The Great Replacement (), also known as replacement theory or great replacement theory, is a white nationalist far-right conspiracy theory espoused by French author Renaud Camus. The original theory states that, with the complicity or cooperation of "replacist" elites, the ethnic French and white European populations at large are being demographically and culturally replaced by non-white peoples—especially from Muslim-majority countries—through mass migration, demographic growth and a drop in the birth rate of white Europeans. Since then, similar claims have been advanced in other national contexts, notably in the United States. Mainstream scholars have dismissed these claims as rooted in a misunderstanding of demographic statistics and premised upon an unscientific, racist worldview. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Great Replacement "has been widely ridiculed for its blatant absurdity."

While similar themes have characterized various far-right theories since the late 19th century, the particular term was popularized by Camus in his 2011 book Le Grand Remplacement. The book associates the presence of Muslims in France with danger and destruction of French culture and civilization. Camus and other conspiracy theorists attribute recent demographic changes in Europe to intentional policies advanced by global and liberal elites (the "replacists") from within the Government of France, the European Union, or the United Nations; they describe it as a "genocide by substitution".

The conspiracy theory found support in Europe, and has also grown popular among anti-migrant and white nationalist movements from other parts of the West; many of their adherents maintain that "immigrants [are] flocking to predominantly white countries for the precise purpose of rendering the white population a minority within their own land or even causing the extinction of the native population". It aligns with (and is a part of) the larger white genocide conspiracy theory except in the strategic replacement of antisemitic canards with Islamophobia. This replacement, along with a use of simple catch-all slogans, have been cited as reasons for its broader appeal in a pan-European context, although the concept remains rooted in antisemitism in many white nationalist movements, especially (but not exclusively) in the United States.

Although Camus has publicly condemned white nationalist violence, scholars have argued that calls to violence are implicit in his depiction of non-white migrants as an existential threat to white populations. Several far-right terrorists, including the perpetrators of the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings, the 2019 El Paso shooting, the 2022 Buffalo shooting and the 2023 Jacksonville shooting, have made reference to the "Great Replacement" conspiracy theory. American conservative media personalities, including Tucker Carlson and Laura Ingraham, have espoused ideas of a replacement. Some Republican politicians have endorsed the theory in order to appeal to far-right members of the Republican Party and as a way of signalling their loyalty to Donald Trump.

Background

Renaud Camus developed his conspiracy theory in two books published in 2010 and 2011, in the context of an increase in anti-immigrant rhetoric in public discourse during the previous decade. Europe also experienced an escalation in Islamic terrorist attacks during the 2000s–2010s, and a migrant crisis in the years 2015–2016, which exacerbated tensions and prepared public opinion for the reception of Camus's conspiracy theory. As the latter depicts a population replacement said to occur in a short time lapse of one or two generations, the migrant crisis was particularly conducive to the spread of Camus's ideas while the terrorist attacks accelerated the construction of immigrants as an existential threat among those who shared such a worldview.

Camus's theme of a future demise of European culture and civilization also parallels a "cultural pessimistic" and anti-Islam trend among European intellectuals of the period, illustrated in several best-selling and straightforwardly titled books released during the 2010s: Thilo Sarrazin's Germany Abolishes Itself (2010), Éric Zemmour's The French Suicide (2014) or Michel Houellebecq's Submission (2015).

Concept of Renaud Camus

The "Great Replacement" conspiracy theory was developed by French author Renaud Camus, initially in a 2010 book titled L'Abécédaire de l'in-nocence ("Abecedarium of no-harm"), and the following year in an eponymous book, Le Grand Remplacement (introduction au remplacisme global). Camus has claimed that the name  "came to [him], almost by chance, perhaps in a more or less unconscious reference to the Grand Dérangement of the Acadians in the 18th century." As an epigraph to the later book, Camus chose Bertolt Brecht's quip from the satirical poem Die Lösung that the easiest thing to do for a government which had lost the confidence of its people would be to choose new people.

According to Camus, the "Great Replacement" has been nourished by "industrialisation", "despiritualisation" and "deculturation"; the materialistic society and globalism having created a "replaceable human, without any national, ethnic, or cultural specificity", what he labels "global replacism". Camus claims that "the great replacement does not need a definition," as the term is not, in his views, a "concept" but rather a "phenomenon".

