The Sebright (IPA: ) is a British breed of bantam chicken. It is a true bantam – a miniature bird with no corresponding large version – and is one of the oldest recorded British bantam breeds. It is named after Sir John Saunders Sebright, who created it as an ornamental breed by selective breeding in the early nineteenth century.

The first poultry breed to have its own specialist club for enthusiasts, Sebrights were admitted to poultry exhibition standards not long after their establishment. Today, they are among the most popular of bantam breeds. Despite their popularity, Sebrights are often difficult to breed, and the inheritance of certain unique characteristics the breed carries has been studied scientifically. As a largely ornamental chicken, they lay tiny, white eggs and are not kept for meat production.

History

Background
Sir John Saunders Sebright (1767–1846) was the 7th Sebright Baronet, and a Member of Parliament for Hertfordshire. In addition to breeding chickens, cattle and other animals, Sir John wrote several influential pamphlets on animal keeping and breeding: The Art of Improving the Breeds of Domestic Animals (1809), Observations upon Hawking (1826), and Observations upon the Instinct of Animals (1836).

Charles Darwin read Sir John's 1809 pamphlet, and was impressed with a passage that elaborated on how "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities". These writings, along with Darwin's correspondence via their mutual friend William Yarrell, aided Darwin in the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin's seminal work On the Origin of Species, first published in 1859, cited Sir John's experiments in pigeon breeding, and recalled "That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.'" Darwin also cited Sir John extensively regarding the Sebright bantam, as well as pigeon and dog breeding, in his 1868 work Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, and his book on Natural Selection (which was not published in his lifetime).

Sebright set out to create a very small bantam chicken with laced plumage similar that of the laced Polish. Although the exact makeup of the breed is uncertain, it is thought that he created the gold Sebright by cross-breeding a buff Nankin bantam hen, a small gold-spangled Hamburgh-like hen and a small hen-feathered Pit Game cock; he later created the silver Sebright by crossing his golds with a white Rosecomb cock bought from the new Zoological Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, established in 1826. It is also possible that the hen-feathering characteristic derived from the Belgian Campine breed rather than from Pit Game. In about 1810, Sebright founded The Sebright Bantam Club, which was the first single-breed association for chickens. In 1853 the Sebright was described in the Poultry Book of William Wingfield and George William Johnson, with an illustration by Harrison Weir. It was included in the original Standard of Excellence in Exhibition Poultry of William Bernhard Tegetmeier in 1865, and in the first Standard of Perfection of the American Poultry Association in 1874. Today, the breed is one of the ten most popular bantam chickens, according to the American Bantam Association.

Characteristics
In accordance with the intentions of their creator, the Sebright is an ornamental bantam, and is commonly seen in competitive poultry shows. As a true bantam, all Sebrights are very small in stature; males weigh an average of  and females . Their short backs, proportionally large breasts, and downward-pointing wings combine to create an angular, jaunty look.

In the United Kingdom, two colour variants are recognised, gold and silver; these have a base of either dark gold or whitish silver, evenly laced around the edges with black. In other European countries other colours have been created: a black-laced lemon Sebright arose as a sport in Holland in the mid-twentieth century, and a chamois or white-laced buff variant was bred towards the end of the century; it is recognised by the Entente Européenne. The birds have unfeathered legs with slate-blue skin, and their beaks are ideally a dark horn colour. Cocks carry a rose comb covered with fine points, and a small spike that sweeps back from the head (called a leader). Combs, earlobes and wattles were originally a purple colour referred to in the fancy as mulberry, but today are often bright red though mulberry is still desired according to the standards in most countries.  Some breeders consider hen feathering to have an adverse effect on the fertility of male Sebrights, and may use cocks that don't carry the trait for breeding purposes, despite their automatic disqualification in shows.

Characteristically, Sebrights are only one of a few chicken breeds in which the cocks are hen-feathered, meaning they have none of the long, sickle-shaped feathers common in most cocks that appear in the tail, neck and saddle. Due to the unique characteristic hen feathering, molecular biologists have found the Sebright bantam a useful model organism in the study of sex hormones. This is because they carry a mutation that causes the tissues of their skin to convert an unusually large amount of male sex hormones (androgens) into female sex hormones (oestrogens).

Husbandry
Sebrights are neither outstanding meat birds nor prolific egg layers – hens lay some 60–80 creamy-white eggs per year. They can prove to be particularly difficult to raise, especially for beginners. Hens rarely go broody and chicks usually have high mortality rates. Adults are generally hardy, but are especially susceptible to Marek's disease. Like many bantams, they fly well, so are sometimes kept in confinement, and not allowed to range freely.  Due to their genetic make-up, males may on occasion be born infertile, further complicating breeding.

See also
 List of chicken breeds
 Pigmy Pouter (An English breed of fancy pigeon believed to also be developed by Sir John Sebright though the subject is debatable)
 Campine (chicken) A small breed of chicken that also comes in gold and silver variants; is often compared to the Sebright.
 Hen feathering in cocks

Notes

References

 Carol Ekarius (2007). Storey's Illustrated Guide to Poultry Breeds. North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Publishing. .

Bantam chicken breeds
Chicken breeds
Chicken breeds originating in the United Kingdom
Animal models
Animal breeds on the RBST Watchlist

Sebright chicken


Eric MacKenzie (born 1938) is an educator and former political figure in New Brunswick, Canada. He represented Fredericton-Fort Nashwaak in the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick from 1999 to 2003 as a Progressive Conservative member.

He was born in Moncton, New Brunswick, the son of Daniel MacKenzie. After graduating from high school, he served in the Canadian Navy. He went on to study at the University of New Brunswick and St. Thomas University. He was a math teacher in Fredericton, also teaching in Bagotville, Quebec and St. Andrews.

MacKenzie was defeated when he ran for reelection in 2003. He later served on the executive committee of the National Capital Commission in Ottawa. In 2007, he was named to the board of directors for the New Brunswick Capital Commission.

References
 New Brunswick MLAs, New Brunswick Legislative Library (pdf)

1938 births
Living people
Politicians from Moncton
Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick MLAs
21st-century Canadian politicians

Eric MacKenzie (politician)


The paradox of analysis (or Langford–Moore paradox) is a paradox that concerns how an analysis can be both correct and informative.  The problem was formulated by philosopher G. E. Moore in his book Principia Ethica, and first named by C. H. Langford in his article "The Notion of Analysis in Moore's Philosophy" (in The Philosophy of G. E. Moore, edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp, Northwestern University, 1942, pp. 319–342).

The paradox
A conceptual analysis is something like the definition of a word.  However, unlike a standard dictionary definition (which may list examples or talk about related terms as well), a completely correct analysis of a concept in terms of others seems like it should have exactly the same meaning as the original concept.  Thus, in order to be correct, the analysis should be able to be used in any context where the original concept is used, without changing the meaning of the discussion in context.  Conceptual analyses of this sort are a major goal of analytic philosophy.

However, if such an analysis is to be useful, it should be informative.  That is, it should tell us something we don't already know (or at least, something one can imagine someone might not already know).  But it seems that no conceptual analysis can both meet the requirement of correctness and of informativeness, on these understandings of the requirements.

To see why, consider a potential simple analysis:

(1) For all x (any given member of a class or set), x is a brother if and only if x is a male sibling

One can say that (1) is correct because the expression "brother" represents the same concept as the expression "male sibling," and (1) seems to be informative because the two expressions are not identical.  And if (1) is truly correct, then "brother" and "male sibling" must be interchangeable:

(2) For all x, x is a brother if and only if x is a brother

Yet (2) is not informative, so either (1) is not informative, or the two expressions used in (1) are not interchangeable (because they change an informative analysis into an uninformative one) so (1) is not actually correct.  In other words, if the analysis is correct and informative, then (1) and (2) must be essentially equal, but this is not true because (2) is not informative.  Therefore, it seems an analysis cannot be both correct and informative at the same time.

Proposed resolutions
One way to resolve this paradox is to redefine what is an analysis.  In explaining the paradox, a potential analysis is assumed to be a relation between concepts rather than the verbal expressions used to illustrate them.  If the verbal expression is part of the analysis, then we shouldn't expect complete intersubstitutivity even in cases of correct analyses.  However, this response seems to move the notion of analysis into mere linguistic definition, rather than doing interesting work with concepts.

Another response is to bite the bullet and just say that correct analyses are uninformative — which then raises the question of what positive cognitive notion should be used instead of this one, if any.

One further response would be to take Willard Van Orman Quine's position and reject the notion of conceptual analysis altogether. This is a natural response to the rejection of the analytic–synthetic distinction.

Origins
The paradox is a reformulation of Meno's paradox from Plato's dialogue of the same name:  Any new knowledge is either the same as what is already known, and therefore not informative, or else different from what is already known, and therefore not verifiable (or reachable by analytic logic).

See also

 Sense and reference

Notes

References
 "George Edward Moore (1873—1958)," by Aaron Preston, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <http://www.iep.utm.edu/moore>.
 "Definição", by Dirk Greimann, Compêndio em Linha de Filosofia Analítica, <https://web.archive.org/web/20150622064448/http://www.compendioemlinha.com/uploads/6/7/1/6/6716383/greimann-definicao.pdf>
 "Analysis," by Michael Beaney, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/analysis/>.
 "Analysis, Language, and Concepts: the Second Paradox of Analysis," by Filicia Ackerman, Philosophical Perspectives, Vol. 4, Action Theory and Philosophy of Mind (1990), pp. 535–543

Analysis
Definition
Philosophical paradoxes
Analytic philosophy

Paradox of analysis


Irwin Swack (born West Salem, Ohio, November 8, 1916; died January 2, 2006) was an American composer of contemporary classical music.

