011 (Alive Naturalsound)
 I Was Born In A Swamp - 2021 (Alive Naturalsound)

References

External links
T-Model Ford page from Fat Possum Records site
T-Model Ford page from Alive Naturalsound Records site

London gig review April 2007
interview with T Model Ford
T Model Ford video on BBC
Interview

1920s births
2013 deaths
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
Fat Possum Records artists
Blues musicians from Mississippi
People from Forest, Mississippi
Alive Naturalsound Records artists
Guitarists from Mississippi
20th-century American guitarists
Delta blues musicians
African-American guitarists
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American male singers

T-Model Ford


Repin (; masculine) or Repina (; feminine) is a Russian last name. It is derived from the sobriquet "репа" ("turnip") and may refer to the following people:
Ilya Repin (1844–1930), Russian painter
Nikolay Repin (b. 1932), Soviet painter
Vadim Repin (b. 1971), Russian violinist

Archaeology
The Repin culture, the first phase (or, depending on the author, the forerunner) of the Pit Grave/Ochre Grave/Yamnaya culture.

Other uses
Řepín, a village and municipality of the Czech Republic.
2468 Repin, a Main-belt Asteroid named after Ilya Repin.

See also
Repino, several inhabited localities in Russia

Russian-language surnames

Repin


Douglas James Suttles (born 1960) was the president and chief executive officer of Ovintiv Corporation. After graduating from the University of Texas at Austin in 1983 with a BSc in mechanical engineering, he joined the global oil and gas industry. He retired from Ovintiv on August 1, 2021.

Biography
Suttles was with Exxon in Oklahoma and Texas, prior to joining BP, where he initially spent eight years in Alaska in various engineering and leadership roles. Suttles then became Vice President for Northern North Sea operations, and was then appointed President of BP's Trinidadian oil business. Suttles was then named President of BP Sakhalin Inc. (which later merged with TNK-BP), where he was responsible for BP's activities in Sakhalin, Russia, and its joint venture with Russian oil company Rosneft.

Suttles was named president of BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc., effective January 1, 2007. At the same time he also joined the board of BP America, and the BP America Operations Advisory Board. Suttles was 1st Vice President and board member for The Alaska Oil and Gas Association. Suttles was named COO BP Exploration and Production, effective January 2009, based in Houston, Texas.

In 2010, Suttles led BP's reaction to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

Suttles is a 2008 recipient of the University of Texas at Austin Mechanical Engineering Academy of Distinguished Alumni Distinguished Mechanical Engineer Award. He acts as a mentor for undergraduates from the University of Texas and the Cockrell School of Engineering.

He served on the boards of The Anchorage Museum Association, The Foraker Group and the Nature Conservancy. He supports charitable organizations including the Texas 4000, BP's United Way campaign and Polar Bear Plunge for cancer.

In January 2011, BP announced Doug's retirement from his role at the company.

On June 11, 2013, Suttles was appointed President & CEO of Encana Corporation, a large Canadian energy producer. Some five years later, in March 2018, Suttles moved from Canada to Denver, Colorado, working out of the company's Denver office.

In 2018, as CEO, Suttles placed second out of 100 of the top earners in Calgary with a total compensation of $15,532,728, according to a Global Governance Advisors' survey posted by The Calgary Herald.

References

External links
Bio at University of Texas
Bio at Business Week magazine

Living people
Cockrell School of Engineering alumni
American energy industry businesspeople
BP people
American chief executives of energy companies
1960 births

Doug Suttles


Sinampalukan, also known as sinampalukang manók or tamarind chicken, is a Filipino chicken soup consisting of chicken cooked in a sour broth with tamarind, tamarind leaves, ginger, onion, garlic, and other vegetables.

Name
The term sinampalukan literally means "[cooked] with tamarind", from Tagalog sampalok, "tamarind".

Description
Sinampalukan is prepared by first sautéing the chicken with garlic, ginger, and onions. Water is then added with tamarind pulp, young tamarind leaves and usually siling haba or labuyo chilis and tomatoes. Other vegetables can also be added if desired, including green beans, pechay, cabbage, eggplant, and others. It is served over white rice. Sinampalukan is regarded as a comfort food, usually served to sick people or during cold days.

Sinampalukan is very similar to sinigang and is sometimes regarded as a mere variant of the latter. However, sinampalukan differs most obviously in that it uses tamarind leaves as one of the main ingredients. It is also restricted to tamarind as the souring agent, unlike sinigang which can also use a variety of other sour fruits.

See also
Linarang

References

Philippine chicken dishes
Chicken soups

Sinampalukan


Fayalite (, commonly abbreviated to Fa) is the iron-rich end-member of the olivine solid-solution series. In common with all minerals in the olivine group, fayalite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (space group Pbnm) with cell parameters a 4.82 Å, b 10.48 Å and c 6.09 Å.

Fayalite forms solid solution series with the magnesium olivine endmember forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and also with the manganese rich olivine endmember tephroite (Mn2SiO4).

Iron rich olivine is a relatively common constituent of acidic and alkaline igneous rocks such as volcanic obsidians, rhyolites, trachytes and phonolites and plutonic quartz syenites where it is associated with amphiboles.   Its main occurrence is in ultramafic volcanic and plutonic rocks and less commonly in felsic plutonic rocks and rarely in granite pegmatite. It also occurs in lithophysae in obsidian.  It also occurs in medium-grade thermally metamorphosed iron-rich sediments and in impure carbonate rocks.