In Camus's theory, the indigenous French people ("the replaced") is described as being demographically replaced by non-white populations ("the replacing [peoples]")—mainly coming from Africa or the Middle East—in a process of "peopling immigration" encouraged by a "replacist power".

Camus frequently uses terms and concepts related to the period of Nazi-occupied France (1940–1945). He for instance labels "colonizers" or "Occupiers" people of non-European descent who reside in Europe, and dismisses what he calls the "replacist elites" as "collaborationist". Camus founded in 2017 an organization named the National Council of European Resistance, in a self-evident reference to the World War II National Council of the Resistance (1943–1945). This analogy to the French Resistance against Nazism has been described as an implicit call to hatred, direct action or even violence against what Camus labels the "Occupiers; i.e. the immigrants". Camus has also compared the Great Replacement and the so-called "genocide by substitution" of the European peoples to the Holocaust.

Claimed influences

Camus cites two influential figures in the epilogue of his 2011 book The Great Replacement: British politician Enoch Powell's apocalyptic vision of future race relations—expressed in his 1968 "Rivers of Blood" speech—and French author Jean Raspail's depiction of the collapse of the West from an overwhelming "tidal wave" of Third World immigration, featured in his 1973 novel The Camp of the Saints.

Camus also declared to The Spectator magazine in 2016 that a key to understanding the "Great Replacement" can be found in his 2002 book Du Sens. In the latter he wrote that the words "France" and "French" equal a natural and physical reality rather than a legal one, in a cratylism similar to Charles Maurras's distinction between the "legal" and the "real country". During the same interview, Camus mentioned that he began to imagine his conspiracy theory back in 1996, during the redaction of a guidebook on the department of Hérault, in the South of France: "I suddenly realized that in very old villages [...] the population had totally changed too [...] this is when I began to write like that."

Similar themes

Despite its own singularities and concepts, the "Great Replacement" is encompassed in a larger and older "white genocide" conspiracy theory, popularized in the US by neo-Nazi David Lane in his 1995 White Genocide Manifesto, where he asserted that governments in Western countries were intending to turn white people into "extinct species". Scholars generally agree that, although he did not father the theme, Camus indeed coined the term "Great Replacement" as a slogan and concept, and eventually led it to its fame in the 2010s.

The idea of "replacement" under the guidance of a hostile elite can be further traced back to pre-WWII antisemitic conspiracy theories which posited the existence of a Jewish plot to destroy Europe through miscegenation, especially in Édouard Drumont's antisemitic bestseller La France juive (1886). Commenting on this resemblance, historian Nicolas Lebourg and political scientist Jean-Yves Camus suggest that Camus's contribution was to replace the antisemitic elements with a clash of civilizations between Muslims and Europeans. Also in the late 19th century, imperialist politicians invoked the Péril jaune (Yellow Peril) in their negative comparisons of France's low birth-rate and the high birth-rates of Asian countries.  From that claim arose an artificial, cultural fear that immigrant-worker Asians soon would "flood" France. This danger supposedly could be successfully countered only by increased fecundity of French women. Then, France would possess enough soldiers to thwart the eventual flood of immigrants from Asia. Maurice Barrès's nationalist writings of that period have also been noted in the ideological genealogy of the "Great Replacement", Barrès contending both in 1889 and in 1900 that a replacement of the native population under the combined effect of immigration and a decline in the birth rate was happening in France.

Scholars also highlight a modern similarity to European neo-fascist and neo-Nazi thinkers from the immediate post-war, especially Maurice Bardèche, René Binet and Gaston-Armand Amaudruz, and to concepts advanced from the 1960s onward by the French Nouvelle Droite. The associated and more recent conspiracy theory of "Eurabia", published by British author Bat Ye'or in her 2005 eponymous book, is often cited as a probable inspiration for Camus's "Great Replacement". Eurabia theory likewise involves globalist entities, that time led by both French and Arab powers, conspiring to Islamize Europe, with Muslims submerging the continent through immigration and higher birth rates. The conspiracy theory also depicts immigrants as invaders or as a fifth column, invited to the continent by a corrupt political elite.

Analysis

Demographic statistics

While the ethnic demography of France has shifted as a result of post-WWII immigration, scholars have generally dismissed the claims of a "great replacement" as being rooted in an exaggeration of immigration statistics and unscientific, racially prejudiced views. Geographer Landis MacKellar criticized Camus's thesis for assuming "that third- and fourth- generation 'immigrants' are somehow not French." Researchers have variously estimated the Muslim population of France at between 8.8% and 12.5% in 2017, making a "replacement" unlikely according to MacKellar.

