James Stanley Cocanower [Hi-me] (born February 14, 1957) is a former Major League Baseball pitcher who played for the Milwaukee Brewers from 1983 to 1986.

College career
Cocanower played college baseball at Baylor University, and was a pitcher for them during their appearances in the 1977 and 1978 College World Series, the Bears' first world series appearances. Cocanower's first world series matchup was a pitcher's duel against the 1977 National Player of the Year Randy Martz of the University of South Carolina, which was tied 1–1 in nine innings. After Baylor 0–4 run during Cocanower's time as a Bear, he was signed by the Milwaukee Brewers as an amateur free agent on June 7, 1978, ending his college career.

Professional career
Cocanower began his first season of professional baseball in 1979, pitching for the Stockton Ports of the California League. He appeared in 20 games and started eight of them, finishing the season with a 2–4 record and an earned run average (ERA) of 4.15. Cocanower spent a second season at Stockton, where he was the on a team that included Mike Madden and fellow Baylor teammate Andy Beene. In 27 starts, Cocanower had 198 innings pitched, a 17–5 record, ten complete games, and a 2.18 ERA, and was the MVP of the California League in 1980. For the 1981 season, Cocanower was promoted to the Brewers' AAA-level affiliate, the Vancouver Canadians of the Pacific Coast League. He had six wins, 12 losses, and a 5.65 ERA, and split time the next season between Vancouver and the El Paso Diablos. He pitched nine games for the Diablos and 14 games for the Canadians, with a 3–1 record and a 3.32 ERA for the Diablos, and a 4–3 record with a 4.86 ERA for the Canadians. Cocanower spent most of the 1983 season as a member of the Canadians' rotation. He posted a 10–10 record with a 4.81 ERA over the course of the season, and was brought up to the Brewers as the minor league season ended.

Cocanower made his major league debut on September 7, 1983, against the New York Yankees, pitching four innings and allowing an earned run in an 11–5 loss. For the season, he pitched in five games and started in three, finishing with a 2–0 record and a 1.80 ERA. Cocanower spent the 1984 season in the starting rotation, alongside Don Sutton and Moose Haas. He finished the season with 33 appearances and eight wins, 16 losses and a 4.02 ERA. He spent the 1985 season as a spot starter, starting in 15 games. He finished the season with a 6–8 record, a 4.33 ERA, and three complete games. Cocanower set an unofficial record in July 1985 when he threw a wild pitch in eight consecutive appearances. Cocanower was used less frequently in 1986. He made 17 appearances with a 4.43 ERA, pitching in just under 45 innings.

Cocanower played his final major league game on July 12, 1986. He spent the rest of the season with the Beloit Brewers and the Arkansas Travelers. He was released by the Brewers on December 23, 1986, and was signed by the Los Angeles Dodgers on February 26, 1987. After a season with the Albuquerque Dukes where he had an ERA of 6.35, his professional career came to an end.

See also
 List of Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico

References

External links

1957 births
Living people
Albuquerque Dukes players
Arkansas Travelers players
Baylor Bears baseball players
Baylor University alumni
Beloit Brewers players
El Paso Diablos players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico
Milwaukee Brewers players
Puerto Rican expatriate baseball players in Canada
Baseball players from San Juan, Puerto Rico
Stockton Ports players
Vancouver Canadians players

Jaime Cocanower


El hombre que debía una muerte (English: The Man Who Owed a Death) is a 1955 Argentine crime film directed by Mario Soffici and starring Amelia Bence and Carlos Cores.

Synopsis
A man named Héctor Rossi travels to La Rioja and fakes involvement in a bus accident while following a school-teacher, Leonor. The teacher takes the man in and lets him stay and recover from his injuries at her house for a while, but after two weeks they fall in love and marry. What Leonor does not know is that Rossi is the boyfriend of Celina Reyes, who in turn is secretary to Leonor's rich, estranged uncle, Don Roque Fontán. When Don Roque winds up dead in an "accident" at work (devised by Rossi, Reyes and a foreign hitman), Leonor and Héctor inherit both his manor at Buenos Aires and his fortune.

The next step is killing Leonor, so Rossi, as a game, tricks her into writing a suicide note and leaves the gas running on her as she sleeps. She is almost killed, but survives the murder attempt. Pressured by  Celina, who wants to return to Héctor as quickly as possible, and the hitman, who still claims part of his share, Rossi decides to kill Leonor during their honeymoon back at La Rioja. The opportunity arises when they find themselves trapped on a chairlift, but Rossi is unable to do so as he has fallen in love with her.

Back at Buenos Aires, the hitman is wounded in a gunfight while trying to cross over to Uruguay, but dies before being able to clear Don Roque's partner, Carlomagno, from suspicion over the "accident". Leonor, who had seen the hitman talk twice to her husband, realizes he was one of the workers at the construction site where Don Roque died, and makes the connection. She calls the police, who tail Rossi and spy on him as he buys poison.

Back at the manor, Rossi is arrested for trying to poison his wife, but this proves false when he himself drinks the glass he was about to give her. He instead accompanies the police to Reyes' home, where they find her dead with a suicide letter next to her the same letter she had written during the game where Leonor had written hers. This alerts Leonor, who waits for her husband knowing he has killed Celina. The police soon find out and ambush Rossi as he attempts to flee the premises. He is wounded in the ensuing gunfight, and dies telling Leonor that everything was a lie but this: he truly loved her.

External links

1955 films
1950s Spanish-language films
Films directed by Mario Soffici
1955 crime films
Films shot in Buenos Aires
Argentine crime films
Argentine black-and-white films
1950s Argentine films

The Man Who Owed a Death


Alfred Samuel Alschuler (November 2, 1876 – June 11, 1940) was a Chicago architect.

Biography
Alschuler was born in Chicago and was educated in the public school system. He graduated with a Master in Science from the Armour Institute of Technology in 1899 and spent a year studying architecture at the Art Institute of Chicago. In 1900, he began his career as a draftsman for famed architect Dankmar Adler. Alschuler studied under Adler for five years before joining the firm of Samuel Treat for two years. Alschuler opened his own office in 1907. Also in 1907, he married Rose Haas Alschuler, and together they would have five children.

His designs included warehouses, department stores, industrial buildings, synagogues, and offices.  Alschuler's legacy lives on in the form of historically significant buildings such as the London Guaranty & Accident Building (1922–23) at the intersection of N. Michigan Avenue and Wacker Drive.

The Chicago Mercantile Exchange Building (1927), another of Alschuler's acclaimed commercial buildings, suffered a less fortunate fate; The Merc was demolished in 2003, despite a spirited set of protests organized by local preservation groups. The silver lining of The Merc's demolition was the creation of a new Chicago law which provides the Landmarks Commission a 90-day period to review and potentially save historically significant buildings. Other significant industrial and commercial works by Alschuler include the Bull Dog and Whistle Restaurant, Brach's Candy Factory, the Florsheim Shoe Factory, the Garment Center Building, and the Benson-Rixon Department Store.

Alschuler was also an accomplished designer of Jewish synagogues in the Chicago area, including the current K.A.M. Isaiah Israel Temple, Agudath Achim Bikur Cholim Synagogue, B'nai Sholom, Anshe Emet Synagogue, Am Shalom in Glencoe, and Am Echod in Waukegan.

A member of the American Institute of Architects, Alfred S. Alschuler died on June 11, 1940, near age 64, in Chicago.  His son John also trained as an architect, as did Alfred S. Alschuler Jr..  Several of Alschuler's works are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

Notable works
The following is a partial list of known works by Alfred S. Alschuler:

Maurice L. Rothschild Building (now part of John Marshall Law School (Chicago)), 300-306 S. State St. (built in three phases, 1906, 1910 and 1928)
Anshe Emet Synagogue, 3760 N. Pine Grove Avenue, Chicago (1910)
Shops Building, 21 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago (1912)
John R. Thompson Building, 350 N. Clark St., Chicago (1912)
Chicago Sinai Temple (now Mt. Pisgah M.B. Church), 4622 S. Martin Luther King Dr., Chicago (1912)
Donohue Building Annex, 727 S. Dearborn St., Chicago (1913)
Thomas Flyer Garage and Service Building, 2255 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago (1916 addition)
Goldblatt Bros. Department Store, aka Larkin Store Building, 4700 S. Ashland Ave., Chicago, Illinois (1914) NRHP listed
John Sexton & Co. aka Sexton Foods Building, Illinois & Orleans Chicago, Illinois (1916/1928)
Pelouze Building, 230 E. Ohio St., Chicago (1917)
Henry E. Legler Regional Branch of the Chicago Public Library, 115 S. Pulaski Rd., Chicago, Illinois (1919) NRHP listed
Torco Building (upper 7 floors only), 624 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago (1922)
Atwell Building (then Atwell Printing & Binding Company & Rotary International; 1950s, Pentron Corporation & Revere Camera Company; 1960s, 3M; 2001-present, Prairie Avenue Lofts), 221 E Cullerton St., Chicago (1922)
London Guaranty & Accident Building, Chicago (1923)
Hartman Building, 30 E. Adams St., Chicago (1933)
Furniture Exhibition Building, aka American Furniture Mart, 680 N. Lake Shore Dr. (eastern wing, 1923; western wing and tower, 1926)
K.A.M. Isaiah Israel Temple, 1100 E. Hyde Park Blvd., Chicago (1924)
Century Building, 808 N. Old World Third St, 230 W. Wells St, Milwaukee (1925)
33 East Congress Building, aka Congress-Wabash Building, Chicago (1925–26)
Michigan and Lake Building, 180 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago (1926)
Florsheim Shoe Company Factory, 3963 W. Belmont Ave., Chicago (1926)
Hart, Schaffner and Marx Building, 728 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago (1926)
Igoe Building, 600 W. Van Buren St., Chicago (1926? addition built 1928 at 328 S. Jefferson St.)
Chicago Mercantile Exchange Building, Chicago (1927)
Hudson Motor Co. Building, 2228 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago (1928)
Marmon-Chicago Showroom, 2230 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago (1928)
Finchley Co. Men's Store Building, aka O'Malley Place, 23 E. Jackson Blvd. (1928)
Harrison Hotel and Garage, 601 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago (1930)
Benson & Rixon Building, 230 S. State St., Chicago (1937)
Henry W. Austin Branch, Chicago Public Library, 5615 W. Race Ave., Chicago
Lerman Building, 3045 N. Lincoln Ave., Chicago
Richard Churchill House, 1214 Green Bay Rd., Highland Park, Illinois, NRHP-listed
Park View Manor Apartments, 6834 S. South Shore Dr., Chicago

Notes

References
Alfred S. Alschuler, profile from Columbia College, Chicago.