Fayalite is stable with quartz at low pressures, whereas more magnesian olivine is not, because of the reaction olivine + quartz = orthopyroxene. Iron stabilizes the olivine + quartz pair. The pressure and compositional dependence of the reaction can be used to calculate constraints on pressures at which assemblages of olivine + quartz formed.

Fayalite can also react with oxygen to produce magnetite + quartz: the three minerals together make up the "FMQ" oxygen buffer. The reaction is used to control the fugacity of oxygen in laboratory experiments. It can also be used to calculate the fugacity of oxygen recorded by mineral assemblages in metamorphic and igneous processes.

At high pressure, fayalite undergoes a phase transition to ahrensite, the iron-bearing analogue of ringwoodite, i.e., contrary to forsterite there is no intermediate form analogous to wadsleyite; under the conditions prevailing in the upper mantle of the Earth, the transition would occur at ca. 6–7 GPa, i.e., at substantially lower pressure than the phase transitions of forsterite. In high-pressure experiments, the transformation may be delayed, so that it may remain stable to pressures of almost 35 GPa (see fig.), at which point it may become amorphous rather than take on a crystalline structure such as ahrensite.

The name fayalite is derived from Faial (Fayal) Island in the Azores where it was first described in 1840.

See also
 Forsterite, (Mg2SiO4), the magnesium-rich end-member of the olivine solid-solution series.
 Mineral redox buffer

References

 Deer, W. A., Howie, R. A., and Zussman, J. (1992). An introduction to the rock-forming minerals (2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman

Iron minerals
Iron compounds
Iron(II) minerals
Nesosilicates
Orthorhombic minerals
Minerals in space group 62

Fayalite


Bank of Khartoum (BOK), is the largest bank in Sudan. With some 111 or more branches, it is also the commercial bank with the oldest continuous history in the country. The largest single shareholder is Dubai Islamic Bank. In 2011 the government of the United States of America lifted its sanctions on Bank of Khartoum. The US Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control posted a notice on its website that it had removed Bank of Khartoum from the blacklist, meaning Bank of Khartoum could seek the return of blocked assets and resume limited dealings with U.S. financial institutions. However, in March 2014, several European and Saudi Arabian banks announced that they would cease transacting with Bank of Sudan.

With the separation of South Sudan from Sudan, the Bank of Khartoum Juba (BOK-JUBA) is now operating as a commercial bank in South Sudan.

History

The origins of the Bank of Khartoum date back to 1913 when the Anglo-Egyptian Bank established a branch in Khartoum.  In 1925, Barclays Bank merged Anglo-Egyptian with two other banks to form Barclays Bank (Dominion, Colonial and Overseas).

After World War II, Ottoman Bank in 1948 established a branch in Khartoum. Five years later, Egypt's Bank Misr too established a branch in Khartoum, followed the next year by Jordan's Arab Bank. Then in 1958 the State Bank of Ethiopia (later Commercial Bank of Ethiopia), established a branch in Khartoum.

In 1969, National and Grindlays Bank acquired Ottoman Bank, only to lose it the next year to nationalization. In 1970 the Sudanese government nationalized all the banks in the Sudan, changed the names of several, and put them under the Bank of Sudan. Barclays Bank, which had an extensive network of 24 branches, became the State Bank of Foreign Trade, and then Bank of Khartoum in 1975. Bank Misr's six branches became People's Cooperative Bank. Arab Bank's four branches became Red Sea Bank or Red Sea Commercial Bank (reports differ). Commercial Bank of Ethiopia's one branch became Juba Commercial Bank. National and Grindlays Bank's four branches, which Ottoman Bank had established, became Omdurman Bank. Then in 1973 the government merged Red Sea Bank and People's Cooperative Bank into Omdurman Bank.

Eleven years later, Omdurman Bank merged with Juba Commercial Bank to form Unity Bank. In 1993, the government grouped Unity Bank, National Export Import Bank, and Bank of Khartoum into the Khartoum Bank Group.

In 2002 the government prepared Bank of Khartoum for privatization. The government then sold a 60 per cent share to Dubai Islamic Bank in 2005. The next year, Islamic Development Bank, Dubai Islamic Bank, Sharjah Islamic Bank and Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank founded Emirates and Sudan Bank in Khartoum as a fully Islamic bank. The year after, Bank of Khartoum announced that it was merging with Emirates and Sudan Bank. The merger took effect in 2008.

Dubai Islamic's ownership will drop to 28 percent of the merged bank. The Sudanese government will own 10 percent of the bank, while Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank and Sharjah Islamic Bank would also own stakes.

Sources
 Kaikati, Jack G. 1980. The Economy of Sudan: A Potential Breadbasket of the Arab World? International Journal of Middle East Studies 11, 99-123.

External links
 Official Website

Banks of Sudan
Banks established in 1913
Companies based in Khartoum
1913 establishments in Sudan

Bank of Khartoum


Head Waters (also Headwaters) is an unincorporated community in Highland County, Virginia, United States.  Head Waters is located approximately  east of McDowell on US 250.  The South Fork South Branch Potomac River rises north of Head Waters, hence the community's name.  Head Waters has a post office with ZIP code 24442.