Racial connotations
In the words of scholar Andrew Fergus Wilson, whereas the islamophobic Great Replacement theory can be distinguished from the parallel antisemitic white genocide conspiracy theory, "they share the same terms of reference and both are ideologically aligned with the so-called '14 words' of David Lane ["We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children"]." In 2021, the Anti-Defamation League wrote that "since many white supremacists, particularly those in the United States, blame Jews for non-white immigration to the U.S.", the Great Replacement theory has been increasingly associated with antisemitism and conflated with the white genocide conspiracy theory. Scholar Kathleen Belew has argued that the Great Replacement theory "allows an opportunism in selecting enemies", but "also follows the central motivating logic, which is to protect the thing on the inside [i.e. the preservation and birth rate of the white race], regardless of the enemy on the outside."

According to Australian historian A. Dirk Moses, the great replacement theory is a form of psychological projection in which Europeans—who enacted settler-colonial projects entailing the elimination and replacement of native populations by settler societies—fear the reverse may happen to them.

In German discourse, Austrian political scientist Rainer Bauböck questioned the conspiracy theorists' use of the terms "population replacement" or "exchange" (). Using Ruth Wodak's analysis that the slogan needs to be viewed in its historical context, Bauböck has concluded that the conspiracy theory is a reemergence of the Nazi ideology of  ("ethnicity inversion").

Popularity

The simplicity and use of catch-all slogans in Camus's formulations—"you have one people, and in the space of a generation you have a different people"—as well as his removal of antisemitism from the original neo-Nazi "white genocide" conspiracy theory, have been cited as conducive to the popularity of the "Great Replacement" in Europe.

In a survey led by Ifop in December 2018, 25% of the French subscribed to the conspiracy theory; as well as 46% of the responders who defined themselves as "Gilets Jaunes" (Yellow Vest protesters). In another survey led by Harris Interactive in October 2021, 61% of the French believed that the "Great Replacement" will happen in France; 67% of the respondents were worried about it.

The theory has also become influential in far-right and white nationalist circles outside of France. The conspiracy theory has been cited by Canadian far-right political activist Lauren Southern in a YouTube video of the same name released in July 2017. Southern's video had attracted in 2020 more than 686,000 viewers and is credited with helping to popularize the conspiracy theory. Counter-jihad Norwegian blogger Fjordman has also participated in spreading the theory. It has also been promoted by the German edition of The Epoch Times, a far-right Falun Gong-associated newspaper.

Prominent right-wing extremist websites such as Gates of Vienna, Politically Incorrect, and  have provided a platform for bloggers to diffuse and popularize the theory of the "Great Replacement". Among its main promoters are also a wide-ranging network of loosely connected white nationalist movements, especially the Identitarian movement in Europe, and other groups like PEGIDA in Germany.

Political influence

Europe

France
Much of the European spread of the Great Replacement () conspiracy theory rhetoric is due to its prevalence in French national discourse and media. Nationalist right-wing groups in France have asserted that there is an ongoing "Islamo-substitution" of the indigenous French population, associating the presence of Muslims in France with potential danger and destruction of French culture and civilization.

In 2011, Marine Le Pen evoked the theory, claiming that France's "adversaries" were waging a moral and economic war on the country, apparently "to deliver it to submersion by an organized replacement of our population". In 2013, historian Dominique Venner's suicide in Notre-Dame de Paris, in which he left a note outlining the "crime of the replacement of our people" is reported to have inspired the far-right Iliade Institute'''s main ideological tenet of the Great Replacement. Referring to the conspiracy theory, Marine Le Pen publicly praised Venner, claiming that his "last gesture, eminently political, was to try to awaken the French people".

In 2015, Guillaume Faye gave a speech at the Swedish Army Museum in Stockholm, in which he claimed there were three societal things being used against Europeans to carry out a supposed Great Replacement: abortion, homosexuality and immigration. He asserted that Muslims were replacing white people by using birthrates as a demographic weapon.