External links
"Alfred S. Alschuler", list of Chicago buildings designed by Alschuler.
Images of Alschuler buildings, University of Minnesota digital library. (search on "Alschuler")

1876 births
1940 deaths
Jews and Judaism in Chicago
Architects from Illinois
20th-century American architects
School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni

Alfred S. Alschuler


Mirèio (; Mirèlha in classical norm, ) is a poem in Occitan by French writer Frédéric Mistral. It was written in 1859, after eight years of effort. Mirèio, a long poem in Provençal consisting of twelve songs, tells of the thwarted love of Vincent and Mireille, two young Provençal people of different social backgrounds. The name Mireille (Mirèio in Provence) is a doublet of the word meraviho which means wonder.

Overview

Mistral used the poem to promote the language, Occitan the lingua franca of Southern France until the vergonha, as well as to share the culture of the Provença area. He tells among other tales, of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, where according to legend the dragon, Tarasque, was driven out, and of the famous and ancient Venus of Arles. He prefaced the poem with a short notice about Provençal pronunciation. Mirèio was translated into some fifteen European languages, including into French by Mistral himself. In 1863, Charles Gounod made it into an opera, Mireille.

The plot

In Provence, Mirèio is the daughter of a rich farmer. She is in love with a modest basketmaker, Vincènt. Her father disapproves of the relationship and seeks other suitors. Mirèio, in despair, escapes from her house to Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer. There she prays to the saints that her father will accept her relationship with Vincènt. The way is hard and unbearably hot. At the end, the saints appear to Mirèio. They tell her of their happiness in Paradise, and Mirèio dies in peace.

Dedication

Mistral dedicated his book to Alphonse de Lamartine, a French writer, poet and politician who was instrumental in the foundation of the Second Republic and the continuation of the Tricolore as the flag of France, as follows:

"To Lamartine:

To you, I dedicate Mireille: It is my heart and my soul; It is the flower of my years; It is bunch of grapes from La Crau, leaves and all, a peasant's offering."

Lamartine wrote enthusiastically: "I will tell you good news today! A great epic poet is born ... A true Homeric poet in our time; ... Yes, your epic poem is a masterpiece; ... the perfume of your book will not evaporate in a thousand years."

External links

Full text in Occitan
Full text in English

Occitan literature
1859 poems
Frédéric Mistral

Mirèio


Stratton Owen Hammon (March 6, 1904 – October 22, 1997) was a Louisville, Kentucky, architect known for his Colonial Revival style homes.

Life
Hammon was a graduate of DuPont Manual High School in Louisville where he studied art and architectural drafting. He studied architecture briefly at the University of Louisville. He learned the architecture trade working with a Louisville builder named Murphy and opened his own architecture practice during the height of the Great Depression. He is known for the more than 100 distinctive homes he designed in Kentucky and for the house plans that he published in magazines such as Good Housekeeping, Better Homes and Gardens and McCall's throughout the United States. It is impossible to know how many homes were built based on these plans in various parts of the United States.

He became the 30th Kentucky registered architect in 1930 and was later president of the Kentucky Chapter of the American Institute of Architects.

During World War II, Hammon served as captain in the United States Army Corps of Engineers, supervising construction projects such as Columbus Air Support Base, soon to be called Bakalar Air Force Base, in Columbus, Indiana. He participated in the Normandy Invasion in June 1944 and also served as one of the Monuments Men at the close of the war. He rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel by the end of the war. The French government awarded him both the Croix de Guerre and the Legion of Honor for his efforts in France during World War II

The Speed Museum in Louisville mounted an exhibition of Hammon's work in 2007 and a book was published that same year containing photographs of many Hammon homes and a definitive record of his Kentucky commissions. Architectural historian Richard Guy Wilson has lectured on Hammon's work at the Filson Historical Society.

He is buried at Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville.

External links
 Kentucky Educational Television story on Hammon
 Indiana Historical Marker noting Hammon contribution to construction of Atterbury Army Air Field

References

1904 births
1997 deaths
Architects from Louisville, Kentucky
DuPont Manual High School alumni
Burials at Cave Hill Cemetery
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Monuments men
20th-century American architects

Stratton Hammon


Luther is the 1974 American biographical drama film of John Osborne's biographical play, presenting the life of Martin Luther. It was one of eight in the first season of the American Film Theatre's series of plays made into films. It was produced by Ely Landau, directed by British director Guy Green, and filmed at Shepperton Studios, England. The film presents Martin Luther and his legacy for the world to evaluate. The young knight narrator (Julian Glover) is an "everyman" character who confronts Luther for advocating the suppression of the Peasants' Revolt of 1524–1526.

Synopsis
The time span covered by the film is 1506–1526: from Luther's completion of his novitiate in the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt to a time just after the birth of his first son Hans (b. June 7, 1526). It is narrated by Julian Glover, who portrays a young knight in the tradition of Ulrich von Hutten and Franz von Sickingen. He takes Luther to task for failing to complete his "revolution" by supporting the peasants in their uprising: "You could have done it, Martin." Luther is confronted in the course of the film six other times, giving him the opportunity to defend himself in his own words. The metaphor of constipation and flatulence is employed to indicate Luther's progression from insecurity to confidence in life.

Plot

Luther ascends his pulpit, hindered by cramps, in 1525, during the Peasants' Revolt. A wounded knight wheels in a fallen comrade, celebrates Luther's accomplishments but accuses him of abandoning his supporters. Luther denies this, and the knight wipes blood across Luther's white surplice.

The film recaps to the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt in 1506, when Luther becomes a monk. The knight explains Luther sought to protect himself from demons and excelled in the "counsels of perfection" to suppress internal doubt. Luther serves food, cleans latrines, washes dishes, shivers in bed, and paces in prayer, saying, "I am afraid of the darkness and the hole in it ... and there's no bottom to it!" Overwhelmed by his sinfulness, he leaves the stalls of chanting monks and collapses. The knight reports he dealt with doubts by "dropping them" into his bowels, i.e., becoming constipated.

Before the first mass in which he officiates, Brother Weinand tells him his father will attend and, in vesting Luther, has him confess the Apostles' Creed, repeating "the forgiveness of sins", to tell him that "God isn't angry with you. It is you that are angry with him."

Luther imagines Jesus as a fearsome judge on a rainbow with an admonitory sword. In the mass, he appears forgetful. Hans Luther scolds him for failing to honor father and mother when he left law to enter the convent and says he believes Luther is murdering himself. Luther says a vision moved him to promise St. Anne to become a monk and felt closest to his father.

The knight comments: "So the praising ended, and the blasphemy began." Johann Tetzel preaches indulgences with pomp, claiming they would provide forgiveness even if one offered violence to the Virgin Mary. Luther meets his mentor Vicar General Johann von Staupitz who accuses him of resenting authority and making it ridiculous by meticulous observance of monastic rule. Staupitz urges him to critique the church in Latin rather than German to avoid encouraging revolt.

Luther preaches on the eve of All Saints' Day, 1517, recalling he discovered the gospel of justification by faith alone while on the latrine. He declares someone has to "bell the cat," and posts his Ninety-five Theses. Confronted by Tetzel and Thomas Cardinal Cajetan de Vio at Augsburg in 1518, Cajetan warns that, if Luther does not retract his "errors and sermons", Christian unity would fall. Luther refuses, and Cajetan concludes, "That man hates himself, and if he goes to the stake, Tetzel, you can inscribe it: 'he could only love others.'"

Luther burns the pope's bull Exsurge Domine and has a fit. Praying, he reminds God he is fighting his cause and wonders if God is dead, but concludes God cannot die but only hide.

In the Diet of Worms, Inquisitor Johann Eck confronts Luther, interrupting his "Here I Stand" speech to warn greedy commoners would be incited to revolt if Luther does not recant. Luther refuses, and the knight exults that Luther could have led a successful revolt but disgustedly recounts Luther advocated the rebels' extermination in his Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants. As Luther declaims this, the emperor and princes leave to repress the revolt.

Luther wanders through a devastated marketplace of slaughtered peasants, responding: "God is the butcher. Address your abuse to him." and references the Sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham, concluding God gives life in the face of death.

Confronted by Staupitz, visiting Martin and his wife Katie, Luther admits the peasants had cause but that mobs are irreligious. Staupitz is relieved to hear Luther was unsure at Worms. Luther prays, "Help my unbelief." Luther asserts that passing air in the devil's face wards him off: going from being anal retentive to being anal expulsive shows one has overcome one's doubts and fears. Luther takes Katie's baby into his pulpit and assures him that "the dark isn't quite as thick as all that," that they should hope that Christ will be true to his word, "A little while and you'll not see me, and then again a little and you shall see me" (John 16:16).

Historical inconsistencies
Johann Tetzel represented as being present at Luther's meeting in 1518 with Cardinal Cajetan (de Vio) at Augsburg though he was not present.
Johann von Staupitz is represented as alive in 1526 though he had died in 1524.

Cast

See also
 List of American films of 1973
 Luther (1928 film)
 Martin Luther (1953 film)
 Luther (2003 film)

Notes

Further reading

External links

1973 films
1970s biographical drama films
American biographical drama films
Films about Martin Luther
American films based on plays
Films based on works by John Osborne
Films produced by Ely Landau
Films scored by John Addison
Films directed by Guy Green
Films with screenplays by Edward Anhalt
Films set in the 1500s
Films set in the 1510s
Films set in the 1520s
1973 drama films
1970s English-language films
1970s American films

Luther (1974 film)


Giuseppe Cremonini (25 November 1866 – 9 May 1903) was an Italian operatic tenor who had a prominent opera career in Europe and the United States during the last decade of the nineteenth century.

Cremonini was born and died in Cremona, Italy.  Admired for his full lyric voice, he sang a wide repertoire that encompassed the bel canto works of Donizetti and Rossini, the Italian grand opera of Verdi, the verisimo operas of Mascagni, the French operas of Gounod and Massenet, and the German operas of Richard Wagner. He sang in several world premieres during his career, including creating the role of Chevalier des Grieux in the original 1893 production of Puccini's Manon Lescaut. An immensely popular singer, Cremonini's career was cut short upon his sudden death in 1903 at the age of 36.

