Erik Clarys (born 18 October 1968) is a Belgian former professional darts player who competed in events of the British Darts Organisation (BDO) and Professional Darts Corporation (PDC). Nicknamed "The Sheriff", he was known for his unorthodox way of scoring and finishing which made him popular with fans.

BDO career
Clarys caused a major upset by winning the 1995 Winmau World Masters. Amongst his victims were future World and Masters champions Andy Fordham and Martin Adams before beating reigning Masters and World champion Richie Burnett in the final. Clarys continued to do well in tournaments, winning the Belgium National Championship four times, the Belgium Gold Cup three times, the Dortmund Open three times as well as the 1999 Swedish Open. Despite this however, he wasn't able to match these performances in other major tournaments. He played in six BDO World Championships, losing in the first round in his first four visits. He finally won a match at the Lakeside in the fifth time of asking in 2002, beating Andree Welge before losing in the second round to Raymond van Barneveld. In 2003, Clarys beat Tony Eccles and Robert Wagner en route to the quarter-finals, eventually losing again to Barneveld despite hitting a 170 checkout.

PDC career
In 2004, Clarys switched to the PDC, after qualifying for their World Championship, beating Dan Lauby and Mark Walsh to reach the third round, losing to Ronnie Baxter. Though Clarys was unable to win any titles, he had good showings in major tournaments including a quarter final place in the 2005 UK Open. He made another appearance in the PDC World Championship, beating Winston Cadogan in round one before losing to Wayne Mardle. He then went on to win the WDF German Gold Cup.

Injury and retirement
In June 2006, Clarys shattered his right elbow after falling from a ladder while at work, forcing him to withdraw from the 2006 UK Open. He was ranked 26th in the PDC world rankings at the time of his accident and was in the running for qualification for the World Matchplay. After eleven operations, Clarys has now given up all hope of returning to darts as a right-handed player. He has though begun practising throwing left-handed and stated he hoped to return to the game some day. He does however remain inactive.

World Championship performances

BDO

1997: 1st round (lost to Paul Williams 2–3)
1998: 1st round (lost to Kevin Painter 1–3)
1999: 1st round (lost to Tony Littleton 2–3)
2001: 1st round (lost to Martin Adams 1–3)
2002: 2nd round (lost to Raymond van Barneveld 0–3)
2003: Quarter-finals (lost to Raymond van Barneveld 1–5)

PDC

2004: 3rd round (lost to Ronnie Baxter 2–4)
2006: 2nd round (lost to Wayne Mardle 1–4)

Career finals

BDO major finals: 1 (1 title)

References

External links
 Profile and stats on Darts Database

1968 births
Belgian darts players
Living people
British Darts Organisation players
Professional Darts Corporation former pro tour players

Erik Clarys


Saïd Business School (Oxford Saïd or SBS) is the business school of the University of Oxford. The school is a provider of management education and is consistently ranked as one of the world's top business schools.

The Oxford MBA has a strong reputation for entrepreneurship and, in particular, social entrepreneurship. Every year, ~9% of the MBA graduates start their own venture right after graduation – a figure surpassed only by Stanford GSB (17%) and Harvard Business School (9%). In 2020 and 2021, Oxford Said was ranked #20 globally in PitchBook's ranking of MBA programs for founders and #14 for female founders. In PitchBook's 2022 ranking for number of graduates and MBAs who have founded capital-backed companies, Oxford ranked #8 worldwide, with 1,083 founders starting 905 companies and raising $34 billion in capital.

The Oxford School of Management Studies was rebranded as Saïd Business School in 1996 after a donation from Wafic Saïd. New premises were built on Park End Street and opened in 2001. The Thatcher Business Education Centre was opened on the same site in 2012 after a further donation from Saïd. The School has another centre at Egrove Park, on the former site of Templeton College, and in 2019 acquired an old power station in Osney to convert into a Global Leadership Centre.

Saïd Business School is the University of Oxford's department for graduate students in business, management and finance. Undergraduates are also taught as part of the Economics and Management course together with the Economics Department.

As of June 2022, the Dean of Said Business School is Professor Soumitra Dutta.

History

Business education at the University of Oxford dates back to 1965, when the Oxford Centre for Management Studies was founded. The centre was renamed Templeton College in 1983 as a result of a donation from Sir John Templeton.

In 1988 a committee chaired by Sir Claus Moser (warden of Wadham College) recommended that the University set up a new School of Management Studies. The University agreed to establish a Business School in 1990 and the Oxford School of Management Studies was set up in premises at the Old Radcliffe Infirmary with its first intake of students arriving in 1993. The first director was Dr Clark Brundin, who had been the vice-chancellor of the University of Warwick since 1985. He was also appointed as president of Templeton College.

Saïd Business School was founded in 1996 when Syrian-born businessman Wafic Saïd offered the University a donation of £20 million. A site for the new premises was found on Park End Street opposite Oxford railway station on what was formerly the Oxford Rewley Road railway station. The building was designed by Edward Jones and Sir Jeremy Dixon. The opening on 5 November 2001 was accompanied by a demonstration by students concerned about the controversial nature of Wafic Saïd's donation.  Saïd was linked with the UK's signing of the Al-Yamamah arms deal.

In 2007 Templeton College merged with Green College to form Green Templeton College, based on the existing Green College site. The former Templeton site at Egrove Park then became the Saïd Business School Executive Education Centre. In 2012 the Thatcher Business Education Centre, financed by a donation from Saïd, was opened on the Park End Street site. Saïd donated a further £15 million in 2019 to finance the conversion of the old Osney power station into a Global Leadership Centre.

In 2020 Saïd Business School lost an employment tribunal case brought by its former director of custom executive education. The tribunal found that the whistleblower had been unfairly dismissed and awarded her £1,499,606.62.

Degree programmes

Saïd Business School's main degree programmes are its one-year full-time MBA programme, 21-month modular Executive MBA programme, the DPhil or PhD Programme in Management Studies, the MSc in Financial Economics in cooperation with the Economics Department, the two-year MSc in Major Programme Management and the one-year MSc in Law and Finance (MLF) in conjunction with the Oxford Law Faculty.

Undergraduate programme

Saïd Business School offers one undergraduate programme: Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Management. This programme is taught jointly by the Department of Economics and the Business School.

Graduate programmes

MBA
Saïd Business School offers a one-year full-time Master of Business Administration degree, which enrolls approximately 320 students per year. In the 2018–2019 class of 315 students, 61%  were male and 39% were female with 62 nationalities represented and averaged 5 years of work experience. The MBA programme was updated for the 2014/15 academic year

EMBA

Saïd Business School also offers a 22 month or 24 month part-time 'Executive Master of Business Administration' degree designed for people with more than 5 years' management experience. The Oxford EMBA is studied through 16 week-long modules largely taught in Oxford, but with at least two conducted in key international markets. As of 2016, the programme ran two iterations per year, with new cohorts starting in both January and September. There were 61 students in September 2022 class, from 33 different nationalities and 41% of which are women. There are several scholarships for women available each year for outstanding candidates.

1+1 MBA

Dean Peter Tufano started the Oxford 1+1 MBA programme which allows students to pair the one-year full-time MBA programme with one of a selection of one-year MSc programmes offered by other University of Oxford departments.

MSc in Major Programme Management (MMPM)

The School runs a part-time two-year MSc in Major Programme Management. It accepts approximately 50-60 students per cohort, running a programme that features 8 modules and a thesis. Module topics (in 2022) are:

 Designing and managing successful programmes
 Major programme risk
 Systems thinking
 Governance and stakeholder management
 Commercial leadership
 Research methods
 Managing performance
 Globalisation and major programmes

MSc in Global Healthcare Leadership

The School starts a part-time (hybrid) two-year MSc in Global Healthcare Leadership in September 2022/23 academic year. It was intended to start in the 2021/22 year but deferred due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This programme is being managed under both Said Business School and Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Services. It has 8 modules each proceeded by a week of teachings in Oxford.

Academic performance

University of Oxford is 1st in the 2022 Times Higher Education World University Rankings.

In the QS MBA rankings by Career Specialization, the Oxford MBA had the following rankings globally:

Finance: #7 in 2021 and 2023.

Entrepreneurship: #4 in 2019, #10 in 2021, and #7 in 2023.

Information Management: #12 in 2021 and #5 in 2023.

Technology: #9 in 2021 and #3 in 2023.

Consulting: #24 in 2021 and #19 in 2023.

In the 2023 CEO World Magazine B-school rankings, Oxford Said ranked 5th globally.

In the Financial Times E-MBA ranking, Oxford Said ranked #17, #10, #18, #12, #15 globally from 2018 to 2022.

Admissions

Admissions to the Oxford Full-Time MBA program is highly competitive. Out of ~2,000 applicants each year, 1 in 4 are offered a seat at the Oxford MBA, with ~70% of the admits accepting the offer. The 25% acceptance rate is in line with the rates at the Top 10-15 US B-schools (based on USNews Rankings).

The 2022-23 cohort of students on the MBA course comprised 64 different nationalities, with 93% coming from outside the UK. Nearly half (48%) were women. The median GMAT score was 690 and median GRE composite score was 320 (Quant - 160; Verbal - 160). The cohort's average work experience was 5 years and average age was 29 years.

Administration

For administrative purposes, Saïd Business School is part of the University of Oxford's Social Sciences Division.
In June 2022 Professor Soumitra Dutta, former Professor of Management at the Cornell SC Johnson College of Business at Cornell University in New York, took up the position of Dean, replacing interim Dean Sue Dopson, Professor of Organisational Behaviour and Fellow of Green Templeton College.  Previous Deans were Professor Peter Tufano (2011-2021), Professor Colin Mayer (2006–2011), Professor Anthony Hopwood (1999–2006) and Professor Sir John Kay (1996–1998).