In June 2017, a BuzzFeed News investigation revealed three National Front candidates subscribing to the conspiracy theory ahead of the legislative elections. These included Senator Stéphane Ravier's personal assistant, who claimed the Great Replacement had already started in France. Publishing an image of blonde girl next to the caption "Say no to white genocide", Ravier's aide politically charged the concept further, writing "the National Front or the invasion".

By September 2018, in a meeting at Fréjus, Marine Le Pen closely echoed Great Replacement rhetoric. Speaking of France, she declared that "never in the history of mankind, have we seen a society that organizes an irreversible submersion" that would eventually cause French society to "disappear by dilution or substitution, its culture and way of life". Former National Assembly delegate Marion Maréchal, who is a junior member of the political Le Pen family, is also a proponent of the theory. In March 2019, in a trip to the U.S., Maréchal evoked the theory, stating "I don't want France to become a land of Islam". Insisting that the Great Replacement was "not absurd", she declared the "indigenous French" people, apparently in danger of being a minority by 2040, now wanted their "country back".

National Rally's serving president Marine Le Pen, who is the aunt of Maréchal, has been heavily influenced by the Great Replacement. The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung has described the conspiracy theory creator Renaud Camus as Le Pen's "whisperer". In May 2019, National Rally spokesman Jordan Bardella was reported to use the conspiracy theory during a televised debate with Nathalie Loiseau, after he argued that France must "turn off the tap" from the demographic bomb of African immigration into the country.

In June 2019, journalist and author Éric Zemmour pushed the concept in comparison to the Kosovo War, claiming "In 1900, there were 90% Serbs and 10% Muslims in Kosovo, in 1990 there were 90% Muslims and 10% Serbs, then there was war and the independence of Kosovo". Zemmour, author of The French Suicide, has repeatedly described "the progressive replacement, over a few decades, of the historic population of our country by immigrants, the vast majority of them non-European". Later that month, Marion Maréchal joined Zemmour in invoking the Great Replacement in relation to the Balkan region, stating "I do not want my France to become Kosovo" and declared that the changing demographics of France "threatens us" ("nous menace") and that this was increasingly clear. Zemmour ran for president in 2022 and continued to extensively promote the theory during his campaign. He finished in fourth place in the first round of the election, taking 7,07% of the vote.

Austria

Identitäre Bewegung Österreich (IBÖ), the Austrian branch of the Identitarian movement, promotes this theory, citing a "great exchange" or replacement of the population that supposedly needs to be reversed. In April 2019, Heinz-Christian Strache campaigning for his FPÖ party ahead of the 2019 European Parliament election endorsed the conspiracy theory. Claiming that "population replacement" in Austria was a real threat, he stated that "We don't want to become a minority in our own country". Compatriot Martin Sellner, who also supports the theory, celebrated Strache's political use of the Great Replacement.

Belgium
In September 2018, , an extremist Flemish youth organization, were reported to be endorsing the conspiracy theory. The group, claiming that native populations of Europe were being replaced by migrants; they proposed an end to all immigration, forced deportation of non-whites, and the founding of ethnostates. The following month, VRT detailed how the organization was discussing the Great Replacement on secretive chat channels, and using the conspiracy theory to promote Flemish ethnic identity.

In March 2019, Flemish nationalist Dries Van Langenhove of the Vlaams Belang party repeatedly stated that the Flemish people were "being replaced" in Belgium, posting claims on social media which endorsed the Great Replacement theory.

Denmark
Use of the Great Replacement () conspiracy theory has become common in right-wing Danish political rhetoric. In April 2019, Rasmus Paludan, leader of the Hard Line party, which is widely associated with the Great Replacement, claimed that by the year 2040 ethnic Danish people would be approaching to be a minority in Denmark, having been outnumbered by Muslims and their descendants. During a debate for the 2019 European Parliament elections, Paludan used the concept to justify a proposal to ban Muslim immigration and deport all Islamic residents from the country, in what Le Monde described as Paludan "preaching the 'great replacement theory'".

In June 2019, Pia Kjærsgaard (Danish People's Party) invoked the conspiracy theory while serving as Speaker of the Danish Parliament. After the alleged encouragement of Muslim communities to "vote red", for the Social Democrats; Kjærsgaard asked "What will happen? A replacement of the Danish people?".