Biography

Cremonini was born into an impoverished family with the name Giuseppe Bianchi. He studied under a teacher with the surname of Cima. Taking on the name Giuseppe Cremonini, he made his professional opera debut in 1889 at the Teatro Politeama in Genoa as Carlo in Donizetti's Linda di Chamounix. The following year he performed the role of Wilhelm Meister in Ambroise Thomas's Mignon at both the Teatro Filodrammatico in Milan and the Teatro Coccia in Novara. In 1891 he sang the role of Turiddu in Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana opposite the famous primadonna Hariclea Darclée as Santuzza at the Romanian National Opera. That same year she had an enormous successes as the title hero in Mascagni's L'amico Fritz at the opera's premieres in Mantua, Faenza and Palermo. In 1892 she made his Covent Garden debut as Nadir in Bizet's Les pêcheurs de perles and sang the role of Alfredo in Verdi's La traviata with the company.

On 1 February 1893, Cremonini created the role of Chevalier des Grieux in the world premiere of Puccini's Manon Lescaut at the Teatro Regio di Torino. It was the first time of many that he would sing opposite Cesira Ferrani, who originated the role of Manon. In 1894 Cremonini and Ferrani reprised their roles at Manon Lescaut'''s La Scala premiere and sang opposite each other in the world premiere of Alberto Franchetti's Il fior d'Alpe as Paolo and Maria.

In addition to Manon Lescaut, Cremonini also appeared in operas at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires, Teatro Costanzi in Rome, and at the Teatro Real in Madrid in 1893 and 1894. His performances included such roles as Turiddu, the Assad in Karl Goldmark's Die Königin von Saba, and the title role in Wagner's Lohengrin among others. He also sang the title role in the world premiere of Pietro Vallini's Il Voto at the Teatro Costanzi in 1894.

In 1895 Cremonini sang in numerous roles with Opéra de Monte-Carlo including Turiddu, Amico Fritz, Enzo in La Gioconda, Count Almaviva in The Barber of Seville, and Arturo in I puritani. In 1896 he sang several roles at Covent Garden including Turiddu, Don Ottavio in Don Giovanni, Lyonel in Martha, Gennaro in Lucrezia Borgia, Edgardo in Lucia di Lammermoor, the Duke of Mantua in Rigoletto, and Faust in Mefistofele. The following year he made his debut at the Berlin State Opera as Don Ottavio. Between 1895 and 1897, he also sang the role of Fernando in Donizetti's La favorita in numerous opera houses throughout Europe.

Cremonini joined the roster of the Metropolitan Opera in 1900 where he sang roles with the company for two seasons. He made his American debut with the company as Cavaradossi in the American premiere of Puccini's Tosca. He later reprised this role in Tosca's premieres in Boston and Chicago. Cremononini's other roles at the Met included Alfredo, Lohengrin, Nadir, Rodolfo in La Bohème, Fenton in Falstaff, Faust in Mefistofele, and the title role in Gounod's Faust among others.

In 1902 he returned to Italy where he sang Edgardo in Lucia di Lammermoor, Jean Gaussin in Sapho, and the role of Stolzing in the Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. His last performance, as Le Chevalier des Grieux in Massenet's Manon in his home city of Cremona, was just a few days before his sudden death in 1903.

Recordings
Cremonini's voice is sometimes said to have been  recorded in  1900/1 Mapleson Cylinder in recordings of duets from Tosca. However, the Mapleson recordings of Tosca are from 1902 and 1903 (when Cremonini was long gone from the Metropolitan, indeed dead by 1903). The existing recordings (from 1902/1903) are still, however, with soprano Milka Ternina or Emma Eames; but Ternina's tenor partner in  1902 (and Eames' in 1903) was in fact Di Marchi. The earlier performances with Cremonini were not recorded by Mapleson.

Cremonini, unlike other important tenors at the time (such as De Lucia, Caruso, Tamagno, et al.)  did not record commercially (if at all) in 1902/03. He is therefore, along with Di Marchi,  one of the greatest "losses" of the dawn of "serious" sound recording.

References

Sources

Jullian Budden: "Manon Lescaut (ii)", Grove Music Online'' ed. L. Macy (Accessed November 15, 2008), (subscription access)
Biography of Giuseppe Cremonini from Operissimo.com (In German)

Italian operatic tenors
1866 births
1903 deaths
Musicians from Cremona
19th-century Italian male opera singers
20th-century Italian male opera singers

Giuseppe Cremonini


Abbey House on Abbey Road, Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, England is a Neo-Elizabethan H-plan mansion designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and completed in 1914 as a guest house for Vickers Ltd and a flat for the Managing Director, Sir James McKechnie.  In its abstracted, military echo of the Tudor style, it prefigures the style of Lutyens' Castle Drogo. In 1951, having been acquired by the County Council, Abbey House was made into an old people's home, and consequently suffered considerable neglect. Abbey House has been a Grade II* Listed Building since 1949.

In 1984, it was sold by the Council and restored as a hotel. The Abbey House Hotel is a four-star venue set in 14 acres of gardens and saw a major extension during the early 2000s.

References

C. Aslet, The last country houses, 1982, pp. 34, 310
Country Life, 1921, vol. xlix, p. 398
G. Stamp, Edwin Lutyens' country houses, 2001, pp. 32, 150-155

External links
 Abbey House Hotel

Hotels in Cumbria
Buildings and structures in Barrow-in-Furness
Works of Edwin Lutyens in England
Grade II* listed buildings in Cumbria
Country houses in Cumbria
Country house hotels

Abbey House, Barrow-in-Furness


The 1919 Chicago White Sox season was their 19th season in the American League. They won 88 games to advance to the World Series but lost to the Cincinnati Reds. More significantly, some of the players were found to have taken money from gamblers in return for throwing the series. The "Black Sox Scandal" had permanent ramifications for baseball, including the establishment of the office of Commissioner of Baseball.

Regular season

In 1919, Eddie Cicotte led the majors with 29 wins and 30 complete games, going 29–7 for the season with a 1.82 ERA (2nd in AL) and 110 strikeouts (7th in AL). He also led the AL in innings pitched with 240 (shared with Washington Senators pitcher Jim Shaw).

Right fielder Joe Jackson hit .351 (4th in AL) with 7 home runs, 96 RBIs (3rd in AL) and had 181 hits (3rd in AL, only 10 fewer than league leader Ty Cobb of the Detroit Tigers). Shoeless Joe headed an offense that scored the most runs of any team.

Season standings

Record vs. opponents

Roster

Player stats

Batting

Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in

Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in

Pitching

Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts

Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts

Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts

Awards and honors

League top ten finishers
Eddie Cicotte
 MLB leader in wins (29)
 MLB leader in complete games (30)
 Equal AL leader in innings pitched (240)
 #2 in AL in ERA (1.82)
 #2 in AL in shutouts (5)
 #7 in AL in strikeouts (110)

Happy Felsch
 #6 in AL in RBI (86)

Joe Jackson
 #3 in AL in RBI (96)
 #3 in AL in hits (181)
 #4 in AL in batting average (.351)
 #4 in AL in on-base percentage (.422)
 #4 in AL in triples (14)
 #5 in AL in slugging percentage (.506)

Buck Weaver
 #4 in AL in runs scored (89)
 #7 in AL in stolen bases (22)
 #7 in AL in hits (169)

Lefty Williams
 #2 in AL in shutouts (5)
 #2 in AL in complete games (27)
 #3 in AL in wins (23)
 #3 in AL in strikeouts (125)
 #9 in AL in ERA (2.64)

1919 World Series

NL Cincinnati Reds (5) vs. AL Chicago White Sox (3)

Black Sox Scandal

The Black Sox Scandal refers to a number of events that took place around and during the play of the 1919 World Series.  The name "Black Sox" also refers to the Chicago White Sox team from that era.  Eight members of the Chicago franchise were banned from baseball for throwing (intentionally losing) games.

The Fix
The conspiracy was the brainchild of White Sox first baseman Arnold "Chick" Gandil and Joseph "Sport" Sullivan, who was a professional gambler of Gandil's acquaintance. New York gangster Arnold Rothstein supplied the major connections needed. The money was supplied by Abe Attell, former featherweight boxing  champion, who accepted the offer even though he didn't have the $80,000 that the White Sox wanted.

Gandil enlisted seven of his teammates, motivated by a mixture of greed and a dislike of penurious club owner Charles Comiskey, to implement the fix. Starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Claude "Lefty" Williams, outfielders "Shoeless" Joe Jackson and Oscar "Happy" Felsch, and infielder Charles "Swede" Risberg were all involved. Buck Weaver was also asked to participate, but refused; he was later banned with the others for knowing of the fix but not reporting it. Utility infielder Fred McMullin was not initially approached but got word of the fix and threatened to report the others unless he was in on the payoff. Sullivan and his two associates, Sleepy Bill Burns and Billy Maharg, somewhat out of their depth, approached Rothstein to provide the money for the players, who were promised a total of $100,000.

Stories of the "Black Sox" scandal have usually included Comiskey in its gallery of subsidiary villains, focusing in particular on his intentions regarding a clause in Cicotte's contract that would have paid Cicotte an additional $10,000 bonus for winning 30 games. According to Eliot Asinof's account of the events, Eight Men Out, Cicotte was "rested" for the season's final two weeks after reaching his 29th win, presumably to deny him the bonus. In reality, however, Cicotte started the White Sox's last game of the season, September 28th against the Tigers. But, with a 1-0 Chicago lead, Chicago manager Kid Gleason took Cicotte out of the game following the second inning, which assured Cicotte could not get his 30th win.

External links
1919 Chicago White Sox at Baseball Reference

Chicago White Sox seasons
Chicago White Sox season
American League champion seasons
Chicago White

1919 Chicago White Sox season


Overstock, excessive stock, or excess inventory arise when there is more than the "right quantity" of goods available for sale, or when "the potential sales value of excess stock, less the expected storage costs, does not match the salvage value". It arises as a result of poor management of stock demand or of material flow in process management. Excessive stock is also associated with loss of revenue owing to additional capital bound with the purchase or simply storage space taken. Excessive stock can result from over delivery from a supplier or from poor ordering and management of stock by a buyer for the stock. Excess or unnecessary inventory is listed as one of the seven wastes or "muda" in Taiichi Ohno's Toyota production system.