Notable alumni

 Axel Addy (EMBA) – Minister for Commerce & Industry of Liberia
 Javed Afridi (PhD) Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Haier Pakistan
 Mohamed Amersi (EMBA) - British businessman and philanthropist
 Shawn Baldwin (MFS) - American investor
 Michael Bates, Baron Bates (EMBA) - Minister of State for International Development
 Terry Beech (MBA) - Member of Parliament, Canada
 Ananya Birla - Indian singer and entrepreneur
 George Bridgewater (MBA) – New Zealand Olympic rower
 Caryn Davies (MBA) – USA Olympic rower
 Segun Toyin Dawodu (MGHL) - CEO, PMREHAB and editor, dawodu.com
 Ruthe Farmer (MBA) - American policymaker and activist
 Elizabeth Filippouli – Greek broadcaster, entrepreneur and global business strategist
 Tim Foster (EMBA) – British Olympic rower
 Þorsteinn B. Friðriksson (MBA) - Icelandic mobile app entrepreneur
 Toshiharu Furukawa (MBA) – Japanese politician, Professor at Keio University
 Patrick Grant (EMBA) – British fashion designer
 Ante Kušurin (MBA) – Croatian Olympic rower
 Dame Emily Lawson (MBA) - head of the NHS COVID-19 vaccine programme
 Stephen Robert Morse (MBA) journalist and film director/producer
 Claire Diaz Ortiz (MBA) – American, Twitter, Fast Company's 100 Most Creative People in Business
 Papa CJ (MBA) – Indian comedian
 Kenges Rakishev – Kazakhstan investor
 Jane Silber (MBA) - American businesswoman and computer scientist
 Colin Smith (MBA) – British Olympic rower
 Storm Uru (MBA) – New Zealand Olympic rower
 Cameron Winklevoss (MBA) – USA Olympic rower and Internet entrepreneur
 Tyler Winklevoss (MBA) – USA Olympic rower and Internet entrepreneur
 Andriy Zagorodnyuk – Ukrainian technology entrepreneur and former Minister of defence of Ukraine

Faculty

 Kunal Basu
 Richard Cuthbertson
 Pamela Hartigan
 Nancy Hubbard
 Tim Jenkinson
 Colin Mayer
 Andrew T. Stephen
 Peter Tufano
 Richard Whittington
 Ludovic Phalippou

See also
 List of business schools in Europe
 List of University of Oxford people

References

External links
 Official website of Saïd Business School

1996 establishments in England
Business schools in England
Departments of the University of Oxford
Educational institutions established in 1996

Saïd Business School


The Fairman Rogers Four-in-Hand (originally titled A May Morning in the Park) is an 1879-80 painting by Thomas Eakins. It shows Fairman Rogers driving a coaching party in his four-in-hand carriage through Philadelphia's Fairmount Park. It is thought to be the first painting to examine precisely, through systematic photographic analysis, how horses move.

The Fairman Rogers Four-in-Hand is in the permanent collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art.

Rogers
Eakins taught at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where Rogers was a board member and chairman of the Committee on Instruction. Rogers recruited Eakins back to the Academy in 1878 and commissioned the painting from his new instructor.

Independently wealthy, Rogers was a civil engineer and retired professor at the University of Pennsylvania. He was an avid coaching enthusiast, founder of the Philadelphia Coaching Club and author of the still-definitive guide to the sport: A Manual of Coaching (Philadelphia: 1900). In the painting, Eakins combined Rogers's love of science with his love of coaching.

Muybridge

Both Rogers and Eakins admired and followed Eadweard Muybridge's ground-breaking work in photographing the movement of horses in motion. In 1877, Muybridge published an instantaneous photograph of the racehorse "Occident", showing for the first time just when all four hooves of a galloping horse left the ground. It was commonly taken for granted that the horse has a period of suspension in the gallop, but, as illustrated on the right, they thought it was in the extended phase of the stride. Muybridge demonstrated that it was in the contracted phase. The following year he conducted an experiment that became one of the seminal events in the history of motion pictures: The Horse in Motion.

On June 19, 1878, at a racetrack in Palo Alto, California, Muybridge positioned a row of 12 cameras set close together at regular intervals, each with a trip wire crossing the track. When the racehorse "Sallie Gardner" galloped past the cameras she tripped the wires, resulting in a short but regular sequence of instantaneous photographs shot close to 1/25 of a second apart.

Eakins studied Muybridge's published photographs and taught the new discoveries to his students at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. According to Eakins biographer Gordon Hendricks, seven years before Sallie Gardner was published, Rogers had attempted to photograph his own horses in motion using a camera with a shutter that rapidly opened and closed (like a Venetian blind). In 1879, Muybridge invited Rogers to witness his further experiments in California — a 7-day train ride from Philadelphia — but Rogers chose to spend the summer in Newport, Rhode Island.

Under Rogers's sponsorship, Muybridge later moved to Philadelphia and continued his experiments at the University of Pennsylvania.

Eakins

Eakins probably visited Rogers in Newport that Summer of 1879, and did visit in September, where he may have painted the sketch of Rogers driving his coach through a rocky landscape. It is believed that while in Newport that Eakins created wax models of Rogers's horses, their poses based on another set of Muybridge photographs — the "Abe Edgington" Series (1878), showing a trotter pulling a sulky. Eakins painted individual studies of Rogers's horses, possibly both in Newport and Philadelphia. A year earlier, he dissected a horse with his Academy students, and may have relied on those anatomical notes. In the sketch, the animal's hooves are more tentative than in the finished painting. Eakins painted a replica of the sketch that he made into a fan for Mrs. Rogers (private collection).

Eakins set the finished painting in Philadelphia's Fairmount Park, at a location just north of Memorial Hall. He populated the work with more figures and inverted the coach's direction so as to set it at a sharper angle which better showed the horses' hooves. The sketch shows Rogers, one passenger and a groom. The  painting shows Mr. and Mrs. Rogers, four passengers on a bench behind them and two grooms at the rear of the coach. Eakins likely made studies of each of the people; two of these studies survive. He worked through the fall and winter of 1879 through to the following spring. Theodor Siegl conjectures that the landscaped background may have been the last element to be painted, possibly in as late as May 1880.

Once resolved to show the horses' hooves frozen in motion, Eakins was confronted with the problem of the coach's wheels. In the sketch, he blurred the spokes of the wheels, the traditional way for artists to indicate motion, but this conflicted with his intention to show an instantaneous view of the hooves. He seems to have gone back and forth about this — artist Joseph Pennell reported that Eakins at first "drew every spoke in the wheels, and the whole affair looked as if it had been instantaneously petrified." In the end, Eakins made the same compromise of logic as in the sketch: freezing the horses' hooves, but blurring the spokes of the coach's wheels.

In 1899, Eakins painted a black and white replica to be photographed as an illustration for Rogers's A Manual of Coaching (1900).

Critical reception
Rogers paid Eakins $500 for the painting, and exhibited it at the Philadelphia Society of Artists in November 1880. The reviews were respectful, but generally unfavorable, noting the inconsistency between the hooves and spokes, and using this point as a springboard to lecture about the superiority of Art over Science. Eakins was trying something new and while some understood and appreciated the attempt, when first exhibited the painting was not regarded as successful.

According to Hilton Kramer (1985), "...The Fairman Rogers For-In-Hand is a surpassingly dull painting... The painting lacks what for Eakins was always the essential element in art: moral imperative. Representational accuracy, "scientific" or otherwise, was a necessary co-efficient of this moral imperative in art, but it was not itself a sufficient basis for it."

Preparatory works

See also
 List of works by Thomas Eakins

Notes

References
Goodrich, Lloyd: Thomas Eakins. Harvard University Press, 1982.
 Gordon Hendricks, "A May Morning in the Park", Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin, vol. 60, no. 285 (Spring 1965), pp. 48–64.
 Hilton Kramer. The Revenge of the Philistines: Art and Culture, 1972–1984. 1985.
 Theodor Siegl, The Thomas Eakins Collection, Philadelphia Museum of Art (Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1978), pp. 74–81.

Paintings by Thomas Eakins
1880 paintings
Paintings in the Philadelphia Museum of Art
Horses in art

The Fairman Rogers Four-in-Hand


The San Bernardino Community College District (SBCCD) is a public community college system in Crafton Hills College and San Bernardino Valley College in southern California. It part of the California Community Colleges System.

Since 1926, SBCCD has served residents of Big Bear, Bloomington, Calimesa, Colton, California, Grand Terrace, Highland, Lake Arrowhead, Loma Linda, Redlands, Rialto, San Bernardino and Yucaipa. SBCCD also educates and informs residents of all ages through Empire KVCR (FM), the NPR and PBS affiliate station for Inland Southern California on 91.9 FM and TV channel 24.

History

The San Bernardino Community College District (SBCCD) was formed in 1926, originally as the San Bernardino Valley Union Junior College District and the first union district formed in the state.

The Free College Promise
On March 8, 2019, San Bernardino Community College District announced that it would offer two years of tuition-free education to 1,000 high school graduates from its service area, starting with the class of 2019. The Free College Promise would be offered at San Bernardino Valley College and Crafton Hills College, and include free textbooks, personalized student support services, and priority registration to help students earn an associate degree, transfer to a UC or Cal State, or earn a career training certificate in two years.

Crafton Hills College

Crafton Hills College is a community college located in Yucaipa, California. Dr. Kevin Horan is the president of the campus since 2019.

San Bernardino Valley College

San Bernardino Valley College is a community college in San Bernardino, California. It is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. The two-year college has an enrollment of approximately 12,000 students and covers 82 acres.

References

External links

School districts established in 1926
School districts in San Bernardino County, California
Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
1926 establishments in California
California Community Colleges
Universities and colleges established in 1926


Basic Training in the United States Army is the initial training for new military personnel typified by intense physical activity, psychological stress and the development of social cohesion. The United States Army Center for Initial Military Training (USACIMT) was created in 2009 under the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command to oversee training related issues.

United States Army Center for Initial Military Training
The United States Army Center for Initial Military Training (USACIMT) was created by an act of Congress on September 24, 2009 under the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) located at Fort Eustis in Newport News, Virginia. USACIMT was created as a separate, stand-alone organization to maintain senior-level oversight of training related issues.