He held degrees from the Cleveland Institute of Music (where he studied violin, graduating with a B.M. in 1939), the Juilliard School, Northwestern University (master's degree), and Columbia University (doctorate). He studied with Henry Cowell (at Columbia University), Gunther Schuller (at Tanglewood), Vittorio Giannini (at Juilliard), and Paul Creston (at Columbia University). His music was recorded on the Centaur, CRS, Opus One, and Living Artist Recordings labels.

His music is published by Carl Fischer, Shawnee Press, Theodore Presser, and Galaxy Music.

His last residence was in Bellmore, New York.

Works
Duets for Violin and Viola
Fantasie Concertante, string orchestra
Profiles, clarinet, violin and cello
Sonata for Flute and Piano
String Quartet no. 1
String Quartet no. 2
String Quartet no. 3
String Quartet no. 4
String Quartet no. 5
Symphony no. 1
Symphony no. 2
The Visions of Isaiah, mixed choir and orchestra

External links
Irwin Swack page
Irwin Swack page from American Music Center site

1916 births
2006 deaths
American male classical composers
American classical composers
20th-century classical composers
People from West Salem, Ohio
Northwestern University alumni
Columbia University alumni
Cleveland Institute of Music alumni
People from Bellmore, New York
Pupils of Gunther Schuller
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
Classical musicians from Ohio
Classical musicians from New York (state)
Pupils of Henry Cowell

Irwin Swack


Benito Antonio Fernández Ortiz (13 February 1901 – 4 August 1982), better known as Ñico Saquito, was a Cuban trova songwriter, guitarist and singer. He is widely considered the most prolific and successful composer of guarachas, most of which he wrote during his stint as a member of Los Guaracheros de Oriente. Among his most enduring compositions are "Cuidadito compay gallo", "María Cristina", "Adiós compay gato", "Al vaivén de mi carreta", "Camina como Chencha" and "Amarrao compé".

Life and career

Saquito was born on 13 February 1901 in Santiago de Cuba, the capital of the Santiago de Cuba Province (known as the Oriente Province between 1905 and 1976), notable for its traditional trova music. From an early age Saquito was a keen baseball player, using a jute sack as his baseball glove, from which his nickname originated (ñico from Antoñico, diminutive of his name due to his short stature, and saquito meaning small sack). By the age of 15 he had already attracted attention for his songwriting, and abandoned a career in baseball to start life as a trovador.

Saquito directed his own group in the 1920s, and later joined the Cuarteto Castillo, spending much of the 1930s touring Cuba with the group. His first hit came in 1936 when the Trío Matamoros recorded his guaracha "Cuidadito compay gallo". To capitalize on the song's success Saquito formed the Conjunto Compay Gallo with guitarist Florencio "Pícolo" Santana in 1940, releasing several singles on RCA Victor. The group broke up after 1941. Santana then began performing alongside guitarist Gerardo "El Chino" Macias at El Baturro, a popular tavern in Havana. Saquito subsequently formed a new group, Los Guaracheros de Oriente, of which Santana and Macías would become members. They made many recordings for RCA Victor, performed throughout Cuba and toured Puerto Rico and Venezuela in 1950. Ñico and the Guaracheros toured extensively abroad until 1960, when political conditions forced a decision as to whether or not to return to Cuba. Saquito returned, but the rest of the group stayed in Puerto Rico, continuing their career without Saquito.

He seemed to collect nicknames: to some he was "El guarachero de Oriente" (because he led the group of that name) and to others "Compay gato" (from his number "Adiós compay gato"). Later in his life Ñico played mostly in the bar-restaurant La Bodeguita del Medio, in Havana. In 1982 he recorded his last album at EGREM's Siboney studios in Santiago de Cuba with the Cuarteto Patria and the Dúo Cubano; these recordings were released posthumously on World Circuit in 1993 under the title Good-bye Mr. Cat, becoming his only American LP.

Discography
1956: Esto es Cuba (Sonora) — with Ramón Veloz
1959: Son cosas de Ñico Saquito (Panart) — with Ramón Veloz
1960: Linda guajira (Panart)
1969: Ñico Saquito y su conjunto de Oriente
1979: Ñico Saquito (Areito)
1993: Good-bye Mr. Cat (World Circuit)

References

1901 births
1982 deaths
Cuban male guitarists
Cuban songwriters
Male songwriters
20th-century Cuban male singers
Guaracha singers
Guaracha songwriters
World Circuit (record label) artists
20th-century composers
20th-century guitarists
Musicians from Santiago de Cuba

Ñico Saquito


Renaud (795–843) was Frankish Count of Herbauges, Count of Poitiers and Count of Nantes. His name is also spelled Rainaldus or Ragenold, and he is sometimes known as Reginald in English. He is referred to as Renaud of Aquitaine, but seems to have been a member of the Rorgonid family of Maine.

The County of Herbauges consisted of three pagi south of the Loire: Arballicus (Herbauges), Metallicus (the Mauges), and Teofalicus (Tiffauges) and was separate from the County of Poitou, of which Renaud also appears to have been Count. His appointment as Count is prior to July 835 when he appears in a battle against the Normans in Noirmoutier.

Count of Nantes
After the death of Count Ricwin of Nantes at the Battle of Fontenay (841), he was appointed by Charles the Bald as Count of Nantes. This was at the expense of Lambert II of Nantes, who had fought for Charles at Fontenay, and was considered the legitimate heir of his father, the former Count Lambert I of Nantes. Disappointed in his ambitions, Lambert II broke with Charles the Bald and turned to Nominoe, Duke of Brittany, who was then in almost open revolt against the Franks. Nominoe and Lambert intended to join forces to capture Nantes.

Invasion of Brittany
Having fortified Nantes, Renaud heard that Nominoe had been incapacitated by a serious illness. Renaud decided to take the initiative, by raiding into Breton territory. At the junction of the diocese of Alet and county of Nantes, on the Roman road of Angers Carhaix he surprised the Breton army led by Nominoe's son Prince Erispoe. At the Battle of Messac, Erispoe was initially defeated by Renaud. Shortly afterwards, however, the timely arrival of Lambert's troops allowed Erispoe to counter-attack in force, defeating Renaud. Renaud himself was killed the day afterwards, during the pursuit. The Bretons may also have been assisted by the Viking warlord Håstein, who is said to have personally killed Renaud. However, other sources assert that Lambert killed Renaud and that the Viking force arrived shortly afterwards, looking for plunder.

Aftermath
The Vikings sacked Nantes and killed its bishop. Lambert occupied the town, but was unable to hold it. Renaud's son Hervé was killed in battle against Lambert a year later. Recent studies suggest that another of Renaud's sons Ragenold became Count of Herbauges, then Maine and Marquis of Neustria.

References

Nobility of the Carolingian Empire
843 deaths
Counts of Nantes
Counts of Poitiers
Year of birth unknown
795 births

Renaud of Herbauges


The Northern Student Movement (NSM) was an American civil rights organization that drew inspiration from sit-ins and lunch counter protests led by students in the south. NSM was founded at Yale University in 1961 by Peter J. Countryman, which grew out of the work of a committee formed by the New England Student Christian Movement, and was affiliated with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Countryman began NSM's work by collecting books for a predominantly African-American college and raising funds for SNCC.  He then turned to organizing tutoring programs for inner city youth in northeastern cities.  By 1963, NSM was reported to be helping as many as 3,500 children using 2,200 student volunteers from 50 colleges and universities.  NSM also encouraged direct-action protests, sending volunteers to sit-ins in the South and organizing rent strikes in the North. In the early 60's, NSM's work was divided into three areas which were each headed by an executive committee: "the campus, the community, and the south."

History
Peter J. Countryman, a white Yale student, helped assemble the NSM in the fall of 1961 from "existing networks of the Student Christian Movement of New England." The mission of the NSM was to "support the work of the SNCC and to "challenge discrimmination in the North". The Northern Student Movement soon began organizing projects in the communities of the North to fight against injustice in Black communities.

Countryman stepped down as NSM's executive director in 1963 and was replaced by William L. Strickland.

Early work
The organization started some tutoring and community programs in the most segregated and poverty-stricken urban areas up past the Mason-Dixon line. "In the Roxbury-South End area of Boston, NSM led a voter registration drive, preschool programs, and a Black history workshop." In Philadelphia, a Northern Student Movement freedom library was started to "have books by and about black people."

The NSM had 50 fulltime employees with different sources reporting of somewhere between 2,200-2,500 college student volunteers. These college students focused on helping the communities like tutoring and establishing the North End Community Action Project "that organized protests against discriminatory hiring practices."

Also, the Northern Student Movement focused more on organizing locally. However, while advocates of Black Power acknowledged the achievements and dedication of the hard working white NSM members, and a dramatic shift taken place of creating an all-Black organization because many felt that blacks really needed to be the ones determining what their communities needed. Bill Strickland, the second executive director of the NSM, was the leadman in "rent strikes, school boycotts, and neighborhood-initiated community projects".

Later years
After a shooting that wounded NSM volunteer, Bruce Payne, who was with a group of fellow volunteers in Mississippi to help with a voter registration campaign, sparked a visit by Dr. Martin Luther King to where it NSM all started, Yale University. He wrote a letter to the Universities chaplain, an advocate of the NSM, which he writes that he was "really heartened by the movement in the right direction I sense at Yale."

The NSM declined later in the decade as Black students began to protest and negotiate for the successful temporary removal of police from campuses, amnesty for striking students, and the creation of Black studies courses like the ones the NSM started provided in other cities.