Germany
Ex-SPD politician Thilo Sarrazin is reported to be one of the most influential promoters of the Great Replacement, having published several books on the subject, some of which, such as Germany Abolishes Itself, are in high circulation. Sarrazin has proposed that there are too many immigrants in Germany, and that they supposedly have lower IQs than Germans. Regarding the demographics of Germany, he has claimed  that in a century ethnic Germans will drop in number to 25 million, in 200 years to eight million and in 300 years: three million.

In May 2016, Alternative for Germany (, AfD) deputy leader Beatrix von Storch used a language reminiscent of the theory when she claimed that plans for a mass exchange of populations ("Massenaustausch der Bevölkerung") had long been made.

In April 2017, a few months before he assumed the leadership of the AfD, Alexander Gauland released a press statement regarding the issue of family reunification for refugees, in which he claimed that "Population exchange in Germany is running at full speed". In October 2018, following Beatrix von Storch's lead, Bundestag member Petr Bystron said the Global Compact for Migration was part of the conspiracy to bring about systemic population change in Germany.

In March 2019, Vice Germany reported how AfD MP  attempted to justify and assign blame for the Christchurch mosque shootings, in relation to his "The Great Exchange" theory, by asserting that the shooter's actions were driven by "overpopulation" from immigrants and "climate protection" against them. Laatsch also claimed that the climate movement, who he labelled "climate panic propagators", had a "shared responsibility" for the massacre, and singled out child activist Greta Thunberg.

Similarly, right-wing publicist  denied that either Anders Behring Breivik's 2011 manifesto, which referred to the Eurabia variant of the "white genocide" narrative, or Brenton Tarrant's 2019 The Great Replacement manifesto, had any connection to the theory. Claiming that it was, in fact, not a conspiracy theory at all, Lichtmesz said both Breivik and Tarrant were reacting to a real phenomenon; a "historically unique experiment" of a "Great Exchange" of people.

Hungary
Prime Minister Viktor Orbán and his political party Fidesz in Hungary have been associated with the conspiracy theory over the course of several years. The Sydney Morning Herald detailed Orbán's belief in and promotion of the Great Replacement as being central to the modern right-wing politics of Europe. In December 2018, he claimed the "Christian identity of Europe" needed saving, and labelled refugees traveling to Europe as "Muslim invaders". In a speech, Orbán asserted: "If in the future Europe is to be populated by people other than Europeans, and we accept this as a fact and see it as natural, then we will effectively be consenting to population replacement: to a process in which the European population is replaced".

He has also stated: "In all of Europe there are fewer and fewer children, and the answer of the West is migration," concluding that "We Hungarians have a different way of thinking. Instead of just numbers, we want Hungarian children." ThinkProgress described the comments as pushing a version of the theory. In April 2019, Radio New Zealand published insight that Orban's plans to cut taxes for large Hungarian families could be linked with fears of the Great Replacement.

Ireland
A 2019 Lidl advertisement that featured a white Irish woman, her Afro-Brazilian partner and their mixed race son was targeted by former journalist Gemma O'Doherty as part of an attempt at a "Great Replacement." After facing online harassment the family decided to leave Ireland. The "Great Replacement" has also been used in Ireland in opposition to direct provision centres, used to house asylum seekers.

Writing in 2020, Richard Downes said that "Rather than seeing the increase in non-Irish people living and making their lives here as being a normal part of a modern European country, some of the new nationalists see it as a conspiracy to overwhelm Ireland with foreigners. For many of them the conspirators include the Irish government, NGOs, the EU and the UN. They believe that these organisations want to replace Irish people with brown and black people from abroad."

The term "great replacement" was also used when the RTÉ News featured the three first babies born in 2020, born to Polish, Black and Indian mothers; journalist Fergus Finlay saying "I don't care about the vulgar abuse, but I really do believe that these hatemongers should be prosecuted when they incite others to hatred and violence against people whose only crime is their skin colour or religion. I find it hard to understand why the State hasn't acted already against these cruel ideologues who think they can say whatever they like under the banner of free speech. They may be small in number now, and on the surface they may just seem bonkers, but we've been here before. Political movements have been built on hatred of the other, and we know the damage they have caused."

Garda Commissioner (national chief of police) Drew Harris spoke about far right groups in 2020, saying that "Irish groups [believing] in the great replacement theory" had plans "to disrupt key State institutions and infrastructure. This included Dublin Port, high profile shopping areas such as Grafton Street in Dublin, Dáil Éireann and Government departments."