USACIMT is the Core Function Lead for TRADOC for all initial entry training.  This provides a process that aligns the development of competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities, and attributes) and behaviors in civilian volunteers for them to become Soldiers who are physically ready, grounded in Army Values, and competent in their skills so can contribute as leaders or members upon arrival at their first unit of assignment. Initial Military Training includes the developing baseline proficiency on warrior tasks, battle drills, and critical skills associated with their Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) or officer basic branch. USACIMT is the official command responsible for the Army's Initial Entry Training (IET), commonly referred to as "Basic Training" or BCT for enlisted soldiers (the term "Boot Camp" pertains to the United States Marine Corps). USACIMT develops policies to improve and standardize training for Basic Combat Training (BCT), Advanced Individual Training (AIT), One Station Unit Training (OSUT), and the second phase of the Basic Officer Leadership Course (BOLC).[3][4]

In 2018, USACIMT became the proponent for the Army's Holistic Health and Fitness (H2F) System. The H2F System is the Army's primary investment in Soldier readiness and lethality, optimal physical and non-physical performance, reduced injury rates, improved rehabilitation after injury, and increased overall effectiveness of the Total Army. H2F addresses the five domains of physical and non-physical readiness (physical, mental, sleep, nutrition, and spiritual) through a comprehensive, integrated system of governance, personnel, equipment/facilities, programming, and education to optimize individual Soldier readiness, reduce preventable injuries, improve rehabilitation outcomes after injury, and ensure Soldiers are physically and mentally prepared to fight and win our nation's wars [6]. The Army Combat Fitness Test (ACFT), which is the assessment of the physical domain of the Army's Holistic Health and Fitness System, [7] became the Army's physical fitness test of record in Spring 2022[7].
In 2022, USACIMT absorbed the mission of the Cohesive Assessment Team (CAT), which was established under the People First Task Force to help address harmful behaviors and build cohesion across the Total Army. The Cohesive Assessment Team is an organization of subject matter experts in various fields who conduct organizational climate assessments further to build cohesive, lethal, and fit teams. In 2023, the Cohesive Assessment Team was renamed to the Cohesive Assistance Team, based on a recommendation from one of the units the CAT had previously visited.

The Leader Training Brigade (LTB) conducts CIMT cadre leader development and provides training development oversight in support of the Soldier transformation process. It provides leader training across the Army in resilience and fitness skills and supports the overall health and welfare of the force. It also oversees the Expert Soldier Badge Test Management Office (ESB TMO) and administers the ESB standards published in TR 672-9 (Expert Soldier Badge). The ESB TMO validates Army brigades who train, test, and award the ESB to candidates who meet the standards. Additionally, the LTB has the following subordinate organizations: the Initial Military Training Leadership School, Task Force Marshall, U.S. Army Physical Fitness School, and the U.S. Army Master Resiliency School.

USACIMT Major Subordinate Organizations
 Basic Combat Training Center of Excellence, Fort Jackson (South Carolina)
 108th Training Command (IET), Charlotte, North Carolina
 Leader Training Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina

Commanders
 LTG Mark P. Hertling:  24 September 2009 – 8 March 2011
 MG Richard Longo:  9 March 2011 – 2 March 2012
 MG Bradley May:  3 March 2012 – 20 November 2013
 MG Ross Ridge:  21 November 2013 – 2 July 2015
 MG Anthony Funkhouser:  3 July 2015 – 19 July 2017
 MG Malcolm B. Frost:  20 July 2017 - 26 April 2019
 MG Lonnie G. Hibbard:  27 April 2019 - 27 September 2021
 MG John D. Kline: 11 October 2021 – Present

External links
 https://usacimt.tradoc.army.mil/
 https://usacimt.tradoc.army.mil/ltb
 https://usacimt.tradoc.army.mil/ltb/esb/esb.html
 https://usacimt.tradoc.army.mil/ltb/usasd/index.html

References

Training units and formations of the United States Army
United States Army Training and Doctrine Command


Yosemite National Park ( ) is a national park in California. It is bordered on the southeast by Sierra National Forest and on the northwest by Stanislaus National Forest. The park is managed by the National Park Service and covers  in four countiescentered in Tuolumne and Mariposa, extending north and east to Mono and south to Madera. Designated a World Heritage Site in 1984, Yosemite is internationally recognized for its cliffs, waterfalls, clear streams, giant sequoia groves, lakes, mountains, meadows, glaciers, and biological diversity. Almost 95 percent of the park is designated wilderness. Yosemite is one of the largest and least fragmented habitat blocks in the Sierra Nevada.

Its geology is characterized by granite and remnants of older rock. About 10 million years ago, the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and tilted to form its unique slopes, which increased the steepness of stream and river beds, forming deep, narrow canyons. About one million years ago glaciers formed at higher elevations. They eventually melted and moved downslope, cutting and sculpting the U-shaped Yosemite Valley.

European American settlers first entered the valley in 1851. Other travelers entered earlier, but James D. Savage is credited with discovering the area that became Yosemite National Park. Native Americans had inhabited the region for nearly 4,000 years, although humans may have first visited as long as 8,000 to 10,000 years ago.

Yosemite was critical to the development of the concept of national parks. Galen Clark and others lobbied to protect Yosemite Valley from development, ultimately leading to President Abraham Lincoln's signing of the Yosemite Grant of 1864 that declared Yosemite as federally preserved land. In 1890 John Muir led a successful movement to motivate Congress to establish Yosemite Valley and its surrounding areas as a National Park. This helped pave the way for the National Park System. Yosemite draws about four million visitors annually. Most visitors spend the majority of their time in the valley's . The park set a visitation record in 2016, surpassing five million visitors for the first time.

Toponym
The word Yosemite (derived from yohhe'meti, "they are killers" in Miwok) historically referred to the name that the Miwok gave to the Ahwahneechee People, the resident indigenous tribe. Previously, the region had been called "Ahwahnee" ("big mouth") by its only indigenous inhabitants, the Ahwahneechee. The term Yosemite in Miwok is easily confused with a similar term for "grizzly bear", and is still a common misconception.

History

Ahwahneechee and the Mariposa Wars

The indigenous natives of Yosemite called themselves the Ahwahneechee, meaning "dwellers" in Ahwahnee. The Ahwahneechee People was the only tribe that lived within the park boundaries, but other tribes lived in surrounding areas. Together they formed a larger Indigenous population in California, called the Southern Sierra Miwok. They are related to the Northern Paiute and Mono tribes. Other tribes like the Central Sierra Miwoks and the Yokuts, who both lived in the San Joaquin Valley and central California, visited Yosemite to trade and intermarry. This resulted in a blending of culture that helped preserve their presence in Yosemite after early American settlements and urban development threatened their survival. Vegetation and game in the region were similar to modern times; acorns were a dietary staple, as well as other seeds and plants, salmon and deer.

The 1848-1855 California Gold Rush was a major event impacting the native population. It drew more than 90,000 European Americans to the area in less than two years, causing competition for resources between gold miners and residents. About 70 years before the Gold Rush, the indigenous population was estimated to be 300,000, quickly dropping to 150,000, and just ten years later, only about 50,000 remained. The reasons for such a decline included disease, birth rate decreases, starvation, and conflicts from the American Indian Wars. The conflict in Yosemite is known as the Mariposa War. It started in December 1850 when California funded a state militia to drive Native people from contested territory to suppress Native American resistance to the European American influx.

Yosemite tribes often stole from settlers and miners, sometimes killing them, in retribution for the extermination/domestication of their people, and loss of their lands and resources. The War and formation of the Mariposa Battalion was partially the result of a single incident involving James Savage, a Fresno trader whose trading post was attacked in December, 1850. After the incident, Savage rallied other miners and gained the support of local officials to pursue a war against the Natives. He was appointed United States Army Major and leader of the Mariposa Battalion in the beginning of 1851. He and Captain John Boling were responsible for pursuing the Ahwahneechee people, led by Chief Tenaya and driving them west, and out of Yosemite. In March 1851 under Savage's command, the Mariposa Battalion captured about 70 Ahwahneechee and planned to take them to a reservation in Fresno, but they escaped. Later in May, under the command of Boling, the battalion captured 35 Ahwahneechee, including Chief Tenaya, and marched them to the reservation. Most were allowed to eventually leave and the rest escaped. Tenaya and others fled across the Sierra Nevada and settled with the Mono Lake Paiutes. Tenaya and some of his companions were ultimately killed in 1853 either over stealing horses or a gambling conflict. The survivors of Tenaya's group and other Ahwahneechee were absorbed into the Mono Lake Paiute tribe.

Accounts from this battalion were the first well-documented reports of European Americans entering Yosemite Valley. Attached to Savage's unit was Doctor Lafayette Bunnell, who later wrote about his awestruck impressions of the valley in The Discovery of the Yosemite. Bunnell is credited with naming Yosemite Valley, based on his interviews with Chief Tenaya. Bunnell wrote that Chief Tenaya was the founder of the Ahwahnee colony. Bunnell falsely believed that the word "Yosemite" meant "full-grown grizzly bear."

Indigenous peoples' continuing presence

After the Mariposa War, Native Americans continued to live in the Yosemite area in reduced numbers. The remaining Yosemite Ahwahneechee tribe members there were forced to relocate to a village constructed in 1851 by the state government. They learned to live within this camp and their limited rights, adapting to the changed environment by entering the tourism industry through employment and small businesses, manufacturing and selling goods and providing services. Their villages were destroyed and their people forced to relocate four different times. The U.S. Army was responsible for the village's destruction in 1851 and 1906, and the National Park Service was responsible for it in 1929 and 1969. In 1969, the National Park Service evicted the remaining Native people from their residences and destroyed their village as part of a fire-fighting exercise. A reconstructed "Indian Village of Ahwahnee" sits behind the Yosemite Museum, located next to the Yosemite Valley Visitor Center.

