The Auld Testament is the name gien tae the ingaitherin o beuks that maks up the first pairt o the Christian Bible. Forby Christians, Jews haud the beuks tae be haly an aw; thay cry thaim the Tanakh. Scholars for ordinar uise the term The Ebrue Bible.

Beuks
The Protestant Auld Testament an The Ebrue Bible o the Jews is gey seemilar. The differs atween the twa is smaw, tae the maist pairt adae wi the sortin an nummer o the beuks; for exemplar, The Ebrue Bible haes Kings as ae quair, but the Protestant Auld Testament spleets it in twa. In the same gate, The Ebrue Bible gies Ezra an Nehemiah as ae beuk, while the Protestant Auld Testament spleets thaim in twa an aw.

The Roman Catholic kirk an the Eastren Orthodox an Oriental Orthodox kirks haes beuks an pairts o beuks that's in the early Greek translate cried The Septuagint but arna in The Ebrue Bible. Thir kirks cries thaim Deutrocanonical Beuks, while Protestants haud thaim as apocryphal.

A wabsteid wi a guid page compearin the canons can be fund here .

Pairts
Bi tradeetion, The Ebrue Bible is spleet intil three pairts viz. The Law (תורה -
'Torah in Ebrue), The Prophets (נביאים -Nevi'im in Ebrue) an The Scrievins (כתובים - Ketuvim in Ebrue). Gin ye tak the three first letters o thir wirds in Ebrue an jyne thaim thegither, ye get TNK - that's whaur Tenakh comes frae.

Please merk that the sortin o the beuks as gien ablo is the sortin tae be fund in The Ebrue Bible, syne that is the oreeginal order. For tae see the Protestant, Cathloic, Eastren Orthodox or Oriental Orthodox sortin, uise the link gien in the section anent "Beuks" abuin. Syne the Deutrocanonical Beuks/ Apocrypha kythna in The Ebrue Bible, this princeeple appleesna tae thaim.

 Torah The Torah is cried The Pentateuch forby, that's frae the Greek Πεντετεύχως meanin Five Quairs. Thir beuks are the first five beuks o the Christian an Jewish Screepturs, an is the maist important beuks o the hail Jewish faith. They tell the unco early lair o the Jewish fowk, as weel as giein the Jewish releegious laws. The beuks o the Torah is:
 Genesis Exodus Leviticus Nummers Duetoronomy

Tho tradeetion threaps that thir beuks wis written maistly bi Moses (an sae thay are whiles cried The Bueks o Moses) maist modren scholars hauds that thay are the affcome o the jynin thegither o fower deeferent documents written at deeferent times. The names gien tae thir hypothetical documents is The Yahwistic Tradeetion, The Elohistic Tradeetion, The Deuteronmistic Tradeetion an The Priestly Tradeetion.

 The Yahwistic Tradeetion (cutty form - J).
This is sae cried acause it aye cries God Yahweh, uisin the Saicret Name. It maun come frae the time o King Solomon c. 950 BC. Explainin why the cutty form is J an no Y is a bit o a fankle, but it basicaly comes frae a auld-farrant (an wrangous) wey o transliteratin the Ebrue Y as J.

 The Elohistic Tradeetion (cutty form - E)
Sae cried syne it uised the wird אלהים - Elohim for God. This wis aiblins written aboot 750 BC in the Norran Kinrick efter the skailin o the Kinrick o Dauvit an Solomon. At some pynt boot 700 BC, the J an E tradeetions micht hae been jyned thegither in Jerusalem tae mak a document whiles cryed JE.

 The Deuteronmistic Tradeetion (cutty form - D)
Abuin aw this beuk is conteened in Deuteronomy but pairts o it micht kythe in ither pairts o the Torah forby. It is jaloused tae hae been stairtit in the Norran Kinrick an feenished in Jerusalem.

 The Priestly Tradeetion (cutty form - P)
This wis maist likely written durin the Jewish thirldom in Babylon (587 - 538 BC). Efter bein exiled tae a fremmit kintra (i.e. Babylon), the priests o the Jews did whit thay coud tae uphaud the faith o the fowk, an this document wis the affcome.

Thir fower tradeetions wis brocht thegither aboot 400 BC, efter the retour frae Babylon, an haes aften been attributit tae Ezra the scribe, tho hou muckle wark he did (gin, atweel, he did onything) isna possible tae tell the nou.

Nevi'im

Five Prophets
 Joshua
 Judges
 Samuel
 Kings

Thir beuks win on wi the history (specially the releegious history) o the Jewish fowk durin an efter the reddin in the "Hechtit Land" o Canaan that follaed on frae the flicht frae Egyp telt o in the Torah (specially Exodus). Thir wis unco teuch times for the Jews, an mony time thay haed tae fecht for tae haud thair ain in thair new hameland. At first the kintra wis a republic, but efter some time the fowk saucht tae hae a king ower thaim. The beuk o Samuel (spleet in twa in Christian Bibles) tells o hou the Laird waled Saul tae be the first king o Israel, an o Dauvit efter him, while tellin o the role o the prophet Samuel himsel. Kings that is spleet in twa bi Christians, is an upcast o the Kings o Israel an Judah (the kinrick spleet in twa efter the daith o King Solomon).

Later Prophets
 Isaiah
 Jeremiah
 Ezekiel

Prophesies o howp an juidgment as weel as weirdins anent the futur is tae be fund in aw the prophetic beuks, an thir anes isna an exception. Isaiah specially wairns the fowk o Israel tae tak tent o whit he says anent repentance for sins. It is important tae see that the fowk o the time saw the poleetical heal o thair naition as bein sib tae thair moral heal. The Prophets saw that the sinnin an want o regaird for the Laird an His laws wis leadin tae a an unco muckle mishanter in the form o the kinricks bein owerin bi fremmit pouers an thair fowk cairied aff intil exile. Some beukmen & weemin jalouse that pairt o Issaih wis written afore the exile, pairt durin an pairt efter - syne it seems that thare are three authors at wirk in that beuk. The prophet Jeremiah telt o the comin faw o Jerusalem, an leeved tae see it at the end o his days. Ezekiel wis a prophet o the sae cried "exilic stent".

Twal Minor Prophets
 Hosea
 Joel
 Amos
 Obadiah
 Jonah
 Micah
 Nahum
 Habakkuk
 Zephaniah
 Haggai
 Zechariah
 Malachi

The minor prophets isna cried sic acuase thay haed anerly smaw importance, but acause the beuks that beirs thair names is cutty whan evened aside the langer warks sic as Isaiah or Ezekiel. Thir quairs is anent a muckle reenge o subjects - Amos haes a hantle anent social juistice, Jonah tells o the need for aw fowk (no juist the Jews) tae repent an tak tent o the Laird's wairnishments. Haggai an Zechariah wis written efter the retour frae the exile an deal wi the re-biggin o the Temple. The muckle reenge o subjects kivvered maks for teuch readin at pynts, as daes the aften heichly allegorical leid uised - an the same gaes for the mony poetical pairts that aften lose mair nor a tait o thair oreeginal "flowe" whan pitten ower intil anither leid. As for authorskip an ither provenance, the quairs thaimsels aften gies us anerly a tait information anent the scrievers an the steid an time o thair componin, tho it's jaloused bi maist beukmen & weemin that maist o the prophets wis based in Jerusalem.

Ketuvim

Thrie Beuks o Musardie
 Psaums
 Proverbs
 Job

Thir beuks is beuks o sangs an musardie (Psaums), wyce sayins (Proverbs) siclike. Bi tradeetion, King Dauvit wis the scriever o mony o the Psaums, but no aw o thaim an his son King Solomon scrieved maist o the Provribs.

Psaums is a gaitherin o mony releegious sangs. Thay are anent the hail reenge o human experience in relation tae God, the guid an the bad stents o life as weel as liturgical pairts forby. Sangs o praise as weel as some dealin wi the mair fashfu times are tae be fund in this beuk. The musardrie is unco deeferent frae wir modren poetic tradeetions, wi parallelism an acrostic structurs that wis raither common in Ebrue musardie o the time. The Psaums hae for mony year been central tae wirship for baith Jews an Christians. The Kirk o Scotland haes bi tradeetion uised the Psaums syne the Reformation.

Provribs is a gaitherin o mony wyce sayins, the feck o whit is attribute tae Dauvit's son, King Solomon. Tho his name is mentiont at the stairt o the beuk, it is naewhaur threapit direct in the beuk that Solomon wis the scriever. That said, he is said tae hae been unco wyce, an in 1 Kings 4:29-34 he is said tae hae scrieved mony sangs an provribs. Whither he scrieved the provribs or gaithered thaim (or baith, an tae whit gree) is still debatit. At least twa ither fowk is said tae hae scrieved provribs in the beuk -Agur son o Jakeh an a chiel cried Lemuel (or aiblins his mither). The last twa-three is bi an unkent scriever. It shaws, in some respects, the influence o an Egyptian beuk cried The Instructions of Amenemopet

Job is thocht bi some tae be the auldest beuk o the hail Bible. It is a lang treatise anent sufferin an whit man maun dree an thole on the yird. Forby, it haes some lang pairts in it anent the pouer o God.

Five Megillot
 Sang o Sangs
 Ruth
 Lamentations
 Ecclesiastes
 Esther

Sang o Sangs is attributit tae King Solomon, an sae it is kent forby as The Sang o Solomon. It is anent luve atween a man an a wumman, tho some fowk sees it as an allegory anent the relationship atween God an his fowk, at least in pairt.

Ruth is a cutty beuk that some threaps tae be the ae beuk in the Bible scrieven bi a wumman, tho this is juist conjectur. A muckle theme in the beuk is the duty tae bield the waik an brashy.

The doulsome beuk o Lamentations is attribute tae the prophet Jeremiah, an is anent the murnin follaein the faw o Jerusalem in 586 BC. It is read liturgically bi Jews whan thay mind the faw o Jerusalem at the fastin day o Tish B'Av.

Ecclesiastes is in some respects mair pheelosophical nor some beuks o the Bible, an a tait mair doulsome nor maist. It taks a guid leuk at hou rhymless an knotless mony o man's warks an daeins is. The kenspeckle passage anent "a time fer ilka thing" is taen frae Ecclesiastes. This beuk soudna be taen as the same as Ecclesiasticus that's a deeferent beuk awthegither an is o the Deutrocanonical/ Apocryphal curn.

The beuk o Esther is setten in the time o exile durin the waldin o King Xerxes. This is the ae beuk o the Bible that the name o God disna kythe in ava. It tells o hou Esther, a bonny young Jewish quean that wis mairiet on the King wis able tae pit a stap tae a planned killin o her fowk, an sicweys the oreegins o the Jewish festival o Purim.