Some participants in the 2022–2023 Irish anti-immigration protests such as Hermann Kelly and Derek Blighe support a Great Replacement theory, as well as referring to the influx of immigrants as an "invasion" and a "plantation"

Italy
The current Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni has endorsed the Great Replacement ideology. Deputy Prime Minister Matteo Salvini of Italy (2018–2019) has repeatedly adopted the theme of the Great Replacement. In May 2016, two years before his election to office, he claimed "ethnic replacement is underway" in Italy in an interview with Sky TG24. Accusing nameless, well-funded organizations for importing workers that he named "farm slaves", he stated that there was a "lucrative attempt at genocide" of Italians.

In April 2023, the Minister of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty and Forests Francesco Lollobrigida remarked to a trade union conference that "Italians are having fewer children, so we're replacing them with someone else. [We say] yes to helping births, no to ethnic replacement. That's not the way forward".

The Netherlands
In April 2015, writing on the publishing website GeenStijl, scholar of Islam Hans Jansen used Great Replacement rhetoric, suggesting that it was an "undisputed" fact that among the European Union's governing elite there was a common consensus that Europeans were "no good and can be better replaced". In May 2015, Martin Bosma, a Dutch parliament Representative for the Party for Freedom (PVV), released his book . Invoking the conspiracy theory, Bosma wrote about a growing 'a new population' of immigrants which lent itself to an apparently 'post-racial Multicultural State of Salvation'.

In March 2017, Thierry Baudet, leader of the right wing Forum for Democracy (FvD) party, promoted the theory after he claimed that the country's so-called elite were deliberately "homeopathically diluting" the Dutch population, in a speech about "national self-hatred". He said there was a plot to racially mix the ethnic Dutch with "all the people of the world", so that there would "never be a Dutchman again".

In January 2018, PVV Representative Martin Bosma endorsed the Great Replacement theory, and one of its key propagators, after meeting with Renaud Camus at a PVV demonstration in Rotterdam and tweeting his support. Filip Dewinter, a leading member of the Flemish secessionist Vlaams Belang party, who had traveled to the Netherlands on the day of the protest to meet with Camus, named him as a "visionary man" to the media.

Party for Freedom politician Geert Wilders of the Netherlands supports the notion of a Great Replacement occurring in Europe. In October 2018, Wilders invoked the conspiracy theory, claiming the Netherlands was "being replaced with mass immigration from non-western Islamic countries" and Rotterdam being "the port of Eurabia". He claimed 77 million, mainly Islamic immigrants would attempt to enter Europe over the course of half a century, and that white Europeans would cease to exist unless they were stopped. In 2019, The New York Times reported how Camus's demographic-based alarmist theories help fuel Wilders and his Party for Freedom's nativist campaigning.

In September 2018, Dutch author Paul Scheffer analyzed the Great Replacement and its political developments, suggesting that Forum for Democracy and Party for Freedom were forming policy regarding the demography of the Netherlands through the lens of the conspiracy theory.

Spain
The far-right party Vox has been described as circulating the theory for its discourse about low natality rates in Spaniards compared to migrants. According to journalist Antonio Maestre of El Diario, such an ideology is shared between Vox and some extreme strains of Catalan nationalism who fear replacement by Spanish-speakers.

 United Kingdom
According to November 2018 research from the University of Cambridge, 31% of Brexit voters believe in the conspiracy theory compared to 6% of British people who oppose Brexit.

In July 2019, left-wing English musician and activist Billy Bragg released a public statement which accused fellow singer-songwriter Morrissey of endorsing the theory. Bragg suggested "that Morrissey is helping to spread this idea—which inspired the Christchurch mosque murderer—is beyond doubt".

 Turkey
Leader of the Victory Party Ümit Özdağ uses a Turkish version of the theory. He previously argued that Turkey will be a "Migrantland" (Göçmenistan) unless Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu wins the 2023 Turkish presidential election.

North America
Canada
YouTuber Lauren Southern of Canada has helped amplify the conspiracy theory. In 2017, Southern dedicated a video to the Great Replacement, gaining over half a million views on her channel, before it was deleted. 2018 mayoral candidate for Toronto Faith Goldy has publicly embraced the replacement theory. In 2019, in the aftermath of the Christchurch mosque shootings in Christchurch, New Zealand, Vice accused Goldy of routinely pushing the same ideas of birthrate declines and the population replacement of whites, found in the gunman's The Great Replacement manifesto. When white nationalist Paul Fromm co-opted the pre-1967 Canadian national flag, the Canadian Red Ensign, he referred to it as "the flag of the true Canada, the European Canada before the treasonous European replacement schemes brought in by the 1965 immigration policies".