Archives
The records of the Northern Student Movement, including a complete run of its periodical, Freedom North, are on file with the Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division of the New York Public Library.

Oral History interviews with several NSM organizers are available through the Columbia Center for Oral History Research.

Notes and References

External links
Northern Student Movement: A collection of articles and links to resources that describe the work of a civil rights organization founded by Peter Countryman and others....
Columbia University Libraries, Columbia Center for Oral History: Oral history interviews about the Northern Student Movement

Student organizations established in 1961
African Americans' rights organizations
Civil rights movement
Student political organizations in the United States
1961 establishments in Connecticut

Northern Student Movement


Scrubber systems (e.g. chemical scrubbers, gas scrubbers) are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams. An early application of a carbon dioxide scrubber was in the submarine the Ictíneo I, in 1859; a role for which they continue to be used today. Traditionally, the term "scrubber" has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the term has also been used to describe systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to "wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation.  They are also used for the high flows in solar, PV, or LED processes.

There are several methods to remove toxic or corrosive compounds from exhaust gas and neutralize it.

Combustion
Combustion is sometimes the cause of harmful exhausts, but, in many cases, combustion may also be used for exhaust gas cleaning if the temperature is high enough and enough oxygen is available.

Wet scrubbing
The exhaust gases of combustion may contain substances considered harmful to the environment, and the scrubber may remove or neutralize those.
A wet scrubber is used for cleaning air, fuel gas or other gases of various pollutants and dust particles. Wet scrubbing works via the contact of target compounds or particulate matter with the scrubbing solution. Water is the most common solvent used to remove inorganic contaminants, particularly for dust, but solutions of reagents that specifically target certain compounds may also be used.

Process exhaust gas can also contain water-soluble toxic and/or corrosive gases like hydrochloric acid (HCl) or ammonia (NH3). These can be removed very well by a wet scrubber.

Removal efficiency of pollutants is improved by increasing residence time in the scrubber or by the increase of surface area of the scrubber solution by the use of a spray nozzle, packed towers or an aspirator. Wet scrubbers may increase the proportion of water in the gas, resulting in a visible stack plume, if the gas is sent to a stack.

Wet scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation. In this mode, termed a condensing scrubber, water from the scrubber drain is circulated through a cooler to the nozzles at the top of the scrubber. The hot gas enters the scrubber at the bottom. If the gas temperature is above the water dew point, it is initially cooled by evaporation of water drops. Further cooling causes water vapors to condense, adding to the amount of circulating water.

The condensation of water releases significant amounts of low temperature heat due to the high value of the specific latent heat of the vaporisation of water (more than  per ton of water), which can be recovered by the cooler for e.g. district heating purposes.

Excess condensed water must continuously be removed from the circulating water.

Dry scrubbing
A dry or semi-dry scrubbing system, unlike the wet scrubber, does not saturate the flue gas stream that is being treated with moisture. In some cases no moisture is added, while in others only the amount of moisture that can be evaporated in the flue gas without condensing is added. Therefore, dry scrubbers generally do not have a stack steam plume or wastewater handling/disposal requirements. Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove acid gases (such as SO2 and HCl) primarily from combustion sources.

There are a number of dry type scrubbing system designs. However, all consist of two main sections or devices:  a device to introduce the acid gas sorbent material into the gas stream and a particulate matter control device to remove reaction products, excess sorbent material as well as any particulate matter already in the flue gas.

Dry scrubbing systems can be categorized as dry sorbent injectors (DSIs) or as spray dryer absorbers (SDAs). Spray dryer absorbers are also called semi-dry scrubbers or spray dryers.

Dry scrubbing systems are often used for the removal of odorous and corrosive gases from wastewater treatment plant operations.  The medium used is typically an activated alumina compound impregnated with materials to handle specific gases such as hydrogen sulfide.  Media used can be mixed together to offer a wide range of removal for other odorous compounds such as methyl mercaptans, aldehydes, volatile organic compounds, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide.

Dry sorbent injection involves the addition of an alkaline material (usually hydrated lime, soda ash, or sodium bicarbonate) into the gas stream to react with the acid gases. The sorbent can be injected directly into several different locations:  the combustion process, the flue gas duct (ahead of the particulate control device), or an open reaction chamber (if one exists). The acid gases react with the alkaline sorbents to form solid salts which are removed in the particulate control device. These simple systems can achieve only limited acid gas (SO2 and HCl) removal efficiencies. Higher collection efficiencies can be achieved by increasing the flue gas humidity (i.e., cooling using water spray). These devices have been used on medical waste incinerators and a few municipal waste combustors.

In spray dryer absorbers, the flue gases are introduced into an absorbing tower (dryer) where the gases are contacted with a finely atomized alkaline slurry. Acid gases are absorbed by the slurry mixture and react to form solid salts which are removed by the particulate control device. The heat of the flue gas is used to evaporate all the water droplets, leaving a non-saturated flue gas to exit the absorber tower. Spray dryers are capable of achieving high (80+%) acid gas removal efficiencies. These devices have been used on industrial and utility boilers and municipal waste incinerators.

Adsorber
Many chemicals can be removed from exhaust gas also by using adsorber material. The flue gas is passed through a cartridge which is filled with one or several adsorber materials and has been adapted to the chemical properties of the components to be removed. This type of scrubber is sometimes also called dry scrubber. The adsorber material has to be replaced after its surface is saturated. Note: adsorption is a surface phenomena, absorption involves the entire material. Ex: Activated carbon an adsorbent, used for the adsorption of odorous compounds.

Mercury removal
Mercury is a highly toxic element commonly found in coal and municipal waste. Wet scrubbers are only effective for removal of soluble mercury species, such as oxidized mercury, Hg2+.  Mercury vapor in its elemental form, Hg0, is insoluble in the scrubber slurry and not removed. Therefore, an additional process of Hg0 conversion is required to complete mercury capture. Usually halogens are added to the flue gas for this purpose. The type of coal burned as well as the presence of a selective catalytic reduction unit both affect the ratio of elemental to oxidized mercury in the flue gas and thus the degree to which the mercury is removed.

In July 2015, one study found that some mercury scrubbers installed on coal power plants inadvertently capture PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) emissions as well.

Scrubber waste products

One side effect of scrubbing is that the process only moves the unwanted substance from the exhaust gases into a liquid solution, solid paste or powder form. This must be disposed of safely, if it can not be reused.

For example, mercury removal results in a waste product that either needs further processing to extract the raw mercury, or must be buried in a special hazardous wastes landfill that prevents the mercury from seeping out into the environment. There are issues with that, as it is extremely dangerous to the environment, and many factories cannot process them or have it moved to a landfill.

As an example of reuse, limestone-based scrubbers in coal-fired power plants can produce a synthetic gypsum of sufficient quality that can be used to manufacture drywall and other industrial products.

Bacteria spread
Poorly maintained scrubbers have the potential to spread disease-causing bacteria.  The problem is a result of inadequate cleaning.  For example, the cause of a 2005 outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Norway was just a few infected scrubbers.  The outbreak caused 10 deaths and more than 50 cases of infection.

Scrubbers on ships
Scrubbers were first used on board ships for the production of inert gas for oil tanker operations.

Later, in preparation for the global 0.5% sulfur cap in 2020, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted guidelines on the approval, installation and use of exhaust gas scrubbers (exhaust gas cleaning systems) on board ships to ensure compliance with the sulfur regulation of MARPOL Annex VI. Flag states must approve such systems and port states can (as part of their port state control) ensure that such systems are functioning correctly. If a scrubber system is not functioning properly (and the IMO procedures for such malfunctions are not adhered to), port states can sanction the ship. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea also bestows port states with a right to regulate (and even ban) the use of open loop scrubber systems within ports and internal waters.

See also

 Flue-gas desulfurization
 Flue-gas condensation
 Mercury (element)
 Mercury cycle
 Oil desulfurization
 Electrostatic precipitator
 BS4994 Chemical Process Plant Equipments in FRP
 Catalytic converter
 Wet scrubber
 Baffle spray scrubber
 Ejector venturi scrubber
 Liquid-to-gas ratio
 Mechanically aided scrubber
 Spray tower
 Spray nozzle
 Stripping (chemistry)
 Venturi scrubber

References

Further reading

 Jesper Jarl Fanø (2019). Enforcing International Maritime Legislation on Air Pollution through UNCLOS. Hart Publishing.

Pollution control technologies
Air pollution control systems
Acid gas control
Industrial processes

Scrubber


Macroevolution refers to large-scale evolution. For some, this means the origin of species. For others, it means the large-scale changes seen in the fossil record.
"Major changes in structure and ways of life over.. tens of millions of years". R.L. Carroll.
"A large evolutionary pattern... events that result in the origin of a new higher taxon". Dictionary of Genetics.
"All macroevolutionary processes take place in populations and in the genotypes of individuals, and are thus simultaneously microevolutionary processes". Mayr.
"A vague term for the evolution of great phenotypic changes, usually great enough to [put] the lineage into a distinct genus or higher taxon". Futuyma.
"Evolution on the grand scale". Ridley.

It is a term of convenience: for most biologists it does not suggest any change in the process of evolution. For a few palaeontologists, some things they see in the fossil record cannot be explained just by the gradualist evolutionary synthesis. They are in the minority. There are some interesting discussions by other palaeontologists.

Some biologists use the term for evolution in already separated gene pools. For them, macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species. Again, this is a minority position. Most biologist would not call evolution at the species level "macroevolution".