 Ither Beuks
 Daniel Ezra-Nehemiah ChroniclesLik Esther, the beuk o Daniel comes frae the exilic stent. It is unco teuch tae unnerstaund, specially modren readers that's no acquent wi the metaphorical eemagery an the apocalyptic genre as a hail. It is in pairt an accoont o some o the Godly Jewish chiels an whit thay haed tae thole in Babylon for the sake o thair faith. It haes weirdins anent the end o the yird an veesions that the scriever threapit tae hae haed an aw.Ezra-Nehemiah is taen tae be the ae beuk bi the Jews, but Christian Bibles spleets it in twa (i.e. intil the beuks o Ezra an Nehemiah). Ezra tells o the endin the Babylonian exile an o the stairtin o the retour tae Jerusalem an Judah, an Nehemiah cairies on efter this gate an tells o the re-biggin o the waw o Jerusalem an its dedication as weel as haen some data anent the state o the Jewish fowk an thair releegion at the time. This beuk (or "thir beuks") micht hae been screiven at aboot the same time as that o the prophet Malachi.Chronicles (ance mair, this ane is spleet in twa bi Christians) is anent Jewish history an kivers muckle o the same time kivered bi the ither historical warks sic as Kings.

 Deutrocanonical Beuks/ Apocrypha
 Catholic

The Roman Catholic Kirk hauds the follaein beuks as "Deutrocanonical", but Protestants dinna haud thaim as canonical ava. Thay are anent a reenge o things - frae mair wyce sayins efter the gate o Provribs (Wisdom Ben Sira) tae history (the beuks o the Maccabees that tells o the war the Jews haed tae fecht for unthrildom agin the Greek Seleucid Empire, aboot a entury afore the kythin o Jesus) an a tait ither subjects forby thon. Thay war taen intil the Catholic canon o Screeptur efter some dackle, thair staundin chyngin frae "nane-canoncical" tae "deutrocanonical" efter twa-three cooncils anent the maiter, sic as the Cooncil o Trent.

 Tobit Judith Eikins tae Esther (Vulgate Esther 10:4-16:24, but see foby Esther in the NAB) *Wisdom Ben Sira, cried forby Sirach or Ecclesiasticus (no tae be confuised wi the beuk o Ecclesiastes, see abuin)
 Baruch, includin the Letter o Jeremiah (Eikins tae Jeremiah in The Septuagint)
 Eikins tae Daniel:
 Sang o the Three Bairns (Vulgate Daniel 3:24-90)
 Story o Susanna (Vulgate Daniel 13, Septuagint prologue)
 The Idol Bel an the Draigon (Vulgate Daniel 14, Septuagint epilogue)
 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Eastren Orthodox

The follaein beuks is rejectit bi Jews, Protestants an Catholics, but acceptit bi the Eastren Orthodox Kirk efter the Senyie o Jerusalem.

 1 Esdras 3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees (in appendix bot no canonical)
 Prayer o Manasseh Psaum 151 (The beuk o Psaums in The Ebreu Bible haes anerly 150 psaums)

 Roushian an Ethiopian Orthodox Kirks
Thir kirks hauds the follaein beuk as pairt o thair canon.

 2 Esdras Ethiopian Orthodox Kirk
The Ethiopian Orthodox Kirk taks thir beuks intil thair canon forby. The beuk o Enoch is quotit frae in the New Testament letter o Jude, an syne c. AD 90 the Jews haes rejectit it (accordin tae the seicont century theologian Tertullain this wis acause it haed weirdins anent the Christ). This quotation awmaist led tae Jude bein rejectit bi the Christian Kirks.
 Jubilees  Enoch 1–3 Meqabyan 4 Baruch Syriac Peshitta Bible
An lastly the Syriac Peshitta Bible haes the follaein that the ither kirks an canons disna.

 Psaums 152–155 (The beuk o Psaums in The Ebreu Bible haes anerly 150 psaums)
  2 Baruch Dates
The muckle feck o Biblical scholars grees that aw the quairs o The Auld Testament wis aw scrieved an componed atween the Twalt Century BC an the Seicont Century BC. Sae the beuks o The Auld Testament wis aw completit afore the birth o Jesus an the scrievin o The New Testament. As sic, the Screepturs uised bi Jesus includes aw o whit we nou cry The Ebrue Bible as weel as aiblins some ither Jewish warks o the time.

 Leids
Awmaist the hail o The Ebrue Bible wis scrieved in Ebrue, tho some cutty pairts o Daniel wis scrieved in Aramaic. Atween the third an first centuries BC, Jewish scholars in Alexandria pit it ower intil Greek, eikin some beuks an pairts o beuks as thay did sae. Thir eikins cam tae be kent as deutrocanonical bi Catholics an Orthodoc Christians, an as apocryphal bi Prostestants. The translate cam tae be kent as The Septuagint.

 Translates intil Scots
Tho thare is yet tae be a translate o the hail Bible intil Scots, mair nor twa-three translates o Auld Testament beuks hae been made. Maist o thaim hae been pitten ower frae Inglis raither nor the oreeginal Ebrue, but this isna the case for thaim aw.

 Murdoch Nisbet (c. 1520) pit The New Testament ower intil Scots, but he pit ower some pairts o The Auld Testament forby. His wark wis pitten ower frae an earlier Inglis translate bi Purvey.
 Henry Scott Riddell (1857) pit oot a translate o the beuk o Psaums that wis taen frae the Inglish Authorised Version (kent as the King James Version an aw).†
 In 1858, Riddell set furth his translate o the Sang o Solomon.†
 The Inglisman Joseph Phillip Robson set furth his translate o the Sang o Solomon in 1860.†
 In the same year, a third translate o the Sang o Solomon wis set furth, tho the name o the translator isna kent. It is seemilar in mony weys tae Riddell's wark.†
 The Sang o Solomon wis set furth for a fowert time in 1862, bi George Henderson.†
 Anither unkent translate o the Sang o Solomon kythed at this time foryb the anes telt o abuin, but the year isna kent.†
 P Hately Waddell gied us his Psalms frae Hebrew intil Scottis in 1871 an sae becam the first Scots translator o ony Biblical beuk tae wirk frae the oreeginal leid text.
 In 1879, Waddell set furth his Isaiah frae Hebrew intil Scottis. As wi his wark on the Psaums he teuk tent o ither translates in ither leids forby, the Laitin, Greek, Italian, German an Inglis.
 At the end o his wark The Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland (1873), James AH Murray includit a translate frae the Inglis o the cutty beuk o Ruth.
 The Unitit Free Kirk meenister Rev. Thomas Whyte Paterson set furth his translate o Provribs frae the Inglis that he cried Wyse Sayin's o' Solomon in 1917.
 Henry Paterson Cameron, a Scots chiel that haed flittit tae Australie uised the Inglis Revised Version as the foond o his wark on Genesis in 1921. His translate haed jottins in Scots includit.
 In 1971, Alex Borrowman's tranlate o Ruth cam oot; tho he himsel haed dee'd the year afore. He uised the modren Inglis New English Bible as the foond o his wark that cam wi jottins, a commentar anent Ruth as weel as ither wark sic as sermons, reddins o services an twa-three Psaums - aw duin in guid modren Scots.

Translates merkit wi † wis commeesiont bi a French chiel cried Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte (1813-1891), nevoy tae Napoleon Bonaparte. He wis born in Ingland an bid for maist o his life thare, an in his studies intil the Inglis leid teuk on an unco interest in byleids an sae on. Ettlin for tae document whit he saw as the diverse byleids o Inglis tae be fund in Breetain (jalousin that thay war deein an wantit documentin afore this wis duin wi), he haed a nummer o scrievers wark on pittin pairts o the Bible ower intae thair ain byleids. The warks that he commeesiont an gaithered wisna set furth, but hauden in gey few nummers as academic texts that no mony fowk kent o. The Scots translates is o varyin quality, maist o thaim is tae some gree based on the "leeterar Scots" o Burns, Scott, Ramsay an ithers raither nor bein based on the leevin speak o the fowk that uised the leid ilka day; this wis tae the maist pairt the affcome o whit we maun nou see as early ettles tae mak a formal register o Scots (beirin in mynd that nae colloquial Inglis translate o the Bible existit at this time, aither). As sic, thay are mair o a cuiriosity an a document o the ettles tae mak a formal strynd o Scots raither nor real representations o 19t Century spoken Scots, ettles tae hain the leid - or muckle less ettles tae gie the fowk a Bible in thair ain vernacular leid.

Forby, see the fremmit airtins ablo that haes links tae some o thir translates online.

 See Forby
 The Bible
 The New Testament
 Christianity
 Judaism
 Shema

 Soorces
 The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church - ed. FL Cross (1958)
 How to Read the Old Testament - Etienne Charpentier (1981)
 Meet the Prophets - A Beginner's Guide to the Books of the Biblical Prophets - John W. Miller (1985 edeetion uised)
 A History of the Scots Bible: With Selected Texts'' - Graham Tulloch (1989)

Fremmit Airtins
 Encyclopaedia Britannica page anent The Auld Testament
 The Wice Sayins o Solomon - Scots translate o the hail beuk bi T Whyte Paterson
 The Beuk o Psalms - Scots translate o the hail beuk bi P Hately Waddell
 The Beuk o Ruth - Scots translate o the hail beuk bi AS Borrowman

Christianity
Releegion

Auld Testament


Luna 19 (a.k.a. Lunik 19) (E-8-LS series), was an uncrewed space mission of the Luna program. Luna 19 extended the systematic study of lunar gravitational fields and location of mascons (mass concentrations). It also studied the lunar radiation environment, the gamma-active lunar surface, and the solar wind. Photographic coverage via a television system was also obtained.

Overview
Luna 19 was the first of the "advanced" lunar orbiters whose design was based upon
the same Ye-8-class bus used for the lunar rovers and the sample collectors. For these orbiters, designated Ye-8LS, the basic "lander stage" was topped off by a wheelless Lunokhod-like frame that housed all scientific instrumentation in a pressurized container.

Luna 19 was launched into an Earth parking orbit on 28 September, of the year 1971 and, from this orbit, was sent toward the Moon. Luna 19 entered an orbit around the Moon on 2 October 1971 after two midcourse corrections on 29 September and 1 October. Initial orbital parameters were 140 x 140 kilometers at 40.58° inclination.

Soon afterward, the spacecraft began its main imaging mission — providing panoramic images of the mountainous region of the Moon between 30° and 60° south latitude and between 20° and 80° east longitude. Other scientific experiments included extensive studies on the shape and strength of the lunar gravitational field and the locations of the mascons. Occultation experiments in May and June 1972 allowed scientists to determine the concentration of charged particles at an altitude of 10 kilometers. Additional studies of the solar wind were evidently coordinated with those performed by the Mars 2 and 3 orbiters and Veneras 7 and 8. Communications with Luna 19 was lost on 1 November 1972, after a year of operation and more than 4,000 orbits around the Moon.

See also

 Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes

External links
"Luna 19", Solar System Exploration, NASA.gov

References

Luna programme
1971 in spaceflight
1971 in the Soviet Union
Satellites orbiting the Moon
Spacecraft launched in 1971
Non Earth orbiting satellites of the Soviet Union

Luna 19


Bernard II (died February 844) was the count of Poitou from 840 until his death. His ancestry is uncertain. He was most likely the son of , on the basis of onomastics. He was probably a member of the Guilhemid family. His brothers were Turpio (died 863) and Emenon (died 866), counts of Angoulême and Périgord, respectively.

