In Christianity, the Confession of Peter (translated from the Matthean Vulgate Latin section title: Confessio Petri) refers to an episode in the New Testament in which the Apostle Peter proclaims Jesus to be the Christ (Jewish Messiah). The proclamation is described in the three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew 16:13–20, Mark 8:27–30 and Luke 9:18–21. Depending on which gospel one reads, Peter either says: 'You are the Messiah' or 'the Christ' (Mark 8:29); or 'You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God', (Matthew 16:16), or 'God's Messiah' or 'The Christ of God' (Luke 9:20).

The proclamation of Jesus as Christ is fundamental to Christology; the Confession of Peter and Jesus' acceptance of the title "Messiah" form a definitive statement in the New Testament narrative regarding the person of Jesus Christ. In this New Testament narrative, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter, unequivocally declaring himself to be both Christ and the Son of God.

In the same passage Jesus also selects Peter as the leader of the Apostles, and states: "Upon this rock I will build my church." Most Christian denominations agree that the statement applies to Peter, but they diverge on their interpretations of what happens after Peter.

The Confession of Peter is also the name of a liturgical feastday celebrated by several Christian churches, often as part of the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity.

Gospel accounts

Narrative comparison
The following comparison table is primarily based on the New International Version (NIV) English translation of the New Testament.

Background and setting
In the New Testament, this pericope and the account of the Transfiguration of Jesus which follows it appear towards the middle of the Gospel narrative and jointly mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples.

The setting is near Caesarea Philippi, northeast of the Sea of Galilee and within the Tetrarchy of Philip, and is at the beginning of the final journey to Jerusalem which ends in the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Jesus.

Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in Matthew 16:13, Mark 8:27 and Luke 9:18. Jesus begins to ask about the current opinions about himself among "the multitudes", asking: "Who do the multitudes say that I am?" The disciples provide a variety of the common hypotheses at the time, ranging from John the Baptist to Elijah, Jeremiah, or one of the (other) prophets. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, following Jewish medieval rabbi David Kimhi and theologican John Lightfoot, suggests that Jeremiah "is mentioned as a representative of the Prophets, because in the Jewish Canon the book of Jeremiah came first of the Prophets, following the books of Kings."

Earlier in the Gospel narrative, these hypotheses about Jesus' identity were provided in Mark 6:14-16 by those in the court of Herod Antipas when he wondered if Jesus was John the Baptist restored to life.

Proclamation and acceptance
In the three Gospel accounts, after asking about the views of "the multitudes", Jesus asks his disciples about their own opinion: "But who do you say that I am?" Only Simon Peter answers him: "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God".

Only in Matthew 16:17 Jesus blesses Peter for his answer, and later indicates this revelation is the foundational rock of the Church. This begins with:

Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jonah: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven.

In blessing Peter, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God which Peter attributes to him, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter. In this assertion, by endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God.

The reference to "my Father" is distinguished in that in the New Testament, Jesus never includes other individuals in such references and only refers to his Father, however when addressing the disciples he uses your Father, excluding himself from the reference.

Selection of Peter

In Matthew 16:18 Jesus then continues:
And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven.

The word "Peter" in this verse is, in Greek, "petros", while this "rock" is "petra". It is a play on words, but if the original language was Aramaic the word in both cases is simply "kepha". A distinction that petros meant a stone and petra a solid piece of rocky ground is sometimes suggested, but Greek use in antiquity seems to have been less precise.

The word "church" (ekklesia in Greek), as used here, appears in the Gospels only once more, in Matthew 18:17, and refers to the community of believers at the time. The "gates of hell" (of Hades) refers to the underworld, and the abode of the dead, and refers to the powers opposed to God not being able to triumph over the church. The keys of the kingdom of heaven refer to the metaphor of the Kingdom of Heaven being a "place to be entered" as also used in Matthew 23:13, where the entrance to it can be shut.

Peter's authority is further confirmed by: "Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." As discussed below, various Christian denominations have assigned different interpretations to the authority granted in this passage.

Jesus silencing the disciples
All three of the Synoptic Gospels end the account with Jesus telling the disciples not to reveal that he was the Messiah to anyone—an instance of the motif of the Messianic Secret.

Denominational issues

Interpretations
Various Christian denominations interpret Matthew 16:18 in different ways. Although most denominations agree that the statement applies to Peter, they diverge on their interpretations of what happens after Peter.

In the Roman Catholic Church, Jesus' words "upon this rock I will build my church" are interpreted as the foundation of the doctrine of the papacy, whereby the Church of Christ is founded upon Peter and his successors, the Bishops of Rome. Jesus' next statement, "and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." are interpreted as the foundation of the doctrine of papal infallibility.

Some Protestants believe that the verse states that Peter was the foundation stone of the Church, but do not accept that it applies to the continuous succession of popes, as the Bishops of Rome. The statement "and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it" is usually taken to mean that the Church will never become extinct.  Some Protestant evangelical groups adhere to the interpretation that it is Peter's "confession" itself that is "the rock on which will be built the Church of Jesus", i.e., the church will be built on Jesus alone as the foundation stone of his church. This interpretation usually uses the argument of the difference between petros and petra in Greek ("You are Peter [petros] and on this rock [petra] I will build my church.")

The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches see Jesus' words "whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven" as bestowing first upon Peter what was later bestowed upon all of the Apostles collectively. The Orthodox believe in the infallibility of the Church as a whole, but that any individual, regardless of their position, can be subject to error.

Ecumenical meetings among different denominations have taken place regarding these interpretations, but no final agreement has emerged.

Commemorations

The Roman Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Chair of St. Peter on 22 February in the General Roman Calendar. In the General Roman Calendar of 1960, the feast is celebrated on 18 January. Some Anglican and Lutheran churches celebrate the Feast of the Confession of St. Peter on 18 January.

The Confession of Peter is the beginning of the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity, actually an octave rather than a week, and was originally known as the Octave of Christian Unity. It is an international Christian ecumenical observance that began in 1908. It spans from 18 January to 25 January (the Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul).

See also

 Chronology of Jesus
 Denial of Peter
 Life of Jesus in the New Testament
 Transfiguration of Jesus

References

Christian festivals and holy days
Gospel episodes
1st-century Christianity
Christian terminology
Saint Peter
Vulgate Latin words and phrases
Christian messianism
Banias

Confession of Peter


The fimbrial usher protein is involved in biogenesis of the pilus in Gram-negative bacteria. The biogenesis of some fimbriae (or pili) requires a two-component assembly and transport system which is composed of a periplasmic chaperone and a pore-forming outer membrane protein which has been termed a molecular 'usher'; this is the chaperone-usher pathway.

The usher protein has a molecular weight ranging from 86 to 100 kDa and is composed of a membrane-spanning 24-stranded beta barrel domain, reminiscent of porins, and of four periplasmic soluble domains: an N-terminal one of about 120 residues (NTD), a 'middle' domain of about 80 residues located as a soluble insertion within the beta barrel region of the sequence (plug domain) and two IG-like domains (each about 80 residues long) at the C-terminus (CTD1 and CTD2). Although the degree of sequence similarity of these proteins is not very high they share a number of characteristics. One of these is the presence of two pairs of disulfide bond-forming cysteines, the first one located in the NTD and the second in CTD2. The best conserved region of the sequence corresponds to the plug domain.

References

Protein domains
Protein families
Outer membrane proteins

Fimbrial usher protein


The Copyright Act of 1976 is a United States copyright law and remains the primary basis of copyright law in the United States, as amended by several later enacted copyright provisions. The Act spells out the basic rights of copyright holders, codified the doctrine of "fair use", and for most new copyrights adopted a unitary term based on the date of the author's death rather than the prior scheme of fixed initial and renewal terms. It became Public Law number 94-553 on October 19, 1976 and went into effect on January 1, 1978.

US Register of Copyrights Barbara Ringer took an active role in drafting the statute.

History and purpose
Before the 1976 Act, the last major revision to statutory copyright law in the United States occurred in 1909. In deliberating the Act, Congress noted that extensive technological advances had occurred since the adoption of the 1909 Act. Television, motion pictures, sound recordings, and radio were cited as examples. The Act was designed in part to address intellectual property questions raised by these new forms of communication. Barbara Ringer, who later became US Register of Copyrights in 1973, began taking an active role in advocating for and drafting a new copyright act, particularly to protect the rights of authors with the advent of new technologies.

Aside from advances in technology, the other main impetus behind the adoption of the 1976 Act was the development of and the United States' participation in the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) (and its anticipated participation in the Berne Convention). While the U.S. became a party to the UCC in 1955, Congress passed Public Law 743 in order to modify copyright law to conform to the Convention's standards.

In the years following the United States' adoption of the UCC, Congress commissioned multiple studies on a general revision of copyright law, culminating in a published report in 1961. A draft of the bill was introduced in both the House and Senate in 1964, but the original version of the Act was revised multiple times between 1964 and 1976 (see House report number 94-1476). The bill was passed as S. 22 of the 94th Congress by a vote of 97–0 in the Senate on February 19, 1976. S. 22 was passed by a vote of 316–7 in the House of Representatives on September 22, 1976. The final version was adopted into law as title 17 of the United States Code on October 19, 1976 when Gerald Ford signed it. The law went into effect on January 1, 1978. At the time, the law was considered to be a fair compromise between publishers' and authors' rights.