By the late 19th century, the population of all native inhabitants in Yosemite was difficult to determine, estimates ranged from thirty to several hundred. The Ahwahneechee people and their descendants were hard to identify. The last full-blooded Ahwahneechee died in 1931. Her name was Totuya, or Maria Lebrado. She was the granddaughter of Chief Tenaya and one of many forced out of her ancestral homelands. The Ahwahneechee live through the memory of their descendants, their fellow Yosemite Natives, and through the Yosemite exhibit in the Smithsonian and the Yosemite Museum. As a method of self-preservation and resilience, the Indigenous people of California proposed treaties in 1851 and 1852 that would have established land reservations for them, but Congress refused to ratify them. The Southern Sierra Miwuk Nation is seeking tribal sovereignty and federal recognition. The National Park Service created policies to protect sacred sites and allow Native People to return to their homelands and use National Park resources.

Early tourists

In 1855, entrepreneur James Mason Hutchings, artist Thomas Ayres and two others were the first tourists to visit. Hutchings and Ayres were responsible for much of Yosemite's earliest publicity, writing articles and special issues about the valley. Ayres' style was detailed with exaggerated angularity. His works and written accounts were distributed nationally, and an exhibition of his drawings was held in New York City. Hutchings' publicity efforts between 1855 and 1860 increased tourism to Yosemite. Natives supported the growing tourism industry by working as laborers or maids. Later, they performed dances for tourists, acted as guides, and sold handcrafted goods, notably woven baskets. The Indian village and its peoples fascinated visitors, especially James Hutchings who advocated for Yosemite tourism. He and others considered the indigenous presence to be one of Yosemite's greatest attractions.

Wawona was an early Indian encampment for Nuchu and Ahwahneechee people who were captured and relocated to a reservation on the Fresno River by Savage and the Mariposa Battalion in March 1851. Galen Clark discovered the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoia in Wawona in 1857. He had simple lodgings and roads built. In 1879, the Wawona Hotel was built to serve tourists visiting Mariposa Grove. As tourism increased, so did the number of trails and hotels to build on it.

The Wawona Tree, also known as the Tunnel Tree, was a giant sequoia that grew in the Mariposa Grove. It was  tall, and was  in circumference. When a carriage-wide tunnel was cut through the tree in 1881, it became even more popular as a tourist photo attraction. Carriages and automobiles, traversed the road that passed through the tree. The tree was permanently weakened by the tunnel, and it fell in 1969 under a heavy load of snow. It was estimated to have been 2,100 years old.

Yosemite's first concession was established in 1884 when John Degnan and his wife established a bakery and store. In 1916, the National Park Service granted a 20-year concession to the Desmond Park Service Company. It bought out or built hotels, stores, camps, a dairy, a garage, and other park facilities. The Hotel Del Portal was completed in 1908 by a subsidiary of the Yosemite Valley Railroad. It was located at El Portal, California just outside of Yosemite.

The Curry Company started in 1899, led by David and Jennie Curry to provide concessions. They founded Camp Curry, now Curry Village.

Park service administrators felt that limiting the number of concessionaires in the park would be more financially sound. The Curry Company and its rival, the Yosemite National Park Company, were forced to merge in 1925 to form the Yosemite Park & Curry Company (YP&CC). The company built the Ahwahnee Hotel in 1926–27.

Yosemite Grant

Concerned by the impact of commercial interests, citizens including Galen Clark and Senator John Conness advocated to protect the area. The 38th United States Congress passed legislation that was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on June 30, 1864, creating the Yosemite Grant. This is the first time land was set aside specifically for preservation and public use by the U.S. government, and set a precedent for the 1872 creation of Yellowstone national park, the nation's first. Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove were ceded to California as a state park, and a board of commissioners was established two years later.

Galen Clark was appointed by the commission as the Grant's first guardian, but neither Clark nor the commissioners had the authority to evict homesteaders (which included Hutchings). The issue was not settled until 1872 when the homesteader land holdings were invalidated by the U.S. Supreme Court. Clark and the commissioners were ousted in 1880. This dispute reached the Supreme Court in 1880. The two Supreme Court decisions affecting management of the Yosemite Grant are considered precedents in land management law. Hutchings became the new park guardian.

Tourist access to the park improved, and conditions in the Valley became more hospitable. Tourism significantly increased after the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, while the long horseback ride to reach the area was a deterrent. Three stagecoach roads were built in the mid-1870s to provide better access for the growing number of visitors.

John Muir was a Scottish-born American naturalist and explorer. Muir's leadership ensured that many National Parks were left untouched, including Yosemite.

Muir wrote articles popularizing the area and increasing scientific interest in it. Muir was one of the first to theorize that the major landforms in Yosemite Valley were created by alpine glaciers, bucking established scientists such as Josiah Whitney. Muir wrote scientific papers on the area's biology. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted emphasized the importance of conservation of Yosemite Valley.

Increased protection efforts

Overgrazing of meadows (especially by sheep), logging of giant sequoia, and other damage led Muir to become an advocate for further protection. Muir convinced prominent guests of the importance of putting the area under federal protection. One such guest was Robert Underwood Johnson, editor of Century Magazine. Muir and Johnson lobbied Congress for the Act that created Yosemite National Park on October 1, 1890. The State of California, however, retained control of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove. Muir's writings raised awareness about the damage caused by sheep grazing, and he actively campaigned to virtually eliminate grazing from the Yosemite's high-country.

The newly created national park came under the jurisdiction of the United States Army's Troop I of the 4th Cavalry on May 19, 1891, which set up camp in Wawona with Captain Abram Epperson Wood as acting superintendent. By the late 1890s, sheep grazing was no longer a problem, and the Army made other improvements. However, he cavalry could not intervene to ease the worsening conditions. From 1899 to 1913, cavalry regiments of the Western Department, including the all Black 9th Cavalry (known as the "Buffalo Soldiers") and the 1st Cavalry, stationed two troops at Yosemite.

Muir and his Sierra Club continued to lobby the government and influential people for the creation of a unified Yosemite National Park. In May 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt camped with Muir near Glacier Point for three days. On that trip, Muir convinced Roosevelt to take control of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove away from California and return it to the federal government. In 1906, Roosevelt signed the enabling bill.

National Park Service
The National Park Service (NPS) was formed in 1916, and Yosemite was transferred to that agency's jurisdiction. Tuolumne Meadows Lodge, Tioga Pass Road, and campgrounds at Tenaya and Merced lakes were also completed in 1916. Automobiles started to enter the park in ever-increasing numbers following the opening of all-weather highways to the park. The Yosemite Museum was founded in 1926 through the efforts of Ansel Franklin Hall. In the 1920s, the museum featured Native Americans practicing traditional crafts, and many Southern Sierra Miwok continued to live in Yosemite Valley until they were evicted from the park in the 1960s. Although NPS helped create the museum, its early actions and organizational values were dismissive of Yosemite Natives and the Ahwahneechee. NPS in the early 20th century criticized and restricted the expression of indigenous culture and behavior. For instance park officials penalized Natives for playing games and drinking during the Indian Field Days of 1924. In 1929, Park Superintendent Charles G. Thomson concluded that the Indian village was aesthetically unpleasant and was limiting white settler development and ordered the camp to be burned down. In 1969, many Native residents left in search of work as a result of the decline in tourism. NPS demolished their empty houses, evicted the remaining residents, and destroyed the entire village. This was the last Indigenous settlement within the park.

In 1903, a dam in Hetch Hetchy Valley in the park was proposed. Its purpose was to provide water and hydroelectric power to San Francisco. Muir and the Sierra Club opposed the project, while others, including Gifford Pinchot, supported it. In 1913, the O'Shaughnessy Dam was approved via passage of the Raker Act.

In 1918, Clare Marie Hodges was hired as the first female Park Ranger in Yosemite. Following Hodges in 1921, Enid Michael was hired as a seasonal Park Ranger and continued to serve in that position for 20 years.

In 1937, conservationist Rosalie Edge, head of the Emergency Conservation Committee (ECC), successfully lobbied Congress to purchase about 8,000 acres of old-growth sugar pines on the perimeter of Yosemite National Park that were to be logged.

In 1984, preservationists persuaded Congress to designate , or about 89 percent of the park, as the Yosemite Wilderness—making it a wilderness area that thereby became off-limits to development. NPS reduced artificial inducements to visit the park, such as the Firefall, in which red-hot embers were pushed off a cliff near Glacier Point at night. Traffic congestion and parking in Yosemite Valley during the summer months has become a concern.

In 2016, The Trust for Public Land (TPL) purchased Ackerson Meadow, a 400-acre tract on the western edge of the park for $2.3 million. Ackerson Meadow was originally included in the proposed 1890 park boundary, but never acquired by the federal government. The purchase and donation of the meadow was made possible through a cooperative effort by TPL, NPS, and Yosemite Conservancy. On September 7, 2016, NPS accepted the donation of the land, making the meadow the largest addition to Yosemite since 1949.

Geography

Yosemite National Park is located in the central Sierra Nevada. Three wilderness areas are adjacent to Yosemite: the Ansel Adams Wilderness to the southeast, the Hoover Wilderness to the northeast, and the Emigrant Wilderness to the north.

The  park contains thousands of lakes and ponds,  of streams,  of hiking trails, and  of roads. Two federally designated Wild and Scenic Rivers, the Merced and the Tuolumne, begin within Yosemite's borders and flow westward through the Sierra foothills into the Central Valley of California.

Rocks and erosion

Almost all of the landforms are cut from the granitic rock of the Sierra Nevada Batholith (a batholith is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock that formed deep below the surface). About five percent of the park's landforms (mostly in its eastern margin near Mount Dana) are metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks. These roof pendants once formed the roof of the underlying granitic rock.

Erosion acting upon different types of uplift-generated joint and fracture systems is responsible for producing the valleys, canyons, domes, and other features. These joints and fracture systems do not move, and are therefore not faults. Spacing between joints is controlled by the amount of silica in the granite and granodiorite rocks; more silica tends to form a more resistant rock, resulting in larger spaces between joints and fractures.