Microevolution, on the other hand, refers to smaller evolutionary changes within species or populations. During microevolution changes in allele frequencies definitely do occur. Some biologists, Richard Dawkins in particular, have suggested that the gene is the object of selection. This was always challenged by Ernst Mayr "The individual is the entity which survives or not, which reproduces or not, and which reproduces successfully or not". Changes in gene frequency in populations is a by-product of what happens to individuals.

Relation of macroevolution to microevolution
Paleontology, evolutionary developmental biology, and sequence analysis contribute much evidence for the patterns and processes that can be classified as macroevolution. An example of macroevolution is the appearance of feathers during the evolution of birds from one group of dinosaurs.

Within the modern evolutionary synthesis school of thought, macroevolution is thought of as the compounded effects of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one – the only difference between them is of time and scale.

Some creationists have also adopted the term 'macroevolution' to describe the form of evolution they reject. They may accept that evolutionary change is possible within species (microevolution), but deny that one species can evolve into another (macroevolution). These arguments are rejected by biologists, who hold that there is ample evidence that macroevolution has occurred in the past.

Research topics
Some examples of subjects whose study falls within the realm of macroevolution:

 The debate between punctuated equilibrium and gradualism
 Speciation and extinction rates
 Mass extinctions
 Adaptive radiations such as the Cambrian Explosion
 Changes in biodiversity through time
 The role of development in shaping evolution, particularly such topics as heterochrony and developmental plasticity
 Genomic evolution, like horizontal gene transfer, genome fusions in endosymbioses, and adaptive changes in genome size

Origin of the term
Russian entomologist Yuri Filipchenko (or Philipchenko, depending on the transliteration) first coined the terms 'macroevolution' and 'microevolution' in 1927 in his German language work, Variabilität und Variatio.

Since then, their meanings have been revised several times and fallen into disfavour with many, who prefer to speak of biological evolution as one process.

Criticisms of macroevolution
Evolution as a whole is strongly supported by many kinds of evidence.

The issue for biologists is whether there is any sense in having the special term macroevolution. The answer is yes for a few biologists who proposed one or more evolutionary mechanisms which worked above the species level. The ideas of punctuated equilibrium and species selection were suggested, but in each case most biologists felt they could be explained by the usual small-scale changes. This explains why 'macroevolution' is perhaps a term biologists do not need to use.

When discussing the topic, creationists use "strategically elastic" definitions of micro- and macroevolution.  Macroevolution, by their definition, cannot be attained. Any observed evolutionary change is described by them as being "just microevolution".

The debate between biologists continues, with some biologists stating that there is significant evidence that other factors have acted during macroevolution, and others maintaining that macroevolution can still be fully explained by the mechanisms of microevolution.

References

Other websites
 Introduction to macroevolution on the Understanding Evolution website
 Macroevolution as an independent discipline: Macroevolution in the 21st century
 Macroevolution as the common descent of all life: "29+ evidences for macroevolution"

Evolution

Macroevolution


John Barnewall, O.F.M. (c. 1595 – c. 1650), was a member of the aristocracy in Ireland who became a Franciscan friar. He served as a teacher and lecturer both locally and on the Continent. He was the Minister Provincial of Ireland during the Irish Confederate Wars, due to which position he communicated on Irish affairs with Franciscans on the European mainland, such as the historian, Friar Luke Wadding. He became involved in the conflict, opposing the excommunications issued by the papal nuncio in 1648. He last appears in documents dated July 1649.

Biography

Barnewall was the son of Robert Barnewall, 7th Baron Trimlestown (died 1639), and a brother of Matthias Barnewall, 8th Baron Trimlestown (died 1667). His mother was Genet Talbot, daughter of Thomas Talbot of Dardistown Castle, County Meath. The family was a significant member of the Old English gentry in The Pale of County Meath, having come over from England with King Henry II. One ancestor, John Barnewall, 3rd Baron Trimlestown (died 1538), was Lord Chancellor of Ireland.

John Barnewall went to the Continent and entered the Franciscan Order, going on to receive minor orders and then the subdiaconate at Mechelin, in the then-Spanish Netherlands, in December 1617. No documentation survives, but presumably, he received further Holy Orders during the following months. He defended his theses in Scotist theology at Louvain in 1620, and again in 1627. He is believed to have taught as a lecturer in Germany in 1637, as well as subsequently at Prague, and at Slane in County Meath upon his return to Ireland. Among his students was the historian, Friar Peter Walsh. A contemporary stated that Barnewall taught philosophy and theology at Louvain for eight years prior to his election as Minister Provincial of Ireland at Quin, County Clare, on 15 August 1638.

A letter he wrote to Wadding, dated 1 November 1642, confirms that he was still Minister Provincial at that date. In 1648 he opposed the excommunications issued by papal nuncio, Giovanni Battista Rinuccini, of the members of the Supreme Council of the Confederation of Kilkenny. In July 1649 he was at Kilkenny, where he was joined by the Franciscan guardians of his province in their condemnation of Friar Redmond Caron, who had been appointed Visitor to Ireland by Friar Pierre Marchant, who was a Definitor General of the Order, at the suggestion of James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde. There are no further known documentary references to Barnewall after this date.

See also

 Bonaventure Baron
 John Punch
 Edmund Bray
 Froinsias Ó Maolmhuaidh

References

 "John Barnewall (fl. 1620s-40s", pp. 330–31, "Select prosopography of some Irish Franciscans", Ignatius Fennessy, O.F.M., in "The Irish Franciscans 1534-1990", Bhreathnach, MacMahon and McCafferty, eds., Four Courts Press, 2009.

1590s births
1650s deaths
Irish Friars Minor
17th-century Irish Roman Catholic priests
Christian clergy from County Meath
People of the Irish Confederate Wars
Irish people of English descent
Scotism
Franciscan scholars

John Barnewall (Franciscan friar)


Her father was an ex-gunman at the Army and mother was a housewife. She started junior school with Buddhist Girls College in Mount Lavinia until grade 5 and then attended to Dehiwela Madya Maha Vidyalaya. At the school, she was an athlete and a strong netball shooter. She also completed all three stages of Kandyan dancing at school times. After finishing school, she enrolled with Indigenous Medical College for a four-year course. However, while studying at third year, Weerasinghe quit from medical college and entered cinema industry.

She was first married to late Tissa Abeysekara, who was a renowned director in Sinhala cinema. She has one son from her second marriage with Sarath Kongahage. Her son Devinda Kongahage is also a director in Sinhala cinema.

සුවිනීතා වීරසිංහ


Peter Sanders (born 1967) is a German computer scientist who works as a professor of computer science at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. His research concerns the design, analysis, and implementation of algorithms and data structures, and he is particularly known for his research on suffix sorting finding shortest paths in road networks.

Sanders earned his Ph.D. from Karlsruhe in 1996,
and worked for seven years at the Max Planck Institute for Informatics in Saarbrücken (completing his habilitation there in 2000) before returning to Karlsruhe as a professor in 2004.

Sanders was one of the winners of the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize in 2012.

Selected publications
Books

Research papers
.
.
.
.

References

External links
Google scholar profile

1967 births
Living people
German computer scientists
Academic staff of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize winners

Peter Sanders (computer scientist)


Wales in the Middle Ages covers the history of the country that is now called Wales, from the departure of the Romans in the early fifth century to the annexation of Wales into the Kingdom of England in the early sixteenth century. This period of about 1,000 years saw the development of regional Welsh kingdoms, Celtic conflict with the Anglo-Saxons, reducing Celtic territories, and conflict between the Welsh and the Anglo-Normans from the 11th century.

Early Middle Ages: 411–1066

When the Roman garrison of Britain was withdrawn in 410, the various British states were left self-governing. Evidence for a continuing Roman influence after the departure of the Roman legions is provided by an inscribed stone from Gwynedd dated between the late 5th and mid-6th centuries commemorating a certain Cantiorix who was described as a citizen (cives) of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate (magistratus). There was considerable Irish colonisation in Dyfed, where there are many stones with ogham inscriptions. Wales had become Christian under the Romans, and the 'age of the saints' (approximately 500–700) was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country, by religious leaders such as Saint David, Illtud and Saint Teilo.

One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the Angles and Saxons, gradually took control of eastern and southern Britain. At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, with king Selyf ap Cynan among the dead.  It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd ("Old North"), the Brittonic-speaking regions of what is now southern Scotland and northern England, including Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin, where Old Welsh was also spoken. From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant Brittonic areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and Cornwall.

Wales was divided into a number of separate kingdoms, the largest of these being Gwynedd in northwest Wales and Powys in the east. Gwynedd was the most powerful of these kingdoms in the 6th and 7th centuries, under rulers such as Maelgwn Gwynedd (died 547) and Cadwallon ap Cadfan (died 634/5) who in alliance with Penda of Mercia was able to lead his armies as far as the Kingdom of Northumbria and control it for a period. Following Cadwallon's death in battle the following year, his successor Cadafael Cadomedd ap Cynfeddw also allied himself with Penda against Northumbria but thereafter Gwynedd, like the other Welsh kingdoms, was mainly engaged in defensive warfare against the growing power of Mercia.

Rise of Gwynedd: 700–1066

Powys as the easternmost of the major kingdoms of Wales came under the most pressure from the English in Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. This kingdom originally extended east into areas now in England, and its ancient capital, Pengwern, has been variously identified as modern Shrewsbury or a site north of Baschurch. These areas were lost to the kingdom of Mercia. The construction of the earthwork known as Offa's Dyke (usually attributed to Offa of Mercia in the 8th century) may have marked an agreed border.