When referring to overstock merchandise in the form of consumer goods in a retail operation, the term refers to goods that have never been purchased by a customer but that are considered excessive stock from shelves and/or warehouses. Excessive stock is typically discarded of in the following ways: returned to the manufacturer or original distributor; liquidated to companies that then resell it on the secondary wholesale or retail market; sold at an extreme discount to existing customers; or sold to salvage companies which then process metals and components of value.

Techniques such as supply chain management and lean manufacturing are intended to avoid the excessive development of inventory.

Economic implications
The initial damage caused by excessive stock is an early exhaustion of cash flow, which leads to the subsequent loss of disposable capital available for investing. If a company has too much overstock inventory on its books, it may affect sales to the point where the company has to go out of business. Although this is rare, when overstock inventory is not properly managed and becomes too large a percentage of total inventory, it can result in bankruptcy.

With perishable supplies, excessive stock can cause the loss of millions of currency units as the product's freshness may deteriorate to such an extent that it cannot be sold, as is the case with dairy products, fresh baked goods, flowers, produce, fish, and meat. It is also true of consumables such as oil, gasoline, paints, and medications. Time-sensitive items such as periodical literature are similarly at risk.

Sales of excess inventories
Crandall and Crandall reported 238,000 responses to a web search for "excess inventories" in 2003, with a majority of websites offering to buy or sell "excess inventories" in specific sales categories.

See also
 Inventory
 Inventory control system
 Inventory management software
 Military surplus
 Operations management
 Supply chain management
 Warehouse management system

References

External links
 http://www.iamwire.com/2017/07/excess2sell-b2b-excess-inventory-liquidation-platform/155506
 , an excess IT inventory sale site

Inventory

Overstock


The Pittsburgh (or Pittsburg) Athletic Club football team, established in 1890, was based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1892 the intense competition between two Pittsburgh-area clubs, the Allegheny Athletic Association and the Pittsburgh Athletic Club, led to William (Pudge) Heffelfinger becoming the first known professional football player. Heffelfinger was paid $500 by Allegheny to play in a game against Pittsburgh on November 12, 1892. As a result, Heffelfinger became the first person to be paid to play football. Allegheny would go on to win the game, 4–0, when Heffelfinger picked up a Pittsburgh fumble and ran it 35 yards for a touchdown. In 1893, Pittsburgh again made history when it signed one of its players, probably halfback Grant Dibert, to the first known pro football contract, which covered all of the team's games for the year.

History

Origins

In 1890 the Pittsburgh Athletic Club, then called the East End Gymnastic Club, decided to field a football team. Their rival, the Allegheny Athletic Association, started up a football team in the same year that brought a lot of publicity to their club. In most sports, Allegheny provided little competition for the older East End Gymnastic Club. However, in 1890, Allegheny found that it could compete in football. The team soon gave the Allegheny Athletic Association a strong following. The Association's focus on football increased the prestige of the club, which led to an increase in their membership. Soon Allegheny's membership expanded to more than 330 persons and now equalled East End's.

During the late 1800s, if an athletic club exhibited signs of fame and glory, increased revenues to the club soon followed. Therefore, publicity, and football victories, were important to the clubs and new members were attracted to clubs with stature. The quest for club prestige led to the recruiting of football players, at first with indirect financial inducements. The East Ends formed their team around the clubs physical director, L. F. Kirchner, a lineman. During Kirchner's stint with the football team, it was noted in the Pittsburgh newspapers that Kirchner's salary nearly doubled during football season, while his classes he taught at the club were cut in half. The papers at times hinted to Kirchner's suspiciously professional status, although no one accused him outright.

1890–1891
After a shaky first season in which they played (and lost) only two known games (against Washington & Jefferson College and Indiana Normal School), the East Enders found their footing, completing their second season with a 6–0 record. Harry Fry, who held memberships at both Allegheny and the East End, chose to play for the East Enders, and his performance in the 1891 season opener earned the respect of the local press. After their undefeated season, each member of the East End team was presented with a gold watch in the shape of a miniature football which also served as a trophy. However, when play began the East End and Allegheny did not play each other. Efforts were made by local media to schedule a game between the two clubs. However O. D. Thompson, Allegheny's manager, carefully avoided a game. He feared a one-sided loss to Pittsburgh because his team lacked the time needed to practice together that the East End team already had. However a game would occur in 1892.

Issues with professionalism
The first game between Allegheny and the now renamed Pittsburgh Athletic Club was played on Columbus Day 1892 in East Liberty. The game ended in a tie: 6–6. There were accusations of dirty play and unprofessionalism, that added fuel to an already bitter rivalry. Pittsburgh accused Allegheny of purposely trying to injure Kirchner, who had been forced out of the game with an ankle injury. Meanwhile, Allegheny countered that Kirchner was a professional and should not have been playing anyway. Allegheny even announced it was willing to bet anyone that Pittsburgh had used a pro, other than Kirchner. In fact, the team's captain, Charley Aull, found Pittsburgh a new center prior to the team's game against Allegheny, when he supposedly ran into an old friend on the street known only as "Stayer". A few weeks after the game, it was discovered that "Stayer" was actually A. C. Read, the captain of the Penn State Nittany Lions football team. While no one could prove that Read had been paid, and Pittsburgh had not tried to present him as a member, his presence escalated the situation. Now neither club would hesitate to take the final step to professionalism.

A rematch was scheduled for that November at Recreation Park, which is not far from where Heinz Field stands today. The spot is marked by a historic marker. In preparation, both clubs went into full-scale behind-the-scenes talks with the top players of the era to strengthen their teams. Cash offers and other inducements were made to players from New York City to Chicago.

First professional player
The first known professional player was William "Pudge" Heffelfinger, an All-American offensive guard from Yale. Heffelfinger was paid $500 (US dollars) to play for Allegheny against Pittsburgh on November 12, 1892. Heffelfinger, who was working as a railroad clerk in Chicago, and playing for Chicago Athletic Association Football team between arguments with its management, had earlier turned down an offer to play for the Pittsburgh Athletic Club for $250. This set off quite a controversy as Pittsburgh protested the presence of Heffelfinger and other Chicago players. Allegheny retaliated with the fact that Pittsburgh had imported players as well. Allegheny won the game 4–0, in front of 3,000 spectators, when Heffelfinger picked up a fumble, that he forced himself, and ran it in for a touchdown.

It later turned out that Heffelfinger received $500 plus $25 in expenses for the game. Two of his Chicago teammates received "liberal" expense money. Thus, William (Pudge) Heffelfinger now is acknowledged as the first professional football player anywhere.

First pro football contract
In 1893, the Allegheny and Pittsburgh split two games, with the Pittsburgh winning 6–0 at Exposition Park and the Alleghenys winning, 8–4, in East Liberty. The year was far more significant for several other reasons, however. On October 4, Pittsburgh, represented by John Barbour, signed a player to a formal pro football contract which stated that the player must participate in all Pittsburgh games and will not play for anyone else during those games. In return the player was paid $50 per game by the Pittsburgh club. While contract has been torn at the signature line, it is believed that the first contracted player was Grant Dibert who played halfback and was a member of the Pittsburgh A. C. since 1890.

1894–1898
Pittsburgh continued to play until 1901. However, the club lost its major rival, Allegheny, in 1896 when the Amateur Athletic Union suspended the Allegheny team for its flagrant violations of amateur rules. After successful seasons in 1896 and 1897, the pro football turmoil had upset Allegheny club so greatly that the sport was dropped. By that time the new Duquesne Country and Athletic Club became the dominating force in Pittsburgh-area football. However, the Pittsburgh A. C. also lost ground to the Latrobe Athletic Association, located in neighboring Westmoreland County. In 1898, Pittsburgh put together a roster of local stars to play against Duquesne. However, the Pittsburgh A. C. lost the game 34–0.  Pittsburgh finally decided the cost of paying football players only to watch them lose to Duquesne was a poor investment for the club's treasury. They quietly disappeared from the Pittsburgh football scene.

Notes

References

External links

1890 establishments in Pennsylvania
Defunct American football teams in Pennsylvania
Athletic Club
American football teams in Pittsburgh
1898 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
Athletic Club football teams and seasons

Pittsburgh Athletic Club (football)


is a vertically-scrolling shoot 'em up game developed and originally published by Psikyo in 1997 for the arcades as a follow-up to Strikers 1945. This game was also ported by Kuusou Kagaku to the PlayStation and Sega Saturn for Psikyo and re-released by Success in 2000. Agetec released Strikers 1945 II for the PlayStation in North America under the title Strikers 1945 in 2001, and Midas Games released it in Europe as a budget title in 2003. The game was also included in Psikyo Shooting Collection Vol. 1: Strikers 1945 I&II by Taito for PlayStation 2, later was released as a downloadable title for PlayStation Network by GungHo Online Entertainment, and finally for Android and iOS by Mobirix (as STRIKERS 1945-2). Also, after S&C Entertainment developed another version, they released it on Google Play, with the plane fire button removed, making it autofire and only tap the bomb and charge icons.

Gameplay

As in Strikers 1945, the player chooses one of six World War II-era fighter planes, then uses machine guns and bombs to fight through eight stages (the first four stages being in random order and the latter four stages in linear fashion). Once the game is beaten, a report showing how well the player did is displayed, and the game 'loops' with the difficulty much higher. Each game begins with three lives, and an extent is earned at 600,000 (or 800,000). When all lives are lost, the option to continue is given but the score is reset.

In the console versions, from the fifth stage onwards, in addition to the score being reset, the player must also replay the stage where they lost all their lives from the beginning.

Plot
Continuing where the last game ended, the forces of C.A.N.Y. have been demolished by the Strikers, but a faction known as the F.G.R. now has the C.A.N.Y. technology and plans to initiate global warfare with massive mecha technology. Once again, the Strikers are called into action to save the world.

Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Strikers 1945 II on their November 15, 1997 issue as being the sixth most-successful arcade game of the month.

Strikers 1945 II was mostly well received. Three reviewers from the Japanese Sega Saturn Magazine gave the version for this system the scores of 9-8-8/10, while French magazine Consoles + rated both the Saturn and PlayStation ports an 88%. Similarly, the original arcade version received a score of 88% from French magazine Player One.