Pillars and columns, such as Washington Column and Lost Arrow, are generated by cross joints. Erosion acting on master joints is responsible for shaping valleys and later canyons. The single most erosive force over the last few million years has been large alpine glaciers, which turned the previously V-shaped river-cut valleys into U-shaped glacial-cut canyons (such as Yosemite Valley and Hetch Hetchy Valley). Exfoliation (caused by the tendency of crystals in plutonic rocks to expand at the surface) acting on granitic rock with widely spaced joints is responsible for producing domes such as Half Dome and North Dome and inset arches like Royal Arches.

Popular features

Yosemite Valley represents only one percent of the park area. The Tunnel View gives a view of the valley. El Capitan is a prominent granite cliff that looms over the valley, is a rock climbing favorite because of its diverse climbing routes and year-round accessibility. Granite domes such as Sentinel Dome and Half Dome rise , respectively, above the valley floor. The park contains dozens of other granite domes.

The high country of Yosemite contains other important features such as Tuolumne Meadows, Dana Meadows, the Clark Range, the Cathedral Range, and the Kuna Crest. The Sierra crest and the Pacific Crest Trail run through Yosemite. Mount Dana and Mount Gibbs are peaks of red metamorphic rock. Granite peaks include Mount Conness. Mount Lyell is the highest point in the park, standing at . The Lyell Glacier is the largest glacier in the and one of the few remaining in the Sierras.

The park has three groves of ancient giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) trees; the Mariposa Grove (200 trees), the Tuolumne Grove (25 trees), and the Merced Grove (20 trees). This species grows larger in volume than any other and is one of the tallest and longest-lived.

Water and ice

The Tuolumne and Merced River systems originate along the crest of the Sierras in the park and have carved river canyons  deep. The Tuolumne River drains the entire northern portion of the park, an area of approximately . The Merced River begins in the park's southern peaks, primarily the Cathedral and Clark Ranges, and drains an area of approximately .

Hydrologic processes, including glaciation, flooding, and fluvial geomorphic response, have been fundamental in creating park landforms. The park contains approximately 3,200 lakes (greater than 100 m2), two reservoirs, and  of streams. Wetlands flourish in valley bottoms throughout the park, and are often hydrologically linked to nearby lakes and rivers through seasonal flooding and groundwater. Meadow habitats, distributed at elevations from  in the park, are generally wetlands, as are the riparian habitats found on the banks of Yosemite's watercourses.

Yosemite is famous for its high concentration of waterfalls in a small area. Numerous sheer drops, glacial steps and hanging valleys in the park feature spectacular cascades, especially during April, May, and June (as the snow melts). Located in Yosemite Valley, Yosemite Falls is the fourth tallest waterfall in North America at  in accordance with the World Waterfall Data Base.  Also in the valley is the much lower volume Ribbon Falls, which has the highest single vertical drop, . Perhaps the most prominent of the valley waterfalls is Bridalveil Fall. Wapama Falls in Hetch Hetchy Valley is another notable waterfall. Hundreds of ephemeral waterfalls become active in the park after heavy rains or melting snowpack.

Park glaciers are relatively small and occupy areas that are in almost permanent shade, such as north- and northeast-facing cirques. Lyell Glacier is the largest glacier in Yosemite (the Palisades Glaciers are the largest in the Sierra Nevada) and covers . None of the Yosemite glaciers are a remnant of the Ice Age alpine glaciers responsible for sculpting the Yosemite landscape. Instead, they were formed during one of the neoglacial episodes that have occurred since the thawing of the Ice Age (such as the Little Ice Age). Many Yosemite glaciers, such as the Black Mountain Glacier that was marked in 1871 and had gone by the mid-1980s, have disappeared. Yosemite's final two glaciers – the Lyell and Maclure glaciers – have receded over the last 100 years and are expected to disappear as a result of climate change.

Climate

Yosemite has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), meaning most precipitation falls during the mild winter, and the other seasons are nearly dry (less than three percent of precipitation falls during the long, hot summers). Because of orographic lift, precipitation increases with elevation up to  where it slowly decreases to the crest. Precipitation amounts vary from  at  elevation to  at . Snow does not typically accumulate until November in the high country. It deepens into March or early April.

Mean daily temperatures range from  to  at Tuolumne Meadows at . At the Wawona Entrance (elevation ), mean daily temperature ranges from . At the lower elevations below , temperatures are hotter; the mean daily high temperature at Yosemite Valley (elevation ) varies from . At elevations above , the hot, dry summer temperatures are moderated by frequent summer thunderstorms, along with snow that can persist into July. The combination of dry vegetation, low relative humidity, and thunderstorms results in frequent lightning-caused fires as well.

At park headquarters (elevation of ), January averages , while July averages . In summer the nights are much cooler than the days. An average of 45.5 days have highs of  or higher and an average of 105.6 nights with freezing temperatures. Freezing temperatures have been recorded in every month of the year. The record high temperature was  on July 22 and July 24, 1915, while the record low temperature was  on January 1, 2009. Average annual precipitation is nearly , falling on 67 days. The wettest year was 1983 with  and the driest year was 1976 with . The most precipitation in one month was  in December 1955 and the most in one day was  on December 23, 1955. Average annual snowfall is . The snowiest winter was 1948–1949 with . The most snow in one month was  in January 1993.

Geology

Tectonic and volcanic activity

The park sat astride a passive continental margin during the Precambrian and early Paleozoic. Sediment was derived from continental sources and was deposited in shallow water. These rocks became deformed and metamorphosed.

Heat generated from the Farallon Plate subducting below the North American Plate led to the creation of an island arc of volcanoes on the west coast of proto-North America between the late Devonian and Permian periods. Material accreted onto the western edge of North America, and mountains were raised to the east in Nevada.

The first phase of regional plutonism started 210 million years ago in the late Triassic and continued throughout the Jurassic to about 150 million years before present (BP). Around the same time, the Nevadan orogeny built the Nevadan mountain range (also called the Ancestral Sierra Nevada) to a height of . This was a direct part of the creation of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. The resulting rocks were mostly granitic in composition and lay about  below the surface. The second major pluton emplacement phase lasted from about 120 million to 80 million years ago during the Cretaceous. This was part of the Sevier orogeny.

Starting 20 million years ago (in the Cenozoic) and lasting until 5 million years ago, a now-extinct extension of Cascade Range volcanoes erupted, bringing large amounts of igneous material in the area. These igneous deposits blanketed the region north of the Yosemite region. Volcanic activity persisted past 5 million years BP east of the current park borders in the Mono Lake and Long Valley areas.

Uplift and erosion

Starting 10 million years ago, vertical movement along the Sierra fault started to uplift the Sierra Nevada. Subsequent tilting of the Sierra block and the resulting accelerated uplift of the Sierra Nevada increased the gradient of western-flowing streams. The streams consequently ran faster and thus cut their valleys more quickly. Additional uplift occurred when major faults developed to the east, especially creating Owens Valley from Basin and Range-associated extensional forces. Sierra uplift accelerated again about two million years ago during the Pleistocene.

The uplifting and increased erosion exposed granitic rocks to surface pressures, resulting in exfoliation (responsible for the rounded shape of the many domes in the park) and mass wasting following the numerous fracture joint planes (cracks; especially vertical ones) in the now solidified plutons. Pleistocene glaciers further accelerated this process, while glacial meltwater transported the resulting talus and till from valley floors.

Numerous vertical joint planes controlled where and how fast erosion took place. Most of these long, linear and very deep cracks trend northeast or northwest and form parallel, often regularly spaced sets.

Glacial sculpting

A series of glaciations further modified the region starting about 2 to 3 million years ago and ending sometime around 10,000 BP. At least four major glaciations occurred in the Sierras, locally called the Sherwin (also called the pre-Tahoe), Tahoe, Tenaya, and Tioga. The Sherwin glaciers were the largest, filling Yosemite and other valleys, while later stages produced much smaller glaciers. A Sherwin-age glacier was almost surely responsible for the major excavation and shaping of Yosemite Valley and other canyons in the area.

Glacial systems reached depths of up to  and left their marks. The longest glacier there ran down the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne River for , passing well beyond Hetch Hetchy Valley. Merced Glacier flowed out of Yosemite Valley and into the Merced River Gorge. Lee Vining Glacier carved Lee Vining Canyon and emptied into Lake Russel (the much-enlarged ice age version of Mono Lake). Only the highest peaks, such as Mount Dana and Mount Conness, were not covered by glaciers. Retreating glaciers often left recessional moraines that impounded lakes such as the  long Lake Yosemite (a shallow lake that periodically covered much of the floor of Yosemite Valley).

Ecology

Habitats

The park has an elevation range from  and contains five major vegetation zones: chaparral and oak woodland, lower montane forest, upper montane forest, subalpine zone, and alpine. Of California's 7,000 plant species, approximately 50 percent occur in the Sierra Nevada and more than 20 percent within the park. The park contains suitable habitat for more than 160 rare plants, with rare local geologic formations and unique soils characterizing the restricted ranges many of these plants occupy.

With its scrubby sun-baked chaparral, stately groves of pine, fir, and sequoia, and expanses of alpine woodlands and meadows, Yosemite National Park preserves a Sierra landscape as it prevailed before Euro-American settlement. In contrast to surrounding lands, which have been significantly altered by logging, the park contains some  of old-growth forest. Taken together, the park's varied habitats support over 250 species of vertebrates, which include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Yosemite's western boundary has habitats dominated by mixed coniferous forests of ponderosa pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, white fir, Douglas fir, and a few stands of giant sequoia, interspersed by areas of black oak and canyon live oak. These habitats support relatively high wildlife diversity. Wildlife include black bear, coyote, raccoon, mountain kingsnake, Gilbert's skink, white-headed woodpecker, bobcat, river otter, gray fox, red fox, brown creeper, two species of skunk, cougar, spotted owl, and bats.

At higher elevation, the coniferous forests become purer stands of red fir, western white pine, Jeffrey pine, lodgepole pine, and the occasional foxtail pine. Fewer wildlife species tend to be found in these habitats, because of their higher elevation and lower complexity. Animals include golden-mantled ground squirrel, chickaree, fisher, Steller's jay, hermit thrush, and American goshawk. Reptiles are not common, but include rubber boa, western fence lizard, and northern alligator lizard.