Barbara Ringer called the new law "a balanced compromise that comes down on the authors' and creators' side in almost every instance." The law was almost exclusively discussed in publishers' and librarians' journals, with little discussion in the mainstream press. The claimed advantage of the law's extension of the term of subsisting copyrights was that "royalties will be paid to widows and heirs for an extra 19 years for such about-to-expire copyrights as those on Sherword Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio". The other intent of the extension was to protect authors' rights "for life plus 50 years—the most common term internationally and the one Twain fought for in his lifetime". Further extensions of both term and scope had been desired by some, as outlined in a Time article.

Significant portions of the Act

The 1976 Act, through its terms, displaces all previous copyright laws in the United States insofar as those laws conflict with the Act. Those include prior federal legislation, such as the Copyright Act of 1909, and extend to all relevant common law and state copyright laws.

Subject matter of copyright
Under section 102 of the Act, copyright protection extends to "original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression, now known or later developed, from which they can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device". The Act defines "works of authorship" as any of the following:
literary works,
musical works, including any accompanying words,
dramatic works, including any accompanying music,
pantomimes and choreographic works,
pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works,
motion pictures and other audiovisual works, and
sound recordings.
An eighth category, architectural works, was added in 1990.

The wording of section 102 is significant mainly because it effectuated a major change in the mode of United States copyright protection. Under the last major statutory revision to U.S. copyright law, the Copyright Act of 1909, federal statutory copyright protection attached to original works only when those works were 1) published and 2) had a notice of copyright affixed. State copyright law governed protection for unpublished works before the adoption of the 1976 Act, but published works, whether containing a notice of copyright or not, were governed exclusively by federal law. If no notice of copyright was affixed to a work and the work was, in fact, "published" in a legal sense, the 1909 Act provided no copyright protection and the work became part of the public domain. Under the 1976 Act, however, section 102 says that copyright protection extends to original works that are fixed in a tangible medium of expression. Thus, the 1976 Act broadened the scope of federal statutory copyright protection from "published" works to works that are "fixed".

Section 102(b) excludes several categories from copyright protection, partly codifying the concept of idea–expression distinction from Baker v. Selden. It requires that "in no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work."

Music
There are separate copyright protections for musical compositions and sound recordings. Composition copyright includes lyrics and unless self-published, is usually transferred under the terms of a publishing contract. Many record companies will also require that sound recording copyright be transferred to them as part of the terms of an album release, however the owner of the composition copyright is not always the same as the owner of the sound recording copyright.

Exclusive rights
Section 106 granted five exclusive rights to copyright holders, all of which are subject to the remaining sections in chapter 1 (currently, sections 107–122):
the right to reproduce (copy) the work into copies and phonorecords,
the right to create derivative works of the original work,
the right to distribute copies and phonorecords of the work to the public by sale, lease, or rental,
the right to perform the work publicly (if the work is a literary, musical, dramatic, choreographic, pantomime, motion picture, or other audiovisual work), and
the right to display the work publicly (if the work is a literary, musical, dramatic, choreographic, pantomime, pictorial, graphic, sculptural, motion picture, or other audiovisual work).
A sixth exclusive right was later included in 1995 by the Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act: the right to perform a sound recording by means of digital audio.

Fair use

Additionally, the fair use defense to copyright infringement was codified for the first time in section 107 of the 1976 Act. Fair use was not a novel proposition in 1976, however, as federal courts had been using a common law form of the doctrine since the 1840s (an English version of fair use appeared much earlier). The Act codified this common law doctrine with little modification. Under section 107, the fair use of a copyrighted work is not copyright infringement, even if such use technically violates section 106. While fair use explicitly applies to use of copyrighted work for criticism, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research purposes, the defense is not limited to these areas. The Act gives four factors to be considered to determine whether a particular use is a fair use:
the purpose and character of the use (commercial or educational, trans-formative or reproductive, political);
the nature of the copyrighted work (fictional or factual, the degree of creativity);
the amount and substantiality of the portion of the original work used; and
the effect of the use upon the market (or potential market) for the original work.
The Act was later amended to extend the fair use defense to unpublished works.

Term of protection
Previous copyright law set the duration of copyright protection at 28 years with a possibility of a 28 year extension, for a total maximum term of 56 years. The 1976 Act, however, substantially increased the term of protection. Section 302 of the Act extended protection to "a term consisting of the life of the author and fifty years after the author's death". In addition, the Act created a static 75-year term (dated from the date of publication) for anonymous works, pseudonymous works, and works made for hire. The extension term for works copyrighted before 1978 that had not already entered the public domain was increased from 28 years to 47 years, giving a total term of 75 years. In 1998 the Copyright Term Extension Act further extended copyright protection to the duration of the author's life plus 70 years for general copyrights and to 95 years from date of publication or 120 years from date of creation, whichever comes first, for works made for hire. Works copyrighted before 1978 have a duration of protection that depends on a variety of factors.

Transfer of copyright

Section 204 of the Act governs the transfer of ownership of copyrights. The section requires a copyright holder to sign a written instrument of conveyance that expressly transfers ownership of the copyright to the intended recipient for a transfer to be effective. Prior case law on this issue was conflicting, with some cases espousing a rule similar to section 204 and others reaching a quite different conclusion.  In the 1942 New York case Pushman v. New York Graphic Society, for example, the court held that although a copyright in a work is distinct from a property right in a copy of the work, where the only existing copy of the work is transferred, the copyright is transferred along with the copy, unless expressly withheld by the author. Section 202 of the 1976 Act retains the property right/copyright distinction, but section 204 eliminates the inconsistent common law by assuming that the copyright is withheld by the author unless it is expressly transferred.

Registration and deposit
According to section 408 of the Act, registration of a work with the Copyright Office is not a prerequisite for copyright protection.  The Act does, however, allow for registration, and gives the Copyright Office the power to promulgate the necessary forms. Aside from Copyright Office paperwork, the Act requires only that one copy, or two copies if the work has been published, be deposited with the Office to accomplish registration. Though registration is not required for copyright protection to attach to a work, section 411 of the Act does require registration before a copyright infringement action by the creator of the work can proceed.  Even if registration is denied, however, an infringement action can continue if the creator of the work joins the Copyright Office as a defendant, requiring the court to determine the copyrightability of the work before addressing the issue of infringement.

Termination rights
The Act also codified the ability for writers and other artists that license their work to others to act on termination rights 35 years after the publication of the work. This was intended to allow these people to renegotiate licenses at the later period if the value of the original work was not apparent at the time or creation. This protection only applies to works made after 1978, and does not apply to works made for hire. The law requires the creator to issue notice of termination at least 2 years prior to the 35-year date giving the rights holder time to prepare.

Impact on innovation
One of the functions of the Copyright Royalty Judges defined by the Copyright Act is to "minimize any disruptive impact on the structure of the industries involved and on generally prevailing industry practices". Critics of the law have questioned this aspect of it, as it discourages innovation and perpetuates older businesses.

Legacy

Impact on internet radio
Streaming music on a portable device is mainstream today, but digital radio and music streaming websites such as Pandora are fighting an uphill battle when it comes to copyright protection. 17 USC 801(b)(1)(D) of the Copyright Act states that Copyright Royalty Judges should "minimize any disruptive impact on the structure of the industries involved and on generally prevailing industry practices". "Much of the initial drafting of the '76 Act was by the Copyright Office, which chaired a series of meetings with prominent industry copyright lawyers throughout the 1960s". Some believe that Section 106 was designed with the intent to maximize litigation to the benefit of the legal industry, and gives too much power and protection to the copyright holder while weakening fair use.

Critics of the Copyright Act say that Pandora will never be profitable if something does not change because "services like Pandora already pay over 60 percent of their revenue in licensing fees while others pay far less for delivering the same service. As a result, services like Pandora have been unable to see profitability and sustainability is already in question." An increase in subscription fees would likely be an end to Pandora's business.

Impacts of termination rights
The termination right clause only started taking effect in 2013, with notably Victor Willis terminating rights on the songs he had written for The Village People. A lawsuit resulted from this action Scorpio Music, et al. v. Willis in 2012 (after Willis had filed notice of termination to Scorpio Music, the music distributor, and which the court upheld Willis' termination rights). Subsequently, other songwriters began seeking termination rights. This has also become an issue in the film industry, as the rights to many iconic 1980s film franchises are being terminated by their original writers, such as by the family of Roderick Thorp whose novel Nothing Lasts Forever was adapted into Die Hard.

See also
United States copyright law
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Copyright Term Extension Act

 Proposed legislation
Section 115 Reform Act of 2006

References

External links

US Copyright Office, Title 17
Cornell Law School, on Copyright
World wide school.org
New York Law School Law Review, The Complete Guide to the New Copyright Law, Lorenz Press Inc., 1977,
Reproduction of Copyrighted Works by Educators and Librarians (Circular 21). United States Copyright Office, United States Library of Congress.(This circular cites and describes the key legislative history documents for the law, and briefly outlines the guidance that the legislative history provides.)