On the other hand, Miguel Lopez from GameSpot gave the PlayStation release only a 5.8/10, recommending it just for the fans of the genre. IGN's David Smith voiced a similar opinion, but nevertheless gave it a "good" score of 7.3/10.

Chester Barber reviewed the PlayStation version of the game for Next Generation, rating it two stars out of five, and stated that "Strikers is a decent shooter of a type that's all but dead. Unfortunately, it hasn't aged well over the years, though if you're into old games, this would be worth a rental".

References

External links
'' at Nintendo Store
STRIKERS 1945-2 at Google Play
STRIKERS 1945-2 at App Store

Strikers 1945 II at MobyGames
Strikers 1945 II at World of Arcades
Strikers 1945 II at Sega Retro

1997 video games
Alternate history video games
Android (operating system) games
Arcade video games
City Connection franchises
IOS games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation (console) games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Network games
Psikyo games
Science fiction video games
Sega Saturn games
Vertically scrolling shooters
Video games developed in Japan
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games set in 1945
Video games set in Japan
Video games set in Greenland
Video games set in Arizona
Video games set in France
Video games set in Namibia
Video games set in Brazil
Xbox One games
World War II video games
Agetec games
Windows games
WindySoft games

Strikers 1945 II


The Sheffield Energy Recovery Facility, also known as the Energy from Waste Plant, is a modern incinerator which treats Sheffield's household waste. It is notable as it not only provides electricity from the combustion of waste but also supplies heat to a local district heating scheme, making it one of the most advanced, energy efficient incineration plants in the UK. In 2004, the district heating network prevented 15,108 tonnes of CO2 from being released from buildings across the city, compared to energy derived from fossil fuels. The incinerator is a 'static asset' owned by Sheffield City Council and operated by Veolia Environmental Services under a 35 year integrated waste management contract (IWMC)/PFI contract.

The process
Waste from households, Local Authority services and some local businesses is brought to the Energy Recovery Facility. It is tipped into a waste storage bunker. From the bunker the waste is lifted into a feed hopper by an overhead crane at a rate of 28 tonnes per hour.

The hopper feeds the waste into a single incineration unit where it is burned in excess of 850 °C. A large boiler located above the incineration unit is heated to produce superheated steam at 400 °C. A condensing steam turbine uses this steam to generate electricity for the National Grid and produce hot water for the District Energy network.

Urea is introduced into the furnace to treat NOx (Oxides of Nitrogen) emissions. Lime and activated carbon is introduced to neutralise the acidity of the flue gas and adsorb other pollutants. The cooled flue gases pass through a filter house where the particulate (dust) is captured by 1760 filters and stored in a silo for separate disposal later. Cleaned gases are then released through the chimney. These gases are continuously monitored to ensure they meet strict environmental regulations.

An electromagnetic overband separator removes metal from the ash. The metal is delivered to a local company for recycling. Ash from the incineration process goes into a bunker before being taken to a process plant for treatment and recycled into aggregate for the construction industry.

Controversies
In 2001 ownership of the original incinerator was transferred to Onyx UK (now Veolia Environmental Services) from Sheffield City Council. Earlier that year the old incinerator ceased operations after protests by the public and Greenpeace. At the time Greenpeace declared it the 'worst incinerator in England'. A new modern plant was commissioned in 2006 bringing it into line with the Waste Incineration Directive, with strict environmental standards.

Sheffield Green Party have stated that the new incinerator is still responsible for 31,308 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions per annum that would be prevented were the waste to be recycled, even taking into account that the incinerator recovers heat and power. As the UK Government's new waste strategy appears to support recycling and anaerobic digestion over Combined Heat and Power incineration for most waste streams, the role of the incinerator may have to change.

In January 2012, Public Health England commissioned a research study to investigate a potential link between incinerator emissions and health outcomes to the people within the local population. The Sheffield Energy Recovery Facility was amongst the 22 incinerators being examined as part of this study.

In 2006 when the new Energy Recovery Facility (ERF) was finally fully on-stream, a report was commissioned by Veolia Environmental Services (VES) that concluded the refuse available to be recovered to the ERF within the Sheffield boundary was considerably lower than that which would be needed to sustain the ERF's required refuse input when other factors such as competition from other waste management services to private businesses was considered. A planning application was then posed to Sheffield City Council in 2012 to allow waste from outside of the Sheffield Waste Disposal Authority Area, and to widen the catchment area. By 2015 Veolia was processing 225,000 tonnes of refuse per annum through the Energy Recovery Facility and proceeded to make a further application to Sheffield City Council to increase this to 245,000 tonnes, This was conditionally granted in 2016. Sheffield 'Friends of the Earth' have complained and campaigned about the growth of the catchment area and the amount that is being incinerated.

In 2017 details of an internal Veolia management email were leaked by the GMB union which alleged that recyclable waste was being diverted from the network of Sheffield household waste recycling centres around the city, and had been doing so since 2011. Veolia was accused of diverting the waste to try to plug a 50,000 tonne shortfall of waste needed to run the incinerator to fulfil its obligations to provide district heating for the city, despite Environment Agency regulations demanding that companies must recycle as much as they can. The GMB union was angered as GMB member workers at Veolias' recycling plant are given a bonus if recycling targets are met, and this task is made more difficult if recyclables are being diverted and incinerated. Veolia denies this and refuted the accusations.

In 2017 Sheffield City Council decided to review and terminate the original terms of the 35 year PFI contract. The terms of the original 2001 contract were given a long-length due to acknowledging the investment that was needed to bring the original incinerator up to modern environmental standards and it was understood that some of this investment would need to be provided up-front by Onyx/Veolia as it was cost-prohibitive for the council to finance the incinerator's upgrade alone within allocated budgets. The cost of this expenditure would subsequently be recouped over the time of the contract in Veolias' yearly profits. The original terms didn't envisage the expansion of Veolia's waste catchment area. The council wanted to try to leverage more of the profits of the Energy Recovery Facility under renegotiated terms, and to try to reduce other expenses related to waste collection. The Integrated Waste Management contract was subsequently renegotiated and re-signed with Veolia in December 2017 in order to reduce the ongoing costs to Sheffield City Council. As part of the renegotiation, other side-benefits have become apparent for Veolia with some of the fleet network of refuse vehicles which collect the waste supply of residents that feed the Energy Recovery Facility being upgraded and converted to Electric/Hybrid.

See also

List of incinerators in the United Kingdom

References

External links

Veolia Sheffield

Power stations in Yorkshire and the Humber
Cogeneration power stations in England
Waste power stations in England
Buildings and structures in Sheffield

Sheffield Energy Recovery Facility


The principle of faunal succession, also known as the law of faunal succession, is based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide horizontal distances.  A fossilized Neanderthal bone (less than 500,000 years old) will never be found in the same stratum as a fossilized Megalosaurus (about 160 million years old), for example, because neanderthals and megalosaurs lived during different geological periods, separated by millions of years. This allows for strata to be identified and dated by the fossils found within.

This principle, which received its name from the English geologist William Smith, is of great importance in determining the relative age of rocks and strata.  The fossil content of rocks together with the law of superposition helps to determine the time sequence in which sedimentary rocks were laid down.

Evolution explains the observed faunal and floral succession preserved in rocks. Faunal succession was documented by Smith in England during the first decade of the 19th century, and concurrently in France by Cuvier (with the assistance of the mineralogist Alexandre Brongniart). Archaic biological features and organisms are succeeded in the fossil record by more modern versions.  For instance, paleontologists investigating the evolution of birds predicted that feathers would first be seen in primitive forms on flightless predecessor organisms such as feathered dinosaurs. This is precisely what has been discovered in the fossil record: simple feathers, incapable of supporting flight, are succeeded by increasingly large and complex feathers.

In practice, the most useful diagnostic species are those with the fastest rate of species turnover and the widest distribution; their study is termed biostratigraphy, the science of dating rocks by using the fossils contained within them. In Cenozoic strata, fossilized tests of foraminifera are often used to determine faunal succession on a refined scale, each biostratigraphic unit (biozone) being a geological stratum that is defined on the basis of its characteristic fossil taxa. An outline microfaunal zonal scheme based on both foraminifera and ostracoda was compiled by M. B. Hart (1972).

Earlier fossil life forms are simpler than more recent forms, and more recent fossil forms are more similar to living forms (principle of faunal succession).

See also

Index fossil
Law of superposition
Principle of cross-cutting relationships
Principle of lateral continuity
Principle of original horizontality

References

Paleontological concepts and hypotheses
Dating methods
Stratigraphy

de:Biostratigraphie#Das Prinzip der Fossilfolge

Principle of faunal succession


Key duplication refers to the process of creating a key based on an existing key.  Key cutting is the primary method of key duplication: a flat key is fitted into a vise in a machine, with a blank attached to a parallel vise, and the original key is moved along a guide, while the blank is moved against a blade, which cuts it. After cutting, the new key is deburred: scrubbed with a wire brush, either built into the machine, or in a bench grinder, to remove burrs which, were they not removed, would be dangerously sharp and, further, foul locks.

Different key cutting machines are more or less automated, using different milling or grinding equipment, and follow the design of early 20th century key duplicators.

Key duplication is available in many retail hardware stores and as a service of the specialized locksmith, though the correct key blank may not be available. More recently, online services for duplicating keys have become available.

In the UK, the majority of the mobile locksmiths will have a dual key cutting machine on their van. The key duplication machine will be able to cut both cylinder and mortise keys, as these are the most popular types of keys in circulation. However, very few will carry a laser key cutting machine, which is sometimes needed to cut high security keys.

Certain keys are designed to be difficult to copy, for key control, such as Medeco; while others are simply stamped "Do Not Duplicate" to advise that key control is requested, but in the US, this disclaimer has no legal weight.

Helping Notes

Rather than using a pattern grinder to remove metal, keys may also be duplicated with a punch machine (the Curtis key clipper is a recognised example). The key to be duplicated is measured for the depth of each notch with a gauge and then placed into a device with a numeric slider. The slider is adjusted to match the corresponding measured depth and a lever is depressed, which cuts the entire notch at once. As the lever is raised the key automatically advances to the next indexed position and the slider is adjusted appropriately to the next measured depth. This cycle is continued until the key is complete.