References

Unincorporated communities in Highland County, Virginia
Unincorporated communities in Virginia

Head Waters, Virginia


Zhao Kai Pang (born March 5, 1995) is a Canadian former competitive ice dancer. With partner Madeline Edwards, he is the 2014 World Junior bronze medalist and 2013 Canadian national junior champion.

Career
Zhao Kai Pang teamed up with Madeline Edwards in December 2007. They debuted on the ISU Junior Grand Prix series in 2011, placing fifth in Austria. The following season, they won a pair of bronze medals at their JGP assignments, in France and Turkey, and gold in the junior event at the 2013 Canadian Championships. They were sent to the 2013 World Junior Championships, where they finished 12th.

In the 2013–14 season, Edwards/Pang won two JGP medals, silver in Mexico and bronze in the Czech Republic. Because Skate Canada required junior champions to move up, they competed on the senior level domestically, with a different pattern in the short dance and an additional 30 seconds in the free dance. They finished seventh at the 2014 Canadian Championships. At the 2014 World Junior Championships, they won the bronze medal after placing fifth in the short dance and third in the free dance.

Edwards/Pang decided to continue competing on the JGP series in the 2014–15 season. They were awarded silver in Courchevel, France, finishing second to Russia's Alla Loboda / Pavel Drozd by a margin of 2.82 points. After edging Loboda/Drozd by 0.44 to win gold in Aichi, Japan, they qualified for the JGP Final in Barcelona, where they placed fifth. Edwards injured her ankle during training in late December 2014. Ranked sixth in the short and fourth in the free dance, the duo finished sixth at the 2015 World Junior Championships in Tallinn, Estonia.

Edwards/Pang decided to sit out the 2015–16 season to allow her ankle to heal fully. On July 13, 2016, Pang announced his decision to retire from competition.

In 2019, Pang was accepted into the University of British Columbia's Faculty of Medicine.

Programs
(with Edwards)

Competitive highlights
JGP: Junior Grand Prix

With Edwards

References

External links

1995 births
Canadian male ice dancers
Living people
People from Kitimat
World Junior Figure Skating Championships medalists
21st-century Canadian people

Zhao Kai Pang


Sir Roger Gilbert Bannister  (23 March 1929 – 3 March 2018) was an English neurologist and middle-distance athlete who ran the first sub-4-minute mile.

At the 1952 Olympics in Helsinki, Bannister set a British record in the 1500 metres and finished in fourth place. This achievement strengthened his resolve to become the first athlete to finish the mile run in under four minutes. He accomplished this feat on 6 May 1954 at Iffley Road track in Oxford, with Chris Chataway and Chris Brasher providing the pacing. When the announcer, Norris McWhirter, declared "The time was three...", the cheers of the crowd drowned out Bannister's exact time, which was 3 minutes and 59.4 seconds. He had attained this record with minimal training, while practising as a junior doctor. Bannister's record lasted just 46 days.

Bannister went on to become a neurologist and Master of Pembroke College, Oxford, before retiring in 1993. As Master of Pembroke, he was on the governing body of Abingdon School from 1986 to 1993. When asked whether the 4-minute mile was his proudest achievement, he said he felt prouder of his contribution to academic medicine through research into the responses of the nervous system. Bannister was patron of the MSA Trust. He was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2011.

Early life and education
Bannister was born on 23 March 1929 in Harrow, London. His parents Ralph and Alice were both from working-class families in Lancashire. Ralph had moved to London at the age of 15 to work in the Civil Service, and met Alice on a trip home. They married in 1925, and had a daughter, Joyce, before Roger was born.

The family moved to Bath shortly after the outbreak of World War II when Ralph was relocated there, and Roger continued his education at City of Bath Boys' School. Here he discovered a talent for cross country running, winning the junior cross-country cup three consecutive times, which led to him being presented with a miniature replica trophy.

During a bombing raid on Bath, the family house was severely damaged as the Bannisters sheltered in the basement.

In 1944, the family returned to London and Roger went to University College School. Bannister was accepted into St John's College, Cambridge but the Senior Tutor Robert Howland, a former Olympic shot putter, suggested that Bannister wait a year. After the year he proceeded to apply to Exeter College, Oxford and was accepted for a three-year degree in Medicine.

Athletics career

Early running career
Bannister was inspired by miler Sydney Wooderson's comeback in 1945. Eight years after setting the mile record and seeing it surpassed during the war years by the Swedish runners Arne Andersson and Gunder Hägg, Wooderson regained his old form and challenged Andersson over the distance in several races. Wooderson lost to Andersson but set a British record of 4:04.2 in Gothenburg on 9 September.

Like Wooderson, Bannister would ultimately set a mile record, see it broken, and then set a new personal best slower than the new record.

Bannister started his running career at Oxford in the autumn of 1946 at the age of 17. He had never worn running spikes previously or run on a track. His training was light, even compared to the standards of the day, but he showed promise in running a mile in 1947 in 4:24.6 on only three weekly half-hour training sessions.

He was selected as an Olympic "possible" in 1948 but declined as he felt he was not ready to compete at that level. However, he was further inspired to become a great miler by watching the 1948 Olympics. He set his training goals on the 1952 Olympics in Helsinki.

In 1949, he improved in the  run to 1:52.7 and won several mile races in 4:11. Then, after a period of six weeks with no training, he came in third at White City in 4:14.2.