According to Ademar of Chabannes, writing 150 years after the events, Emenon was count of Poitou in 838, when King Pippin I of Aquitaine died. He supported the succession of Pippin's son, Pippin II, but the Emperor Louis the Pious instead bestowed the kingdom of Aquitaine on his own youngest son, Charles. Bernard was resident in Poitiers in 839, when the emperor led an army against it, forcing Emenon to flee to their brother Turpio at Angoulême and Bernard to flee to Renaud, count of Herbauges. Ademar of Chabannes refers to Bernard as a "Poitevin count", comes pictavinus, but it is not clear if he means to imply that Bernard was count of Poitou at this time or just that he held the rank of count and was from the Poitou. Louis named Ranulf I as count of Poitou in Emenon's place.

Although Bernard fled to Renaud of Herbauges, this does not indicate that Bernard was in revolt, since Renaud was a loyal supporter of Emperor Louis and King Charles. In 840, Emenon submitted to the emperor and it is possible that Bernard did the same. Louis died on 20 June 840, and during the ensuing civil war between his sons, Pippin II seized control of Aquitaine. He besieged Poitiers, which resisted under its bishop, Ebroin, until he was forced to retreat by Charles's army. It is not clear if Bernard was appointed count by Pippin II in opposition to Ranulf, or if he was appointed by Charles to oppose Pippin. In any case, there is no evidence that during this time the city of Poitiers was administered by anyone other than the bishop, who was present on the scene, unlike Bernard or Ranulf.

During the civil war, Bernard joined Renaud of Herbauges in putting down the rebellion of Lambert, son of Count Lambert I of Nantes. Renaud died in 843 and his son Hervé continued the fight against Lambert. Bernard was killed in combat in February 844.

Bernard's wife was Belihildis, known only from a bull of Pope John VIII excommunicating her son, Marquis Bernard of Gothia. The Historia inventionis et translationis reliquiarium Sancti Baudelli martyris records that her son had an uncle named Gauzlin who was an abbot before he was a bishop. This most likely refers to Gauzlin, abbot of Saint-Denis and then bishop of Paris. He was a son of Count Rorgon I of Maine and Bilichildis (a variant of Belihildis), who were thus most likely the parents of Bernard's wife as well. Besides Bernard of Gothia, Bernard and Belihildis had another son named Emenon.

Notes

Sources

844 deaths
Counts of Poitiers
Military personnel killed in action
Year of birth unknown

Bernard II, Count of Poitiers


Robert Sean Wilentz (; born February 20, 1951) is an American historian who serves as the George Henry Davis 1886 Professor of American History at Princeton University, where he has taught since 1979. His primary research interests include U.S. social and political history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He has written numerous award-winning books and articles including, most notably, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln, which was awarded the Bancroft Prize and was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize.

Early life and education
Wilentz was born on February 20, 1951, in New York City, where his father, Eli Wilentz, and uncle Theodore "Ted" Wilentz, owned a well-known Greenwich Village bookstore, the Eighth Street Bookshop. He is of Jewish and Irish ancestry.

Wilentz attended Midwood High School in Brooklyn, New York, and earned one B.A. at Columbia University in 1972, before earning another at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1974 on a Kellett Fellowship. One of his mentors at Columbia was scholar of US history James P. Shenton. In 1975 he earned an M.A. at Yale University and in 1980 received his Ph.D., also from Yale, under David Brion Davis's supervision.

Career

Scholarship
Wilentz's historical scholarship has focused on the importance of class and race in the early national period, especially in New York City. Wilentz has also co-authored books on nineteenth-century religion and working-class life. His highly detailed The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (W. W. Norton, 2005) won the Bancroft Prize. His goal was to revive the reputation of Andrew Jackson and Jacksonian democracy, which was under attack from the left because of Jackson's support for slavery and pursuit of escaped slaves, and especially his harshness toward Native Americans, including his forced removals of Indian populations from land confiscated by European-ancestry populations. Wilentz returned to the pro-Jackson themes of Arthur Schlesinger Jr., who in 1946 had hailed the pro-labor policies of Northern, urban Jacksonians. He has more recently turned his scholarship to modern U.S. history, notably in The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008, published in May 2008.

Columbia professor Eric Foner, a long-time friend, says Wilentz "has written some of the very best examples of the avant-garde of the 70s and the avant-garde more recently. Back then we were trying to recover a lost past or neglected past. More recently historians have been trying to integrate that vision into a larger vision of American history as a whole."

While a professor at Princeton, Wilentz was Elena Kagan's senior thesis advisor.

Music
As a contributing editor at The New Republic, Wilentz has published essays about music, the arts, history, and politics. He received a Grammy nomination, and a 2005 ASCAP Deems Taylor Award for the liner notes Wilentz contributed to the album The Bootleg Series Vol. 6: Bob Dylan Live 1964, Concert at Philharmonic Hall.

In 2010, Wilentz published Bob Dylan In America, which placed Dylan in the context of American 20th century history and culture. The book contained essays on Dylan's relationship to Aaron Copland, Allen Ginsberg and the Beat generation, and the recording of Blonde on Blonde.

Politics
Wilentz has prominently engaged in current political debate. He is reportedly a long-time family friend of the Clintons. He has appeared in public venues as a staunch defender of Bill Clinton and Hillary Clinton: he appeared before the House Judiciary Committee on December 8, 1998, to argue against the Clinton impeachment. He told the House members that if they voted for impeachment but were not convinced Clinton's offenses were impeachable, "...history will track you down and condemn you for your cravenness." His testimony cheered Democratic partisans but was criticized by The New York Times, which lamented his "gratuitously patronizing presentation" in an editorial.

In 2006, he wrote an article denouncing the George W. Bush presidency, titled "The Worst President in History?" which appeared in Rolling Stone magazine. The article received a response from National Review, attacking Wilentz's analysis as "blinkered" and calling  him "the modern Arthur Schlesinger Jr."

Wilentz followed up during the 2008 general election with another article in Rolling Stone describing how the failures of the Bush administration had caused a "political meltdown" of the Republican Party, with potentially enormous long-term effects. In the wake of the October, 2013 federal government shutdown, he authored another article in Rolling Stone on what he called a "crisis" within the Republican Party, claiming the party was gradually descending into extremism.

In 2008 Wilentz was an outspoken supporter of Senator Hillary Clinton as the Democratic nominee for the presidency. He wrote an essay in the New Republic analyzing Senator Barack Obama's campaign, charging Obama with creating "manipulative illusion[s]" and "distortions," and having "purposefully polluted the [primary electoral] contest" with "the most outrageous deployment of racial politics since the Willie Horton ad campaign in 1988." During the 2008 Democratic National Convention, Wilentz charged in Newsweek that "liberal intellectuals have largely abdicated their responsibility to provide unblinking and rigorous analysis" of Obama. "Hardly any prominent liberal thinkers" have questioned his "rationalizations" about his relationship to his former pastor, Rev. Jeremiah Wright Jr., or "his patently evasive accounts" of his "ties" to the "unrepentant terrorist William Ayers." For Wilentz, Obama was untested, cloudy, and problematic, with liberal intellectuals giving him a free ride. Wilentz was criticized by bloggers and others for his criticism of Obama.

In January 2014, Wilentz took issue with those involved in the 2013 NSA leaks, in particular Edward Snowden, Glenn Greenwald, and Julian Assange. In Wilentz's view, "the value of some of their revelations does not mean that they deserve the prestige and influence that has been accorded to them. The leakers and their supporters would never hand the state modern surveillance powers, even if they came wrapped in all sorts of rules and regulations that would constrain their abuse. They are right to worry, but wrong – even paranoid – to distrust democratic governments in this way. Surveillance and secrecy will never be attractive features of a democratic government, but they are not inimical to it, either. This the leakers will never understand."

In October 2020, Wilentz called U.S. President Donald Trump "the worst president in American history" for his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic and political polarization of the country. He further wrote that Trump and Attorney General William Barr had created the greatest "existential crisis for American democracy" since the American Civil War through their alleged politicization of the U.S. Department of Justice and attempted delegitimization of the 2020 presidential election, comparing Trump's ideology to the Confederacy and calling it "a bacillus of racism and authoritarianism." He also claimed Barr was advancing "an Americanized version of something more akin to Generalissimo Francisco Franco's Spain" and "a theocracy, overseen by a president who more closely resembles an elected monarch." After the 2021 United States Capitol attack Wilentz predicted that if Trump and the Republican Party returned to power in the 2022 and 2024 elections, they would legally establish "a more or less ironclad system of undemocratic minority rule" to permanently block liberal policies and end majority democracy, calling them "right-wing Bolsheviks." He compared Trump to John C. Calhoun and Richard Nixon.

Personal life
Wilentz lives in Princeton, New Jersey,  with his wife Caroline Cleaves and their children.  Wilentz is a Princeton Athletics Fellow for the Princeton varsity men's baseball team.

Awards
 1984 Beveridge Award from the American Historical Association for Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Class, 1788–1850
 2006 Bancroft Prize for The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln

Bibliography

Books

Merrill, Michael, and Sean Wilentz, eds. The Key of Liberty: The Life and Democratic Writings of William Manning, "A Laborer," 1747–1814 (1993)
Johnson, Paul E., and Sean Wilentz. The Kingdom of Matthias. (1994)
Andrew Jackson (2005)
The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (2005) excerpt and text search
 Wilentz, Sean and Greil Marcus, eds. Rose and the Briar: Death, Love and Liberty in the American Ballad (2005)
 Wilentz, Sean, and Jonathan Earle, eds. Major Problems in the Early Republic (1992; 2nd ed. 2007)
The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (2008)
 Bob Dylan in America, 1st ed., New York : Doubleday, 2010.
President Ulysses S. Grant and the Battle for Equality from Profiles in Leadership W. W. Norton & Company, 2011.
Conant, Sean, ed. Conceived in Liberty: Perspectives on Lincoln at Gettysburg Oxford University Press, 2015.
George W. Bush: The American Presidents Series: The 43rd President, 2001–2009, edited by James Mann; Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., and Sean Wilentz, General Editors (2015)
The Politicians and the Egalitarians: The Hidden History of American Politics,  W. W. Norton & Company, 2016.
No Property in Man: Slavery and Antislavery at the Nation's Founding, Harvard University Press, 2018.
Wilentz, Sean Fred W. McDarrah: New York Scenes, Abrams Books, 2018

Academic papers
On Class and Politics in Jacksonian America, Reviews in American History, Vol. 10, No. 4, The Promise of American History: Progress and Prospects (Dec., 1982), pp. 45–63
"Against Exceptionalism: Class Consciousness and the American Labor Movement, 1790–1920," International Labor and Working Class History, 26 (Fall 1984): 1–24,

Articles
"The Sedition of Donald Trump" Rolling Stone Magazine, October 11, 2020

Book reviews

Critical studies and reviews of Wilentz's work
The Age of Reagan : a history, 1974–2008
 John Ehrman, "There He Goes Again: A review of The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974-2008, Sean Wilentz" The Claremont Institute (2008), review by conservative scholar
The rise of American democracy : Jackson to Lincoln
 Altschuler, Glenn C. "Democracy as a Work in Progress," Reviews in American History, Volume 34, Number 2, June 2006, pp. 169–175 in Project Muse, review of The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln

References

External links
 Wilentz interview from 2005
 Wilentz interview NPR 2010

C-SPAN Q&A interview with Wilentz, May 7, 2006

1951 births
Living people
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
20th-century American Jews
American writers about music
Columbia College (New York) alumni
The New York Review of Books people
Princeton University faculty
Yale University alumni
Bancroft Prize winners
American male non-fiction writers
21st-century American Jews
Midwood High School alumni

Sean Wilentz


MV Cowal was a hoist-loading vehicle ferry introduced by Caledonian Steam Packet Company in 1954. She spent the whole of her 24 years with Caledonian MacBrayne on the Upper Clyde crossings.