Duplicating keys by this process is more labor intense and requires somewhat better trained personnel. However, keys made in this fashion have clean margins and the depth of the notches are not subject to wear induced changes encountered when heavily worn keys are duplicated using a pattern grinder. Keys may also be made in this fashion without an original as long as the depth of each notch and the type of key blank are known. This is particularly useful for institutions with a great number of locks for which they do not want to maintain a wide variety of archived copies. Code books or on-line resources may be used to program the key clipper/punch settings from the code stamped on the lock, listed in the owner's manual, or available from the vehicle's VIN.

A machine permitting rapid duplication of flat metal keys, which contributed to the proliferation of their use during the 20th century, may have been first invented in the United States in 1917 (image to the left):

In recent years, dual key cutting machines have come on to the market, enabling cutting of both mortice and cylinder keys on one machine. These machines are primarily manufactured in the Far East and save a key cutter a significant amount of money compared with using two separate dedicated machines.

Do not duplicate key

A "do not duplicate" key (or DND key, for short) is one that has been stamped "do not duplicate", "duplication prohibited" or similar by a locksmith or manufacturer as a passive deterrent to discourage a retail key cutting service from duplicating a key without authorization or without contacting the locksmith or manufacturer who originally cut the key. More importantly, this is a key control system for the owner of the key, such as a maintenance person or security guard, to identify keys that should not be freely distributed or used without authorization. Though it is intended to prevent unauthorized key duplication, copying DND keys remains a common security problem.

U.S. restrictions
There is no direct legal sanction in the US for someone who copies a key that is stamped do not duplicate (unless it is an owned key), but there are patent restrictions on some key designs (see "restricted keys"). The Associated Locksmiths of America, ALOA, calls DND keys "not effective security", and "deceptive because it provides a false sense of security."  deals with United States Post Office keys, and  deals with United States Department of Defense keys.

Restricted key
A restricted key is a type of key that is designed to limit access to a specific area or object. These keys are typically used in high-security environments, such as government facilities, military bases, and certain businesses that require strict access control.

Restricted keys are unique in that they are only able to be duplicated by authorized individuals or locksmiths who have the proper identification and authorization to do so. This helps to ensure that the key cannot be copied or used by unauthorized individuals.

Some common examples of restricted key systems include master key systems, where a single key can open multiple locks within a building, and key control systems, which allow for precise tracking of key usage and access control. Overall, restricted keys are an important tool for maintaining security and controlling access to sensitive areas.

A restricted keyblank has a keyway for which a manufacturer has set up a restricted level of sales and distribution. Restricted keys are often protected by patent, which prohibits other manufacturers from making unauthorized productions of the key blank. In many cases, customers must provide proof of ID before a locksmith will cut additional keys using restricted blanks. Some companies, such as Medeco High Security Locks, have keyways that are restricted to having keys cut in the factory only. This is done to ensure the highest amount of security. These days, many restricted keys have special in-laid features, such as magnets, different types of metal, or even small computer chips to prevent duplication.

Another way to restrict keys is trademarking the profile of the key.
For example, the profile of the key can read the name of the manufacturer.
The advantage of a trademark is that the legal protection for a trademark can be longer than the legal protection for a patent.
However, usually not all features of the profile are necessary to create a working key.
By removing certain unnecessary features, a non restricted profile can be derived, allowing the production and distribution of non restricted key blanks.

References

Further reading
 Phillips, Bill. (2005). The Complete Book of Locks and Locksmithing. McGraw-Hill. .

Locksmithing

Key duplication


In 1980, an International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organisations was organized by communist groups dissatisfied with the new leadership in China after the death of Mao Zedong and the overthrow of the Gang of Four. Participants were:
Ceylon Communist Party (Maoist)
Leninist Group of Senegal
Group for the Defense of Marxism–Leninism (Spain)
Mao Tse-Tung Circle (Denmark)
Marxist–Leninist Collective (Britain)
Marxist–Leninist Proletarian Communist Organization (Italy)
Revolutionary Communist Party of Chile
Reorganisation Committee CPI(ML)
For the Proletarian International (France)
Revolutionary Communist Party, USA
Revolutionary Communist Union (Dominican Republic)

The conference constituted a 'Revolutionary International Committee' (precursor to the Revolutionary Internationalist Movement), and issued "To the Marxist-Leninist, the Workers and the Opressed of all countries".

Sources
Rawal, Bhim Bahadur. Nepalma samyabadi andolan: udbhab ra vikas. Kathmandu: Pairavi Prakashan. p. 137-138.

References

1980 conferences
1980 in politics
International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organizations (International Newsletter)

1980 International Conference of Marxist–Leninist Parties and Organisations


A haunted attraction is a form of live entertainment that simulates visiting haunted locations or experiencing horror scenarios. They usually feature fearsome sets and characters, especially demons, ghosts, skeletons, zombies, monsters, possessed people, witches, serial killers, and slashers. Humorous characters may also be included.

Haunted attractions may be set up at many kinds of locations. Built attractions or existing structures in which attractions may be operated include temporarily constructed simulations of haunted houses; actual abandoned or dilapidated houses; abandoned asylums; defunct prisons; defunct or active amusement parks; defunct or active ships; defunct factories; defunct or active barns; and shopping malls. Outdoor places hosting such attractions include corn mazes or cornfields; hedge mazes; farms (often including "haunted" hayrides); wooded areas or forests; and parks.

Haunted attractions (also known as "haunts" or "mazes" within the industry) use many effects, such as intense lighting (strobe lights, black lights, etc.), animatronics, CGI, scent dispensers, fog machines, spinning tunnels, air blasters, spooky old antiques, gory images, and intense scenes of horror, terror, torment, murder, mischief, or comedy. Visitors often encounter actors in elaborate and often scary costumes, masks, and prosthetics. They may perform skits or lurk and come out unexpectedly to frighten, shock, disturb, or amuse the customer.

Haunted attractions typically operate from the last week of late September or early October to the last week in October or first week of November. In particular, they are especially active during the triduum of Allhallowtide. There is also a subculture of permanent haunted attractions that are open year-round, and a few that are open for special occasions, such as haunt conventions or Spring Break (also called Scream Break). Some attractions are run by charities as fundraisers.

In Japan, there is a tradition of making obakeyashiki (ghost houses) in the summertime, as fear is believed to ward off the heat by "giving you the chills". They typically feature frightening creatures from Japanese folklore, ghosts, demons, sinister crucifixes and other things that are brought to life thanks to decorations, sound effects and animatronics. A story is often told to visitors before they receive a mission that they must accomplish in the house.

History

One of the first recorded purpose-built haunted attractions was the Orton and Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England. Closely resembling a carnival fun house, it was powered by steam. It still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam Collection.

The background for the creation of the Orton and Spooner Ghost House might be seen in 18th- and 19th-century London and Paris, when literature, performances by magicians, spiritualists and psychics, as well as theatrical shows and attractions introduced the public to gruesome entertainment. In 1802, Marie Tussaud scandalized British audiences with an exhibition of wax sculptures of decapitated victims of the French Revolution, including King Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Robespierre and Jean-Paul Marat. Her exhibits exist today as the Chamber of Horrors in Madam Tussauds in London. In France, from 1897, the Grand Guignol theatre was scaring audiences with graphically staged horror entertainment. The Phantasmagoria show existed even earlier, but a well-known version in 1797 Paris was the Fantasmagorie, which made use of magic lantern projections and crude special effects.

Halloween-themed haunted houses in America seemed to begin emerging during the Great Depression, about the same time as trick-or-treating. During the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, it was common for magicians to use supernatural themes in their stage performances, which evolve into the tradition of a traveling ghost show, also referred to as a spook show or creep show, and incorporate comedy, displays of mentalism and theatrical special effects. During the 1950s these specialized shows were often performed as pre-show entertainment before screenings of popular horror movies.

The Haunted Mansion opened in Disneyland on August 9, 1969, and was highly successful, soon gaining a single-day record of 82,516 guests. In 1973, Knott's Berry Farm began hosting its own Halloween night attraction, Knott's Scary Farm. Evangelical Christians became early adopters of alternative Halloween attractions; Jerry Falwell and Liberty University introduced one of the first "Hell houses" in 1972.

During the late 1950s, California was a focus for Halloween haunts. In 1957, the San Mateo Haunted House opened, sponsored by the Children's Health Home Junior Auxiliary. The San Bernardino Assistance League Haunted House opened in 1958. In 1962 and 1963 home haunts began appearing across the country, including Oregon, California, Connecticut, Illinois, and several other states. On October 17, 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House opened as a walk-through haunted house. The Children's Museum Haunted House in Indianapolis, open every year since 1964, was Indiana's first haunted house and is currently the longest running in the nation.

Haunted houses quickly spread across the country via charity fundraisers conducted by The United States Junior Chamber ("the Jaycees") and others. The Jaycees encouraged its membership to construct haunted houses in abandoned buildings or fields as charity fundraising events, and the organization became known for these houses throughout America. In the late 1960s to early 1970s, haunted attractions were developed in larger American cities like Louisville, Kentucky, and Cincinnati, Ohio, with the creation of Jaycees haunted houses. These haunted houses are run by local chapters of the Jaycees. There are still many local chapter Jaycees haunted houses in towns such as Lombard, Illinois; Foxborough, Massachusetts; Raleigh, North Carolina; and Columbia, South Carolina. The former Huntington Jaycees Haunted House, now known as the Haunted Hotel-13th Floor, was operated by volunteers in October 1963. The first verifiable Jaycees haunted attraction as recognized by the Jaycees national office was The WSAI Haunted House in Cincinnati, Ohio, operated by the Sycamore-Deer Park Jaycees in 1970. In 1974, The Haunted Schoolhouse, located in Akron, Ohio, opened to the public and is still in operation to this day.

The March of Dimes copyrighted a "Mini haunted house for the March of Dimes" in 1976 and began fundraising through their local chapters by conducting haunted houses soon after. Although they apparently quit supporting this type of event nationally sometime in the 1980s, some MoD haunted houses have persisted until today. This includes the Spooky Acres Haunted House in Norfolk, Virginia. Others open during this period include one in Indio, California, in 1976, one in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1989, and one in Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1997. MoD Haunted Houses continuing much beyond the late 1980s would be considered outliers.