The year 1950 saw more improvements as he finished a relatively slow 4:13-mile on 1 July with an impressive 57.5 last quarter. Then, he ran the AAA 880 in 1:52.1, losing to Arthur Wint, and then ran 1:50.7 for the 800 m at the European Championships on 26 August, placing third. Chastened by this lack of success, Bannister started to train harder and more seriously.

His increased attention to training paid quick dividends, as he won a mile race in 4:09.9 on 30 December. Then in 1951 at the Penn Relays, Bannister broke away from the pack with a 56.7 final lap, finishing in 4:08.3. Then, in his biggest test to date, he won a mile race on 14 July in 4:07.8 at the AAA Championships at White City before 47,000 people. The time set a meet record and he defeated defending champion Bill Nankeville in the process.

Bannister suffered defeat, however, when Yugoslavia's Andrija Otenhajmer, aware of Bannister's final-lap kick, took a 1500 m race in Belgrade 25 August out at near-record pace, forcing Bannister to close the gap by the bell lap. Otenhajmer won in 3:47.0, though Bannister set a personal best finishing second in 3:48.4. Bannister was no longer seen as invincible.

His training was a very modern individualised mixture of interval training influenced by coach Franz Stampfl with elements of block periodisation, fell running and anaerobic elements of training which were later perfected by Arthur Lydiard.

From 1951 to 1954, Bannister trained at the track at Paddington Recreation Ground in Maida Vale while he was a medical student at the nearby St Mary's Hospital. There are two Bannister plaques at the pavilion, both unveiled by him on 10 September 2000; a circular blue plaque and a rectangular historic plaque containing additional information. According to the latter, Bannister was able to train for just an hour each day due to his medical studies.

1952 Olympics
Bannister avoided racing after the 1951 season until late in the spring of 1952, saving his energy for Helsinki and the Olympics. He ran an  run on 28 May 1952 in 1:53.00, followed by a 4:10.6-mile time-trial on 7 June, proclaiming himself satisfied with the results. At the AAA championships, he skipped the mile and won the 880 in 1:51.5. Then, 10 days before the Olympic final, he ran a  mile time trial in 2:52.9, which gave him confidence that he was ready for the Olympics as he considered the time to be the equivalent of a four-minute mile.

His confidence soon dissipated, however, as it was announced there would be semi-finals for the 1500 m (equal to 0.932 miles) at the Olympics, which he felt favoured runners who had much deeper training regimens than he did. When he ran his semi-final, Bannister finished fifth and thereby qualified for the final, but he felt "blown and unhappy".

The 1500 m final on 26 July 1952 would prove to be one of the more dramatic in Olympic history. The race was not decided until the final metres, Josy Barthel of Luxembourg prevailing in an Olympic-record 3:45.28 (3:45.1 by official hand-timing) with the next seven runners all under the old record. Bannister finished fourth, out of the medals, but set a British record of 3:46.30 (3:46.0) in the process.

New goal

After his relative failure at the 1952 Olympics, Bannister spent two months deciding whether to give up running. He set himself on a new goal: to be the first man to run a mile in under four minutes. Accordingly, he intensified his training and did hard intervals.

On 2 May 1953, he made an attempt on the British record at Oxford. Paced by Chris Chataway, Bannister ran 4:03.6, shattering Wooderson's 1945 standard. "This race made me realise that the four-minute mile was not out of reach," said Bannister.

On 27 June 1953, a mile race was inserted into the programme of the Surrey schools athletic meeting. Australian runner Don Macmillan, ninth in the 1500 m at the 1952 Olympics, set a strong pace with 59.6 for one lap and 1:59.7 for two. He gave up after two and a half laps, but Chris Brasher took up the pace. Brasher had jogged the race, allowing Bannister to lap him so he could be a fresh pace-setter. At  mile, Bannister was at 3:01.8, the record—and first sub-four-minute mile—in reach. But the effort fell short with a finish in 4:02.0, a time bettered by only Arne Andersson (4:01.6 in 1944) and Gunder Hägg (4:01.4 in 1945). British officials would not allow this performance to stand as a British record, which, Bannister felt in retrospect, was a good decision. "My feeling as I look back is one of great relief that I did not run a four-minute mile under such artificial circumstances," he said.

But other runners were making attempts at the four-minute barrier and coming close as well. American Wes Santee ran 4:02.4 on 5 June 1953, the fourth-fastest mile ever. And at the end of the year, Australian John Landy ran 4:02.0.

Then early in 1954, Landy made some more attempts at the distance. On 21 January 1954, he ran 4:02.4 in Melbourne, then 4:02.6 on 23 February 1954, and at the end of the Australian season on 19 April he ran 4:02.6 again.

Bannister had been following Landy's attempts and was certain his Australian rival would succeed with each one. But knowing that Landy's season-closing attempt on 19 April would be his last until he travelled to Finland for another attempt, Bannister knew he had to make his attempt soon.

Sub-4-minute mile

This historic event took place on 6 May 1954 during a meet between British AAA and Oxford University at Iffley Road Track in Oxford, watched by about 3,000 spectators. With winds of up to  before the event, Bannister had said twice that he preferred not to run, to conserve his energy and efforts to break the 4-minute barrier; he would try again at another meet. However, the winds dropped just before the race was scheduled to begin, and Bannister did run.

The pace-setters from his major 1953 attempts, future Commonwealth Games gold medallist Christopher Chataway from the 2 May attempt, and future Olympic Games gold medallist Chris Brasher from the 27 June attempt, combined to provide pacing for Bannister's run. The race was broadcast live by BBC Radio and commentated by 1924 Olympic 100 metres champion Harold Abrahams, of Chariots of Fire fame.