1976 in American law
United States federal copyright legislation

Copyright Act of 1976


J. (Julia) Jessie Taft (June 24, 1882, in Dubuque, Iowa – June 7, 1960, in Flourtown, Pennsylvania) was an American philosopher and an early authority on child placement and therapeutic adoption. Educated at the University of Chicago, she spent the bulk of her professional life at the University of Pennsylvania, where she and Virginia Robinson were the co-founders and innovators of the functional approach to social work. Taft is the author of The Dynamics of Therapy in a Controlled Relationship (1933). She is also remembered for her work as the translator and biographer of Otto Rank, an outcast disciple of Sigmund Freud; in addition, development of the functional approach to social work was greatly inspired by her work with Rank. She and her lifelong companion, Virginia Robinson, adopted and raised two children.

Personal life

Jessie Taft was born Julia Jessie Taft on June 24, 1882, in Dubuque, Iowa, the oldest of three sisters. Her parents were Charles Chester Taft and Amanda May Farwell, who moved from Vermont to Iowa. There is no known connection to the famous offspring of the Vermont Tafts. Her father established a prosperous wholesale fruit business in Des Moines. Her mother was a homemaker who gradually became deaf and distant from her daughters.

Taft attended and graduated from West Des Moines High School. She then went to Drake University in Des Moines, Iowa, and received a B.A. degree in 1904. Also in her class of 1904 at Drake was Clara Charlotte Hastings, granddaughter of Pardee Butler and older sister of Milo Hastings. Two decades later Taft was to adopt a boy, Everett, the first-born son of Milo Hastings and Frances Horowitz. There is no evidence that Taft realized she was adopting the nephew of a former college classmate.

After college at Drake, Taft went to the University of Chicago and earned a Ph.B. in 1905. She then went back to Des Moines to her former high school and taught there for four years. In 1908 she returned to the University of Chicago for graduate work. At that time she met Virginia P. Robinson. The two women became lifelong companions and colleagues. In 1909 she got a fellowship and began working with George H. Mead (who became her thesis adviser), James Hayden Tufts, and William I. Thomas. She also worked at Hull House, the social settlement of Jane Addams. Taft completed her doctoral thesis "The Woman Movement from the Point of View of Social Consciousness" in 1913. It was published in book form in 1916.

In 1912, Taft found work at The Bedford Hills Reformatory for Women in New York City and stayed there until 1915. She then practiced psychology for four years before becoming director of the Child Study Department of the Children's Aid Society in Pennsylvania. Taft and Robinson moved to Flourtown, Pennsylvania, close by Carson Valley School, where they were close friends with the staff. Taft, the school and its staff appear in the novel Double Stitch by John Rolfe Gardiner. In about 1920 Taft and Robinson bought a house on East Mill Road in Flourtown that became known as "The Pocket", so called because the women had to dig deeply into their pockets to purchase the property.

Taft was finally able to begin an academic career in 1919 at the University of Pennsylvania School of Social Policy and Practice. In 1934 she became the director of the School.

In 1921, Taft and Robinson made the decision to adopt two children. Everett was adopted on his birthday July 9, 1921, at age nine. Martha Scott was adopted in 1923 at age 6. Everett went on to marry and raise a family. Martha, who never married, became Chief Dietitian for the Veterans Administration Hospital in Philadelphia.

In 1924, Taft met Otto Rank, an outcast disciple of Sigmund Freud, and became his American champion and translator. She retired in 1950 to organize Rank's papers (he died in 1939) which were donated to Columbia University, and to write his biography which was published in 1958. E. James Lieberman wrote another biography of Rank in 1985 with many references to Taft.

Taft died on June 7, 1960, in Flourtown, Pennsylvania, after suffering a stroke. Virginia Robinson lived on until 1977, writing a biography of Taft that came out in 1962.

Professional life

Thesis

Taft's thesis topic was "The Woman Movement from the Point of View of Social Consciousness" accepted in 1913 by the Philosophy department at the University of Chicago. It was published by the University of Chicago Press in 1916 with a note acknowledging her "indebtedness to Professor James H. Tufts and Professor George H. Mead for their advice and counsel".

The thesis is 25,000 words long probing the moving boundaries of private and public, subjects that galvanized new thinking about governing modern social problems therapeutically. She invoked philosophers from Plato to Kant, surveying how religious, political and economic revolutions shaped consciousness of self and detailed the conflicts women face at home and at work. The Introduction sets out the problem:

Every nook and corner of feminine nature has been brought to light and examined as if woman were a newly discovered species. Yet out of this endless controversy only a very general agreement has been reached. It is fair to say that the majority of intelligent people today are agreed on at least two points: the necessity of improving motherhood and the need of some form of useful work for every woman. But here the agreement ends. It is the purpose of this thesis to determine just what are the problems represented by the woman movement, to trace their connection with the larger, more inclusive social problems, and to indicate in a general way the direction from which a solution may be expected.

The Conclusion is a summary and prophecy:
The course of the preceding argument has been very briefly as follows: first, the woman movement is the expression of very genuine problems both for the individual woman and for society as a whole; second, those problems are the result of an unavoidable conflict of impulses and habits, values and standards…; third, such conflicts are, as a matter of fact, equally real for men and for women as the labor movement testifies, and give evidence of a real dualism of self and social environment…; and finally, the restoration of equality between self and environment depends on the possibility of developing a higher type of self-consciousness whose perfect comprehension of its relations to other selves would make possible a controlled adjustment of those relations from the point of view of all concerned.
			-----
With women…social impulses are the only ones which are overtly recognized. Women are constantly forced into the economic world, but the system ignores that fact and provides in no way for combining the peculiar social function of women with any economic function which they may find desirable or necessary. Such economic expression as has been conceded to them is confined to the home. Likewise, the other impulses, even the maternal, have no recognized place outside the limits of the individual home. For the woman, the system has no avenues of fulfilment foreseen and provided beforehand for any impulse whatsoever outside the home itself.
			-----
All of this hopeless conflict among impulses which the woman feels she has legitimate right, even a moral obligation, to express, all of the rebellion against stupid, meaningless sacrifice of powers that ought to be used by society, constitutes the force, conscious or unconscious, which motivates the woman movement and will continue to vitalize it until some adjustment is made.

Taft's thesis became one of the philosophical foundations of the feminist movement.

Professional career

After completing her thesis in 1913 Taft desired an academic position but women of this era were mostly excluded from that life. So for over two decades she worked in the world of child and family services. Her first job was with Katherine Bement Davis as the assistant superintendent at the New York State Reformatory for Women. When Davis left the Reformatory so did Taft moving from the field of delinquency to the new field of mental hygiene as the Director of the Mental Hygiene Committee of the State Charities Aid Association of New York. In 1918 she left the Committee because of World War I and left New York for Philadelphia (where Robinson was on staff at the Pennsylvania School of Social Work) to join the Seybert Institution as director of a new Department or Child Study, organizing a school for problem children and doing much case work. She wrote many papers and spoke often about what she had learned and the diagnostic techniques she pioneered for dealing with institutionalized children.

Finally in 1919 Taft was able to enter the academic world as a full-time faculty member of the University of Pennsylvania School of Social Policy and Practice. The School was the first in the country to have an advanced curriculum focused on social work. Taft's thinking and teaching simulated and guided this program from its inception in 1934 until her retirement in 1950. Robinson in her professional biography of Taft writes that "The discovery of the use of function in helping processes, the most significant and influential concept in the development of theory and practice in the Pennsylvania School of Social Work, remains Dr. Taft's most significant and enduring contribution to theory and practice in social casework." She was an articulate and well-known founder and proponent of the Rankian "functional" approach to both social work and to social work education. This approach was distinct from the widespread Freudian "diagnostic" approach to social work, and there was a marked contrast between the two. While the functional school was a minority, it had a strong influence on the larger social work field; it was also at times the subject of debate and controversy.

Taft retired from the University of Pennsylvania after commencement in June 1950. For the first few years she still taught a few courses and was a consultant on the doctoral council. She then turned her full attention to translating and organizing the papers of Otto Rank which were given to her at the time of Rank's death in 1939. Rank's papers were given to Columbia University. Later the papers of Taft and Robinson were also given to Columbia.

Otto Rank

Otto Rank (1884–1939) was an outcast disciple of Sigmund Freud. Rank met Freud in 1905 when Rank was just 21. Rank became Freud's protégé and closest associate. During the formative years of the psychoanalytic movement Rank was the recording secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. In 1924 Rank published The Trauma of Birth which emphasized the mother-child relationship and was viewed askance by the conservatives in the Committee, Freud's inner circle. In 1926 Rank split publicly with Freud and was slowly ostracized from the psychoanalytic establishment.

Taft was first Otto Rank's patient, then his student and friend, and, finally, biographer and American exponent. After George H. Mead, Rank was the most influential person in Taft's professional life. Taft's first contact with Rank came in June 1924 at a meeting of the American Psychoanalytic Association in Atlantic City where he gave a paper on The Trauma of Birth. Taft "… was interested in psychoanalysis as a further training measure for myself in the future and I wanted to see who these analysts were and what they were like."