The beginning of the end for the charity haunts can be traced to a singular event: the Haunted Castle at Six Flags Great Adventure caught fire on the evening of May 11, 1984, in Jackson Township, New Jersey. Eight teenagers lost their lives in the fire. There were criminal charges filed, civil lawsuits, numerous investigations, and the inevitable result that fire safety laws, building codes, and inspections were tightened up considerably nationwide. The net effect was to make charity attractions less economically viable than they were before. Better construction materials were required, and fire safety equipment was required, making a temporary venue too expensive for many charities to afford. As a result, the larger, better funded for-profit operators moved in as the charities moved out. The fire caused wide-ranging changes for all amusement buildings. Previously, operators were able to avoid fire codes because such attractions were used temporarily. The Haunted Castle fire pointed to an unattractive reality that forced tighter regulation.

Professional haunted houses began to show up in the United States about the same time as the non-profits. However, subsequent to the Haunted Castle fire, many existing haunted attractions were shut down, as politicians and regulators enacted stronger safety codes. Volunteer (non-profit) organizations struggled to compete against the new for-profit competition under the tougher rules. Many were forced out of business either from the added competition or the inability to fund safety requirements. "The Jaycees got pushed out because their haunted houses were fairly basic." Currently, in the United States alone, there are over 4,000 October seasonal haunted houses and 300 theme parks that operate horror-themed events. Over 3,000 haunts are charity-run fundraisers.

In order to increase off-season attendance, theme parks entered the business seriously in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Six Flags launched Fright Fest in 1986-1989 and Universal Studios began Halloween Horror Nights in 1991. Although Knotts Berry Farm launched their Knott's Scary Farm in 1973, given America's obsession with Halloween as a cultural event surging in the 1990s, Knotts saw their attraction take off. Theme parks have played a major role in globalizing the holiday. Universal Studios Singapore and Universal Studios Japan both participate, while Disney now mounts Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as in the United States. The theme park haunts are by far the largest, both in scale and attendance.

Types of haunted attractions

There are many types of haunted attractions including Scream Parks. The following categories are generalizations; many "haunts" contain attributes from more than one type.

Haunted house, mansion or castle

A haunted house, haunted mansion, or haunted castle is a type of haunted attraction that usually takes place indoors. Visitors may experience intense animatronics, bloody and frightening set pieces, rustic antiques, scary music and sounds, dynamic lighting, fog, costumed actors with elaborate makeup or masks, and other special effects used to create scenes of terror.

Knoebels Amusement Resort in Elysburg, Pennsylvania, has a "Haunted House" dark ride. The Haunted Mansion is popular with patrons at Disney locations around the world. Miracle Strip Amusement Park in Panama City Beach, Florida, had a "Haunted Castle" ride until the amusement park itself closed down in 2004. Its prop elements became part of "The Terrortorium" in Oxford, Alabama, for annual Halloween events. Miracle Strip's former "Old House" walk-through attraction permanently transferred to Panama City Beach's amusement park, Race City, where it currently stands simply identified as "Haunted House". Many of Sally Corporation's Scooby-Doo's Haunted Mansion rides were replaced by Boo Blasters on Boo Hill.

Haunted houses or mansions for an annual Halloween season can be located in hospitals, grocery stores, shopping malls, warehouses, semi-trailers, factories, boats or ships, dilapidated homes, etc. Haunted house or haunted mansion events can range from a few minutes to many hours in length, with some permitting visitors to go at their own pace and others requiring group tours led by guides.

A number of the largest seasonal attractions feature multiple haunted houses on the same site. For example, in 2015, Pure Terror Screampark in Monroe, New York, was awarded the Guinness World Record for World's Longest Walk Through Horror Attraction.

In terms of appearance, the prototypical haunted house in America can probably trace its roots to the 1925 painting House by the Railroad by Edward Hopper.

Haunted trail or forest

A haunted trail or haunted forest is a type of attraction that takes place outside in the woods, at a park, at a theme park or other outside venue. Most haunted trails are close to a mile long and may include small buildings or huts that include various scenes visitors are forced to enter or walk past. The majority of haunted trails have lit paths or roped-off areas if there are no paths in the woods that have already been made. Haunted trails include various rooms or scenes such as hillbilly huts, a haunted cornfield, a clown maze, an alien invasion, or movie-themed rooms.

Haunted trails may use tour guides, or they may allow visitors to walk alone. Unlike haunted houses, weather determines if the attraction will be open or not during the month of October. Tour times may vary greatly depending on the customer's pace and the length of the trail.

Haunted hayride

A haunted hayride is a haunted attraction and a form of agri-entertainment that takes place during a hayride on a farm, park or large piece of land. Patrons climb on a wagon filled with hay or hay bales and are driven into the darkness as the tractor driver navigates through brush, cornfields, narrow paths, fields and barns. Throughout the trip, customers may come in contact with out-of-control farm equipment, fast-moving vehicles (hearses, hot rods), actors dressed up as monsters and traditional characters like the Headless Horseman from Washington Irving's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.

The typical haunted hayride lasts from 10 to 45 minutes. Some use sound systems attached to the wagon or tractor. During the daytime, some haunted hayrides may have live shows, face painting, fun characters and may even sell pumpkins or other vegetables grown on the farm.

Haunted hayrides may be intertwined with any other type of haunted attraction, such as first being transported to the location with things to see along the way, before the guests are let off to walk through the rest of the attraction.

One of the more noted companies in this sector is Ten Thirty One Productions, which has hay rides in Los Angeles and New York. The haunted hayride was arguably started and popularized by the original Spooky World, which opened in Berlin, Massachusetts, in 1991.

Haunted ship
A haunted ship is a haunted attraction that takes place on a ship, battleship, destroyer, or any other type of ship. Patrons board these attractions via a gangway and walk through the ship that is usually lit with effects lighting, plays sound effects, and has thematic rooms meant to create a terrifying environment. Most of these types of attractions are found on the west coast or east coast, and are not as prevalent as typical haunted theme parks, hayrides, and haunted trails or forests.

Some of the more popular haunted ships in the United States are the USS Nightmare in Newport, Kentucky; Queen Mary's Dark Harbor in Long Beach, California; and Ghost Ship Harbor in Quincy, Massachusetts.

Haunted theme park (screampark)

A haunted theme park is an amusement park whose buildings and paths have been converted into haunted houses, haunted trails or hayrides during the fall season (September, October and early November). Many haunted theme parks include themed outdoor scare zones that feature costumed monsters who roam around scaring customers. It is not unusual to come in contact with actors known as sliders who wear special kneepads. When the actor slides on the ground, the kneepads make a scraping noise before the actor is inches away from the customer.

Additionally, a large percentage of haunted theme parks feature live shows, concession areas, rides and other typical amusement park attractions. Not all haunted theme parks take place inside an actual amusement park. There are quite a few events that include multiple attractions in one place and may be located on a farm, park, parking lot or anywhere suitable for a large-scale event, but strictly speaking, these are not considered theme parks.

The first haunted theme park was Knott's Scary Farm, which opened at Knott's Berry Farm in Buena Park, California, on October 31, 1973. Haunted theme parks are among the most popular haunted attractions since they offer multiple attractions for a single admission price, and are often of a high level of production value.

Haunted theme parks, whether they are set in true theme parks or set up within large spaces, typically contain a certain two types of area for their facilities, the hub area where food, drinks and merchandise can be purchased, the guests can relax and the live shows such as bands and magic shows are performed, actors can still appear throughout the hub area, where their scare factor may or may not be as high compared to the mazes themselves. The mazes themselves are typically accessed by large queue entrances, and the mazes for the most part contain the bulk of a haunted theme park's scare factor, encouraging the more elaborate special effects, scare tactics and traversal compared to the calmer hub area.

Dark maze and chain maze

A dark maze (or pitch-black maze) is a haunted attraction that consists of dark or pitch-black rooms with multiple paths that may contain dead ends. Some may feature actors, air cannons, loud sounds, sprays of water, moving walls or floors, hanging props, flashing lights and more. A dark maze can be a standalone attraction or an extension of a haunted house, haunted trail or hayride.

Some dark mazes can transition into a chain maze, which is similar to a dark maze but uses metal bars or chain-link fencing for its walls. Most chain mazes will utilize strobe lights and heavy fog to blind and disorient customers while they try to find the exit. A chain maze can also serve as a standalone attraction.

The amount of time spent inside a dark maze or chain maze may depend on the construction of the maze as well as one's skill at navigating mazes.

Pitch black areas such as dark mazes are quite common as sections for horror attractions, and are quite common in extreme haunted houses, they usually contain ropes for traversal and if a guest is going the wrong way or lost, an actor within the room may hold the guests arm to guide them to the rope in order to find the way out of the dark area.

Hell house

Hell houses are haunted attractions typically run by Christian churches or parachurch groups. These depict sin, the torments of the damned in Hell, and usually conclude with a depiction of heaven. They are most typically operated in the days preceding the triduum of Allhallowtide.

A hell house, like a conventional haunted-house attraction, is a space set aside for actors to frighten patrons with gruesome exhibits and scenes, presented as a series of short vignettes with a narrated guide. Unlike haunted houses, hell houses focus on occasions and effects of sin or the fate of unrepentant sinners in the afterlife.

The exhibits at a hell house often have a controversial tone focusing on issues of concern to Christians in the United States. Hell houses frequently feature exhibits depicting sin and its consequences. Common examples include abortion, suicide, use of alcoholic beverages and recreational drugs, adultery, occultism, and Satanic ritual abuse. Hell houses typically emphasize the belief that anyone who does not repent of their sin and accept Christ as their personal savior is condemned to Hell.

One of the first hell houses is Scaremare (still presented each October) in Lynchburg, Virginia; it was created by Jerry Falwell in the late 1970s. Similar events began in several regions during that period. Hell houses have faced criticism for advertising themselves as traditional haunted houses. Most involve biblical lessons and some ask customers to pray to Jesus Christ before exiting, regardless of their beliefs. Some hell houses are much more graphic than traditional haunted attractions and not appropriate for all audiences.

Dark ride

A dark ride or ghost train (United Kingdom and Australia) is an indoor amusement ride where riders in guided vehicles travel through specially-lit scenes that typically contain animatronics, sound, music, and special effects.

A dark ride is enclosed so all illumination is controlled, often using theatrical lighting to achieve special effects. Selective use of darkness helps hide ride mechanisms and increase visual drama. The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror is a popular dark ride at Walt Disney World's Hollywood Studios (Sunset Boulevard), Tokyo DisneySea (American Waterfront), and Walt Disney Studios Park (Production Courtyard).