Bannister had begun his day at a hospital in London, where he sharpened his racing spikes and rubbed graphite on them so they would not pick up too much cinder ash. He took a mid-morning train from Paddington Station to Oxford, nervous about the rainy, windy conditions that afternoon.

Being a dual-meet format, there were seven men entered in the mile: Alan Gordon, George Dole and Nigel Miller from Oxford University; and four British AAA runners: Bannister, his two pacemakers Brasher and Chataway, and Tom Hulatt. Nigel Miller arrived as a spectator and he only realised that he was due to run when he read the programme. Efforts to borrow a running kit failed and he could not take part, thus reducing the field to six.

The race went off as scheduled at 6:00 pm, and Brasher and Bannister went immediately to the front of the pack. Brasher (wearing No. 44) led both the first lap in 58 seconds and the half-mile in 1:58, with Bannister (No. 41) tucked in behind, and Chataway (No. 42) a stride behind Bannister. Chataway moved to the front after the second lap and maintained the pace with a 3:01 split at the final lap bell. Chataway continued to lead around the front turn until Bannister began his finishing kick with about 275 yards to go (just over half a lap), running the last lap in just under 59 seconds.

The stadium announcer for the race was Norris McWhirter, who went on to co-publish and co-edit the Guinness Book of Records. He teased the crowd by delaying his announcement of Bannister's race time for as long as possible:

The roar of the crowd drowned out the rest of the announcement. Bannister's time was 3 minutes 59.4 seconds.

The claim that a four-minute mile was once thought to be impossible by "informed" observers was and is a widely propagated myth created by sportswriters and debunked by Bannister himself in his memoir, The Four Minute Mile (1955).

The reason the myth took hold was that four minutes was a round number that lay slightly out of reach of the world record (by just 1.4 seconds) for nine years, which was longer than it might otherwise have been due to the effect of the Second World War in interrupting athletic progress in the combatant countries. The Swedish runners, Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson, in a series of head-to-head races in the period 1942–45, had already lowered the world mile record by five seconds to the pre-Bannister record. Knowledgeable track fans are still most impressed by the fact that Bannister ran a four-minute mile on very low-mileage training by modern standards.

Just 46 days later, on 21 June 1954, Bannister's record was broken by his rival, John Landy, in Turku, Finland, with a time of 3 minutes 57.9 seconds, which the IAAF ratified as 3 minutes 58.0 seconds due to the rounding rules then in effect.

1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
On 7 August, at the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Vancouver, B.C., Bannister, running for England, competed against Landy for the first time in a race billed as "The Miracle Mile". They were the only two men in the world to have broken the 4-minute barrier, with Landy still holding the world record.

Landy led for most of the race, building a lead of 10 yards in the third lap (of four), but was overtaken on the last bend, and Bannister won in 3 min 58.8 s, with Landy 0.8 s behind in 3 min 59.6 s. Bannister and Landy have both pointed out that the crucial moment of the race was that at the moment when Bannister decided to try to pass Landy, Landy looked over his left shoulder to gauge Bannister's position and Bannister burst past him on the right, never relinquishing the lead.

A larger-than-life bronze sculpture of the two men at that moment was created by Vancouver sculptor Jack Harman in 1967 from a photograph by Vancouver Sun photographer Charlie Warner and stood for many years at the entrance to Empire Stadium; after the stadium was demolished the sculpture was moved a short distance away to the Hastings and Renfrew entrance of the Pacific National Exhibition (PNE) fairgrounds. Regarding this sculpture, Landy quipped: "While Lot's wife was turned into a pillar of salt for looking back, I am probably the only one ever turned into bronze for looking back."

Bannister went on that season to win the so-called metric mile, the 1500 m, at the European Championships in Bern, Switzerland, on 29 August, with a championship record in a time of 3 min 43.8 s. He retired from athletics late in 1954 to concentrate on his work as a junior doctor and to pursue a career in neurology. He was awarded a CBE the following year for "services to amateur athletics".

Sports Council and knighthood
Bannister later became the first Chairman of the Sports Council (now called Sport England) and was knighted for this service in 1975. Under his patronage, central and local government funding of sports centres and other sports facilities was rapidly increased, and he also initiated the first testing for use of anabolic steroids in sport.

Medical career
After retiring from athletics in 1954, Bannister spent the next forty years practising medicine in the field of neurology. In March 1957, he joined the Royal Army Medical Corps at Crookham, where he started his two years of National Service, with the rank of lieutenant.

His major contribution to academic medicine was in the field of autonomic failure, an area of neurology focusing on illnesses characterised by the loss of certain automatic responses of the nervous system (for example, elevated heart rate when standing up). He ultimately published more than eighty papers, mostly concerned with the autonomic nervous system, cardiovascular physiology, and multiple system atrophy. He edited Autonomic Failure: A Textbook of Clinical Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System with C.J. Mathias, a colleague at St Mary's, as well as five editions of Brain and Bannister's Clinical Neurology.

Bannister always said he was more proud of his contribution to medicine than his running career. In 2014, Bannister said in an interview: "I'd rather be remembered for my work in neurology than my running. If you offered me the chance to make a great breakthrough in the study of the autonomic nerve system, I'd take that over the four minute mile right away. I worked in medicine for sixty years. I ran for about eight."