For a single man to rule the whole country during this period was rare. This is often ascribed to the inheritance system practised in Wales. All sons received an equal share of their father's property (including illegitimate sons), resulting in the division of territories. However, the Welsh laws prescribe this system of division for land in general, not for kingdoms, where there is provision for an edling (or heir) to the kingdom to be chosen, usually by the king. Any son, legitimate or illegitimate, could be chosen as edling and there were frequently disappointed candidates prepared to challenge the chosen heir.

The first to rule a considerable part of Wales was Rhodri the Great, originally king of Gwynedd during the 9th century, who was able to extend his rule to Powys and Ceredigion. On his death his realms were divided between his sons. Rhodri's grandson, Hywel Dda (Hywel the Good), formed the kingdom of Deheubarth by joining smaller kingdoms in the southwest and had extended his rule to most of Wales by 942. He is traditionally associated with the codification of Welsh law at a council which he called at Whitland, the laws from then on usually being called the "Laws of Hywel". Hywel followed a policy of peace with the English. On his death in 949 his sons were able to keep control of Deheubarth but lost Gwynedd to the traditional dynasty of this kingdom.

Wales was now coming under increasing attack by Vikings, particularly Danish raids in the period between 950 and 1000. According to the chronicle Brut y Tywysogion, Godfrey Haroldson carried off two thousand captives from Anglesey in 987, and the king of Gwynedd, Maredudd ab Owain is reported to have redeemed many of his subjects from slavery by paying the Danes a large ransom.

Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the only ruler to be able to unite the Welsh kingdoms under his rule. Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1055 he was ruler of almost all of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. However, he was defeated by Harold Godwinson in 1063 and killed by his own men. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.

High Middle Ages: 1067–1283

At the time of the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the dominant ruler in Wales was Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, who was king of Gwynedd and Powys. While the Normans consolidated their power in England, in the judgement of historian Rees Davies Wales was "utterly peripheral to their ambitions and concerns". Welsh support for Eadric the Wild and Edwin of Mercia in their efforts opposing Norman rule led the Normans to turn their attention to Wales. The initial Norman successes were in the south, where William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford overran the Kingdom of Gwent before 1070. By 1074 the forces of the Earl of Shrewsbury were ravaging Deheubarth.

The killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 led to civil war and gave the Normans an opportunity to seize lands in northern Wales. In 1081, Gruffudd ap Cynan, who had just won the throne of Gwynedd from Trahaearn ap Caradog at the Battle of Mynydd Carn, was enticed to a meeting with the Earl of Chester and Earl of Shrewsbury and promptly seized and imprisoned, leading to the seizure of much of Gwynedd by the Normans. Rhys ap Tewdwr of Deheubarth was killed in 1093 in Brycheiniog, and his kingdom was seized and divided between various Norman lordships. The Norman conquest of Wales appeared virtually complete.

In 1094, however, there was a general Welsh revolt against Norman rule, and gradually territories were won back. Gruffudd ap Cynan was eventually able to build a strong kingdom in Gwynedd. His son, Owain Gwynedd, allied with Gruffydd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, won a crushing victory over the Normans at the Battle of Crug Mawr in 1136 and annexed Ceredigion. Owain followed his father on the throne of Gwynedd the following year and ruled until his death in 1170. He was able to profit from the Anarchy in England to extend the borders of Gwynedd further east than ever before as Stephen of Blois and the Empress Matilda were engaged in a struggle for the English throne.

The Kingdom of Powys also had a strong ruler at this time in Madog ap Maredudd, but when his death in 1160 was quickly followed by the death of his heir, Llywelyn ap Madog, Powys was split into two parts and never subsequently reunited.

In the south, Gruffydd ap Rhys was killed in 1137, but his four sons, who all ruled Deheubarth in turn, were eventually able to win back most of their grandfather's kingdom from the Normans. The youngest of the four, Rhys ap Gruffydd, ruled from 1155 to 1197. In 1171 Rhys met Henry II of England and came to an agreement with him whereby Rhys had to pay a tribute but was confirmed in all his conquests and was later named Justiciar of South Wales. Rhys held a festival of poetry and song at his court at Cardigan over Christmas 1176, which is generally regarded as the first recorded Eisteddfod. Owain Gwynedd's death led to the splitting of Gwynedd between his sons, while Rhys made Deheubarth dominant in Wales for a time.

Out of the power struggle in Gwynedd eventually arose one of the greatest of Welsh leaders, Llywelyn the Great (), who was sole ruler of Gwynedd by 1200 and by his death in 1240 was effectively ruler of much of Wales. Llywelyn made his 'capital' and headquarters at Abergwyngregyn on the north coast, overlooking the Menai Strait. His son, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn Fawr, followed him as ruler of Gwynedd, but Henry III of England would not allow him to inherit his father's position elsewhere in Wales. War broke out in 1241 and then again in 1245, and the issue was still in the balance when Dafydd died suddenly in early 1246 at Abergwyngregyn without leaving an heir. Gruffydd had been killed trying to escape from the Tower of London in 1244.

Gruffudd had left four sons, and a period of internal conflict between three of these ended in the rise to power of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, known as "Llywelyn Our Last Leader" () or "Llywelyn the Last". The Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 confirmed Llywelyn in control, directly or indirectly, over a large part of Wales. However, Llywelyn's claims in Wales conflicted with Edward I of England, and war followed in 1277. Llywelyn was obliged to seek terms, and the Treaty of Aberconwy greatly restricted his authority. War broke out again when Llywelyn's brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd attacked Hawarden Castle on Palm Sunday 1282. On 11 December 1282, Llywelyn was lured into a meeting in Builth Wells castle with unknown Marchers, where he was killed and his army subsequently destroyed. Dafydd continued an increasingly forlorn resistance but was captured in June 1283 and was hanged, drawn and quartered at Shrewsbury. In effect, Wales became England's first colony until it was formally annexed through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.

Late Middle Ages: 1283–1542

After passing the Statute of Rhuddlan, which restricted Welsh law, King Edward's ring of impressive stone castles assisted the domination of Wales, and he crowned his conquest by giving the title Prince of Wales to his son and heir in 1301. Wales became, effectively, part of England, even though its people spoke a different language and had a different culture. English kings appointed a Council of Wales, sometimes presided over by the heir to the throne. This Council normally sat in Ludlow, now in England but at that time still part of the disputed border area in the Welsh Marches. Welsh literature, particularly poetry, continued to flourish however, with the lesser nobility now taking over from the princes as the patrons of the poets. Dafydd ap Gwilym, who flourished in the middle of the 14th century, is considered by many to be the greatest of the Welsh poets.

There were a number of rebellions including ones led by Madog ap Llywelyn in 1294–1295 and by Llywelyn Bren, Lord of Senghenydd, in 1316–1318. In the 1370s the last representative in the male line of the ruling house of Gwynedd, Owain Lawgoch, twice planned an invasion of Wales with French support. The English government responded to the threat by sending an agent to assassinate Owain in Poitou in 1378.

In 1400, a Welsh nobleman, Owain Glyndŵr, revolted against Henry IV of England. Owain inflicted a number of defeats on the English forces and for a few years controlled most of Wales. Some of his achievements included holding the first Welsh Parliament at Machynlleth and plans for two universities. Eventually the king's forces were able to regain control of Wales and the rebellion died out, but Owain himself was never captured. His rebellion caused a great upsurge in Welsh identity and he was widely supported by Welsh people throughout the country.

As a response to Glyndŵr's rebellion, the English parliament passed the Penal Laws against the Welsh people in 1402. These prohibited the Welsh from carrying arms, from holding office and from dwelling in fortified towns. These prohibitions also applied to Englishmen who married Welsh women. These laws remained in force after the rebellion, although in practice they were gradually relaxed.

In the Wars of the Roses, which began in 1455, both sides made considerable use of Welsh troops. The main figures in Wales were the two Earls of Pembroke, the Yorkist William Herbert and the Lancastrian Jasper Tudor. A Council of Wales and the Marches was created to rule Wales, by the Lancastrian Henry VI for his son Edward of Westminster in 1457. The Council was created again in 1471 by Edward IV for his son Edward V.

In 1485 Jasper's nephew, Henry Tudor, landed in Wales with a small force to launch his bid for the throne of England. Henry was of Welsh descent, counting princes such as Rhys ap Gruffydd among his ancestors, and his cause gained much support in Wales. Henry defeated King Richard III of England at the Battle of Bosworth Field with an army containing many Welsh soldiers and gained the throne as Henry VII of England. Henry VII again created a Council of Wales and the Marches for his son Prince Arthur.

Under his son, Henry VIII of England, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 were passed, integrating Wales with England in legal terms, abolishing the Welsh legal system, and banning the Welsh language from any official role or status, but it did for the first time define the Wales–England border and allowed members representing constituencies in Wales to be elected to the English Parliament. They also abolished any legal distinction between the Welsh and the English, thereby effectively ending the Penal Code although this was not formally repealed.

See also

King of the Britons
King of Wales
List of rulers of Wales
Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
Sub-Roman Britain

Notes

References

 02
History of Wales
Middle Ages by country
Medieval England
1st millennium in Wales
2nd millennium in Wales
Middle Ages

Wales in the Middle Ages


Mute Beat was an influential dub reggae band from Japan.

They are often considered a precursor to acid jazz, ambient and trip hop having performed similar-sounding music before those genres emerged. The band was formed by Kazufumi Kodama, who grew up enjoying marching band music and later discovered reggae in the late 70s. In 1981 he formed Mute Beat with the aim to make dub music that would go boldly into unexplored music territories, including the use of marching band techniques. The original keyboardist Gota Yashiki left the band in the mid 80s and moved overseas to produce music for Soul II Soul and Sinéad O'Connor amongst others. Mute Beat's first release was a self-titled cassette on New York's Roir label. They collaborated with many musicians including Jagatara, Gladstone Anderson, Roland Alphonso, King Tubby, and Lee Scratch Perry.