History
MV Cowal was the second of a trio of vehicle vessels ordered in 1951 to modernise the Clyde fleet. Three "general purpose" vessels were planned for the Clyde routes of their names, ,  and MV Cowal. Built by Ailsa Shipbuilding Company, Cowal was launched at Troon on 20 January 1954.

On 1 January 1973, the Caledonian Steam Packet Company and MacBrayne fleets combined under one management. Cowal was the last vessel to receive the new Caledonian MacBrayne livery, retaining the vivid CSP yellow funnel until 1974.

After 24 years' service, she was laid up in East India Harbour, Greenock from early June 1977. Surviving a galley-fire on 9 June, she was moved to the James Watt Dock in 1978 and offered for sale. Increasingly forlorn and cannibalised for parts to keep Arran running, Cowal was finally sold to Phetouris Ferries in Greece on 5 January 1979, and left under tow for Perama on 15 May. Despite the tow parting in the Bay of Biscay, she arrived in Piraeus, and was advertised, as Med Star, to take up service across the southern Adriatic, from Otranto to Igoumenitsa. Phetouris died in 1983 and his vision for the former Cowal and  was never progressed. Med Star was sold for scrap in December 1983, and broken up the following year.

Layout
MV Cowal  was virtually identical to her older sister, . Cowal was the first Clyde vessel to enter service with radar. Passenger accommodation consisted of a large lounge and a tearoom above, and a bar below, the car deck. The bridge was above the upper deck, allowing passengers unobstructed views forward. Officer and crew accommodation was below the bridge and at the stern. She was fitted with electric hoists and side-ramps to allow the loading of vehicles from conventional piers and at any state of tide. The 14-ton cargo lift had space for five average cars, which were turned on two 14-foot turntables on the lift and a further one at the front of the "garage". An aft cargo hold had two 7-ton derricks for cargo handling. These were removed in 1958 and the hold plated over, to provide additional car deck area.

Service
MV Cowal entered service on the Gourock to Dunoon crossing in 1954.  She inaugurated the regular Wemyss Bay to Rothesay car ferry service, on 1 October 1954 and remained in the upper Clyde for her whole career. From 1957 the three sisters were working interchangeably.

In May 1970, Cowal inaugurated a short-lived seasonal Fairlie-Tarbert-Brodick service. When this ended in September 1971, Cowal operated between Largs and Millport, until displaced in March 1972 by the former Skye ferry  on the quicker Largs to Cumbrae Slip run. With linkspans at Gourock and Dunoon, the hoist-loading Bute and Cowal were restricted to the Wemyss Bay to Rothesay crossing, where Cowal spent her last five years. From 1974 to 1977, she assisted with a contract to service Sir Robert McAlpine's oil platform construction yard at Ardyne. After this ended, she retired from the Rothesay service on 20 May 1977 and was laid up at Greenock's East India Harbour from early June 1977.

References

Caledonian MacBrayne
1954 ships
Ships built in Scotland

MV Cowal


The  was a volunteer militia raised by Takasugi Shinsaku of the Chōshū domain during the Bakumatsu period of Japan.

Background
Formed in 1863 by Takasugi Shinsaku in Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi Prefecture, the Kiheitai militia consisted of 300 men, who came from all social classes, including farmers, merchants, samurai and others. Most were from Chōshū, but a few volunteers were from other domains. The Kiheitai was known for its discipline, and use of western-style weapons and military techniques. It was partly funded by the Chōshū domain, but gained the rest of its financial support through donations by wealthy merchants and farmers. Kiheitai followed a developing trend which had been spearheaded by the shogunate following the Convention of Kanagawa to form military units based on ability rather than hereditary social status. Shinsengumi, a Kyoto-based, pro-Tokugawa police force, was founded in the same year as Kiheitai, and was also composed of people from a broad variety of social classes.

Battles
The Kiheitai militia saw action in the Bombardment of Shimonoseki in June 1863, during which the fleets of Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, and the United States fired upon the Chōshū port city of Shimonoseki, and subsequently landed troops.

On 16 August 1863, the Kyohoji incident, which involved the conflict between the Kiheitai and another Chōshū unit Senkitai (撰鋒隊) forces at the Kyohoji temple, leaving two people dead. The Kiheitai's inspecting officer Hikosuke Miyagi was forced to commit seppuku at the temple while Takasugi himself was held liable and was dismissed as the leader of the Kiheitai on 27 August, only about two months after its formation. The Kiheitai was taken over by Kawakami Yaichi and Taki Yataro as its second leaders. In October the Kiheitai was taken over again by Akane Taketo as the third leader with Yamagata Aritomo as the commander.

In February 1865, a Second Kiheitai was formed in the Suō Province with Kosuke Shirai as its first leader with Shūzō Sera as the commander.

As the military arm of the pro-reform faction within the Chōshū domain, the Kiheitai helped overthrow the pro-bakufu faction in the Chōshū civil war, repulsed the Second Chōshū expedition sent by the Tokugawa bakufu on 7 June 1866.

Takasugi died of tuberculosis on 17 May 1867. The Kiheitai militia played an important role in the Boshin War, which led to the Meiji Restoration.

Disband
The Kiheitai was disbanded in 1868, with total enlistment of 622 men since 1863. The success of the socially mixed unit and its Western armaments and tactics was an important influence on the development of the Imperial Japanese Army, and on the later system of universal military conscription in Japan.

Other Usage
The forces defending Aizu-Wakamatsu during the Boshin War in 1868, and the forces of Saigō Takamori in the Satsuma rebellion in 1877 also used the term Kiheitai to describe themselves.

In popular culture
 The Kiheitai appeared in an expansion of Creative Assembly's Total War: Shogun 2, Fall of the Samurai as special units of the Choshu domain. They are featured as an elite unit, having below-par statistics with other late game elite infantry but requiring less money and time to recruit and maintain, and can be recruited on unlimited number unlike other elite units.
 In Rurouni Kenshin the Kiheitai is seen in a number of flashbacks as the title character, Kenshin, was recruited into the force by Takasugi Shinsaku himself.
 In Gintama the Kiheitai also appears as a terrorist faction led by Gintoki's old friend turned enemy, Shinsuke Takasugi, who is loosely based on Takasugi Shinsaku.

References

Huber, Thomas M.: The Revolutionary Origins of Modern Japan. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1981.
Craig, Albert M.: Chôshû in the Meiji Restoration. Lanham et al.: Lexington Books, 2000.

Meiji Restoration
Militias in Asia
Military units and formations established in 1863
Military units and formations established in 1868

Kiheitai


Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes is a 2006 documentary film written, produced, and directed by Byron Hurt. The documentary explores the issues of masculinity, violence, homophobia, and sexism in hip hop music and culture, through interviews with artists, academics, and fans. Hurt's activism in gender issues and his love of hip-hop caused him to feel what he described as a sense of hypocrisy, and began working on the film. The premiere of the film took place at the Sundance Film Festival, and was welcomed by a standing ovation. It has also won Best Documentary at the San Francisco Black Film Festival and the Audience Award at the Roxbury Film Festival. On February 20, 2007 the film aired on the PBS Emmy-winning documentary series, Independent Lens.

Interviews
The film features interviews with many hip-hop artists including Busta Rhymes, Chuck D, Clipse, Doug E. Fresh, Fat Joe, Jadakiss, M-1, Tim'm West, Mos Def, and Talib Kweli. Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes also features academics such as Dr. James Peterson of Pennsylvania State University, Professor William Jelani Cobb of Spelman College, and Michael Eric Dyson of the University of Pennsylvania. Activists, journalists and poets such as Kevin Powell, Sarah Jones, and the Hip Hop Minister Conrad Tillard  are also interviewed.

Noted moments
Of the one-hour documentary, media outlets largely focused on three specific interviews:

Interviews with students of Spelman College regarding a protest against the appearance of Rapper Nelly, who originally contacted the school to have a bone marrow drive take place on campus.  The student body asked the rapper to hold a forum to discuss his video "Tip Drill," in which he is seen sliding a credit card down the back side of a woman. In response, the rapper canceled plans to hold the bone marrow drive at the school.

An interview with Rapper Busta Rhymes in which the rapper walked out when confronted with a question about homophobia in the rap community. Rhymes is quoted as saying: "I can't partake in that conversation," followed by, "With all due respect, I ain't trying to offend nobody. . . What I represent culturally doesn't condone [homosexuality] whatsoever." When asked if the hip-hop culture would ever accept a homosexual rapper, Busta Rhymes then exited the interview.

To reveal the effect of the commodification of women in hip-hop, Hurt interviewed concertgoers at the BET Spring Fling in Daytona, FL. Hurt was appalled by the actions of black youth at the concert, who were indiscreetly touching and taking videos of women. One young man that was interviewed commented that "Look how they dress" to justify the actions of the men at the event. In this segment of the documentary, Byron claims that the objectification of women in hip-hop lyrics and music videos has taught young men to view women as sex objects for their own personal pleasure.

Many media outlets focused on the interview with activist and rapper, Chuck D of the rap group Public Enemy. The rapper was quoted as stating: "BET is the cancer of black manhood in the world, because they have one-dimensionalized us and commodified us into being a one-trick image. We're [shown] throwing money at the camera; we're flashing jewelry that could give a town in Africa water. We got $160 million contracts, 'cuz we got happy niggas." The rapper also stated a link existed between the sales of hip-hop music to young white Americans, and the amount of pressure on black artists to create more of that content: sex and violence.

References

External links
 Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes site for Independent Lens on PBS

American documentary films
American independent films
2006 films
Documentary films about hip hop music and musicians
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes


Cyber threat hunting is a proactive cyber defence activity. It is "the process of proactively and iteratively searching through networks to detect and isolate advanced threats that evade existing security solutions." This is in contrast to traditional threat management measures, such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), malware sandbox (computer security) and SIEM systems, which typically involve an investigation of evidence-based data after there has been a warning of a potential threat.