Revenge of the Mummy roller coaster is the most popular dark ride at Universal Studios Florida (New York City), Universal Studios Hollywood (Lower Lot), and Universal Studios Singapore (Ancient Egypt). Another classic example of a haunted dark ride is the Phantom Theater Omnimover at Kings Island in Mason, Ohio.

Haunted cornfield maze
A cornfield maze is an attraction that uses cornstalks to form paths for people to walk through. Patrons can expect to experience turns, straight paths and dead ends. The cornfield maze might be designed to resemble a popular character, public figure, event or holiday. Most cornfield mazes are open during the day and are appropriate for all ages.

The largest corn maze in the world was located in Dixon, California, and is 45 acres in area . Although this corn maze holds distinction as the world's largest corn maze, Adventure Acres corn maze in Bellbrook, Ohio, consists of 62 acres of corn maze with 8.5 miles of trails. In 2003, a world record for the longest maze path, as recognised by Guinness World Records, was set on 10 July 2003 at  in the Lobster Maize Maze, designed by Adrian Fisher, at Stewarts Gardenlands, Christchurch, Dorset, England.

A haunted cornfield maze is identical to a cornfield maze except that it may include actors, props, special effects, scary music and more. The majority of haunted cornfield mazes are open after dark.

Home and yard haunts

A home haunt is a simplified version of a haunted attraction that is created at a person's home. They often begin with a yard haunt (see below) before continuing into interior rooms, which may include garages. Visitors can expect to see homemade props or animatronics, detailed decor, special effects and costumed characters. The vast majority of home haunts are not for profit, or may ask for donations for charity or other local causes. They are usually open for a few hours on Halloween night, or for a few weekends in October. They do not require state-issued emergency lighting, fire alarms, or fire escapes if they are under a specific length.

Yard haunts take place in a yard, usually dressed to resemble a cemetery, adjacent to a home. They may feature prop tombstones, skulls, large inflatable characters, plastic light-up figures (a.k.a. blowmolds), strobe lights, fog machines, cobwebs, spooky music, animatronics, and other décor that can be purchased at Halloween stores. Some homeowners create their own props. Displays can include synchronized music and lighting effects using computer programs such as Light-O-Rama or Animated Lighting. They may utilize an FM transmitter so people can park their car, locate a low-frequency radio station, and watch and listen to the show without the sounds disturbing the neighbors. An example of this type attraction is The House at Haunted Hill in Woodland Hills, California.

Ghost run

A ghost run is a haunted event that takes place in a person's car. When a customer purchases a ticket for a ghost run, they are given various clues as to where different haunted attractions are. This haunted scavenger hunt usually includes a few local haunted attractions and other free items. At the end of the ghost run's season, the winner with the best mileage locating the haunts is revealed and they are given a prize.

Midnight ghost (or spook) shows

Between the 1930s–1960s, movie theaters would have live shows that featured magicians performing magic tricks, séances, special effects and scary skits. This was at a time when people were unaware of how these seemingly incredible tricks were done and it was a relatively new form of entertainment before the spread of the haunted attraction. Many of these spook shows doubled with horror movies and played at smaller movie theaters during the Halloween season or different parts of the year. Eventually these shows would incorporate bloody special effects and sometimes be referred to as Midnight Horror Shows. These shows were daring for their time, but would phase out by the end of the 1960s. A modern interpretation of the classic spook show was the Hauntings Ghost Show in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. This attraction was themed as a Victorian Seance, which took place in a small theater setting. During the show, the audience would encounter automated gags instead of live performers. The attraction was in operation from the early 1980s until September 2015.

Extreme haunted houses

As the haunted attraction industry has evolved, it has trended toward ever more elaborate settings, more sophisticated technology, more elaborate backstories and so-called "extreme" haunted houses. Most operators, from the mega-haunts down to local charity events have felt the competitive pressure to improve their events. Higher quality scenery and props and ever more elaborate concepts and writing have become the norm. Furthermore, the experiences have expanded in terms of sheer size, either by making the mazes longer, or by providing more than one attraction on the same site.

Some operators have tried to distinguish themselves by adding more extreme experiences. The most common upgrades beyond those cited above include blackout houses, interactive houses, and the inclusion of virtual reality, laser tag elements, or both.

Blackout houses are pitch-black mazes which the guests must feel their way through. This may involve crawling, and, sometimes, contact by the actors. This is usually not allowed in less extreme houses, and may require the guest to sign a waiver prior to entering.

Interactive houses may involve the guests being closed into an "escape room", where they have a time limit to try to figure out how to escape, and physical clues scattered around the space. There are scares also hidden in the space, and often guest escape efforts have consequences for wrong guesses.

VR and laser tag houses add an element of the first-person shooter video game experience to the guest's journey through the house.

The most extreme houses may feature full contact with the guests and include a chance that the guest may be subjected to mild torture, including simulated drowning, simulated assault, and light electric shock. Guests are often given a safeword for anyone who might not be able to complete the experience. Tennessee's McKamey Manor requires both an application process and a waiver. Unlike most of its rivals, there was no safeword until 2017. The tour, which is free, can take up to four hours to complete. In that time, guests have been tied and gagged, forced into coffins and freezers, and had their heads pushed into cages full of snakes. People have even been known to leave with scratches and bruises. Another example is Blackout, which has versions in Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami, and New York, and has been rated on several lists as the most extreme haunted house in the world. Additional extreme haunts include Heretic and Hvrting in Los Angeles, Miasma in Chicago, Shock Theater in New York, and Faceless Ventures in the UK.

The Naked and Scared Challenge was an adults-only experience at Shocktoberfest, a 27-acre fear park located in Sinking Spring, Pennsylvania. Visitors at least 18 years old were invited to disrobe before entering. After choosing the "nude" or "prude" (underwear-only) option, guests were asked to sign waivers prior to a clothes-free fright. The nude option was cancelled prior to opening, due to pressure from local authorities. There have been a few such houses around the country, but they have apparently not caught on. This event began during the 2013 season, and was still running as of 2017, as the Almost Naked and Scared Challenge.

A haunted experience is a relatively new type of haunted attraction that combines the concept of a haunted house with something like a scavenger hunt. These begin in one place and end in another, usually the haunted house itself. An example of a haunted experience is Nyctophobia on Long Island, New York; in 2010, ticket buyers were given a location that was not the physical haunted house, but a pick-up spot where they got into a van blindfolded and were driven to the real location. Other experiences such as Blackout have the participants sign liability waivers and feature scenes where the performers can physically touch the guests and perform actions that resemble various acts such as waterboarding.

Business environment

Haunted attractions can be categorized as follows: mega-haunt, professional haunt, charity haunt and home haunt. The mega-haunts would include the large theme park operators such as Universal Studios Halloween Horror Nights, Six Flags Fright Fest, and Walt Disney's Haunted Mansion. These largest operators are not members of any of the haunt trade groups, and are ignored by them in terms of reviews and awards. This mega-group also avoids publishing attendance or revenue figures.

The professional American haunt industry is a multibillion-dollar business with nearly 2,000 haunts open each year and over 12,000,000 customers attending those attractions.  Throughout the year, there are many conventions held all over the United States. These include Midwest Haunters Convention (Ohio), National Haunters Convention (Pennsylvania), Haunted Attraction National Trade-show and Conference (HAuNTcon; moves to a new city each year), Indy Haunt Fest (Indiana), West Coast Haunters Convention (Oregon), Canandian Haunters Convention (Canada), Halloween & Attractions Show (Missouri), and many others. These annual conventions feature props, seminars, workshops, parties, and haunt tours. The biggest show of the year is the Transworld Halloween and Haunted Attraction show in St Louis, Missouri, each March drawing over 8000 buyers with over 100,000 square feet of vendors.

The haunt industry's first association, the International Association of Haunted Attractions (IAHA), started in 1998. The second was the Haunted House Association in 2008. In late 2010, both associations agreed to merge and form the Haunted Attraction Association. Other related groups are the Haunt Reviewers Association (HRA), Home Haunters Association, and the Halloween and Haunt Vendors Association (HHVA) and Haunted Attraction Association.

Many haunted attractions across the United States now feature high-quality animatronics and effects. It is not uncommon to come across towering monsters, movie-quality CGI, dynamic lighting, props that interact with customers, scent dispensers, intricate set pieces and figures, pneumatic props, or props that spray water or air.

Attractions are covered by industry trade magazines including Hauntworld Magazine, Haunted Attraction Magazine, and Fangoria. The industry has also been featured by television networks, and attractions are ranked by a variety of special-interest web sites.

, one source estimated there were more than 2,500 haunted attractions worldwide, most in the United States.  It is estimated to be an 8.4 billion dollar industry in America alone in 2016, according to the National Retail Federation.  This is up from estimated Halloween spending in the United States in 2011 at $6.8 billion, which itself was up from $3.3 billion in 2005. This growth shows few signs of slowing.  "In the past two decades, haunted houses have become a booming national industry that generates hundreds of millions of dollars and includes family-friendly theme parks, huge high-tech productions and evangelical Christian hell houses."

Legal and safety environment
Safety requirements generally include fire suppression systems, clearly marked exits, warning signs, and panic systems. Warning signs usually warn customers about heavy fog, intense strobes, loud sounds and music, crawling, and stress that people who are pregnant, disabled, have a heart condition or prone to epileptic seizures should not enter. Most attractions must be inspected by local authorities to confirm that they comply with building and fire codes.

International perspective

While many cultures have Halloween and Halloween-like traditions, many of which have been absorbed by Americans, physical locations where simulated haunted attractions are created seem to have been a uniquely American invention. The American Haunted attraction has recently begun to be exported elsewhere, from the early 2000s, with theme parks playing a major role in globalizing the holiday as they often have an international presence. The clearest examples are Universal Studios, which has exported its Halloween Horror Nights to its parks in Singapore (2011) and Japan (2012), and Six Flags, which has begun celebrating its Fright Fest at its locations in Mexico and Canada. Disney now mounts Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as the United States.  Overseas operators of themed attractions have also followed the American trend. Examples include: Fright Nights at Thorpe Park Surrey, England, Scarefest at Alton Towers Staffordshire, England and Fright Nights at Warner Bros Movie World in Queensland, Australia.

See also
Escape room
Freak show
Funhouse
List of haunted attractions

References

External links

Halloween events in the United States

Articles containing video clips

Haunted attraction (simulated)