Members
 Kazufumi "Echo" Kodama - trumpet
 Akihito Masui - trombone
 Hiroyuki Asamoto - keyboards
 Gota Yashiki - keyboards (previously)
 Takayoshi Matsunaga - bass
 Hideyuki Imai - drums
 Izumi "Dub Master X" Miyazaki - dub mix

Discography

Albums
 Japanese Dub (Cass) (1986)
 In Dub (Cass) (1986)
 Still Echo (LP) (1986) (Wackies)
 Lovers Rock (Cass) (1987)
 Live (CD) (1989)
 In Dub (CD) (1996)
 No. 0 Virgin Dub (LP) (1996)

Singles
 (1984) Mute Beat
 (1988) Sunny Side Walk

References

Japanese reggae musical groups
Dub musical groups

Mute Beat


A timocracy (from Greek τιμή timē, "honor, worth" and -κρατία -kratia, "rule") in Aristotle's Politics is a state where only property owners may participate in government.  More advanced forms of timocracy, where power derives entirely from wealth with no regard for social or civic responsibility, may shift in their form and become a plutocracy where the wealthy rule.

Greece
Solon introduced the ideas of timokratia as a graded oligarchy in his Solonian Constitution for Athens in the early 6th century BC.  His was the first known deliberately implemented form of timocracy, allocating political rights and economic responsibility depending on membership of one of four tiers of the population.  Solon defined these tiers by measuring how many bushels of produce each man could produce in a year, namely:

 Pentacosiomedimnoi – "Men of the 500 bushel", those who produced 500 bushels of produce per year, could serve as generals in the army
 Hippeis – Knights, those who could equip themselves and one cavalry horse for war, valued at 300 bushels per year
 Zeugitae – Tillers, owners of at least one pair of beasts of burden, valued at 200 bushels per year, could serve as hoplites
 Thetes – Manual laborers

N. G. L. Hammond supposes Solon instituted a graduated tax upon the upper classes, levied in a ratio of 6:3:1, with the lowest class of thetes paying nothing in taxes but remaining ineligible for elected office.

Aristotle later wrote in his Nicomachean Ethics (Book 8, Chapter 10) about three "true political forms" for a state, each of which could appear in corrupt form, becoming one of three negative forms.  Aristotle describes timocracy in the sense of rule by property-owners: it comprised one of his true political forms.  Aristotelian timocracy approximated to the constitution of Athens, although Athens exemplified the corrupted version of this form, described as democracy.

United States

In the early times of American independence only men who would hold enough property and money (except in New Jersey, where women meeting the requirements were allowed as well) could vote; there were also at times requirement of race:

 Connecticut: an estate worth 40 shillings annually or £40 of personal property
 Delaware: fifty acres of land (twelve under cultivation) or £40 of personal property
 Georgia: fifty acres of land
 Maryland: fifty acres of land and £40 personal property
 Massachusetts Bay: an estate worth 40 shillings annually or £40 of personal property
 New Hampshire: £50 of personal property
 New Jersey: one-hundred acres of land, or real estate or personal property £50
 New York: £40 of personal property or ownership of land
 North Carolina: fifty acres of land
 New Jersey until 1807 (provided they could meet the property requirement)
 Pennsylvania: fifty acres of land or £50 of personal property
 Rhode Island and Providence Plantations: personal property worth £40 or yielding 50 shillings annually
 South Carolina: one-hundred acres of land on which taxes were paid; or a town house or lot worth £60 on which taxes were paid; or payment of 10 shillings in taxes
 Virginia: fifty acres of vacant land, twenty-fives acres of cultivated land, and a house twelve feet by twelve feet; or a town lot and a house twelve feet by twelve

Timocracy, comparable values, and Plato's five regimes

In The Republic, Plato describes five regimes (of which four are unjust). Timocracy (Book VIII, 545 B - 550 B) is listed as the first "unjust" regime.  Aristocracy degenerates into timocracy when, due to miscalculation on the part of its governed class, the next generation of guardians and auxiliaries includes persons of an inferior nature (the persons with souls made of iron or bronze, as opposed to the ideal guardians and auxiliaries, who have souls made of gold and silver). A timocracy, in choosing its leaders, is "inclining rather to the more high-spirited and simple-minded type, who are better suited for war". The city-state of Sparta provided Plato with a real-world model for this form of government. Modern observers might describe Sparta as a totalitarian or one-party state, although the details we know of its society come almost exclusively from Sparta's enemies. The idea of militarism-stratocracy accurately reflects the fundamental values of Spartan society. The only one of Plato's five regimes that he does seem fit to govern is aristocracy, the four other regimes (including Timocracy) are unjust according to Plato. The unjust regimes in Plato's work refer to governing that lead to chaos and ultimately corruption.

See also
Anarcho-capitalism
Forty-shilling freeholders
Right-libertarianism

References

Bibliography
Websters New World Dictionary of the American Language, 2nd College Edition, p. 1490

Oligarchy
Government of ancient Athens

Timocracy


The Kumeyaay are a group of people native to the United States and Mexico. They live in the places now known as California (specifically San Diego and the surrounding regions) and Baja California.

There are two groups of Kumeyaay, the Ipai and the Tipai. Ipai land is in what is now the United States while Tipai land is mostly in what is now Mexico.

Name
The word Kumeyaay is pronouned KOOM-yai. The KOOM part rhymes with loom and the yai part rhymes with pie. Some people pronounce Kumeyaay in three syllables and add an extra "uh" between KOOM and yai.

The Kumeyaay were also called Diegueño, which is a Spanish word that comes from Mission San Diego. However, this is not the name they call themselves.

The two different groups of Kumeyaay are called Ipai (EE-pie) and Tipai (TEE-pie). They both mean "human" in the Ipai and Tipai languages.

Language
The Kumeyaay speak three languages. They are Tipai, Ipai, and Kumeyaay. Now, most of them speak English and Spanish.

History
In the 1760s, the Spanish came onto Kumeyaay land. They wanted to teach the Kumeyaay about the Christian religion and the European lifestyle. To do that, they built the Mission San Diego, which was a church, a school, and a village.all in one. However, the Kumeyaay did not like being told what to do. In 1775, the Kumeyaay fought the Spanish at Mission San Diego. They set some buildings on fire and killed a priest.

When the Kumeyaay land became part of Mexico, there was no one to send money to the missions to keep them running so the Kumeyaay left.

When part of Kumeyaay land became part of the United States, the Kumeyaay were sent to live on certain pieces of land called reservations. Many of these reservations now have casinos so that the Kumeyaay people can make money.

Religion
Most Kumeyaay are now Catholic. Many parts of their old religion were forgotten when they became Catholic. However, they still remember some parts.

In the traditional Kumeyaay religion, a dead person's soul must cross a deep gorge in order to get to heaven.

History of San Diego, California
Native Americans
Ethnic groups in the United States

Kumeyaay


A loft conversion or an attic conversion is the process of transforming an empty attic space or loft into a functional room, typically used as a bedroom, office space, a gym, or storage space. Loft conversions are one of the most popular forms of home improvement in the United Kingdom as a result of their numerous perceived benefits.

Another type of loft conversion is converting non-residential spaces (most commonly warehouses, docks, former factories or water towers) into habitable homes. This form of loft conversion has its origins in the USA during the 1960s. Artists created living spaces on the upper levels of obsolete industrial buildings, sometimes located in the heart of the city.

Feasibility
The first stage of any loft conversion is a close inspection of the loft space to find out its exact dimensions and whether conversion is feasible.
On entering the loft one needs to establish if there is adequate room under the ridge of the roof. A measurement of 2.3 metres is required to allow enough headroom, although you may find that you can still get a useful room from as little as 7 feet (2.1 metres), and there must be at least 2 metres clearance above the position of the access stairs.

Due to the slope of the roof and the required access headroom, the feasibility of a loft conversion is dependent upon a minimum height of approximately 2.2 m (7 ft 6 in) measured from the joist to the apex. Providing that this requirement is met, most properties will likely possess the potential to have the loft space converted.

Types
2015 saw a surge in demand for loft conversions by homeowners in the UK as a result of the new and simplified planning regulations. There are different types of loft conversions chosen because of price, space available, aesthetic appeal, property style, the height of the roof, and the planning permission required. In London, there are many types of loft conversions, and the most popular of these is, Dormer conversion, Mansard conversion, Hip, to Gable conversion, Velux, or Roof window conversion. The least popular choices are Gambrel conversions and Hipped Roof conversion.

Roof window conversion
Roof windows are often an attractive option for homeowners due to their ability to fit into the line of the roof; thus not necessitating any restructuring of the roof itself. The installation of such windows will provide the loft space with substantial light. In the UK, a roof window conversion can often be completed under permitted development rights and will not require planning permission, although they will always require building regulation approval.

Dormer conversion
A dormer is a window-featured extension of the roof, usually installed to provide more space and headroom within the loft, in addition to improved staircase access. The dormer conversion is constructed in a way that it projects from the plane of a sloping roof. It is built with vertical walls and a horizontal ceiling, providing a more spacious room for your house. For a cohesive look, the dormer should match the existing roof. Dormers are also popular due to the aesthetic enhancement to a property that they provide. In the UK, the installation of a dormer is subject to planning permission requirements from the local authorities only when certain rules aren't met.
Most dormer conversions come under permitted development.