Methodologies

Overview
In recent years, the world has seen an alarming rise in the number and severity of cyber attacks, data breaches, malware infections, and online fraud incidents. According to cyber security and ai company SonicWall, the number of ransomware attacks grew by 105% globally. Major corporations around the world have fallen victim to high-profile data breaches, with the average cost of a data breach now estimated at $4.24 million, according to IBM.

Cyber threat hunting Methodologies
Threat hunting has traditionally been a manual process, in which a security analyst sifts through various data information using their own knowledge and familiarity with the network to create hypotheses about potential threats, such as, but not limited to, lateral movement by threat actors. To be even more effective and efficient, however, threat hunting can be partially automated, or machine-assisted, as well. In this case, the analyst uses software that leverages machine learning and user and entity behavior analytics (UEBA) to inform the analyst of potential risks. The analyst then investigates these potential risks, tracking suspicious behavior in the network. Thus, hunting is an iterative process, meaning that it must be continuously carried out in a loop, beginning with a hypothesis.

 Analytics-Driven: "Machine-learning and UEBA, used to develop aggregated risk scores that can also serve as hunting hypotheses"
 Situational-Awareness Driven: "Crown Jewel analysis, enterprise risk assessments, company- or employee-level trends"
 Intelligence-Driven: "Threat intelligence reports, threat intelligence feeds, malware analysis, vulnerability scans"
The analysts research their hypothesis by going through vast amounts of data about the network. The results are then stored so that they can be used to improve the automated portion of the detection system and to serve as a foundation for future hypotheses.

The Detection Maturity Level (DML) model  expresses threat indicators can be detected at different semantic levels. High semantic indicators such as goal and strategy or tactics, techniques and procedures (TTPs) are more valuable to identify than low semantic indicators such as network artifacts and atomic indicators such as IP addresses. SIEM tools typically only provide indicators at relatively low semantic levels. There is therefore a need to develop SIEM tools that can provide threat indicators at higher semantic levels.

Indicators
There are two types of indicators:

 Indicator of compromise - An indicator of compromise (IOC)  tells you that an action has happened and you are in a reactive mode. This type of IOC is done by looking inward at your own data from transaction logs and or SIEM data. Examples of IOC include unusual network traffic, unusual privileged user account activity, login anomalies, increases in database read volumes, suspicious registry or system file changes, unusual DNS requests and Web traffic showing non-human behavior. These types of unusual activities allow security administration teams to spot malicious actors earlier in the cyberattack process.
 Indicator of Concern - Using Open-source intelligence (OSINT), data can be collected from publicly available sources to be used for cyberattack detection and threat hunting.

Tactics, Techniques and Procedures (TTPs)

The SANS Institute identifies a threat hunting maturity model as follows:

 Initial - At Level 0 maturity, an organization relies primarily on automated reporting and does little or no routine data collection.
 Minimal - At Level 1 maturity, an organization incorporates threat intelligence indicator searches. It has a moderate or high level of routine data collection.
 Procedural - At Level 2 maturity, an organization follows analysis procedures created by others. It has a high or very high level of routine data collection.
 Innovative - At Level 3 maturity, an organization creates new data analysis procedures. It has a high or very high level of routine data collection.
 Leading - At Level 4 maturity, automates the majority of successful data analysis procedures. It has a high or very high level of routine data collection.

Dwell Time

The dwell time either indicates the entire span of a security incident (initial compromise until detection and full cleanup) or the 'mean time to detect' (from initial compromise until detection). According to the 2022 Mandiant M-Trends Report, cyberattackers operate undetected for an average of 21 days (a 79% reduction, compared to 2016), but this varies greatly by region. Per Mandiant, the dwell time can be as low as 17 days (in the Americas) or as high as 48 days (in EMEA). The study also showed that 47% of attacks are discovered only after notification from an external party.

Example Reports
 Seedworm: Group Compromises Government Agencies, Oil & Gas, NGOs, Telecoms, and IT Firms

Example Threat Hunting
 Threat hunting using DNS firewalls and data enrichment

Threat Hunting Methodologies

Inside the Network Perimeter
 Reactive Threat Hunting - This method is triggered by a malicious event, typically after a data breach or theft is discovered. Efforts are typically focused on forensics and remediation.
 Proactive Threat Hunting - This method actively seeks out ongoing malicious events and activities inside the network, the goal is to detect an in progress cyber attack.  Efforts are typically focused on detection and remediation.

Outside the Network Perimeter
 External Threat Hunting - This method proactively seeks out malicious threat actor infrastructure to map and predict where cyber attacks are likely to emerge to prepare defensive strategies.  Efforts are typically focused on Cyber Threat Reconnaissance, Threat Surface Mapping and monitoring of third-party risks.

See also
 Bug bounty program
 Cyber campaign
 Proactive cyber defense

References

Computer security procedures

Cyber threat hunting


Shneur Hasofer () (born July 1, 1982) better known by his stage name DeScribe (Hasofer is Hebrew for "the scribe"), is a Hasidic Jewish musician. His music Mixing elements of dancehall, reggae, hip hop and R&B.

Biography

Personal life
DeScribe was born in Sydney, Australia, to a Hasidic Jewish family. His mother, Devorah Hasofer, is a known singer/songwriter who has released four albums and mostly performs in the Hasidic communities in Australia and Israel. He is a drummer from the age of five and in his preteen years he participated in the recordings of his mother's albums and performed with her as a special guest.

At the age of 14, Hasofer's parents sent him to Jerusalem to study in a yeshiva. He spent a year in the yeshiva. After that he stayed in Israel, "left the Jewish way of life and did a lot of stupid things." Many of the things he did were illegal. His family's move to Beitar Illit in 1998 did not help stop his wildness.

In 2000, at age 17, DeScribe joined the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) as a combat sharpshooter (a kind of semi professional sniper). He served for three years at the height of the Second Intifada. He saw intense action on almost a daily basis. After being discharged, he stayed in Israel. He organized a concert tour featuring affiliates of the Wu-Tang Clan Remedy and Killah Priest, gaining an inside view of the hip hop scene.

Around 2004, he began to feel a strong desire to leave his bad lifestyle and return to a religious one. "I started to change the way I thought and behaved and in Judaism I found something that was real that brought happiness to a dark place in my life," he has said. In 2006, he moved to Brooklyn to attend Tifferet Menachem. There he was given permission to set up a music studio inside the yeshiva.

Career
In 2008, after an early music video was picked up by the Israeli media, he was invited to play the Highline Ballroom in New York with Perry Farrell. Shortly after that, he had met Rohan Marley (Bob Marley's son) by chance on the streets of New York City. Marley later asked DeScribe to create the theme song for his company, Marley Coffee. Marley Coffee supports environmental and social justice causes in Jamaica and around the world. DeScribe came up with "Livin' for the Grind," inspired by Bob Marley's 1962 single "One Cup of Coffee."

DeScribe's 2010 single "Harmony" was celebrated as a great message for unity and racial harmony by Brooklyn borough president Marty Markowitz, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Crown Heights riot.

In early 2011, DeScribe worked with Matisyahu on the dancehall track "Pure Soul". The proceeds from the song benefit The Friendship Circle, a nonprofit organization that helps children with disabilities.

Artistic style
"My music is about unity," DeScribe has said, "and we all have one God whether we are Jewish, Christian or Muslim. We are brothers and we share this world together."

Discography

Extended Plays

Singles/Appearances
 "Harmony" - DeScribe, on Harmony, Modular Moods/Shemspeed. Released March 16, 2010.
 "Change" - DeScribe & Y-Love, on The Change EP, Modular Moods. Released May 14, 2010.
 "Boom Selecta" - Shemspeed MCs vs. Electro Morocco (feat. Y-Love, DeScribe, Kosha Dillz & Eprhyme), Shemspeed. Released July 12, 2010.
 "Move On" - Y-Love feat. DeScribe, Diwon Music. Released August 10, 2010.
 "Modern Day Music" - DeScribe & Smoolik, on Sephardic Music Festival, Vol. 1, Shemspeed. Released November 30, 2010.
 "Livin for the Grind (Marley Coffee)" - DeScribe, Shemspeed. Released December 22, 2010.
 "Pure Soul" - DeScribe feat. Matisyahu, Shemspeed. Released March 22, 2011.
 "Acharon Acharon, Chaviv (Diwon Remix)" - Lipa Schmeltzer & DeScribe, Shemspeed. Released August 23, 2011.

References

Other websites
 Official website

1982 births
Living people
Australian singer-songwriters
Reggae musicians
Musicians from Sydney

DeScribe


Long March 9 (, LM-9 or Changzheng 9, CZ-9) is a Chinese super-heavy carrier rocket concept that is currently under development. It is the ninth iteration of the Long March rocket family, named for the Chinese Red Army's 1934–35 Long March campaign during the Chinese Civil War.

Current plans call for the Long March 9 to have a maximum payload capacity of 150,000 kg to low Earth orbit (LEO) and 54,000 kg to trans-lunar injection.  Its first flight is expected to occur around 2033, in advance of continuing Chinese crewed lunar missions sometime during the 2030s. (As of 2023, an initial crewed lunar landing attempt by China is expected to occur by the year 2030 using the under-development Long March 10 carrier rocket, the next-generation crewed spacecraft, and the Chinese crewed lunar lander.)

History

2016, early design
The CZ-9 was initially designed as a three-staged rocket, with a first-stage core diameter of 10 meters and using a cluster of four engines. Multiple variants of the rocket have been proposed, with CZ-9 being the largest: this 'base variant' has four additional liquid-fuel boosters strapped onto the core stage (each individual booster would be up to 5 meters in diameter) and it is this variant that has the aforementioned LEO payload capacity of 140,000 kg. In addition to the base variant, there is the CZ-9A variant, which has only two additional boosters and an LEO payload capacity of 100,000 kg. Finally, there is the CZ-9B, having only the bare 10-meter diameter core stage and an LEO payload capacity of 50,000 kg. The expected payload capacities of the Long March 9 place it in the class of the super heavy-lift launch vehicle. The rocket's development program was formally approved by the Chinese government in 2021.

2021, new design

On 24 June 2021, Long Lehao, chief designer of the Long March series, provided some updates regarding the Long March 9 at the University of Hong Kong in a presentation titled "Long March Rocket and China's Aerospace". The original design, called the 11th version (2011), had been supplanted by a new design, called the 21st version, which featured many changes, including an enlarged diameter of 10.6 meters, a length of 108 meters, and a weight of 4,122 tons. 16 YF-135 liquid oxygen kerosene engines, each with over 300 tons of thrust, will be used in the first stage; 120-ton hydrogen-oxygen engines will be used in the second and third stages, with four in the second stage, and one in the third stage. All fuel tanks were changed to a common bulkhead design, and all external boosters had been removed. The payload capacity to low Earth orbit was increased from 140 to 150 metric tons, and the payload to trans-lunar injection was increased to 53 tons. Long noted that this new version was still under review at the time of the presentation.