Personal life

In 1955, Bannister married the Swedish artist Moyra Elver Jacobsson in Basel, Switzerland. Moyra Jacobsson-Bannister was the daughter of the Swedish economist Per Jacobsson, who served as managing director of the International Monetary Fund.

They had four children: Carol E. E. Bannister (b. 1957); Clive C. R. Bannister (b. 1959), an insurance industry executive; Thurstan R. R. Bannister (b. July 1960), a company director in New York; and Charlotte B. M. Bannister (b. 1963), now Charlotte Bannister-Parker, associate priest at the University Church of St Mary the Virgin in Oxford.

In 2011, Bannister was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. He died on 3 March 2018 at the age of 88 in Oxford, 20 days before his 89th birthday. He is buried in Wolvercote Cemetery near Oxford. His widow, Lady Moyra Bannister, died in Oxford on 4 November 2022, at the age of 94.

Legacy
On the 50th anniversary of running the mile in under four minutes, Bannister was interviewed by the BBC's sports correspondent Rob Bonnet. At the conclusion of the interview, Bannister was asked whether he looked back on the sub-4-minute mile as the most important achievement of his life. Bannister replied that he instead saw his subsequent forty years of practising medicine and some of the new procedures he introduced as being more significant. He also said that, in terms of athletic achievement, he felt his performances at the 1952 Olympics and the 1954 Commonwealth Games were more significant than running the sub-4-minute mile.

Ironically, although Roger Bannister is arguably the most famous record-setter in the mile, he is also the man who held the record for the shortest period of time, at least since the IAAF started to ratify records.

Media
For his efforts, Bannister was also made the inaugural recipient of the Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year award for 1954 (awarded in January 1955) and is one of the few non-Americans recognised by the American-published magazine as such.

In a UK poll conducted by Channel 4 in 2002, the British public voted Bannister's historic sub-4-minute mile as number 13 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.

Bannister is the subject of the ESPN film Four Minutes (2005). This film is a dramatisation, its major departures from the factual record being the creation of a fictional character as Bannister's coach, who was actually Franz Stampfl, an Austrian, and secondly his meeting his wife, Moyra Jacobsson, in the early 1950s when in fact they met in London only a few months before the Miracle Mile itself took place. Bannister was portrayed by Jamie Maclachlan.

Bannister: Everest on the Track, The Roger Bannister Story is a 2016 TV documentary about his childhood and youth in WWII and postwar Britain and the breaking of the 4-minute mile barrier, with interviews of participants and witnesses to the 1954 race, and later runners inspired by Bannister and his achievement, including Phil Knight who says that Roger Bannister inspired him to start Nike.

In the 1988 television mini-series The Four Minute Mile, about the rivalry between Bannister, John Landy and Wes Santee to be first to break the 4-minute mile mark, Bannister was portrayed by actor Richard Huw.

Places
In 1996 Pembroke College at the University of Oxford (where Bannister was Master for eight years) named a building in honour of his achievements. The Bannister Building, an 18th-century townhouse in Brewer Street, was converted to provide accommodation for graduate students. Following extensive refurbishments during 2011 and 2012, it became part of the building complex surrounding the Rokos Quad, and was then used for undergraduate accommodation.

In March 2004 St Mary's Hospital Medical School named a lecture theatre after Bannister; on display is the stopwatch that was used to time the race, stopped at 3:59. Bannister also gave his name to the trophy presented to the winning team in the annual athletics varsity match between Imperial College School of Medicine and Imperial College London, as well as the award given to the graduating doctor of Imperial College School of Medicine who has achieved most in the sporting community. Bannister also purchased the cup (which bears his name) awarded to the winning team in the annual United Hospitals Cross-Country Championship, organised by London Universities and Colleges Athletics. The championship is contested by the five medical schools in London and the Royal Veterinary College.

In 2012 Bannister carried the Olympic flame at the site of his memorable feat, in the Oxford University track stadium now named after him.

On 28 September 2021 a memorial stone honouring Sir Roger, "pioneering neurologist, world champion runner", was unveiled in Westminster Abbey, in the area known as 'Scientists' corner'.

Memorabilia
The 50th anniversary of Bannister's achievement was marked by a commemorative British 50-pence coin. The reverse of the coin shows the legs of a runner and a stopwatch (stopped at 3:59.4). There were 9,032,500 minted. The coin was re-struck for collector sets in 2019 as part of the Royal Mint's '50 Years of the 50p coin', along with other designs.

In the gallery of Pembroke College dining hall there is a cabinet containing over 80 exhibits covering Bannister's athletic career and including some academic highlights.

Awards and honours

Bannister received many honours for his achievements in sports and medicine. He was knighted in the 1975 New Year Honours, and appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to sport.

Bannister was an Honorary Fellow of both Exeter College and Merton College, where he studied at the University of Oxford; he was also Honorary Fellow of Harris Manchester College, Oxford. He received honorary degrees (Doctor of Science) from the University of Sheffield in 1978, and from the University of Bath in 1984. He also received honorary degrees from the University of Pavia in 1986 and from Brunel University London in 2008 (DUniv), as well as an honorary doctorate from Oxford Brookes University in 2014. In 2000, Bannister received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

Bannister was made an Honorary Freeman of the London Borough of Harrow on 4 May 2004, and was granted the Freedom of the City of Oxford in 2004.