Mansard loft conversion

This loft conversion pays tribute to the famous French Architect of the 17th century, Francois Mansard by picking his name. This type of conversion is constructed by raising roof's sloping side to an almost vertical side. It is similar to the flat dormer since it has a flat roof, although the windows are housed in a smaller dormer. The mansard loft extension is a more appealing option to the dormer conversion as it gives the house a better look. The challenge to this type of loft conversion is that it requires planning permission due to the enormous changes to the shape and structure of the house. This loft conversion is a common choice as it maximizes space to create an additional room with the loft built at the rear end of the house with a flat roof and back wall sloping at a 72-degree angle, and windows housed in small dormers that extend from the roof.

Hip-to-gable loft conversion

With the United Kingdom having the smallest room sizes when compared to Ireland and other European countries, and with space getting smaller with new builds, the hip-to-gable loft conversion has become a popular choice as the spaces have small internal volume. It is the most innovative way to maximize small spaces. This conversion requires planning permission as it means structural alterations to the roof. The size of the room is increased and allows for more headroom by extending the roof's ridgeline from its existing hips to the end of the vertical wall and altering the side of the house that's into a flat end gable.

Hipped-roof conversion

This conversion type got its name from the hipped roof that is a result of changing the side hip into a vertical one because the building has a sloping roof. This conversion increases the size of functional space that was limited by the sloping roof of a house. However, depending on the extent of conversion to be done, this type of conversion falls under permitted development.

Gambrel conversion

The word gambrel is gotten from the Latin word "gamba", and it means horse legs. Initially, for designing domestic roofs and barns in America, this loft conversion design is now used because of its elegant aesthetic and the increased living and storage space. Very similar to a Mansard conversion, this conversion type has two-sided roofs that are symmetrical, and both sides have two slopes, and vertical gable ends. For the two slopes, one has a shallow angle while the other has a steep angle. For most conversion type of this nature, there is planning permission required.

Velux loft conversion

The design of Velux loft conversion is easily fitted as only one of the present rafters is clipped out for each window.
Due to easy design, the existing roof is remained unbroken and results in a shorter build time with slight invasion. You can think of this type of loft conversion if your roof has plenty of available headroom and the cost of Velux loft conversion is very low and the build time period is also minimal.

Regulations

Building control regulations

Building control regulations will almost always be required if the loft space is being converted into any usable form of accommodation, subject to the local authority requirements. Planning permission may not be required as many conversions fall within the permitted development rights.  In some areas of the United Kingdom, known generally as 'designated areas', permitted development rights are more restricted. For example, a Conservation Area, a National Park, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, a World Heritage Site or the Norfolk or Suffolk Broads. These above will generally have restricted permitted development rights. The local planning authority may have removed some of the permitted development rights with  an Article 4 direction, in these cases a planning application will be required. These requirements are in place to ensure that the necessary construction criteria are met and that all health and safety laws, amongst other things, have been satisfied. A professional loft conversion specialist will usually conduct all liaisons with the relevant local authority.

Properties which have had change of use from commercial use into homes may not then be able to develop the property further under household permitted development legislation.

Structural strengthening
The existing ceiling joists in most houses are only designed to support the weight of a ceiling, therefore additional support will be required to transfer the loads from the new loft floor to the walls of the house, since the alignment of roof supports would generally need to be altered, causing a significant increase in pressure at specific points on the flooring of the property. A common method used is to install I-beams or rolled steel joists (RSJs). These can either be installed in single lengths or in smaller sections which are bolted together. New timber joists are then installed between the RSJs onto which the new floor can be laid. A structural engineer will calculate the size of the RSJs and joists.

Benefits
Loft conversions yield numerous benefits for homeowners, which may be the reason for their increasing popularity. Often, up to 30% of a property's potential space is located within the loft area. Converting the attic will therefore provide a significant amount of room that may be used for a wide variety of accommodation; often a bedroom, bathroom, office, or entertainment room.

In 2016 it was reported that a loft conversion could increase the value of a home by 20% in the UK by Robert Gardner, Chief Economist at Nationwide.

Many families also choose to convert their loft area as a means of obtaining more space without having to endure the costly and stressful process of moving property.

Key features of former industrial space that makes for attractive use as a loft include high, unfinished ceilings, large windows, exposed brick or cinder block walls and exposed duct work. Many industrial lofts have only partial height walls separating rooms or areas within the space. Some lofts even preserve the industrial-era freight elevators that open into the living space.

See also
 Roof window

References

Home improvement
Real estate in the United Kingdom

Loft conversions in the United Kingdom


The buttered cat paradox is a popular joke based on putting two adages (sayings) together to make them funny:

 Cats always land on their feet.
 Buttered toast always lands buttered side down.

The paradox happens when one asks this question: What would happen if one attached a piece of buttered toast (butter side up) to the back of a cat, then dropped the cat from a large height?

In reality
In reality, cats can turn themselves right side up in mid-air if they should fall upside-down. This is named the cat righting reflex. This reflex lets them land on their feet if dropped from high enough up (about ). Toast, not being alive, does not have the ability to turn itself over. Nor does it want to, since it cannot think.

Toast usually lands on the floor butter-side-down. This is because of how it is dropped from a table. As the toast falls from the table, it rotates or turns. Using the average speed of rotation for a slice of toast as it falls from the table and the usual height of a table, a slice of toast that began butter-side-up on the table will land butter-side-down on the floor 81% of the time. This is because the buttered side is heavier. When an object has a heavy and light side, in most cases it will fall heavy side first.

Domestic cats usually weigh between . A regular slice of bread weighs only one ounce and a pat of butter about one fourth ounce. So attaching a very small piece of toast with butter to a much larger cat would hardly have any effect on how the cat would move.

References

Other websites
 Loopholes for the paradox

Cats
Humor

Buttered cat paradox


Ludwig Heinrich Freiherr von Nicolay (; 25 December 1737, in Strasbourg, in Monrepos north of Vyborg) was a German poet of the Enlightenment. He served as President of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences between 1798 and 1803.

Nicolay was the son of a Strasbourg archivist. He graduated from the University of Strasbourg with a degree in law. Like his father, he served as a librarian to a string of rich nobles. Prince Dmitry Gallitsyn employed Nicolay as his secretary in Vienna and Paris where he came to know Voltaire, Diderot,  d'Alembert and other intellectuals of the Enlightenment.

In 1769 Nicolay was invited to the Russian Empire to be a teacher of logic for the future Emperor Paul I of Russia. In 1782 (on the same day as Goethe) Nicolay was ennobled and granted the title of baron by Joseph II. When Paul became emperor, he appointed Nicolay to run the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (15 April 1798 – 2 June 1803).

Nicolay's private library, collections (cameos, letters and other documents) and pictures are now in the possession of the Finnish National Library in Helsinki. This library is a very rare example of Russian libraries from the age of Enlightenment.

In 1803 Baron von Nicolay settled into retirement at his estate Monrepos north of Vyborg. This estate belonged to the Nicolay family from 1788 to 1944 (when Vyborg was subsumed into the Soviet Union).

Collected works
 Elegien und Briefe. Straßburg 1760
 Verse und Prosa. Basel 1773 (2 Bde.)
 Vermischte Gedichte. Berlin 1778-1786 (9 Bde.)
 Vermischte Gedichte und prosaische Schriften. Berlin 1792-1810 (8 Bde.)
 Theatralische Werke. Königsberg 1811 (2 Bde.)
 Poetische Werke. Wien 1817 (4 Bde.)

References

 Peter von Gerschau: Aus dem Leben des Freiherrn Heinrich Ludwig von Nicolay. Perthes & Besser, Hamburg 1834.
 Edmund Heier: L. H. Nicolay (1737-1820) and his contemporaries. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1965.
 Edmund Heier: L. H. Nicolay (1737-1820) as an exponent of neo-classicism. Bouvier, Bonn 1981.

1737 births
1820 deaths
Alsatian-German people
Barons of Austria
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Germany
Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Protestantism
German untitled nobility
German poets
Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Writers from Strasbourg
Age of Enlightenment
University of Strasbourg alumni
Russian librarians
Writers from Vyborg
German male poets

Ludwig Heinrich von Nicolay


is a 1991 fishing video game developed and published by Hot B for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Following in the tradition of its predecessors, The Black Bass for MSX and The Black Bass for NES, the objective is to win a tournament by catching the largest fish in the time allotted. The Blue Marlin features four tournament rounds (one in Florida and the other three in Hawaii). It was re-released in 2016 as a built-in game for the Retro-Bit Generations retro video game console.

Gameplay

The player controls a fisherman who is competing in a tournament. The objective in each round of the tournament is to catch the largest billfish. These fish include blue marlin, black marlin, striped marlin, swordfish, and sailfish. Other fish that can be caught include dorado, barracuda, tuna, and sharks.

As the player fights fish, there may be several events that occur that the player must respond to, such as a smoking reel or a marlin attempting to cut the line on the propeller. Other events are static, such as the fish biting off the line or the fish becoming exhausted. Each of these events changes the dynamics of the fight, such as how much line the fish has or how tired the fish is.

There are three attributes that the player can increase as they fight more and more fish. These are Muscle Power (ability to pull in heavier fish), Body Strength (ability to fight a fish longer and with more power), and Skill (ability to respond to events properly).

Password system
The Blue Marlin features a password system to save the player's progress. A password is generated at the end of every tournament round, and after the tournament is completed (with the player victorious). If the player uses this password to begin a new tournament, they can start over with all of their attributes from their previous game.

Reception
AllGame gave this video game a score of 4 stars out of 5 in their overview. Entertainment Weekly gave the game a C- and wrote that "NES' The Blue Marlin is a fishing game in which you sit for long stretches in front of the television set, reel in the occasional fish, then sit again for long stretches in front of the television set. As if this weren't deadly enough, while you're perched in your video dinghy you're treated to an incessant, looped soundtrack of Japanese pseudo-jazz nonsense, the apotheosis of every tonal cliché in the history of video-game music."