Taft was impressed by Rank and arranged for analysis by him which took place in New York in the fall of 1926. Her motivation "… was not due to any conscious personal need nor the lack of professional success, but to the deep awareness of being stopped in professional development…. Psychological testing of children was useful but, as I knew only too well, it was not therapeutic." To further her therapeutic skills she joined the Rankian group in New York in 1927.

In 1930 Rank introduced the idea of "will" therapy, a radical idea in academic circles. Will for Rank, as defined by Taft, "… is the integrated personality as original creative force, that which acts, not merely reacts, upon the environment." Rank emphasized conscious will to explain human behavior. By contrast, Freud emphasized the subconscious. Unlike most of her medical colleagues Taft took this novel new idea in stride. "I had been brought up on pragmatism and the thinking of George Herbert Mead and John Dewey. For me there was nothing to lose." Taft stood by Rank and his ideas but many others did not, and Rank was marginalized.

In 1936 Taft translated Rank's Will Therapy: An Analysis of the Therapeutic Process in Terms of Relationship and Truth and Reality: A Life History of the Human Will from German into English. When Rank died in 1939 Taft was given all his papers and became his chief American exponent.

Taft incorporated Rank's ideas on "will" into her therapeutic social work, and even more significantly, into the training of social workers at the Pennsylvania School of Social Work. The strong foundation laid by Jessie Taft and Virginia Robinson, meant that from about 1930 up until about 1985, the school continued to train social workers in a Rankian-inspired approach to working with clients.

Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) was an American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach (or client-centered approach) to psychology. Taft played a significant role in Rogers' development of his non-directive approach by presenting her work to the staff of the Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester, while Rogers worked as the director there. Taft introduced Rogers to Rank's relational approach to therapy, which inspired Rogers to later meet Rank. Rogers was also inspired by Taft's book where she describes the step-by-step journey of working with two specific child clients; this was an early precedent for Rogers' subsequent research where he continued to "pull back the curtain" to explore what happens within a therapeutic relationship.

Notes

Bibliography

External references

The Adoption History Project. Jessie Taft is one of the featured persons.

 Jessie Taft Thesis: The Woman Movement from the Point of View of Social Consciousness

American social workers
Drake University alumni
Adoption workers
Adoption history
People from Dubuque, Iowa
University of Chicago alumni
University of Pennsylvania faculty
1882 births
1960 deaths
Analysands of Otto Rank

Jessie Taft


Sebastian Steinberg (born February 20, 1959) is an American bass player, best known for his work in the band Soul Coughing.

Biography
Steinberg played with Soul Coughing throughout the band's entire history, from 1992 to 2000. In 2001, Steinberg performed on stage with Neil Finn and Tim Finn, Eddie Vedder, Johnny Marr, Ed O'Brien, Phil Selway and others in a series of concerts recorded on a DVD titled "7 Worlds Collide".  He also recorded and performed with guitarist Marc Ribot and appeared on William Shatner's 2004 album Has Been. Steinberg performed on the Dixie Chicks' 2006 Accidents and Accusations tour, and toured with k.d. lang during the summer of 2007.  Steinberg performed with Vanessa Carlton on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno October 11, 2007. In 2009, he appeared again with Neil Finn and friends for the second installment of 7 Worlds Collide playing alongside members of Radiohead and Wilco.
Steinberg made a brief appearance in the 2009 film Funny People, as the bassist in a band that Adam Sandler's character, a movie star, hired to jam with him.

Steinberg works as a session musician, playing electric bass and double bass on numerous albums. He contributed the bass tracks to the 2003 track 'Frosty the Snowman' and the 2012 Fiona Apple album, The Idler Wheel..., and he toured with Fiona Apple as part of her backing band in 2012. In 2014, Steinberg also played bass supporting guitar virtuoso and producer Blake Mills, a tour where Fiona Apple made sporadic appearances, to promote Mills' second full-length album, Heigh Ho. Steinberg has also been a regular performer with the Watkins Family Hour, and the band released their debut album in July 2015. Steinberg has also worked with singer songwriter J.S. Ondara and has toured as a bassist for Iron & Wine. In 2020, he appeared on Fiona Apple's album Fetch the Bolt Cutters.

Personal life
Steinberg was born in New York City and grew up in Newton, Massachusetts, son (with brother Adam) of musicologist Michael Steinberg and fabric artist Jane Steinberg.

References

1959 births
Living people
musicians from Newton, Massachusetts
American rock double-bassists
Male double-bassists
Musicians from New York City
Soul Coughing members
21st-century double-bassists
21st-century American male musicians

Sebastian Steinberg


Teodato Ipato (also Diodato or Deusdedit; ) was Doge of Venice from 742 to 755. With his election came the restoration of the dogato, which had been defunct since the assassination of his father, Orso Ipato. Before his election he had served as magister militum in 739.

Teodato was the son of Doge Orso Ipato. He was condemned to exile in 737 in the wake of his father's murder, which came perhaps as a complication of a civil conflict between Eraclea and Equilio. The office of doge was subsequently abolished in favour of a magister militum, denoting in this case a chief magistrate to be replaced yearly.

The first to be installed in this role was Domenico Leoni, who at the end of his twelve-month term was replaced by Felicius Cornicola. It was under Felicius' administration that Teodato was recalled from exile.

After returning home, Teodato is said to have gained the favour of the Venetian electors, and in 739, he was thus selected as Felicius Cornicola's successor. At the end of his term he was himself replaced by Jovian Ceparius, having failed to procure re-election; and Jovian, at his term's end, was succeeded by Giovanni Fabriciaco, who took office in 741.

Fabriciaco's appointment would prove disastrous: some months into his term an uprising took hold, and consequently he was ousted from office, blinded, and driven into exile. Most historians put this at around 742. Teodato, said to have been complicit in Fabriciaco's downfall, was later by popular vote appointed Doge, marking the end of the interregnum which had lasted from 737 to 42.

Under Teodato, Venice's seat of government was moved from Eraclea to Malamocco. Also during his reign came the renewal of an age-old treaty with the Lombards, first composed in the reign of Paolo Lucio Anafesto, and an earthquake which is said to have flooded parts of Venice. His reign came to an end in 755 when he was deposed and blinded at the instigation of Galla Gaulo, who was subsequently elected Doge.

An alternative view of Teodato's fate, as described in Hazlitt's History of the Venetian Republic, is that rather than being blinded and deposed, he was instead murdered by adherents of Galla Gaulo.

Notes

Sources
Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. Penguin, 2012.
Hazlitt, William Carew. History of the Venetian Republic: Her Rise, Her Greatness, and Her Civilization. Elder, Smith and Co.: London, 1860.
Hodgson, Francis Cotterell. The early history of Venice, from the foundation to the conquest of Constantinople, A.D. 1204. George Allen: London, 1901.

8th-century Doges of Venice
Magistri militum
755 deaths

Teodato Ipato


HMS Lowestoffe was a 32-gun fifth-rate frigate of the Royal Navy. Built during the latter part of the Seven Years' War, she went on to see action in the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary War, and served often in the Caribbean. A young Horatio Nelson served aboard her shortly after passing his lieutenant's examination.

Originally commissioned near the end of the Seven Years' War, Lowestoffe patrolled in British waters until 1773, when it underwent repairs. She was recommissioned in 1777 and served throughout the American War of Independence, including at the Battle of San Fernando de Omoa. After the bulk of the fighting ended, she returned home to Portsmouth in 1782, and did not see battle for the next decade. She spent most of her later years in British and Mediterranean waters, winning particular glory for her part in an engagement with two French frigates in 1795. Her final duties were back in the familiar waters of the West Indies, where she was wrecked in 1801 while escorting a convoy in the Caicos Islands.

Construction and commissioning
Sir Thomas Slade based his design for Lowestoffe on that of , which was a former French vessel named Abenakise. (The Admiralty routinely "took the lines", i.e., drew up blueprints, of captured vessels, and these blueprints were available to designers such as Slade.)

Lowestoffe was the only ship built to her design, though over a decade later the Navy would have two more frigates,  and , built to a modification of the design of Lowestoffe and Abenakise. She was ordered on 15 February 1760 from Thomas West, Deptford Dockyard, with West contracted to launch her within 12 months, at a cost of £11.0.0d per ton. Lowestoffe was laid down on 9 May 1760, launched on 5 June 1761 and completed by 1 August 1761. She officially received the name Lowestoffe on 28 October 1760. She had cost a total of £7,715 1s d to build, coming in just slightly under the contracted price of £7887.  The Navy spent a further £4,281 7s 8d on having her fitted out.

Career
Commissioned late in the Seven Years' War, she saw little action under her first captain, Walter Stirling, and the Navy paid her off in 1762. Lowestoffe was initially moored at Portsmouth.  Then in early 1763 she was armed and stored, sailing on 26 July 1763 under the command of her new captain James Baker.