As the landscape rises, trees become smaller and more sparse, with stands broken by areas of exposed granite. These include lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, and mountain hemlock that, at highest elevations, give way to vast expanses of granite as treeline is reached. The climate in these habitats is harsh and the growing season is short, but species such as pika, yellow-bellied marmot, white-tailed jackrabbit, Clark's nutcracker, and black rosy finch are adapted to these conditions. Treeless alpine habitats are favored by Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. This species is found in the Yosemite area only around Tioga Pass, where a small, reintroduced population exists.

At a variety of elevations, meadows provide important habitat. Animals come to feed on the green grasses and use the flowing and standing water found in many meadows. Predators follow. The interface between meadow and forest is favored by many animal species because of the proximity of open areas for foraging and cover for protection. Species that are highly dependent upon meadow habitat include great grey owl, willow flycatcher, Yosemite toad, and mountain beaver.

Management issues

The black bears of Yosemite were once famous for breaking into parked cars to steal food. They were an encouraged tourist sight for many years at the park's garbage dumps, where they congregated to eat garbage and tourists gathered to photograph them. Increasing bear/human encounters and increasing property damage led to an aggressive campaign to discourage bears from interacting with people and their stuff. The open-air dumps were closed; trash receptacles were replaced with bear-proof receptacles; campgrounds were equipped with bear-proof food lockers so that people would not leave food in their vehicles (easy targets). Because bears who show aggression towards people usually are destroyed, park personnel have come up with innovative ways to lead bears to associate humans and their property with experiences such as getting hit with a rubber bullet. , about 30 bears a year were captured and ear-tagged and their DNA sampled so that, when bear damage occurs, rangers can ascertain which bear was causing the problem.

Despite the richness of high-quality habitats in Yosemite, the brown bear, California condor, and least Bell's vireo have become extinct in the park within historical time, and another 37 species currently have special status under either California or federal endangered species legislation. The most serious current threats include loss of a natural fire regime, exotic species, air pollution, habitat fragmentation, and climate change. On a more local basis, factors such as road kills and the availability of human food have affected some wildlife species.

Yosemite National Park has documented the presence more than 130 non-native plant species within park boundaries. They were introduced into Yosemite following the migration of early Euro-American settlers in the late 1850s. Natural and human-caused disturbances, such as wildland fires and construction activities, have contributed to a rapid increase in the spread of non-native plants. Some of these species invade and displace the native plant communities, impacting park resources. Non-native plants can bring about significant ecosystem changes by altering native plant communities and the processes that support them. Some non-native species may cause an increase in fire frequency or increase the available soil nitrogen that allow non-native plants to establish. Many non-native species, such as yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis), are able to produce a long tap root that allows them to out-compete the native plants for available water.

Bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare), common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), and Klamath weed (Hypericum perforatum) have been identified as noxious pests in Yosemite since the 1940s. More recently recognized species are yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis), sweet clover (Melilot spp.), Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus), cut-leaved blackberry (Rubus laciniatus) and large periwinkle (Vinca major).

Increasing ozone pollution causes damage tissue to sequoia trees, making them more vulnerable to insect infestation and disease. Since the cones of these trees require fire-touched soil to germinate, historic fire suppression has reduced their ability to reproduce. Planned prescribed fires may help the germination issue.

Wildfires

Indigenous residents intentionally set small fires in the early 1860s and before to clear the ground of brush as part as their farming practices, speeding growth. These fires are comparable to contemporary practices such as controlled burns that are done by the U.S. Forest Service and others. Although it was not their primary reason, Yosemite Natives helped preserve biodiversity and resilience by lighting these small fires. Native Americans used fire as an early wildlife management tool to keep certain lands clear, resulting in more food for large animals and decreasing the chance of large forest fires which that now devastate forest ecosystems. Some early uncontrolled forest fires were set accidentally by the militia group led by Major John Savage when the group burned down the Ahwahneechee camp in an attempt to expel them. The house fires eventually spread to a large section of the forest and the militia group ended up having to abandon their raid to save their own camp from the conflagration.

Forest fires clear the park of dead vegetation, making way for new growth. Small fires damage the income generated by tourism. During late July and early August, 2018, the Valley and other sections of the park, temporarily closed due to the Ferguson Fire at its western boundary. The closing was the largest in almost thirty years.

Activities

Public access
Yosemite Valley is open year-round. Yosemite Conservancy, and Aramark at Yosemite offer nature walks, photography and art classes, stargazing programs, tours, bike rentals, rafting, mule and horseback rides, and rock climbing classes. Short walks and longer hikes access valley waterfalls, or walks among the sequoias in the Mariposa, Tuolumne, or Merced Groves are available. Private vehicles and tour buses travel to Glacier Point (summer–fall) to see valley and high country views. The scenic Tioga Road connects toTuolumne Meadows (May–October) for walking and hiking.

Traffic congestion in the valley is heavy during peak summer season. A free shuttle bus system operates in the valley. Parking in the valley during the summer is often full. Transit options are available from Fresno and Merced. Yosemite has 13 official campgrounds.

The natural and cultural history of Yosemite Valley is presented at the Yosemite Valley Visitor Center, the adjoining Yosemite Museum, and the Nature Center at Happy Isles. The parks' two National Historic Landmarks are the Sierra Club's LeConte Memorial Lodge (Yosemite's first public visitor center), and the Ahwahnee Hotel. Camp 4 is on the National Register of Historic Places.

In the winter, the park is snowed in. Tuolumne Meadows has great hiking, rock climbing, and mountain climbing.

Hiking

Over  of trails are available to hikers—everything from an easy stroll to a challenging mountain hike, or backpacking trips. One popular trail leads to the summit of Half Dome and requires a permit from Memorial Day weekend to Columbus Day. A maximum of 300 hikers, selected by lottery, are permitted to advance beyond the base of the subdome each day, including 225 day hikers and 75 backpackers.

The park can be divided into five sections—Yosemite Valley, Wawona/Mariposa Grove/Glacier Point, Tuolumne Meadows, Hetch Hetchy, and Crane Flat/White Wolf. Numerous books describe park trails, while the National Park Service provides free information.

Between late spring and early fall, much of the park can be accessed for backpacking trips. All overnight trips into the back country require a wilderness permit and most require approved bear-resistant food storage.

Driving

While some locations in Yosemite are accessible only on foot, other locations can be reached via road, including for viewing the night sky. The most famous road is Tioga Road.

Bicycles are allowed on the roads, but only  of paved off-road trails ae available in Yosemite Valley itself; mountain biking is not allowed.

Climbing

Rock climbing is an important part of Yosemite. In particular the valley is surrounded by summits such as Half Dome and El Capitan. Camp 4 is a walk-in campground in the Valley that was instrumental in the development of rock climbing as a sport, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Climbers can generally be spotted in the snow-free months on anything from ten-foot-high (3 m) boulders to the  face of El Capitan. Classes on rock climbing are offered there.

Winter activities

Some roads close in winter. Downhill skiing is available at the Badger Pass Ski Area—the oldest downhill skiing area in California, operating from mid-December through early April. Much of the park is open to cross-country skiing and snowshoeing, and backcountry ski huts are available. Wilderness permits are required for backcountry overnight ski trips.

The Bracebridge dinner is an annual holiday event, held since 1927 at the Ahwahnee Hotel, inspired by Washington Irving's descriptions of Squire Bracebridge and English Christmas traditions of the 18th century in his Sketch Book. Between 1929 and 1973, the show was organized by Ansel Adams.

Other
Bicycle rentals are available from spring through fall. Over  of paved bike paths are available in Yosemite Valley. In addition, bicyclists can ride on roads. Helmets are required for children under 18 years of age. Off-trail riding and mountain biking are not permitted in the park.

Water activities are plentiful during warmer months. Rafting can be done through the valley on the Merced River from late May to July. Swimming pools are available at Yosemite Lodge and Curry Village.

Horsetail Fall
Horsetail Fall flows over the eastern edge of El Capitan. This small waterfall usually flows only during winter and is easy to miss. On rare occasions during mid- to late February, it can glow orange when backlit by sunset. This unique lighting effect happens only on evenings with a clear sky. Minor haze or cloudiness can spoil the effect. Although entirely natural, the phenomenon is reminiscent of the human-caused Firefall that historically occurred from Glacier Point.

In popular culture

The opening scenes of Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989) were filmed in Yosemite National Park. Films such as The Last of the Mohicans (1920) and Maverick (1994) have also been shot there. The 2014 documentary Valley Uprising is centered around Yosemite Valley and its history with an emphasis on climbing culture. The Academy Award-winning 2018 documentary Free Solo was filmed in Yosemite. The Dawn Wall, a 2017 documentary, was filmed there.

See also

Citations

General references

 Muir, John. "Features of the Proposed Yosemite National Park" The Century; a popular quarterly (Sept. 1890) 40#5

External links

  of the National Park Service

  from American Studies at the University of Virginia
 Project Yosemite | Yosemite HD | Motion Timelapse Video

 Project Yosemite timelapse photography

1890 establishments in California
Protected areas established in 1890
Sierra Nevada (United States)
Parks in Madera County, California
Parks in Mariposa County, California
Parks in Tuolumne County, California
World Heritage Sites in the United States
Hetch Hetchy Project
Protected areas of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
National parks in California
Nature centers in California

Yosemite National Park


The 2008 Khost suicide bombing occurred on 3 March 2008, when German-born Turkish citizen Cüneyt Çiftçi blew himself up in front of the Sabari District Center in Khost Province, Afghanistan, killing US soldiers Stephen Koch (23) and Robert Rapp (22) and two Afghans. Uzbek Islamist group Islamic Jihad Union (IJU) claimed responsibility of having used 4.5 tons of explosives for what was described as an "enormous blast," and publishing a film of the explosion.