The new design is seen as being more suitable for first-stage reuse, and is a response to SpaceX's Starship. The 2011 design for LM9 is seen as matching the USA's Space Launch System.

2022, reusable
On 23 April 2022, Long provided some updates on yet another new design for the Long March 9. This one, referred to as Version 22, is a reusable, booster-less design very similar to Version 21. The second and third stages will be powered by 120-tonne hydrolox engines, just like Version 21. Four engines are on the second stage and one engine is in the third stage. However, the first-stage and second-stage core diameters have been increased to 11 meters, while the third-stage diameter is 7.5 meters. The total length has been increased to 111 meters, with a mass of 4122 tonnes. The first stage will be powered by twenty-six 200-tonne methane/LOX engines instead of the YF-135 engine from the previous design. Payload capacities are 150 tonnes to LEO and 50 tonnes to TLI.

On October 2022, Long Lehao once again disclosed the new design of the Long March 9. The diameter of the first and second stages of the new version changed back to 10.6 meters, the diameter of the third stage became the same as the first and second stages, the total length increased to 114 meters, and the first stage power was changed to twenty-four of 240 tons kerosene/LOX engine. The payload capacity is 100-160 tonnes to LEO, and 35-53 tonnes to TLI.

2023
During a presentation at the Nanjing University of Science and Technology in March 2023, Long Lehao presented yet other modification to the plans. The reusable first stage is now powered by 30 200-tonne-thrust rocket engines burning methane and liquid oxygen, while the expendable second stage uses 2 engines of the same type. The third stage is optional and uses a single 120-tonne-thrust liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen staged combustion engine named the YF-91. Long-term plans exist to make the 2nd stage reusable as well.

In April 2023 a new presentation by CALT showed the 3rd stage as powered by 4 YF-79 expander cycle liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen engines instead, each of 25-tonnes of thrust.  Another presentation on the same month shows a planned fully reusable, 2-stage version of the Long March 9 to be developed during the 2040s, in a configuration similar to the SpaceX Starship.

See also

 China National Space Administration
 Shenzhou spacecraft
 Space program of China
 Comparison of orbital launchers families
 Comparison of orbital launch systems

References

External links

 Astronautix.com information on the Chinese space program
 China Great Wall Industry Corporation

Long March (rocket family)
Rocket families
Space launch vehicles of China
Chinese brands

Long March 9


Nicolaus Bernoulli (also spelled Nicolas or Nikolas;  in Basel – 29 November 1759 in Basel) was a Swiss mathematician and was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family.

Biography
Nicolaus Bernoulli was born on  in Basel. He was the son of Nicolaus Bernoulli, painter and Alderman of Basel. In 1704 he graduated from the University of Basel under Jakob Bernoulli and obtained his PhD five years later (in 1709) with a work on probability theory in law. His thesis was titled Dissertatio Inauguralis Mathematico-Juridica de Usu Artis Conjectandi in Jure.

In 1716 he obtained the Galileo-chair at the University of Padua, where he worked on differential equations and geometry. In 1722 he returned to Switzerland and obtained a chair in Logics at the University of Basel.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in March, 1714.

His most important contributions can be found in his letters, in particular to Pierre Rémond de Montmort. In these letters, he introduced in particular the St. Petersburg Paradox. He also communicated with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler.

He died on 29 November 1759.

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

1687 births
1759 deaths
18th-century Swiss mathematicians
Probability theorists
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians

Fellows of the Royal Society
Nicolaus I

Nicolaus I Bernoulli


The Confederate Monument in Harrodsburg, located at the entrance to Spring Hill Cemetery in Harrodsburg, Kentucky, is a statue listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  It depicts a life-sized older Confederate cavalryman standing ready.

The monument depicts Captain Gabe S. Alexander, who served in John Hunt Morgan's 2nd Kentucky Cavalry.  The pedestal has an engraved Southern Cross of Saint Andrew, commonly called the Confederate battle flag, on its front.  Below the cross lies the dedication plaque, and below that an engraved wreath encircling a sword and scabbard.  On the rear is an engrave Third Confederate Flag in the midst of cannonballs and battle smoke.  Also on the rear is a verse from the Bivouac of the Dead, written by Kentuckian Theodore O'Hara, which six other monuments in Kentucky also have a verse from.  When dedicated in 1902 by the United Confederate Veterans, speeches were made in favor of the Confederate cause and condemning revisionist history that defamed the Southern experience in the Civil War.

The verse from The Bivouac of the Dead is:
To fight in a just cause and for our country's glory is the best office of the best men.

Harrodsburg once saw Morgan's forces enter the town during the war.  Instead of conflict, the town's ladies laid out a gigantic picnic on their lawns for the men, who had just raided through Glasgow, Lebanon, and  Springfield.  The only other action Harrodsburg saw during the War was when Braxton Bragg had his men withdraw from the Battle of Perryville through the town.

Harrodsburg was also home of the 19th Regiment Kentucky Volunteer Infantry.  An infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War.

On July 17, 1997, the Confederate Monument in Harrodsburg was one of sixty different monuments related to the Civil War in Kentucky placed on the National Register of Historic Places, as part of the Civil War Monuments of Kentucky Multiple Property Submission.  Harrodsburg's is one of 23 that were statues, of which eight were erected in cemeteries.  The Beriah Magoffin Monument, within Spring Hill Cemetery as well, is also part of the Civil War Monuments of Kentucky MPS.

References

Civil War Monuments of Kentucky MPS
National Register of Historic Places in Mercer County, Kentucky
Confederate States of America monuments and memorials in Kentucky
Outdoor sculptures in Kentucky
1902 sculptures
1902 establishments in Kentucky
United Confederate Veterans
Harrodsburg, Kentucky

Confederate Monument in Harrodsburg


Arecaceae

Lodoicea is a genus in the palm family. The only species, Lodoicea maldivica, lives in the islands of Praslin and Curieuse in the Seychelles. Coco de mer is another name for the tree. It has the biggest seed in a plant. In the past, it  was also  found on the small islets of St Pierre, Chauve-Souris, and Ile Ronde (Round Island).  These islands are all near Praslin. Lodoicea became extinct there, and was then brought back.

Coco de mer


The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) does not use some letters and numbers to identify routes on the New York City Subway.

Unused letters

 : the letter I could be confused with Line 1.
 : the letter O could be confused with the number 0, which the MTA uses to help their computers recognize the 42nd Street Shuttle.
 : the letter P could sound funny or rude, because it sounds like the word "pee".
 : the letter U could be confused with with the word "you".
 : the letter Y could be confused with with the word "why".

Internal numbers and letters

The MTA privately (or internally) uses the number 0 and the letter H, to help their computers recognize the three separate shuttles. The three shuttles use the letter S on maps and posters, and this can confuse computers.

 : The number 0 represents the 42nd Street Shuttle.
 : The letter H represents the Rockaway Park Shuttle. The last time that the MTA used the letter H on maps and posters was in 2012, because the damage from Hurricane Sandy prevented the MTA from running Line A.

Reserved letters

The MTA reserves the letters T and X to identify the services that they want to build or run in the future.

 : the letter T represents a service that the MTA plans to run, when they finish building the Second Avenue Subway.
 : the letter X represents a service that the MTA plans to run in the future, but have not decided on what number or letter to use.

Defunct letters and numbers

 : the number 8 used to represent trains that ran on the IRT Third Avenue Line. Line 8 stopped running on April 28, 1973, when the MTA closed the Third Avenue Line.
 : the number 9 used to represent trains that made fewer stops along the same route as Line 1. Line 9 stopped running on May 27, 2005, because it caused riders to wait too long for other trains on the IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line.
 : the letter K used to represent trains that ran via the IND Eighth Avenue Line, between 168th Street and World Trade Center. Line K stopped running on  December 11, 1988.
 : the letter V used to represent trains that ran via the IND Sixth Avenue Line, between Forest Hills–71st Avenue and Lower East Side–Second Avenue. Line V stopped running on June 25, 2010, because the MTA did not have enough money to operate the service.

Unused or defunct letters and numbers on trains

 : Trains of the R62 and R62A type can display the numbers 8, 10, 11, 12, and 13. When the trains first entered service, the MTA was thinking of replacing diamond-shaped symbols with separate numbers to represent fast trains.
 : Trains of the R32 and R32A type can display the letters P, T, U, X, and Y. The extra letters allow the MTA to use any of those letters for a special service, during an emergency.

Trains of the R142, R143, R160, R179 and R188 types use digital displays, meaning that they can easily display any service number or letter.

List of unused or defunct New York City Subway services


Hubba Hideout was one of the most famous skateboarding spots. It was located in San Francisco near the Justin Herman Plaza on The Embarcadero. Its central features were two oversized sets of 6 stairs with large concrete ledges on both sides. The spot is part of a pedestrian walkway but was more commonly used by the local skateboarders and vagrants. The city of San Francisco made numerous attempts over the years to ward off skateboarders from the spot, and in January 2011 city workers completely demolished its ledges and stairs.

Etymology
Hubba Hideout got its handle because of the nefarious denizens that would frequent the skate spot looking for a hidden place to engage in illicit activity. The nickname was a nod to the Bay Area slang term for crack cocaine: "hubbas." Appearing in numerous skateboard videos and attracting a wide following, the Hubba Hideout eventually gained such popularity among skaters that the term "hubba" became synonymous with any type of concrete ledge that leads down a stairway for example: Black Hubba in NYC or Clipper Hubba.

History
The first documented trick on the ledge at Hubba Hideout was Wade Speyer's crooked grind. Hubba Hideout gained fame through skateboarding magazines and videos and it became a mecca for advanced skateboarders visiting San Francisco.

The frequency of skateboarders eventually attracted the attention of the authorities and resulted in a full-scale skate-stopper implementation (in the late part of the nineties). The ledges were capped (or knobbed) with skate-stopping devices which rendered them impossible to grind.

Skateboarders eventually managed to remove the skate-stopping devices and use of the ledges resumed.

In March 2007, local authorities had the brick landing taken out and covered it in sand. However, this did not render the spot un-skateable. A rather simple impromptu set-up of wood or other material replacing the brick landing would suffice to cushion the initial impact and allow for a clean landing across the sand.

References

External links
 Hubba Hideout Videos and Photos
 SF Gate
 Fun Not Fame Productions
 San Francisco State University
 Hubba Hideout at the Subpublic Community

Skateboarding spots
Parks in San Francisco

Hubba Hideout


Jarl Werner Söderhjelm (26 July 1859 – 16 January 1931) was a Finnish-Swedish linguist, researcher of literary history and diplomat.

Söderhjelm was born in Viipuri. His parents were Procurator Woldemar Söderhjelm and Amanda Olivia Clouberg. Through his family connections, he was exposed to a variety of languages and he took an early interest in literature.

He graduated from Viipuri Classical Lyceum in 1877, graduated as a Bachelor of Philosophy, with a Master's degree in 1882, and as a Licentiate and Doctorate from the Imperial Alexander University in 1885.