After spending some time cruising in the English Channel and stopping neutral merchants for inspections, Baker sailed Lowestoffe to Madeira and then on to the West Indies. She arrived at Carlisle Bay on 13 September, and then sailed on to Antigua. During her time at Carlisle Bay, Lowestoffe carried out patrols between Barbados and Antigua.

She was part of a squadron under Rear Admiral Tyrrell. Four vessels of the squadron, Princess Louisa, Lowestoffe, Virgin and Beaver, shared in the prize money arising from the seizure in January and February 1764 of several vessels engaged in illicit trade near Dominica. The seized vessels were the Sarah, Union, Mary Anne, Pastora, Elizabeth, Two Sisters, and June and Betsey.

Baker died on 31 March 1765.   His successor, Joseph Norwood, sailed Lowestoffe home to be paid off in August 1766. Lowestoffe underwent a small repair at Sheerness between December 1766 and April 1767, and after a period out of service was recommissioned again in June 1769 under Captain Robert Carkett. Carkett returned her to the West Indies in October that year, returning in May 1773 to Britain after four years at Jamaica. She was paid off in 1773, and reduced to a 28-gun Sixth Rate.

American War of Independence
Lowestoffe now underwent a large repair. She was recommissioned under Captain William Locker in early 1777 and prepared for service in the Leeward Islands. Joining her for this voyage was a young Lieutenant Horatio Nelson, who had passed his examination on 9 April, and was joining the Lowestoffe as her second lieutenant. Also serving on the Lowestoffe at this time was Cuthbert Collingwood, who would go on to have an enduring friendship with Nelson, serving with him on a number of occasions, including at the Battle of Trafalgar. The ship sailed in early May, escorting a convoy to the West Indies, where they arrived in mid July. She was coppered at Jamaica and then went on a number of cruises, capturing an American sloop with a cargo of rice in August 1777.

A second cruise saw the capture of an American privateer, and a notable incident for Nelson. Lowestoffe sent her boat and first lieutenant to take over the prize, but the seas were too rough to allow the American to be boarded, so the lieutenant returned. Nelson stepped forward and volunteered to make an attempt; he succeeded.

On 25 March 1778 Lowestoffe captured the sloop Swan, Daniel Smith, Master. She was of 60 tons, had a crew of seven men, and was carrying a cargo of molasses.

By the time of Lowestoffes third cruise, Nelson had taken command of the ship's tender, the schooner Little Lucy. Locker and the Lowestoffe spent the rest of 1778 and the early part of 1779 carrying out routine cruises and patrols, until Captain Christopher Parker replaced him in March 1779. Locker, who had by now been ill for some time, had recommended Nelson to Sir Peter Parker, who found a space for Nelson aboard his flagship, the 50-gun . Nelson joined her as third lieutenant on 1 July 1778.

On 8 February 1779, Lowestoffe captured the Vigilant, near the Bite (or Bight) of Leogan. The 70 ton sloop was sailing from Dominique to Philadelphia with a cargo of sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, cotton and salt. John English was her master and she had a crew of five men.

Lowestoffe became part of Captain John Luttrell's squadron and carried out operations in the Bay of Honduras in October and November 1779. On 17 October Lowestoffe, together with , , and  participated in the successful British attack on the Fort of San Fernandino de Omoa. During the attack Lowestoffe exchanged fire with the fort. While she was doing this she ran aground. Her immobility made her an easy target for the fort's guns. Eventually boats were able to pull Lowestoffe off, but not before she had sustained extensive damage. She had contributed a landing party to the assault on the fort and in all lost three men killed and five wounded. As a result of the battle the British ships captured two Spanish prizes with a cargo of bullion worth in excess of $3,000,000. Lowestoffe and Pomona also shared in the prize money for the St. Domingo and her cargo, which included 124 serons (crates) of indigo.

On 26 March 1780 Lowestoffe captured the small sloop Fortune, of 25 tons, off Cape Francois. Under the command of William Nevill, she had a crew of three and was sailing from North Carolina to Cape Francois with provisions. Also in early 1800 Lowestoffe captured the Danish brig Diana, which was sailing from St. Domingo to St. Thomas with a cargo of mahogany. Then on 15 June Lowestoffe,  and Pomona captured the brig Delaware, William Collins, Master. She was of 120 tons, armed with guns and had a crew of 53 men. She was sailing from Philadelphia to Port-au-Prince, with a cargo of flour and fish. More importantly, they also captured the French navy cutter Sans Pareil, of 16 guns and 100 men, as she was sailing from Martinique to Cap-Français. She was the former British privateer Non Such.

Later Lowestoffe detained a Danish schooner sailing from Acuba to Jacquemel with a cargo of cattle. She also recaptured the British brig John, which a French privateer had taken, and herself took a Spanish brig sailing from La Guaira to Tenerife with a cargo of cocoa and spices.

On 26 September Lowestoffe and Pallas captured two small vessels. One was the sloop Fair Henrietta, of 70 tons, sailing from Philadelphia to Cape Francois with a load of lumber and bricks. The second was the brig St. Salvadore, with a crew of 13 men, sailing from New Orleans to Havana with a cargo of lumber. In late 1800 or early 1801 Lowestoffe captured a Spanish brig (name unknown) of 110 tons, laden
with sugar and staves.

Between 2 and 4 October Lowestoffe survived a hurricane that badly damaged numerous British warships.  The hurricane also caused Barbadoes, Scarborough and Victor to founder, i.e., to be lost at sea with all hands.

Captain Christopher Parker transferred into Diamond on 1 November 1780, Captain James Cornwallis briefly to replace him on Lowestoffe. Cornwallis requested and received a transfer to  five weeks later.  His successor was Captain Thomas Haynes. Under Haynes, Lowestoffe and Janus captured the sloop Dispatch, Giles Sagg, Master, on 18 January 1781, off Heneauge. She was 60 tons, and carried four guns and a crew of 14 men. She was on her way from Port-au-Prince to Philadelphia with a cargo of coffee and sugar.

Haynes left in May 1781 to take over the 64-gun third rate Ruby. Her next captain was George Stoney, with Captain Thomas Windsor replacing him on 31 January 1782. Windsor sailed Lowestoffe home and paid her off at Portsmouth. She was laid up there for nine months, before being moved to the River Thames.

The years of peace
Robert Batson, of Limehouse carried out a great repair on Lowestoffe between July 1783 and March 1786. She returned to service in the English Channel in October 1787 under Captain Edmund Dodd. She sailed to the Mediterranean in May 1788, before returning to Britain where Captain Robert Stopford briefly took command in November 1790. Lowestoffe was paid off later that year and was fitted out at Plymouth between July 1792 and January 1793. Lowestoffe was then recommissioned in December 1792 under Captain William Wolseley.

French Revolutionary War
Lowestoffe sailed to the Mediterranean in May 1793, joining Hood's fleet then blockading Toulon. She joined a flying squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee to act against French forces in the Mediterranean. On 30 September 1793, Linzee took his squadron, including Lowestoffe, into the Gulf of San Fiorenzo to attack the redoubt of Forneilli on Corsica.  Lowestoffe fired two broadsides at a tower at Mortella Point that protected the deep entrance to the gulf.  The fire caused the tower's French defenders to abandon the tower and its three guns, allowing a landing party from Lowestoffe under the command of Lieutenants Francis Annesley and John Gibb to capture the tower. Linzee, however, delayed his assault on the city until he could bring his larger ships into action. These larger ships bombarded the town from 1 October, but sustained considerable damage from the garrison, which forced Linzee to withdraw.

Lowestoffe remained in the area, supporting British operations against the French garrisons on Corsica during 1794. On 7 March 1794 Captain Charles Cunningham took over command from Wolsely. A little over a month later, on 13 April Lowestoffe captured the Etoile du Nord. ,  and  shared in the capture. Lowestoffe then was among the British warships that shared in the capture, on 24 May, of the French brigs Jacobin and Natine.

Captain Benjamin Hallowell replaced Cunningham on 12 August. Hallowell commanded Lowestoffe during the Naval Battle of Genoa on 14 March 1795, during which she received some damage from long range shots from the French fleet. Captain Robert Gambier Middleton replaced Hallowell in June 1795.

Dido and Lowestoffe defeat Minerve and Artémise

Admiral Hotham then sent Lowestoffe, with the 28-gun Dido under Captain George Henry Towry, to reconnoitre the French fleet at Toulon. While off Menorca on 24 June 1795 the two frigates encountered two French frigates, the 42-gun  and the 36-gun . The French were initially wary, but when they realised that they were larger and stronger than the British vessels, the French captains manoeuvred to attack. Minerve attempted to run down Dido but when Dido turned to avoid the impact Minerves bowsprit became entangled in Didos rigging, costing Dido her mizzenmast and colours. Lowestoffe came along the port side of the Frenchman to discharge a broadside that carried away Minerves foremast and topmasts, crippling her. Lowestoffe pursued the retreating Artémise, which eventually escaped. Lowestoffe returned to Minerve, firing on her until she struck. Lowestoffe had three men wounded, the Dido six killed and 15 wounded. Minerve lost about 10 percent of her crew of over 300 men.  The British took Minerve into service as the 38-gun frigate HMS Minerve.  The weight of Minerves broadside alone was greater than that of the two British frigates together, making the battle a notable victory; the Royal Navy duly awarded each of the two captains a Naval Gold Medal. In 1847, Naval General Service Medals with clasps "Lowestoffe 24 June 1795" or "Dido 24 June 1795"  were awarded to six surviving crew members.