Perpetrator
Cüneyt Çiftçi, the perpetrator, is considered the first suicide bomber to have been born and raised in Germany. Born 1979 in Freising and raised in Ansbach, both in Bavaria, Çiftçi's father, a founding member of the Ansbach Millî Görüş mosque society, sent his son, who was twelve years old, to Turkey. Attending a state-run religious school, Çiftçi memorized the Quran and started using the name "Hafiz". After three years, Çiftçi returned to Ansbach, but later dropped out of school and broke off a vocational apprenticeship. After working a while as an interior decorator and in a McDonald's restaurant, he found an employment at the local Bosch warehouse, where he reportedly had a "well paid job".

In 2000, Çiftçi was granted permanent residency in Germany, but his application for German citizenship was repeatedly turned down. Following repeated "security conversations" with the local authorities he withdrew the application. In 2001 Çiftçi married a woman from a secular Turkish family, who only four years later started wearing a headscarf, when they moved in with his parents. German authorities believe that Çiftçi's radicalization may have begun in 2001/02, when he came into touch with orthodox Tablighi Jamaat (TJ) movement, frequenting a TJ circle in nearby Pappenheim. In late 2004, Çiftçi started visiting his father's local Millî Görüş mosque, and occasionally preached there. With their two children, they lived in a middle-class neighborhood of Ansbach.

On April 2, 2007, Çiftçi left the country with his wife and two children for Pakistan, after he came under suspicion for his contacts to the "Sauerland terror cell". He proceeded to an IJU training camp, where he joined the members of the Sauerland cell.

See also
 War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
 2016 Ansbach bombing

References

2008 murders in Afghanistan
Suicide bombings in Afghanistan
Mass murder in 2008
21st-century mass murder in Afghanistan
Terrorist incidents in Afghanistan in 2008
Islamic Jihad Union
March 2008 events in Asia
History of Khost Province

2008 Khost suicide bombing


Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó, or Mission Loreto, was founded on October 25, 1697, at the Monqui Native American (Indian) settlement of Conchó in the city of Loreto, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Established by the Catholic Church's Jesuit missionary Juan María de Salvatierra, Loreto was the first successful mission and Spanish town in Baja California.

The mission, with the exception of its essential Catholic church functions, closed in 1829.

History

Attempts
After Hernán Cortés' initial, unsuccessful, 1535 attempt to found a colony in the Bay of Santa Cruz (today's La Paz, Baja California Sur), the next 150 years were marked by further unsuccessful efforts to colonize Baja California. The most nearly successful of these attempts was the 1683–1685 outpost at San Bruno, only about 20 kilometers north of Loreto, among the Cochimí. This failure by Admiral Isidro de Atondo y Antillón and the Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino led directly to the success at Loreto 12 years later.

After many unsuccessful ventures in Baja California, the government of New Spain and the Spanish crown were reluctant to finance any further attempts. However, Kino's enthusiasm for this potential mission field was persistent. He ultimately persuaded some of his colleagues, including Salvatierra and the authorities in New Spain, to allow the Jesuits to return to the peninsula, but this time on their own responsibility and largely at their own expense.

By the start of 1697 everything was ready for the journey's start at the mouth of the Río Yaqui River in Sonora. Kino was unable to participate, because an Indian rebellion in Sonora required his presence on the mainland. Salvatierra would soon be joined at Loreto by Francisco María Piccolo, and they were supported from the mainland by the procurador for the mission, Juan de Ugarte.

Founding

On October 19, 1697, Salvatierra, with nine armed men, disembarked from the galley Santa Elvira at the place that the Indians called Coruncho (). The site was distinguished by "a small patch of stunted shrubbery and a spring of fresh water, both rare luxuries in that inhospitable country". In the first days after their arrival, the missionary erected a modest structure that served as a chapel, to the front of which they affixed a wooden cross. On October 25 they carried the image of the Virgin of Our Lady of Loreto in a solemn procession, a ritual of faith that claimed the area as Spanish territory. Thus began the Mission Loreto.

A Monqui ranchería – a settlement whose population was usually 50 to 80 persons – was only a few hundred feet from where the Spanish decided to build the mission – with the only waterholes in the area between the two. The Spanish presence attracted more Indians; some were offered food in exchange for working and attending religious services, but the majority became hostile. On November 13, about 200 Indian men attacked the rudimentary fortress of the Spanish, launching arrows and rocks. The Spaniards fended them off with a mortar and two harquebusses. After about two hours, the attack ceased. Two Spaniards were slightly wounded and Salvatierra reported that they had killed and wounded several Indians.

Two days later a Spanish ship with supplies and reinforcements, including a second Jesuit priest, Francisco María Piccolo. arrived and, with the help of native workers paid with food, the Spaniards quickly erected a walled fortress called the Real Presidio de Loreto (Royal Fort of Loreto) that became the mission headquarters. Sporadic resistance by the Monqui to the mission continued but after a confrontation on Easter Sunday 1698 in which several Indians were killed or wounded, the Monqui accepted the presence of the mission. By late 1698, a total of 27 men -- priests, religious helpers, and soldiers, staffed the mission.

Later history

The Loreto Mission would prove "worthless as a breadbasket" because of insufficient water to irrigate crops, but valuable as a base for expansion of the missionary enterprise and Spanish control of Baja California. The Spanish recognized that providing food to the Indians would draw them to the mission, but food had to be brought from the mainland of Mexico across the often stormy Gulf of California. Periodic shortages of food impacted the mission for decades. In 1699, the mission's need to find land suitable for agriculture led it to establish a new mission in a promising valley about  inland from Loreto at a place called Biaundó by the Cochimí Indian residents. In succeeding years, with Loreto as the base, the Jesuits created several new missions in south-central Baja California and then in more remote portions of the peninsula both to the north and to the south.

Loreto mission's stone church, which still stands, was begun in 1740 and completed in 1744. Loreto continued to be the headquarters for missionaries. even after the Jesuits were expelled from Baja California and replaced, first by the Franciscans in 1768 and then by the Dominicans in 1773. In 1769, the Loreto mission (now led by Franciscans under Junípero Serra) was the departure point for the land portion of the land/sea exploratory expedition led by Gaspar de Portolá. The joint military/missionary expedition traveled into today's U.S. state of California as far north as San Francisco Bay, establishing new Franciscan missions at Velicatá (Baja), San Diego and Monterey.

Mission Loreto came to an end in 1829, by which time the native population throughout Baja California had declined "to the point of near extinction."

Population decline

By the end of 1698, one year after its founding, the Loreto mission had a population of about 100 Monqui families who had been converted to Christianity, nearly all of the Monqui who had lived along a  stretch of coast.This population of around 400 steadily decreased thereafter because of the toll from imported European diseases. By 1733, the Monqui population of Loreto was only 134 and the population was maintained thereafter at about that level only by bringing in Christian Indians from other parts of Baja California. In 1762, a Jesuit report recorded only 38 baptisms in the previous 18 years – but 309 deaths.

At the same time as the Monqui population declined, the transplanted Spanish, mestizo, and Indian population of Loreto increased. In 1730, the Jesuits recorded the non-Monqui population of Loreto at 175, which included 99 men and their wives and children. The men were employed as soldiers, sailors, artisans, teamsters, and cowboys. By 1770, the total population of Loreto was more than 400, of whom only about 120 were Indians indigenous to Baja California. The Monqui as a people and distinct culture were virtually extinct.

Gallery

See also

 Spanish missions in Baja California
 Spanish missions in California
 Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church
 Spanish colonization of the Americas
 Eusebio Kino
 USNS Mission Loreto (AO-116), a Mission Buenaventura Class fleet oiler built during World War II
 List of Jesuit sites

Footnotes

References
 Crosby, Harry W. 1994. Antigua California: Mission and Colony on the Peninsular Frontier, 1697–1768. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
 León-Portilla, Miguel. 1997. Loreto's Key Role in the Early History of the Californias (1697–1773). California Mission Studies Association.
 Salvatierra, Juan María. 1971.Selected Letters about Lower California. Edited by Ernest J. Burrus. Dawson's Book Shop, Los Angeles.
 Vernon, Edward W. 2002. Las Misiones Antiguas: The Spanish Missions of Baja California, 1683–1855. Viejo Press, Santa Barbara, California.

External links

Nuestra Senora De Loreto Concho
Loreto Municipality (Baja California Sur)
1697 establishments in New Spain
Spanish Colonial architecture in Mexico
Spanish colonial fortifications in Mexico


Barbican is a brand of non-alcoholic malt drinks distributed by the Aujan Coca-Cola Beverages Company (ACCBC). The drink is primarily sold in the Middle East and North Africa.

Due to the popularity of Barbican in the "Persian Gulf countries" of the GCC, it has become a genericized trademark for non-alcoholic malt drinks. Due to the fruit and malt flavour of  Barbican, it is sometimes used in the preparation of food, mocktails, desserts and as an accompaniment to cheese or chocolate.

History
Barbican was originally manufactured by U.K.-based Bass Brewery. Aujan Industries began importing the drink for sale in the Middle East in 1983. Alongside the Swiss-made Moussy, Barbican was the first non-alcoholic malt drink to be sold in the region. Manufacturing changes at Bass disrupted supplies of Barbican to Aujan, and in 1999, Aujan purchased the Barbican brand in select markets. Aujan acquired complete control of Barbican in 2010, and began manufacturing it at the company's factory in Dubai.

Barbican accounted for 5% of Aujan's total sales in 2013.

Barbican is also sold in Malaysia. It is imported from Saudi Arabia and distributed by Coca-Cola Refreshments Malaysia. On 26 July 2011, Malaysia's National Fatwa Council declared that Barbican was "not processed to make it alcoholic, and contains low alcohol content which is not intoxicating." The ruling declared Barbican to be halaal for consumption by Muslims.

Production
Barbican is manufactured at ACCBC's manufacturing plants in Dammam (Saudi Arabia) and Dubai. It is brewed using a three-stage process involving mashing, lautering and wort boiling.