Söderhjelm was a docent of the new literature at the University of Helsinki from 1886 to 1889, Romanesque Philology as a Docent from 1889 to 1894 and an Extra Professor from 1894 to 1898.

He worked as a Germanic philologist and professor of Romanesque philology from 1898 to 1908 as Professor of Romanesque Philology in 1908-1913. He applied for the professorship of aesthetics and modern literature in 1910, but was beaten to it by Yrjö Hirn.  Finally Söderhjelm became professor of Finnish and general literary history from 1913 to 1919.

Söderhjelm attended in the Diet of Finland  as a  member from  the clergy from 1904 to 1905. In the early 1900s he belonged to the Young Finnish Party's conservative wing and was a member of the Young People Party Central Committee from 1906 to 1907.

After the independence of Finland, he served as Director in the Finnish News Agency  in Copenhagen from  1918 to 1919 and  as Envoy to Stockholm from 1919 to 1928.

Werner Söderhjelm was married from 1884 to Sigrid Wilhelmina Lönnblad. They had four sons, the most famous being the writer and editor Henning Söderhjelm. His youngest son, J. O. Söderhjelm, served as a  Minister of Justice  during the Winter War. Werner Söderhjelm's sister was Finland's first female professor Alma Söderhjelm. Activist Konni Zilliacus was his cousin.

He died in Helsinki, aged 71.

References

Further reading

1859 births
1931 deaths
Writers from Vyborg
People from Viipuri Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Young Finnish Party politicians
Members of the Diet of Finland
Finnish writers in Swedish
Finnish philologists
Linguists from Finland
University of Helsinki alumni
Academic staff of the University of Helsinki
Diplomats from Vyborg
Linguists from the Russian Empire

Werner Söderhjelm


Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén (; 30 May 1908 – 2 April 1995) was a Swedish electrical engineer, plasma physicist and winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on magnetohydrodynamics (MHD).  He described the class of MHD waves now known as Alfvén waves. He was originally trained as an electrical power engineer and later moved to research and teaching in the fields of plasma physics and electrical engineering.  Alfvén made many contributions to plasma physics, including theories describing the behavior of aurorae, the Van Allen radiation belts, the effect of magnetic storms on the Earth's magnetic field, the terrestrial magnetosphere, and the dynamics of plasmas in the Milky Way galaxy.

Education

Alfvén received his PhD from the University of Uppsala in 1934. His thesis was titled "Investigations of High-frequency Electromagnetic Waves."

Early years

In 1934, Alfvén taught physics at both the University of Uppsala and the Nobel Institute for Physics (later renamed the Manne Siegbahn Institute of Physics) in Stockholm, Sweden. In 1940, he became professor of electromagnetic theory and electrical measurements at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. In 1945, he acquired the nonappointive position of Chair of Electronics. His title was changed to Chair of Plasma Physics in 1963. From 1954 to 1955, Alfvén was a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Maryland, College Park. In 1967, after leaving Sweden and spending time in the Soviet Union, he moved to the United States. Alfvén worked in the departments of electrical engineering at both the University of California, San Diego and the University of Southern California.

Later years
In 1991, Alfvén retired as professor of electrical engineering at the University of California, San Diego and professor of plasma physics at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm.

Alfvén spent his later adult life alternating between California and Sweden. He died at the age of 86.

Research
In 1937, Alfvén argued that if plasma pervaded the universe, it could then carry electric currents capable of generating a galactic magnetic field. After winning the Nobel Prize for his works in magnetohydrodynamics, he emphasized that:

In order to understand the phenomena in a certain plasma region, it is necessary to map not only the magnetic but also the electric field and the electric currents. Space is filled with a network of currents which transfer energy and momentum over large or very large distances. The currents often pinch to filamentary or surface currents. The latter are likely to give space, as also interstellar and intergalactic space, a cellular structure.

His theoretical work on field-aligned electric currents in the aurora (based on earlier work by Kristian Birkeland) was confirmed in 1967, these currents now being known as Birkeland currents.

British scientist Sydney Chapman was a strong critic of Alfvén.<ref>S. Chapman and J. Bartels, Geomagnetism," Vol. 1 and 2, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1940.</ref> Many physicists regarded Alfvén as espousing unorthodox opinions R. H. Stuewer noting that "... he remained an embittered outsider, winning little respect from other scientists even after he received the Nobel Prize..." and was often forced to publish his papers in obscure journals. Alfvén recalled:

When I describe [plasma phenomena] according to this formalism most referees do not understand what I say and turn down my papers. With the referee system which rules US science today, this means that my papers are rarely accepted by the leading US journals.

Alfvén played a central role in the development of:

 Plasma physics
 Charged particle beams
 Interplanetary medium
 Magnetospheric physics
 Magnetohydrodynamics
 Solar phenomena investigation (such as the solar wind)
 Aurorae science

In 1939, Alfvén proposed the theory of magnetic storms and auroras and the theory of plasma dynamics in the earth's magnetosphere. This was the paper rejected by the U.S. journal Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity.

Applications of Alfvén's research in space science include:

 Van Allen radiation belt theory
 Reduction of the Earth's magnetic field during magnetic storms
 Magnetosphere (protective plasma covering the Earth)
 Formation of comet tails
 Formation of the Solar System
 Dynamics of plasmas in the galaxy
 Physical cosmology

Alfvén's views followed those of the founder of magnetospheric physics, Kristian Birkeland. At the end of the nineteenth century, Birkeland proposed (backed by extensive data) that electric currents flowing down along the Earth's magnetic fields into the atmosphere caused the aurora and polar magnetic disturbances.

Areas of technology benefiting from Alfvén's contributions include:

 Particle accelerators
 Controlled thermonuclear fusion
 Hypersonic flight
 Rocket propulsion
 Reentry braking of space vehicles

Contributions to astrophysics:

 Galactic magnetic field (1937)
 Identified nonthermal synchrotron radiation from astronomical sources (1950)

Alfvén waves (low frequency hydromagnetic plasma oscillations) are named in his honor, and propagate at the Alfvén speed. Many of his theories about the solar system were verified as late as the 1980s through external measurements of cometary and planetary magnetospheres. However, Alfvén himself noted that astrophysical textbooks poorly represented known plasma phenomena:

A study of how a number of the most used textbooks in astrophysics treat important concepts such as double layers, critical velocity, pinch effects, and circuits is made. It is found that students using these textbooks remain essentially ignorant of even the existence of these concepts, despite the fact that some of them have been well known for half a century (e.g, double layers, Langmuir, 1929; pinch effect, Bennet, 1934).

Alfvén reported that of 17 of the most used textbooks on astrophysics, none mention the pinch effect, none mentioned critical ionization velocity, only two mentioned circuits, and three mentioned double layers.

Alfvén believed the problem with the Big Bang was that astrophysicists tried to extrapolate the origin of the universe from mathematical theories developed on the blackboard, rather than starting from known observable phenomena. He also considered the Big Bang to be a myth devised to explain creation. Alfvén and colleagues proposed the Alfvén–Klein model as an alternative cosmological theory to both the Big Bang and steady state theory cosmologies.

 Personal life
Alfvén was married for 67 years to his wife Kerstin (1910–1992). They raised five children, one boy and four girls. Their son became a physician, while one daughter became a writer and another a lawyer in Sweden. The writer was Inger Alfvén and is well known for her work in Sweden. The composer Hugo Alfvén was Hannes Alfvén's uncle.

Alfvén studied the history of science, oriental philosophy, and religion. On his religious views, Alfven was irreligious and critical of religion. He spoke Swedish, English, German, French, and Russian, and some Spanish and Chinese. He expressed great concern about the difficulties of permanent high-level radioactive waste management." Alfvén was also interested in problems in cosmology and all aspects of auroral physics, and used Schröder's well known book on aurora, Das Phänomen des Polarlichts. Letters of Alfvén, Treder, and Schröder were published on the occasion of Treder's 70th birthday.Schröder, Wilfried, and  Hans Jürgen Treder. 1993. The earth and the universe: A festschrift in honour of Hans-Jürgen Treder. Bremen-Rönnebeck: Science Editions. The relationships between Hans-Jürgen Treder, Hannes Alfvén and Wilfried Schröder were discussed in detail by Schröder in his publications.

Alfvén died on 2 April, 1995 at Djursholm aged 86.

 Awards and honours
The Hannes Alfvén Prize, awarded annually by the European Physical Society for outstanding contributions in plasma physics, is named after him. The asteroid 1778 Alfvén is named in his honour.

 Awards

 Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1967)
 Nobel Prize in Physics (1970) for his work on magnetohydrodynamics
 Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute (1971)
 Lomonosov Gold Medal of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1971)
 Elected a  Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1980
 William Bowie Medal of the American Geophysical Union (1988) for his work on comets and plasmas in the Solar System
 Member of Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
 Member of Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences
 Life fellows of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
 Member of European Physical Society
 Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1962)
 Member of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences
 Contributor to the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
 Member of the International Academy of Science
 Member of the Indian National Science AcademyElected member of the American Philosophical Society (1971)

Alfvén was one of the few scientists who was a foreign member of both the United States and Soviet Academies of Sciences.

 Selected bibliography
For full list of publications see.

Books

Cosmical Electrodynamics, International Series of Monographs on Physics, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950. (See also 2nd Ed. 1963, co-authored with Carl-Gunne Fälthammar.)
Worlds-Antiworlds: Antimatter in Cosmology (1966).
The Great Computer: A Vision (1968) (a political-scientific satire under the pen name Olof Johannesson; publ. Gollancz, ).
Atom, Man, and the Universe: A Long Chain of Complications, W.H. Freeman and Company, 1969.
Living on the Third Planet, authored with Kerstin Alfvén, W.H. Freeman and Company, 1972. .
Cosmic Plasma, Astrophysics and Space Science Library, Vol. 82 (1981) Springer Verlag.
Schröder, Wilfried, and  Hans Jürgen Treder. 2007. Theoretical physics and geophysics: Recollections of Hans-Jürgen Treder (1928–2006). Potsdam: Science Editions.