Later service
Captain Robert Plampin relieved Middleton in December 1795, going on to serve with a squadron under Thomas Troubridge. After a refit in Britain, Lowestoffe escorted convoys in the West Indies.

On 14 September 1796 she captured Lesou. Lowestoffe was also among the vessels that in late 1799 captured the Spanish letter of marque Navarra (alias Diligent). Diligent was of 150 tons and was armed with eight guns. She was sailing from Bilboa to Veracruz with a cargo of wine, iron and writing paper. Lowestoffe also shared in the capture of the Spanish "zartan" Ambrosia, which was sailing from Cadiz for Veracruz with a cargo of 26.5 tons of quicksilver and 10 tons of writing paper. Lowestoffe alone captured the Spanish brig San Francisco, of 90 tons, sailing from Campeachy to Havana with a cargo of sugar and logwood.

Loss

Lowestoffe sailed from Kingston, Jamaica on 22 July 1801, and met a convoy five days later at Port Antonio. The escorts consisted of Lowestoffe, , the sloop , and the schooners  (or Muskito), and Sting.

While Lowestoffe was sailing through the Caicos passage late on 10 August, Pamplin realised that the strong currents known to run through the channel had reversed direction and Lowestoffe was running into shallow waters. He attempted to avoid grounding, but to no avail, and the Lowestoffe ran broadside onto Little Inagua ("Heneaga") Island. The crew threw stores and equipment overboard to lighten the ship, and boats came from other ships in the convoy to try to pull her off. The attempts to refloat her failed and her crew abandoned her by mid-afternoon. The only casualties were five men who drowned when their boat capsized in the surf. The change in currents also caused the wreck of five, or six merchantmen.

In the late afternoon of 11 August Acasta left Bonetta and three of her own boats to help the wrecked vessels and then took command of the convoy.

The subsequent court-martial at Port Royal on 3 September ruled that a sudden change in the current after dark had caused the loss. The board acknowledged that Pamplin had sailed in a judicious manner and exonerated him and his officers from blame both for the loss of Lowestoffe and the vessels in convoy.

In April 1803 the officers and crew of Lowestoffe and of Bonetta received payment for the salvage of the specie that Lowestoffe was carrying.

Notes

Citations

References

External links

Frigates of the Royal Navy
Ships built in Deptford
Shipwrecks of the Bahamas
1761 ships
Maritime incidents in 1801

HMS Lowestoffe (1761)


Henry Van Brunt FAIA (September 5, 1832 – April 8, 1903) was a 19th-century American architect and architectural writer.

Life and work

Van Brunt was born in Boston in 1832 to Gershom Jacques Van Brunt and Elizabeth Price Bradlee. Van Brunt attended Boston Latin School, and graduated from Harvard College in 1854. From 1854 to 1857, he apprenticed with architect George Snell, then worked with Richard Morris Hunt, in New York City.

During the Civil War, Van Brunt served as Secretary to the Admiral of the North Atlantic Squadron, United States Navy. He resigned on February 15, 1864.

In the 1860s, Van Brunt and fellow Harvard graduate William Robert Ware established the architectural firm of Ware & Van Brunt.  The firm produced designs for many buildings in the Boston area, including Harvard University's Memorial Hall, "said to be one of the greatest examples of Ruskinian Gothic architecture outside of England".

In 1869, he married Alice S. Osborn; together they had 6 children.  In 1874 Van Brunt published a translation of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc's Discourses on architecture, and he remained a prolific writer through his career.

His partnership with Ware dissolved in 1881.  The same year, Van Brunt and former employee Frank M. Howe established the firm of Van Brunt & Howe, and about six years after took the dramatic step of moving his office from Boston to Kansas City, partly for multiple commissions for the Union Pacific Railroad for grand stations in western cities like Ogden, Utah (1889; burned down 1923), Denver, Colorado (1895; rebuilt 1912), Cheyenne, Wyoming and Omaha, Nebraska (1899; replaced 1931).  Many Kansas City civic landmarks of the time were Van Brunt's designs.  Stylistically, most of his later work is comfortably consistent with Richardsonian Romanesque; in at least one case, the Hoyt Library, he adapted and finished a rejected Richardson design.

In 1884 he was elected an officer of the American Institute of Architects.  In 1899 he became president of the AIA for a one-year term.

Van Brunt returned to Massachusetts around 1902, and died in Milton, Massachusetts, in 1903. His headstone in Cambridge Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts, gives his date of death as April 7, 1903.

Ware & Van Brunt
 1867 - Ether Monument, in the Boston Public Garden, with sculptor J.Q.A. Ward
 1867 - First Church, Boston, Massachusetts
 1868 - St. John's Memorial Chapel at the Episcopal Divinity School, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 1869 - Adams Academy, now the Quincy Historical Society, Quincy, Massachusetts
 1870 - Memorial Hall (Harvard University), Cambridge, Massachusetts, continuously redesigned through 1897
 1870 - Addition to Harvard Hall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 1870 - Weld Hall, Harvard University
 1872 - Charles Freeland tomb, Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge
 1873 - Lawrence Hall, Episcopal Divinity School, Cambridge, expanded 1880
 1875 - Addition to Gore Hall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts (demolished)
 1875 - Walter Hunnewell house, Hunnewell estate, Wellesley, Massachusetts (then West Needham)
 1881 - Yorktown Memorial, Yorktown, Virginia, with sculptor J.Q.A. Ward
 1881 - Music Hall, Wellesley College, Massachusetts

Van Brunt & Howe

 1881-1883 - Library at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (redesigned in 1920 by Albert Kahn)
 1883 - 167 Brattle Street (his residence), Cambridge, Massachusetts
 1883 - Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (demolished)
 1883 - William Washington Gordon Monument, Savannah, Georgia
 1884 - First National Bank, Portland, Maine
 1885 - Cheyenne Union Depot, now the Wyoming Transportation Museum, 15th Street and Capitol Avenue, Cheyenne, Wyoming
1887 - Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, Arlington, Massachusetts
 1887 - Hoyt Library, Saginaw, Michigan
 1888 - Cambridge Public Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 1888 - Gibraltar Building, Kansas City, Missouri (razed)
 1889 - Union Pacific Railroad Depot, North 2nd Street, Lawrence, Kansas
 1889-1890 - Emery, Bird, Thayer Dry Goods Company, Kansas City (razed in 1973)
 1890-1896 - Union Station, foot of Northwest 6th Avenue, Portland, Oregon
 1893 - Electricity Building and the Wyoming Building, World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago (demolished)
 1894 - Spooner Hall, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
 1895 - Union Station, Denver, Colorado (largely razed in 1912)
 1896-1898 - Hurst Hall, the first structure at the American University, Washington, DC
 1904 - Palace of Varied Industries, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Missouri (razed)
 1904 - Pipe Organ Case of the 10,000 pipe instrument exhibited by the Los Angeles Art Organ Co., Festival Hall, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Missouri (a temporary construction)

Writing
 Translator of: Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. Discourses on architecture. Boston : J.R. Osgood, 1875.
 On the Present Condition and Prospects of Architecture.  Atlantic Monthly 57, no. 341 (March 1886).
 Henry Hobson Richardson, Architect.  Atlantic Monthly 58:349 (November 1886).
 Architecture in the West, Atlantic Monthly 64:386 (December 1889).
 Greek Lines and Other Architectural Essays. Houghton, Mifflin. 1893

Image gallery

References

External links

1832 births
1903 deaths
19th-century American architects
American railway architects
Architects from Boston
Architects from Missouri
Harvard College alumni
Boston Latin School alumni
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Presidents of the American Institute of Architects

Henry Van Brunt


Broken Arrow is a 1996 American action-thriller film directed by John Woo, written by Graham Yost, and starring John Travolta, Christian Slater, and Samantha Mathis. The film's main themes include the theft of two American nuclear weapons, the attempts of U.S. military authorities to recover them, and the feud between Travolta and Slater's characters. The film was a commercial success despite mixed reviews.

Plot
Major Vic "Deak" Deakins and Captain Riley Hale, pilots in the United States Air Force (USAF), are flying a B-2 stealth bomber with two B83 nuclear bombs on a secret exercise. After evading Air Force radar, Deakins suddenly attacks Hale and ejects him from the plane. Deakins releases the bombs without activating them and then reports that Hale has gone rogue. He ejects, leaving the plane to crash in a national park in Utah.

A USAF team led by Chief Master Sergeant Rhodes is sent to find the missing warheads, declared as a "Broken Arrow" situation. The team locates the warheads in a canyon, but is ambushed by mercenaries. Rhodes tries to disable the warheads, but is killed by the other search team survivor, Master Sergeant Kelly, who is a mole for Deakins. Deakins arrives with Pritchett, the mercenaries' financier. They plan to blackmail the United States government with the threat of detonating the warhead in a populated area.