During mashing, the coarsely ground barley malt is subjected to hydration with water at different temperature-time regimes, which helps in a slow break down of starch molecules into simple carbohydrates, bringing in the balanced combination of carbohydrates and proteins. In the lautering stage, all the soluble solids from the barley malt are extracted avoiding harsh and astringent components from the barley malt husk, leaving behind wort. The extracted wort is boiled along with hops which adds a hoppy aroma and bitter taste to the malt extract. The malt extract is stabilized and sterilised during boiling.

Flavours

Apart from the original malt beverage, Barbican is sold in 8 fruit flavoured variants. Barbican is sold in 330 ml glass bottles and cans. The Mango & Passion Fruit, and Pomegranate are only sold in glass bottles.
 Malt
 Peach
 Raspberry
 Strawberry
 Pineapple
 Mango & Passion Fruit
 Apple
 Pomegranate
 Lemon

Health effects
A 2015 study conducted by the Hawler Medical University in Erbil, Iraq found that there was "no statistically significant increase in urinary uric acid before and after consumption of Barbican", but "urinary calcium significantly decreased after consumption." Researchers noted that the decrease in calciuria only occurred among normal males who were habitual consumers of Barbican. The decrease is caused by the presence of barley.

References

Non-alcoholic drinks
British drinks

Barbican (drink)


Lydd-on-Sea is a modern village, mostly built after World War II, which consists mainly of bungalows built along the Dungeness coastal road south of Greatstone, Kent, England. The Southern Railway opened a railway station here in 1937 but was closed in 1967. Lydd-on-Sea is part of the ecclesiastical parish of Lydd, now several miles distant, which once had access to the sea. It now forms part of the civil parish of Lydd.

An island in a lake (created by gravel extraction) slightly to the northwest of Lydd-on-Sea is the site of a collection of sound mirrors designed by Dr William Sansome Tucker, to detect the approach of enemy aircraft, in the years before radar had been developed.

References

External links

Villages in Kent
Populated coastal places in Kent
Beaches of Kent
Lydd

Lydd-on-Sea


The Western Macedonia Army Section (; Tmima Stratias Dytikis Makedonias, TSDM) was a field army of the Hellenic Army active during the Greco-Italian War (1940–41).

History
The command was established in western Macedonia prior to the Italian attack on 28 October 1940. Based at Kozani, it was commanded by Lieutenant-General Ioannis Pitsikas and comprised the II Army Corps (Lieutenant-General Dimitrios Papadopoulos) and III Army Corps (Lieutenant-General Georgios Tsolakoglou), each of two infantry divisions and an infantry brigade. The total forces available to TSDM on the outbreak of war consisted of  battalions and  batteries (seven heavy).

Following the Italian attack, TSDM played a crucial role in reversing the initial Italian penetration in the Battle of Pindus, where the weak Pindus Detachment was retreating against the elite Italian Julia Alpine Division. TSDM assigned the Pindus sector to the 1st Infantry Division, and progressively assigned more forces as they arrived—the Cavalry Division, 5th Brigade, and the newly formed Cavalry Brigade—managing to stabilize the situation by 30 October, and on 3 November began a counter-attack that forced the Julia to withdraw back to Albania to prevent being encircled. In the meantime, III Corps had undertaken limited advances into Albanian territory, and already on 6 November, it submitted plans for a general offensive. Judged too ambitious for the moment, the Greek commander-in-chief Alexandros Papagos postponed the offensive for 14 November.

By 14 November, with the Greek mobilization almost complete, TSDM's II Corps, deployed in the Pindus sector, comprised 1st Infantry Division, 5th Infantry Brigade and the Cavalry Brigade), and III Corps in western Macedonia proper comprised 9th, 10th, 15th Infantry Divisions, with 11th Division assembling in its rear. III Corps' main objective was the capture of the Korçë plateau, which controlled access to the interior of Albania along the valley of the Devoll river. The plateau lay behind the Morava and Ivan mountains on the Greco-Albanian frontier, which were held by the 29th Piemonte, the 19th Venezia, and the 49th Parma divisions. The Italians were later reinforced by the 2nd Alpine Division Tridentina, the 53rd Arezzo Division, and 30–50 tanks of the Centauro Division. Leaving five battalions to secure its rear, III Corps attacked with twenty battalions and 37 artillery batteries. Due to the lack of tanks or anti-tank weapons to counter Italian armour, the Greeks decided to limit their movement along the mountain ridges, never descending to the valleys. The offensive was launched on the morning of 14 November, with the corps' three divisions moving on converging lines of attack towards Korçë. To achieve surprise, the attack was not preceded by an artillery barrage.

The Italian forces were indeed taken by surprise, allowing the Greeks to force several breaches in the Italian positions on 14–16 November. On 17 November, III Corps was reinforced with 13th Infantry Division, and on the next day, with 11th Division, which along with the 10th Division formed a new command, the "K" Group of Divisions or OMK (Lieutenant-General Georgios Kosmas). The most critical moment for the Greeks came on 18 November, when elements of the 13th Division panicked during an ill-coordinated attack and the division almost retreated; its commander was sacked on the spot and the new commander, Major-General Sotirios Moutousis, forbade any further retreat, restoring the front. On 19–21 November, the Greeks captured the summit of Morava. Fearing that they would be surrounded and cut off, the Italians retreated towards the Devoll valley during the night, and on 22 November the city of Korçë was captured by 9th Division. By 27 November, TSDM had captured the entire Korçë plateau, suffering 624 dead and 2,348 wounded. Further south and west, I Corps and II Corps had moved to evict the Italians from Greek territory, which they achieved by 23 November. II Corps further moved across the border line, capturing Ersekë on 21 November and Leskovik on the next day.

Following the capture of Korçë and the eviction of the Italian forces from Greek soil, the Greek GHQ faced two options: continue the offensive in the Korçë sector in the direction of Elbasan or shift focus on the left flank and drive towards the port of Valona. In the event, the latter option was chosen. TSDM, comprising III Corps and the newly formed "K" Group of Divisions (OMK), would defend their positions on the Greek right and apply pressure on the Italians in front of them, while the reinforced I Corps would move north along the Gjirokastër–Tepelenë–Valona axis. II Corps would form the pivot of the movement, securing the connection between I Corps and TSDM, as well as advancing in step with its western neighbour in the direction of Berat. Despite its role being limited to pinning down the Italian front in its sector, TSDM's 10th Division captured Moscopole on 24 November, and Pogradec, evacuated by the Italians, was captured by 13th Division on 30 November. OMK under Lieutenant-General Kosmas (now essentially reduced to the 10th Division) captured the Ostravicë Mountain on 12 December, while III Corps—since 1 December reinforced with 17th Division, which replaced 13th Division—completed its occupation of the Kamia massif and secured possession of Pogradec. On 2 December, Papagos, accompanied by Crown Prince Paul, visited the front. Generals Pitsikas and Tsolakoglou urged him to order an immediate attack on the strategic Klisura Pass, without waiting for I and II Corps to level with TSDM. Papagos angrily rejected the proposal, and issued orders to continue the prescribed plan, with III Corps relegated to a passive role. This decision was later heavily criticized; coupled with the onset of winter, it effectively froze the Greek right wing in place. Despite the atrocious weather and the heavy snowfall, the Greek offensive continued on the left (I and II Corps) throughout December. OMK, now renamed as the V Army Corps, but still comprising only the 10th Division),managed to advance up to Mount Tomorr and secure the connection between II and III Corps, which remained in its positions.

After the Capture of Klisura Pass in mid-January, the Greek advance stalled. Despite the Greek successes in Albania thus far, in February 1941 dissension within the Greek leadership emerged over strategy towards the expected German attack and the need for a withdrawal in Albania. The front commanders in Albania represented their views to GHQ in Athens and in early March, Papagos moved to replace virtually the entire leadership in the Albanian front. As a result, Pitsikas was moved from TSDM to command the  Epirus Army Section (comprising I and II Corps), leaving TSDM to II Corps Commander Tsolakoglou.

Following the start of the German invasion of Greece on 6 April, Papagos ordered TSDM to launch an attack towards Elbasan, in conjunction with Yugolav forces. The attack began on 7 April and the 13th Division made some progress but the Yugoslav army, also attacked by the Germans, rapidly collapsed and the operation was cancelled. On 12 April, GHQ in Athens ordered the Greek forces on the Albanian front to retreat but the decision was too late. The Greek commanders knew that Italian pressure, the lack of motor transport and pack animals, the physical exhaustion of the Greek army and the poor transport network of Epirus, any retreat was likely to end up in disintegration. Advice to retreat before the start of the German attack had been rejected and they petitioned Pitsikas to surrender. Pitsikas forbade such talk but notified Papagos and urged a solution that would secure "the salvation and honour of our victorious Army". The order to retreat, the disheartening news of the Yugoslav collapse and the rapid German advance in Macedonia, led to a breakdown of morale in the Greek troops, many of whom had been fighting without rest for five months and were forced to abandon hard-won ground. By 15 April, the divisions of II Army Corps began to disintegrate, with men and even entire units abandoning their positions.

On 16 April, Pitsikas reported to Papagos that signs of disintegration had also begun to appear among the divisions of I Corps and begged him to "save the army from the Italians". On the next day, TSDM was renamed to III Army Corps and placed under Pitsikas' command. At this juncture, the three corps commanders, along with the metropolitan bishop of Ioannina, Spyridon, pressured Pitsikas to unilaterally negotiate with the Germans. When he refused, the others decided to bypass him and selected Tsolakoglou, as the senior of the three generals, to carry out the task. On 20 April, Tsolakoglou contacted SS-Obergruppenführer Sepp Dietrich, the commander of the nearest German unit, the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (LSSAH) brigade, to offer surrender. The protocol of surrender was signed at 18:00 of the same day between Tsolakoglou and Dietrich. Presented with the fait accompli, Pitsikas was informed an hour later and resigned his command.

References

Sources

Field armies of Greece
Military units and formations of Greece in the Greco-Italian War
Military units and formations established in 1940
Military units and formations disestablished in 1941

Western Macedonia Army Section