Articles

 On the cosmogony of the solar system I (1942) | Part II | Part III
 Interplanetary Magnetic Field (1958)
 On the Origin of Cosmic Magnetic Fields (1961)
 On the Filamentary Structure of the Solar Corona (1963)
 Currents in the Solar Atmosphere and a Theory of Solar Flares (1967)
 On the Importance of Electric Fields in the Magnetosphere and Interplanetary Space (1967)
 Jet Streams in Space  (1970)
 Evolution of the Solar System (1976) with Gustaf Arrhenius (NASA book)
 Double radio sources and the new approach to cosmical plasma physics (1978) (PDF)
 Interstellar clouds and the formation of stars with Per Carlqvist (1978) (PDF)
 Energy source of the solar wind with Per Carlqvist (1980) (PDF) A direct transfer of energy from photospheric activity to the solar wind by means of electric currents is discussed.
 Electromagnetic Effects and the Structure of the Saturnian Rings (1981) (PDF)
 A three-ring circuit model of the magnetosphere with Whipple, E. C. and Jr.; McIlwain (1981) (PDF)
 The Voyager 1/Saturn encounter and the cosmogonic shadow effect (1981) (PDF)
 Origin, evolution and present structure of the asteroid region (1983) (PDF)
 On hierarchical cosmology (1983) (PDF) Progress in lab studies of plasmas and on their methods of transferring the results to cosmic conditions.
 Solar system history as recorded in the Saturnian ring structure (1983) (PDF)
 Cosmology – Myth or science? (1984) (PDF)
 Cosmogony as an extrapolation of magnetospheric research (1984) (PDF)

See also
Alfvén resonator
Astrophysical plasma
Heliospheric current sheet
Magnetic reconnection
Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence
Magnetosonic wave
Marklund convection
Plasma parameters
Plasma stability
Solar wind
Spheromak

References

 External links

 Hannes Alfvén biography
  including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1970 Plasma Physics, Space Research and the Origin of the Solar System''
 Hannes Alfvén biography (Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden)
 Hannes Alfvén Biographical Memoirs (Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society)
 Papers of Hannes Olof Gosta Alfvén
 Hannes Alfvén Medal – awarded for outstanding scientific contributions towards the understanding of plasma processes in the solar system and other cosmical plasma environments
 Timeline of Nobel Prize Winners: Hannes Olof Gosta Alfvén
 Hannes Alfvén Papers (1945–1991) in the Mandeville Special Collections Library.

 QJRAS Obituary 37 (1996) 259
 Hannes Alfvén Birth Centennial 30 May 2008 (2008)

1908 births
1995 deaths
Critics of religions
People from Norrköping
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Nobel laureates in Physics
Religious skeptics
20th-century Swedish astronomers
Fluid dynamicists
Swedish pacifists
20th-century Swedish physicists
Swedish science fiction writers
Swedish electrical engineers
Uppsala University alumni
Academic staff of the KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Swedish Nobel laureates
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
Recipients of the Lomonosov Gold Medal
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy
University of California, San Diego faculty
University of Maryland, College Park faculty
Swedish plasma physicists
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Fulbright alumni
Recipients of Franklin Medal

Hannes Alfvén


Acupuncture is an ancient kind of medical treatment where the doctor sticks needles in certain places of a person's body. The oldest records are at least 2,500 years old. Thin metal needles are pushed into the body at certain places called "acupuncture points". It is a form of alternative medicine, and a key part of Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). It uses the Chinese philosophy of yin and yang.

Effectiveness
There is no general agreement as to whether acupuncture is effective. It is difficult to do good research on this issue.

A 2014 review article said "researchers usually find that it generally does not matter where the needles are inserted, how often (that is, no dose-response effect is observed), or even if needles are actually inserted. In other words, 'sham' or 'placebo' acupuncture generally produces the same effects as 'real' acupuncture and, in some cases, does better". A 2013 analysis found little evidence that the effectiveness of acupuncture on pain (compared to sham) was modified by the location of the needles, the number of needles used, the experience or technique of the practitioner, or by the circumstances of the sessions.

Using the principles of "evidence-based medicine" (scientific research) to research acupuncture is controversial, and has produced different results. Some research suggests acupuncture can alleviate pain but the majority of research suggests that acupuncture's effects are mainly due to placebo. Evidence suggests that any benefits of acupuncture are short-lasting. There is insufficient evidence to support use of acupuncture compared to mainstream medical treatments. Acupuncture is not better than mainstream treatment in the long term.

Operations using acupuncture
Chinese doctors have claimed to perform surgery with acupuncture as the only anaesthetic. This is a claim which is difficult to test. In some cases at least, the claim has been fraudulent, because morphine, or other sedatives were delivered through a drip. In 2006, a BBC documentary Alternative Medicine filmed a patient undergoing open heart surgery allegedly under acupuncture-induced anesthesia. It was later revealed that the patient had been given a cocktail of anesthetics.

The present
Recently, acupuncture has begun to be used more frequently in the West. In the United States acupuncture has often been used to help control pain and drug and alcohol addiction. It is also often used to treat headaches, asthma, and arthritis. It is widely agreed that acupuncture treatment is safe when done by well-trained doctors using clean needles.

Guidelines from the NICE (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) is that
"The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) only recommends considering acupuncture as a treatment option for chronic lower back pain, chronic tension-type headaches and migraine".

References

Alternative medicine
Chinese culture

Acupuncture


Henry D. Irwin (October 22, 1917 – September 3, 1988) was a Republican presidential elector (from Oklahoma) for the 1960 U.S. presidential election who became a "faithless elector" when he declined to vote as pledged.

1960 presidential election
In the 1960 presidential election, Irwin, who had been pledged to vote for then-Vice President Richard Nixon (of California) and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (of Massachusetts), instead cast his presidential electoral ballot for Harry F. Byrd who was a conservative Democratic Senator from Virginia. Unlike other electors who voted for Byrd for president, Irwin cast his vice presidential electoral vote for Arizona Republican Senator Barry Goldwater. Irwin later admitted in an interview with CBS that he "could not stomach" Nixon.

Irwin made a public effort to attempt to convince his fellow Republican presidential electors to also change their votes. After the November 1960 presidential election, Irwin sent out the following telegram addressed to the other 219 Republican electors:

I am Oklahoma Republican elector. The Republican electors cannot deny the election to Kennedy. Sufficient conservative Democratic electors available to deny labor Socialist nominee. Would you consider Byrd President, Goldwater Vice President, or wire any acceptable substitute. All replies strict confidence.

Irwin received about 40 replies from other electors but all of the other pledged electors voted as pledged. He claimed that national and state party officials knew of his plan though then-Oklahoma Republican chair Henry Bellmon stated that Irwin acted completely on his own. Irwin would be subpoenaed by a Senate committee to testify about his electoral vote after refusing an initial invitation.

Also in the 1960 presidential election, 14 unpledged electors (eight from Mississippi and six from Alabama) cast their presidential votes for Byrd. However, none of them voted for Goldwater as vice president, instead giving their second vote to Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina.

Oklahoma voters had passed an amendment to the Oklahoma Constitution in the summer of 1960 to allow the state parties to choose their own electors in presidential elections rather than allowing individuals to run in primary elections for presidential electors (Irwin was unopposed in his 1960 primary). The state later passed a law that would fine electors if they did not vote for their party's nominee in the election.

Personal life
Irwin, born on October 22, 1917, in Oklahoma, was a 1941 West Point graduate, a graduate student at the University of Tulsa, and an engineer for the Phillips Petroleum Company. While at the University of Tulsa, he advocated for the creation of a Constitution Party.

He was married to Elizabeth J. Phillips, granddaughter of Frank Phillips, the founder of the Phillips Petroleum Company. They owned houses in Bartlesville, Oklahoma, New York City, and Connecticut but also bought a run down castle in Ireland and refurbished it "Castlefergus" Ballyhannon, Quin in County Clare. Later in life, he attempted to promote his plans for nuclear-powered aircraft to the U.S. Senate. After divorcing Phillips in 1979, Irwin received alimony, the first man to be awarded it in New York State following the 1979 Orr v. Orr decision. Irwin died on September 3, 1988, in Southbury, Connecticut.

References

External links
Henry D. Irwin Becomes a Faithless Elector (with text of telegram)

1917 births
1988 deaths
Faithless electors
Oklahoma Republicans
People from Bartlesville, Oklahoma
People from Southbury, Connecticut
United States Military Academy alumni
University of Tulsa alumni

Henry D. Irwin


Excuses for Bad Behavior is a two-part album series by Sandra Bernhard. The first album was released in 1994 while the second was released in 2004.

Part one

Excuses for Bad Behavior (Part One) is a combination of spoken comedy bits, comedic songs, and pop/rock music.

Co-written and co-produced by Bernhard's longtime collaborator Mitch Kaplan, the album features Bernhard singing originals and standards. Disco classic "You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)" begins with a vocal solo and is then translated to a modern dance song. "Manic Superstar" combines the song "Everything's Alright" from the musical Jesus Christ Superstar and the song "Manic Depression" by Jimi Hendrix. "Sympathy For the Devil" by the Rolling Stones is also covered.

Comedic bits include the spoken word "The Letter", in which Bernhard reads a fictional letter from a lesbian fan who has "heard" the album in question ("Jesus Christ, why is she singing?"). "Christmas" is a story of holidays past told by a Jewish woman who never actually experienced them. Other songs have a comedic edge, such as "Prophecies", a spoof on 1-900 psychic hotlines.

The album was released on a smaller independent label and did moderately well, but is currently unavailable for mainstream purchase. Plans for a special two-disc re-release (made exclusively available on Bernhard's website) have been posted there for over a year, but no product has been offered yet.

Reception

Track listing
"Excuses For Bad Behavior"
"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)"
"Manic Superstar"
"(I'm Waiting)"
"Who Knew?!"
"Innocence"
"The Letter"
"Lonely Town"
"Christmas"
"Prophecies"
"Sympathy For The Devil"
"Manhattan"
"Phone Sex (Do You Want Me Tonight?)"
"(I'm Waiting)"
"50 Ways To Leave Your Lover"
"La Lupe"
"The Woman I Could've Been"
"The Way You Make Me Feel"

Part two

Excuses for Bad Behavior (Part Two), like Part One, is a combination of spoken comedy bits, comedic songs, and pop/country/rock music. Unlike Part One, the album was not released by a major label. It was sold on burned CD-Rs by Bernhard at her live shows and via her website.

Bernhard announced in 1995 that she had no interest in making a (Part 2), despite the title of (Part 1) , and that rather the title was simply a "tongue-in-cheek twist on" the Guns N' Roses albums Use Your Illusion I & II.

The album deals heavily with politics, including discussions about 9/11. In "The Dixie Chicks", Bernhard sings:
"The Dixie Chicks were wrong, then right. I can't comprehend what is true. You tell me something, then take it back. Why the hell do you support Iraq?" The political controversy that surrounded The Dixie Chicks is discussed. A small tour was launched to accompany the release. They would later become friends; Natalie Maines of The Dixie Chicks appeared at several of Bernhard's performances of her later show Everything Bad & Beautiful, and the group and Bernhard appeared in a Christmas commercial for Old Navy.

Track listing
 Here I Go Again
 Crazy Day In The Valley
 Surreal With Love
 High Alert At 20th Century Fox
 Invitations
 Recent Tragic Events
 Condoleezza Rice
 The Dixie Chicks
 30th High School Reunion
 Arizona
 Can't You See
 Cicely Bernhard: Platinum Member
 Canadian Mishigas
 Dylan's Candy Bar
 Making Out With Britney
 Every Comes & Goes
 Jane Seymour
 What's Up With Comme?
 What's Going On
 Little Red Corvette

References

1994 albums
2004 albums
Album series
Sandra Bernhard albums
Pop albums by American artists
1990s comedy albums
2000s comedy albums

Excuses for Bad Behavior