Hale is arrested by park ranger Terry Carmichael. He convinces her to help him track down Deakins. Deakins's mercenaries commandeer a search-and-rescue helicopter to kill Hale, but Hale and Carmichael manage to bring it down. The loss of the helicopter forces Deakins's men to continue in Humvees.

Hale and Carmichael carjack the Humvee carrying the warheads, escaping to a nearby abandoned copper mine. Hale starts to disable one, but Deakins reveals via radio that he has programmed it so that Hale's attempts to disarm it will cause the bomb to activate. Hale and Carmichael take the armed warhead down the shaft, where the mine is deep enough to contain the nuclear blast. Deakins's team arrives and secures the second warhead. After a gun battle deep in the mine, Deakins shortens the countdown of the armed warhead while leaving Hale and Carmichael trapped.

They escape via an underground river just before the bomb detonates. The resulting nuclear electromagnetic pulse disables an approaching NEST helicopter, allowing Deakins to escape. Deakins then kills Pritchett, having grown tired of his complaints and for straying from the plan. Carmichael and Hale track the mercenaries to a motorboat used for transporting the warhead down the river. While trying to steal the boat, Carmichael is forced to hide onboard, while military forces rescue Hale.

Hale deduces that Deakins intends to use a train to transport the warhead. Colonel Max Wilkins disobeys orders to help Hale. Stowing away on the train, Carmichael tries to sabotage the warhead, but is caught by Deakins, who arms the bomb. Catching up on a helicopter, Hale saves Carmichael before Deakins can throw her off the train. A gunfight ensues, killing Wilkins and causing the helicopter to crash and most of the mercenaries die in the aftermath.

Deakins has prepared a remote control that can either disarm or detonate the warhead and gets ready to leave on his own getaway helicopter. Hale sabotages the helicopter's fuel pump, causing it to explode and leaving Deakins and Kelly stranded with the ticking bomb. With his plan falling apart, Deakins decides to shorten the countdown timer out of spite. Kelly orders Deakins at gunpoint to disarm the weapon. Hale sneaks up on them during their bickering and kicks Kelly out of the boxcar to his death before engaging in a gun battle with Deakins.

Carmichael detaches the section of the train with the bomb, but gets into a shootout with the engineer. The engineer is killed and falls on the train brakes, allowing the detached boxcars to catch up. Deakins still has the remote detonator, so he forces Hale to drop his gun and challenges him to a fight. Hale eventually overpowers Deakins, acquires the remote detonator, disarms the warhead, and leaps out of the train. Carmichael also jumps from the train before the detached boxcars catch up and collide. The hurtling warhead flies through him into a stack of oil barrels, causing the train to derail and the barrels to explode, killing Deakins.

After the explosion, Hale and Carmichael embrace and formally introduce each other for the first time.

Cast

 John Travolta as United States Air Force Major Vic "Deak" Deakins
 Christian Slater as United States Air Force Captain Riley Hale
 Samantha Mathis as United States Park Service Park Ranger Terry Carmichael
 Delroy Lindo as United States Air Force Colonel Max Wilkins
 Frank Whaley as Giles Prentice
 Bob Gunton as Mr. Pritchett
 Howie Long as United States Air Force Pararescueman Master Sergeant Kelly
 Jack Thompson as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
 Kurtwood Smith as Secretary of Defense Baird
 Vondie Curtis-Hall as United States Air Force Pararescueman Chief Master Sergeant Sam Rhodes
 Daniel von Bargen as United States Air Force General Creely
 Jeffrey Stephan as Shepherd

Music
The original music score was composed by Hans Zimmer. An expanded double-disc limited set of the music score was released by La-La Land Records in February 2011.

The score is considered to be one of Zimmer's best action scores by fans and film critics. The opening track, "Rope-A-Dope", also known as "Deakin's Theme", has been widely used in other films and media, including Scream 2 and Speed 2. The famous riff from "Rope-A-Dope" was played by legendary guitarist Duane Eddy, who Zimmer brought in for the entire Broken Arrow scoring session.

Production
Principal photography began on April 26, 1995. Some filming took place in and around the mountain areas of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area in Kane County, Utah. The lake scene with Hale and Carmichael was filmed at Lake Powell. The desert sequences were shot in the Mojave Desert near Barstow, California, and in Coconino County near Page, Arizona. The final climax scenes with Deakins and his men on the train, including the action sequence with Deakins and Hale fighting in the train car, were filmed on the privately owned Central Montana Rail, Inc. (CM) in Fergus County between Lewistown, Montana, and Denton, Montana.

In July 1995, a number of elaborate train cars were sent to the location in Lewistown, including several custom-built cars. Six weeks of filming on the forty mile track were required to capture all the stunts, helicopter action, gun battles, high falls and special effects sequences. Production photography was completed on August 28, 1995.

John Travolta was originally the choice to portray Riley Hale (finally played by Christian Slater), but was chosen instead to portray Major Vic Deakins.

Release
Broken Arrow was No. 1 at the North American box office on its opening weekend grossing $15.6 million. It stayed on top for a second week and ultimately had a domestic gross of $70,770,147 and an international gross of $79,500,000, for a total worldwide gross of $150,270,147.

Reception
Based on 35 reviews collected by the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 54% of critics gave Broken Arrow a positive review (19 "Fresh"; 16 "Rotten"), with an average rating of 5.7 out of 10. The site's consensus states: "John Woo adds pyrotechnic glaze to John Travolta's hammy performance, but fans may find Broken Arrow to be a dispiritingly disposable English-language entry for the action auteur." Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated an average score of 61, "generally favorable reviews" based on 21 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

The review of this movie on Siskel & Ebert & the Movies represents the only time that Roger Ebert convinced Gene Siskel to change his mind about his final judgment of a film. Siskel initially gave the film a marginal "thumbs up" but changed it to a "thumbs down" after hearing Ebert's criticisms. Ebert called it "a slow, talky action thriller that plays like a homage to the Fallacy of the Talking Killer." This fallacy "occurs when all the bad guy has to do is pull the trigger, and his problems are over. Instead, he talks, and talks, until his target escapes from his predicament." Ebert queried the "purpose of a digital readout on a bomb. Who will ever see it, except in a mad bomber movie?" and summed up the film saying that it all "comes down to two guys fighting on a burning train for a channel-surfer".

See also

 1996 in film
 Cinema of the United States
 List of American films of 1996

References

External links

1996 films
1996 action thriller films
1990s spy films
American action thriller films
American aviation films
American spy films
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Films shot in Montana
Films set in Utah
Films directed by John Woo
Contemporary Western films
20th Century Fox films
Rail transport films
Films scored by Hans Zimmer
Films about the United States Air Force
1990s chase films
Films about terrorism in the United States
1990s English-language films
1990s American films
Films produced by Mark Gordon (producer)
Films about World War III

Broken Arrow (1996 film)


Brown sugar is unrefined or partially refined soft sugar.

Brown Sugar may also refer to:

Film
 Brown Sugar (1922 film), a British silent film directed by Fred Paul
 Brown Sugar (1931 film), a British romantic drama directed by Leslie S. Hiscott
 Brown Sugar (2002 film), an American romantic drama directed by Rick Famuyiwa

Music

Artists
 Brown Sugar (group), a 1976–1983 British female vocal reggae group
 Clydie King (1943–2019), also known as Brown Sugar, American session vocalist

Albums
 Brown Sugar (D'Angelo album) or the title song (see below), 1995
 Brown Sugar (Freddie Roach album) or the title track, 1964
 Brown Sugar (soundtrack), or the title song by Mos Def and Faith Evans, from the 2002 film

Songs
 "Brown Sugar" (D'Angelo song), 1995
 "Brown Sugar" (Ider song), 2019
 "Brown Sugar" (Rolling Stones song), 1971
 "Brown Sugar", by John Mayall from The Blues Alone, 1967
 "Brown Sugar", by Ray J, 2015
 "Brown Sugar", by ZZ Top from ZZ Top's First Album, 1971

Other uses
 Brown Sugar (streaming service), a video on demand service owned by Bounce Media
 Brown Sugar, a Crayola Heads 'n Tails crayon color
 Brown sugar, a grade of heroin

See also
 Sweet Brown Sugar (disambiguation)

Brown sugar (disambiguation)


Organisation zur Verwirklichung gemeinsamer Musikkonzepte (German: "Organisation for the Realization of Shared Music Concepts") was an experimental krautrock band, that was the immediate predecessor of the band Kraftwerk. In addition to the founding members of Kraftwerk, Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider-Esleben, Organisation included Basil Hammoudi, Butch Hauf, and Fred Monicks. The band was assisted by Paul Lorenz, Peter Martini, and Charly Weiss during their career.

History
A video recording by German TV broadcaster WDR exists of the band performing "Ruckzuck", a piece that appeared on the first Kraftwerk album in 1970. The performance took place at the Grugahalle in Essen on 25 April 1970 as part of the Internationales Essener Pop & Blues Festival. This was their last performance as Organisation, Hütter and Schneider-Esleben (later just Schneider) went on to form Kraftwerk, leaving Hammoudi, Hauf and Monicks to go to university.