Selected publications

Autobiography

Academic

Other media
In 2014, he appeared as a guest on BBC Radio 4's Midweek with Libby Purves, Kevin Warwick and Rachael Stirling.

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading
 Bale, John. Roger Bannister and the four-minute mile: Sports myth and sports history (Routledge, 2012). excerpt
 Bale, John. "Amateurism, Capital and Roger Bannister." Sport in History 26.3 (2006): 484–501.
 Bannister, Roger (1955), The Four-Minute Mile. Revised and enlarged 50th anniversary (of the race) edition, 2004, The Lyons Press.
Bascomb, Neal (2004), The Perfect Mile: Three Athletes, One Goal, and Less Than Four Minutes to Achieve It. .
 Booth, Douglas. "Sport history and the seeds of a postmodern discourse." Rethinking History 13.2 (2009): 153–174.
 Bourne, Nicholas David. Fast science: A history of training theory and methods for elite runners through 1975 (U of Texas at Austin, 2008). online
 The First Four Minutes: ESPN Classic Television Programme.
 The Four Minute Mile TV mini-series (1988), available on DVD.
 Cameron, Julia (1993), The Artist's Way. Oxford, London: Pan Books. .

 Nelson, Cordner and Quercetani, Roberto (1985), The Milers, Tafnews Press, 1985, , pp. 181–215
 Quercetani, R. L. (1964), A World History of Track and Field Athletics, 1864–1964, Oxford University Press. (A history of the mile/1500 m. event.)

External links

 Newsreel footage of Roger Bannister achieving the four-minute mile
 Roger Bannister and the Four-Minute Mile, original reports from The Times (archived)
 "Bannister triumphs with sub-four minute mile", original report from The Guardian (from the Guardian archive)
 Live TV coverage of the "Miracle Mile"
 Multiple System Atrophy Trust website – Bannister was patron of the MSA Trust
 Images of Roger Bannister in the Queen Square Archives (10 images)
 Sir Roger Bannister Biography and Interview by American Academy of Achievement
 Roger Bannister on the History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group website (3 images)
 2018 Oxford memorial event
 Memorial for Roger Bannister, ID 187758155, at Find A Grave including photographs, one showing his grave's ledger stone

1929 births
2018 deaths
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
Sportspeople from Harrow, London
English male middle-distance runners
Olympic athletes for Great Britain
Athletes (track and field) at the 1952 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for England
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
European Athletics Championships medalists
20th-century English medical doctors
British neurologists
English autobiographers
Knights Bachelor
People in sports awarded knighthoods
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at City of Bath Boys' School
Alumni of St Mary's Hospital Medical School
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Alumni of Imperial College London
Fellows of Exeter College, Oxford
Fellows of Merton College, Oxford
Masters of Pembroke College, Oxford
People educated at University College School
People associated with the University of Sheffield
People associated with the University of Bath
People associated with Oxford Brookes University
Neurological disease deaths in England
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Physicians of St Mary's Hospital, London
Royal Army Medical Corps officers
Governors of Abingdon School
20th-century British Army personnel
Burials at Wolvercote Cemetery
Medallists at the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games

Roger Bannister


Nazan Khol ( Üngör; born 9 May 1976), better known as Nazan Eckes, is a German television presenter.

Career
Eckes, daughter of Turkish immigrants from Eskişehir, completed her Abitur high school diploma in 1995 in Leverkusen, where her father was employed as a worker in a chemical and pharmaceutical company.

Her internship at the music television channel VIVA was followed by a formal journalistic apprenticeship (Volontariat) lasting 18 months at the same channel. In 1998, Eckes joined VIVA as a regular TV journalist. Between 1998 and 1999, she also worked as freelance reporter for the Turkish language regional newspaper Haftalık Posta.

In 1999, Eckes moved to Hamburg and presented the weather forecast for RTL Television's regional evening program, Guten Abend RTL. The next year, she presented the weather forecast in the local news program Punkt 12. She married Claus Eckes in 2000.

Since 28 January 2003, Eckes has regularly presented the RTL II News on weekdays. That year, she presented RTL Exclusiv and Life! - Die Lust zu leben as a stand-in for the regular presenters while they were on vacation. She also presented the World Music Awards with Ole Tillmann and Deutschlands beste Doppelgänger, a look-alike-show on Saturday nights with Mike Krüger. Eckes was briefly part of the presenting team for RTL's coverage of Formula One, presenting pieces on the city and/or country hosting the event. This was spun off into a separate programme entitled Formel Exclusiv in which she presented lifestyle and glamour themes nominally related to Formula One.

From June 2004 on, she hosted Life! - Die Lust zu leben and also assumed presentation of Bosporus Trend and RTL II Jahresrückblick, an end-of-year review of 2004 and 2005.

In 2006, she hosted "Let's Dance" with Hape Kerkeling, the German version of television series Dancing with the Stars. In October 2006, she presented Das große TV-Quiz, a quiz program. She also played a journalist in the German television comedy Crazy Race 3 – Sie knacken jedes Schloss.

In 2007, Eckes hosted the second season of Let's Dance Again with Hape Kerkeling and also the episode Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix - The great RTL-Special.

In 2009 and 2010, Eckes is Pantene Pro V's testimonial in Germany.

In 2016, Eckes partnered with Clinique, joining the Clinique Difference Initiative alongside six other inspiring women as Difference Makers with an aim to empower and encourage education amongst women.