References

External links

1991 video games
Fishing video games
Hot B games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
Top-down video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in Hawaii
Single-player video games

The Blue Marlin


"The Merman" is a science fiction story by American writer L. Sprague de Camp, based on the concept of human biological engineering . It was first published in the magazine Astounding Science-Fiction for December, 1938. It first appeared in book form in the collection The Wheels of If and Other Science Fiction (Shasta, 1949);  it later appeared in the anthology Science Fiction of the Thirties (Bobbs-Merrill, 1975) and the collection The Best of L. Sprague de Camp (Doubleday, 1978). The story has been translated into German

Plot summary
Vernon Brock, an assistant aquarist at the New York City Aquarium, has, in addition to his normal duties, been studying the properties of gills and lungs, and devised a theoretical method of inducing the latter to assume the properties of the former. He believes the vapor given off by a mixture of "halogen-bearing organic compounds" would do the trick, and intends to experiment on its effect with alligators.  Unfortunately, the flask containing the solution breaks, giving Brock himself a whiff of the vapor.

Overcome, Brock falls into a shark tank. He quickly discovers that he can now "breathe" in water but not in air. There are difficulties: the higher density of water makes the breathing process slow and laborious, normal speech is rendered impossible, the liquid environment is too cold for his body, and he tires easily, since his lungs cannot extract as much oxygen from the water as his metabolism is used to.

Soon Brock's colleagues gather above the tank. Knowing of his experiments, they realize what has happened and do their best to help him. He interacts with them initially by sign language and then by using a remora to scrawl a message on the glass of the tank. He requests two weighted stepladders and a weighted plank. Placing the plank across the ladders, he lies down atop it so that he is just beneath the surface of the water and by extending his hands into the air can communicate further by writing on a pad of paper. He is brought food and finds that with some care he can eat—though not meat, as the sharks quickly steal it. Instead he subsists on bananas. Meanwhile, a crowd of the public has gathered in front of the tank, including a little man who observes Brock with a "peculiar intentness" he finds disturbing.

For Brock's comfort, the temperature is raised in the tank, more air lines are run in to increase the available oxygen, and the sharks are moved to a reserve tank. Nonetheless, he spends an uncomfortable night, unable to sleep "because of the constant muscular effort required to work his lungs." His thoughts grow confused, and he becomes delusional. He also starts feeling that his lungs are not working right. In the morning, the little man returns, feeding his confusion and growing paranoia. Believing himself a fish and that the man wants to eat him, he attacks the glass with his pocket knife until it gives way and he and all the water spill out onto the concourse.

Brock wakes up in the hospital, having been mercifully unconscious during the period in which his lungs finished returning to normal. While recovering well, he learns that the aquarium is facing a lawsuit from the little man, Oscar Daly, who nearly drowned when he let the water out of the tank. After his release, however, Brock comes to an arrangement with Daly that persuades the latter to drop his suit. Instead, Daly, a former circus acrobat, will use Brock's discovery to exhibit himself for money as Oscar the Merman.

Reception
In Astounding Science-Fiction magazine's reader's poll "The Analytical Laboratory", the story tied for first place as the most popular piece in the issue in which it was originally published, "beating out competition as formidable as Lester del Rey's Helen O'Loy." Sam Moskowitz cited its publication as culminating a "brief period of but 15 months" in which de Camp "moved out into the front rank of science fiction writers."

Influence
John J. Pierce saw the story as a forerunner to the introduction of the concept of genetic engineering in science fiction, later an important theme in the genre, but "almost unheard of" when "The Merman" was published.

Lois H. Gresh and Robert Weinberg have suggested de Camp's story as a possible influence on Bill Everett and Mort Weisinger in the creation of their golden age water-breathing comic book superheroes the Sub-Mariner and Aquaman.

Relation to other works
While "The Merman" does not concern merpeople of the traditional mythical type, de Camp went on to write other tales that did, which tended to concentrate on the possibility of romantic entanglements between them and human beings. Chief among these is "Nothing in the Rules" (Unknown, July 1939), in which a lawyer helps a coach enter a mermaid in a swimming competition, only to fall in love with their protégé. A later story, "The Water Wife," an inset tale in the novel The Unbeheaded King (Del Rey Books, 1983) explores and extends the same theme in a fantasy setting.

Notes

External links

 "The Merman" at the Internet Archive

Short stories by L. Sprague de Camp
1938 short stories
Works originally published in Analog Science Fiction and Fact

The Merman


The Return of the Scarlet Pimpernel is a 1937 British film directed by Hanns Schwarz and starring Barry K. Barnes, Sophie Stewart, Margaretta Scott and James Mason. It is a sequel to the 1934 film The Scarlet Pimpernel based on the stories by Baroness Emmuska Orczy.

Plot
In France, the Reign of Terror is in full sway under Robespierre, who sends former allies and friends to the guillotine. Jean Tallien and his lover Theresa Cobarrus fear that Tallien will be taken in one of these purges before the time is right to bring Robespierre down and end the horror. Although Sir Percy Blakeney, the Scarlet Pimpernel, has returned to England, the League of the Scarlet Pimpernel continues to rescue victims of the revolution. Robespierre threatens Chauvelin with execution unless he can snare Blakeney and bring him to justice.

Meanwhile, Blakeney has promised his beloved wife Marguerite, who is expecting their first child, that he will not return to France. Acting as Chauvelin's agent, Cobarrus succeeds in kidnapping Lady Blakeney and brings her to Paris, where she is put on trial and convicted.

Percy and his men rescue Marguerite and De Marre, a former ally of Robespierre. They stop at an inn for supper, and De Marre asks Percy to repeat his famous poem: "They seek him here, They seek him there, Those Frenchies seek him everywhere. Is he in Heaven? Is he in Hell? That demmed elusive Pimpernel!"

Chauvelin interrupts Percy, finishing with the words: "That not-so-elusive Pimpernel!" He entertains the group with his own sequel: "I set a trap. As bait, a belle. His pretty spouse, I grieve to tell. But I never dreamed that I should trap The spouse, the mouse, and the gang as well." Percy draws a pistol and points it at Chauvelin's heart, but Chauvelin's soldiers, who have surrounded the inn, point their muskets through the windows, targeting Marguerite. Chauvelin agrees to let Marguerite go with Andrew. Percy pulls down the chandelier and he and the gang escape in the dark. Wounded, Andrew comes to the rendezvous with the news that Marguerite is again a prisoner. After long thought, Percy says he is playing his last card.

Robespierre orders Marguerite's execution and warns Chauvelin he is on borrowed time. He gives Chauvelin a list of the next purge of members of the Convention instructions to be sure they are all at the session. After Chauvelin leaves, Robespierre observes to his secretary, de Calmet, that he trusts no one—except de Calmet.

At the league's hiding place, Percy introduces de Calmet as the bravest member of the league. De Calmet brings the list of names and the news that Marguerite is to be executed at noon the next day. "I can save my wife only if I save France," Percy declares.

In disguise, Percy comes to Tallien and Cobarrus and shows Tallien the list. France is tired of assassination and is ready for new leaders. Tallien rushes out to rally supporters, and Percy tells Cobarrus that she is Tallien's courage.

Knowing that Robespierre plans to arrest her, Percy comes to her in an officer's uniform and tells her to write a letter. In the assembly, Robespierre begins to denounce his 20 targets. Cobarrus's note tells Tallien that she has been arrested. It rouses him to denounce Robespierre as "the new Cromwell". The convention responds with cheers.

Percy appears at the prison to rescue Marguerite, supposedly bearing an order from Robespierre. Chauvelin stops them at the gate. As crowds descend on the prison crying "Down with Robespierre!", Percy claims Chauvelin as his prisoner. On the way home to England, where he hopes to give Chauvelin a new perspective, Percy asks what slow, lingering torture they might inflict on him. Marguerite suggests that Percy teach him to play cricket.

Cast
 Barry K. Barnes as Sir Percy Blakeney / The Scarlet Pimpernel
 Sophie Stewart as Marguerite Blakeney
 Margaretta Scott as Theresa Cobarrus
 James Mason as Jean Tallien
 Francis Lister as Chauvelin
 Anthony Bushell as Sir Andrew Ffoulkes
 Patrick Barr as Lord Hastings
 David Tree as Lord Harry Denning
 John Counsell as Sir John Selton
 Henry Oscar as Maximilien Robespierre
 Hugh Miller as De Calmet, Robespierre's Secretary
 Allan Jeayes as Judge of the Tribunal
 O. B. Clarence as De Marre
 George Merritt as the Chief of Police
 Evelyn Roberts as the Prince Regent, (Prince of Wales)
 Ben Williams as Robespierre's Spy (uncredited)

Legacy
On May 31, 1938, experimental television station W2XBS (now WNBC) in New York City broadcast the film, the first time that a first-run film was shown on American television. However, the staff projectionist played the last reel out of order, ending the film 20 minutes early. After the incident, NBC could not obtain first-run films for many years.

References

External links

 The Return of the Scarlet Pimpernel at Turner Classic Movies

1937 films
1937 adventure films
1930s historical films
British black-and-white films
British historical films
1930s English-language films
Films based on works by Emma Orczy
Films directed by Hanns Schwarz
Scarlet Pimpernel films
Cultural depictions of George IV
Cultural depictions of Maximilien Robespierre
Films produced by Arnold Pressburger
British thriller films
1930s thriller films
British adventure films
1930s British films

The Return of the Scarlet Pimpernel