Their only album, Tone Float, produced and engineered by Konrad "Conny" Plank along with the band themselves, was released on the RCA Victor label in the United Kingdom in 1970. As it was available in Germany only as an import, sales were poor and RCA opted to drop the band shortly afterwards, at which point Hütter and Schneider-Esleben left the band to form Kraftwerk, with Organisation dissolving as a result. Hammoudi, Hauf and Mönicks all returned to university to complete their studies. Hammoudi was later a member of jazz-rock band Ibliss, along with early Kraftwerk drummer Andreas Hohmann.

According to Mönicks (interviewed in the mid-1990s and June 2002 - January 2003.) the quintet had already begun to perform under the name Kraftwerk some time after Tone Float had been recorded, but RCA had been keen for them to have a band name more appropriate to the English market, since the album was to be issued only in the UK, so the name Organisation was used.

Members
 Basil Hammoudi – glockenspiel, conga gong, musical box, bongos, percussion, vocals
 Butch Hauf – bass, shaky tube, small bells, plastic hammer, percussion
 Ralf Hütter – Hammond organ
 Alfred "Fred" Mönicks – drums, bongos, maracas, cowbell, tambourine, percussion
 Florian Schneider-Esleben – electric flute, alto flute, bell, triangle, tambourine, electro-violin, percussion

Discography
 Tone Float (1970)

References

External links
 Kraftwerk.com—official Kraftwerk site.

1969 establishments in Germany
1970 disestablishments in Germany
German musical groups
Krautrock musical groups
Musical groups established in 1969
Musical groups disestablished in 1970
RCA Victor artists

Organisation (band)


Sleen is a village in Drenthe, Netherlands of about 2,500 people. Sleen has been inhabited for centuries. Much ancient history can be found in the area, particularly in the forests (which are planted, though). At birth and during the Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden (Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (1581–1795)). Sleen became the capital of one of the six "dingspels" (administrative areas) of Drenthe. When Drenthe was recognised as a province, Sleen became a municipality capital, before it merged into the municipality of Coevorden.

Sleen has a 450-year-old church. At about 68 meters, it is the highest church in the entire province. Nowadays, it functions as a Dutch Reformed Church. There is also another Protestant church in the village.

Nowadays, Sleen has its own supermarket (behind the former police station), library,  fish stand (every Wednesday), cafés, a few other shops, hair salons, petrol station, sports park (soccer, tennis, multipurpose indoor complex), horse riding school, houses for the elderly, and other facilities.
There are also two schools: CBS "de Fontein" (Christian primary school) and OBS "de Akker" (public primary school).

"De Brink" is the "centre" and the old part of the village, with some historic houses and a brick road. This is also where the two churches are, and other facilities like the former municipal centre. New houses were constructed over time, and an area known as "de nieuwbouw" is where the most recently constructed houses can be found.

The famous Pieterpad (a long hiking route that runs from Pieterburen in the north of the country to the St Pietersberg in Maastricht in the south) goes straight through Sleen. The windmill De Hoop has been restored to working order.

Notable people
 Joël Voordewind (born 1965), politician

References

External links

 Official website of the village of Sleen

Coevorden
Populated places in Drenthe
Former municipalities of Drenthe
Municipalities of the Netherlands disestablished in 1998

Sleen


Desmond McKeown (born 18 January 1970) is a Scottish retired footballer who played for Airdrieonians, Albion Rovers, Queen of the South in two spells, Partick Thistle and Stenhousemuir. He was also in the Celtic youth team but never played a first-team game for them.

When playing for Dumfries club, Queen of the South, McKeown was part of the side that made it to the 1997 Scottish Challenge Cup final playing alongside Jamie McAllister, Andy Aitken, Jim Thomson, and man of the match Tommy Bryce.

In 2001, he was the subject of a book published by Mainstream Publishing entitled "Don't Give Up the Day Job: A Year in the Life a Part-time Footballer" written by Bill Leckie, which gave an insight into the difficulties of juggling work commitments and family life, whilst playing as a part-time professional footballer for Queen of the South F.C. in the Scottish League. This was his second stint with the Palmerston Park club.

His playing career effectively came to an end after sustaining a broken leg in a pre-season game between Barrow AFC and Stenhousemuir in 2002. He managed Stenhousemuir from 2004-2006 (during the 2004-2005 season, he was co-manager alongside Tony Smith). McKeown, who nowadays owns a stationery supply company in the Glasgow area, works part-time as a pundit for BBC Scotland and also has a column in the Scottish edition of The Sun newspaper.

References

Sources

1970 births
Living people
Footballers from Glasgow
Scottish men's footballers
Celtic F.C. players
Partick Thistle F.C. players
Queen of the South F.C. players
Stenhousemuir F.C. players
Scottish football managers
Stenhousemuir F.C. managers
Airdrieonians F.C. (1878) players
Albion Rovers F.C. players
Men's association football defenders
Scottish Football League players
Scottish Football League managers

Des McKeown


Branchinecta longiantenna is a rare species of crustacean in the family Branchinectidae and the order Anostraca, the fairy shrimp. Its common name is longhorn fairy shrimp. It is endemic to California in the United States, where there are only four known populations. It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

This fairy shrimp is between one and two centimeters in length and differs from other fairy shrimp in the shape of its antennae. The animal lives in vernal pools on grasslands as well as pools on sandstone substrates. The fairy shrimp takes at least 23 days to reach maturity, and about 43 days on average.

There are four populations in California, all well separated from each other. In San Luis Obispo County the fairy shrimp occurs in vernal pools on the Carrizo Plain. Several are protected, and some are unprotected on private property. In Merced County in the Central Valley, the species can be found within the San Luis National Wildlife Refuge, where it is protected. In Contra Costa County the species is present in several vernal pools and can be found in scattered water-filled rock indentations. This population is protected in a preserve. In Alameda County the fairy shrimp occurs in vernal pools in a preserve, where it is protected. In addition to these four populations, one individual fairy shrimp was located near Los Banos in 2003, but it probably does not indicate the presence of a new population.

This species is at risk for extinction because it has few small populations and the extirpation of any one could greatly reduce the total population.

References

External links

Branchiopoda
Endemic fauna of California
Endemic crustaceans of the United States
Freshwater crustaceans of North America
Crustaceans described in 1990
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Branchinecta longiantenna


South Congregational Church (also known as United Church of Christ in Newport) is a historic church building at 58 S. Main Street (New Hampshire Route 10) in Newport, New Hampshire. The two-story brick church was built in 1823 by the carpenter John Leach for a congregation established in 1779, and is the most northerly of a series of rural churches based on a design used by Elias Carter in the design of the Congregational church in Templeton, Massachusetts. The church building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989. The congregation is affiliated with the United Church of Christ.

Description and history
The South Congregational Church is located (as its name suggests) south of the commercial and civic heart of downtown Newport, at the northeast corner of South Main and Church streets. It is a two-story brick building, with gabled roof. Its front facade is five bays wide, with a gabled entry pavilion projecting from the center three. The bays on the front and sides are articulated by brick piers, which rise to join by arches below the roof cornice. Doorways are set in the three central bays, topped by half-round transom windows. A four-stage tower rises above the entrances, each tier topped by a low balustrade with urned posts. The bottom two stages house a clock and belfry respectively, the latter with arched openings. The church bell was cast in 1822 by Paul Revere & Sons and weighs . The upper two stages are octagonal, and are capped by a cupola.

Built in 1823, the church is one of western New Hampshire's finest surviving Federal period churches. It was built two years after the similar Acworth Congregational Church, a wooden church tentatively attributed to builder Elias Carter. Carter's designs are known to have been an influence on church construction in the region during the early 19th century, with numerous churches drawing inspiration from the church he built in Templeton, Massachusetts.

The church congregation was founded in 1779. The church's location, outside the present downtown, is the result of a long-running dispute within the town of where its civic heart should be located. The consequence of this disagreement resulted in the placement of the Baptist church at the town common (north of the present-day commercial downtown), and the placement of this church here.

In 1918 the church built a parsonage on the north side of the lot. This was built with funds donated by Lizzie M. Richards and designed by James T. Kelley of Boston. Kelley had previously designed Richards' house in 1898.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sullivan County, New Hampshire

References

External links
Church website

United Church of Christ churches in New Hampshire
Congregational churches in New Hampshire
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New Hampshire
Federal architecture in New Hampshire
Colonial Revival architecture in New Hampshire
Churches completed in 1823
19th-century United Church of Christ church buildings
Churches in Sullivan County, New Hampshire
National Register of Historic Places in Sullivan County, New Hampshire
Newport, New Hampshire

South Congregational Church (Newport, New Hampshire)


De Nigerian Armed Forces (NAF) be de combined military forces give Nigeria. Edey consist of three uniformed service branches: de Nigerian Army, Nigerian Navy, den Nigerian Air Force. De President of Nigeria dey function as de commander-in-chief give de armed forces, wey dey exercise ein constitutional authority thru de Ministry of Defence, wey be responsible for de management of de military den ein personnel.

Nigerian Armed Forces