In 2019, Eckes took part as a candidate in Let's Dance, the RTL show she once hosted.

Personal life
She was married to Claus Eckes from February 2000 until their divorce in 2007. In June 2012, she married painter and former model Julian Khol, the youngest son of Austrian People's Party politician Andreas Khol. They have two children, both boys.

References

External links

Official website
Biography (archived)

1976 births
Living people
Television people from Cologne
German people of Turkish descent
German television personalities
German film actresses
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
RTL Group people

Nazan Eckes


Cheyenne McCray (born 1965 in Miami, Arizona, US) is an American author of romance novels, including paranormal romance, erotic romantic, romantic suspense, and urban fantasy. She has written multiple novels published by St. Martin's Press and self-published e-books and paperbacks. Her work has also been featured in "USA Today" for her novels and in The New York Times bestselling anthologies.

Bibliography

Published by St. Martin's Press

Night Tracker novels
 Demons Not Included, 2009
 No Werewolves Allowed, 2010
 Vampires Not Invited, 2010
 Zombies Sold Separately, 2011
 Vampires Dead Ahead, 2011

Lexi Steele novels
 The First Sin, 2009
 The Second Betrayal, 2009
 The Temptation, 2012

Magic series
 Forbidden Magic, 2005
 Seduced by Magic, 2006
 Wicked Magic, 2007
 "Breath of Magic", 2007
 Shadow Magic, 2008
 Dark Magic, 2008

Romantic suspense
 Chosen Prey, 2007
 Moving Target, 2008

Armed & Dangerous
 Zack, 2008
 Luke, 2009
 Kade, 2010
 Clay, 2011

Self-published work

Lawmen series
 Hidden Prey, 2014
 No Mercy, 2015
 Slow Burn, 2015
 Point Blank, 2015

Riding Tall series
 Branded For You, 2012
 Roping Your Heart, 2012
 Fencing You In, 2012
 Tying You Down, 2013
 Playing With You, 2013
 Hot For You, 2013
 Crazy For You, 2013
 Made For You, 2013
 Held By You, 2014
 Belong To You, 2014

Rough & Ready series
 Lipstick & Leather, 2011
 Silk & Spurs, 2011
 Lace & Lassos, 2012
 Champagne & Chaps, 2012
 Satin & Saddles, 2012
 "Roses & Rodeo", 2012
 "Lingerie & Lariats", 2012
 "Country Thunder", 2020

Altered States
 Dark Seduction, 2012

Work in anthologies
 "Breath of Magic," No Rest for the Witches, St. Martin's Press, 2007
 "Demon Lover," Hotter Than Hell, edited by Kim Harrison, Harper, 2008
 "The Edge of Sin," Real Men Last All Night, St. Martin's Press, 2009
 "Succubus Seduction," Mammoth Book of Paranormal Romance, edited by Trisha Telep, Running Press, 2009
 "Dark Force," Mammoth Book of Special Ops Romance, edited by Trisha Telep, Running Press, 2010
 "Double Dead," Chicks Kick Butt, Tom Doherty Associates, 2011
 "Deadly Dance," Legally Hot, St. Martin's Press, 2012

References

External links

Living people
21st-century American novelists
American romantic fiction writers
American women novelists
Novelists from Arizona
1965 births
Women romantic fiction writers
21st-century American women writers

Cheyenne McCray


Mary Wright Plummer (March 8, 1856 in Richmond, Indiana – September 21, 1916 in Dixon, Illinois) was an American librarian who became the second female president of the American Library Association (1915–1916).

Biography
Mary Wright Plummer was born in Richmond, Indiana to Quaker parents and attended the Friends Academy. When 17, she moved with her family to Chicago.
From 1881 to 1882 she studied at Wellesley College.  At Columbia University she entered the first class taught by Melvil Dewey at the School of Library Economy in January 1887. She completed the program in 1888 and served as a cataloger for two years at the Saint Louis Public Library.
In 1890, she came to the Pratt Institute Free Library to help administer the library and begin a course for training new librarians. The course led to the creation of a library school which Plummer headed beginning in 1895—the same year she became head of the library.
Her publications include a collection of poetry (e.g., Verses), several children's books (e.g., Stories from the Chronicle of the Cid), and books on the profession of librarianship (e.g., Hints to Small Libraries and Training for Librarianship).

Plummer held leadership roles in the library profession at a time when it was unusual for women to lead. She was the second female president of the American Library Association during 1915–1916. She served as vice president from 1900 to 1911. She also served as the president of the New York State Library Association, the New York Library Club, and the Long Island Library Club.
Plummer is credited with originating the idea of ethics for the library profession, which she spoke about in an address for the Illinois Library Association titled "The Pros and Cons of Librarianship".

Works
 Hints to Small Libraries, Brooklyn, NY: Pratt Institute Free Library, 1894.
 Roy and Ray in Mexico, New York, NY: H.Holt, 1907.
 The Seven Joys of Reading, White Plains, N.Y.: H.W. Wilson, 1916.
 Training for Librarianship, with Frank Keller Walter, Chicago, IL: American Library Association, 1923.

References

External links

1856 births
1916 deaths
Presidents of the American Library Association
People from Richmond, Indiana
Wellesley College alumni
Columbia University School of Library Service alumni
American librarians
American women librarians
American women writers

Mary Wright Plummer