In June 2019, columnist Lindsay Shepherd claimed that "whites are becoming a minority" in the West, describing her assertion as "population replacement". She was criticized by Canadian MP Colin Fraser at a House of Commons justice committee for not denouncing the concept, while Nathaniel Erskine-Smith accused Shepherd of openly embracing the conspiracy theory.

The political commentator Mathieu Bock-Côté is known to frequently amplify the Great Replacement theory (French: Grand Remplacement) into mainstream media with his political ideologies, born in Quebec and lives in France.

United States

The Great replacement in the United States is the American version of a white nationalist far-right conspiracy theory that racial minorities are displacing the traditional white American population and taking control of the nation. Versions of the theory "have become commonplace" in the Republican Party of the United States, and have become a major issue of political debate.  It also has stimulated violent responses including mass murders. It resembles the Great Replacement theory promoted in Europe, but has its origins in American nativism around 1900. According to Erika Lee, in 1894 the old stock Yankee upper-class founders of the Immigration Restriction League were, "convinced that Anglo-Saxon traditions, peoples, and culture were being drowned in a flood of racially inferior foreigners from Southern and Eastern Europe."

Oceania
Australia
The media in Australia have covered former Senator Fraser Anning of Queensland and his endorsement of the Great Replacement conspiracy theory. In April 2019, Reuters reported how Anning was amplifying replacement theory by suggesting that Muslims would "out-breed us very quickly". In May 2019, Anning alleged that white Australians would "fast become a minority" if they did not defend their "ethno-cultural identity".

New Zealand
The far right neo-Nazi youth group Action Zealandia has endorsed the Great Replacement theory, alleging that European identity in New Zealand is being threatened by economically driven non-white migration. In addition, the group has promoted the pseudohistorical notion that white people settled in New Zealand before the arrival of the indigenous Māori people. According to the journalist Marc Daalder, Action Zealandia is the successor to the Dominion Movement, a far right group that ceased its activities following the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings.

 Asia

 India
Hindu nationalists in India have stoked fears of demographic erasure of Hindus by Muslims, alleging that Muslims have higher fertility rates compared to other Indian communities and forced religious conversions are reducing the number of Hindus. In 2022, Hindu nationalist Yati Narsinghanand was arrested on hate speech charges and spoke about the risk of a Muslim prime minister in 2029, which he said would lead to killings and forced conversions of Hindus. Members of India's parliament and Indian television channels have also mainstreamed the claim of a demographic threat to Hindus. India's former chief election commissioner, S.Y. Quraishi, said that fearmongering over the threat to a Hindu majority has increased since 2014.

 Malaysia
Hard right conservatives in Malaysia have expressed fears that local Indian communities, often of Tamil descent, may oust Malay Muslims, who are the current majority in Malaysia. These fears were heightened due to the Sri Lankan Civil War, backlash against activities of the Hindu Rights Action Force, and Hindu nationalism in India. Political actors have exploited this to acquire votes in Malaysia's heartland and to rally opposition against ratifying the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.

 Africa

 Tunisia
In February 2023 the President of Tunisia Kais Saied made comments about African immigration into Tunisia, saying that they were changing the demographic makeup of the country in order to make it a "purely African" nation. This was widely interpreted as a Tunisian (or Arabic) version of the great replacement conspiracy theory allegedly in an attempt to distract voters from the policy failures of his government.

 Influence on white nationalist terrorism

 Implicit call to violence
Camus's use of strong terms like "colonization" and "Occupiers" to label non-European immigrants and their children have been described as implicit calls to violence. Scholars like Jean-Yves Camus have argued that the "Great Replacement" conspiracy theory closely parallels the concept of "remigration", an euphemistic term for the forced deportation of non-white immigrants. "We shall not leave Europe, we shall make Africa leave Europe," Camus wrote in 2019 to define his political agenda for the European parliament elections. He has also used another euphemism, the "Great Repatriation", to refer to remigration.

According to historians Nicolas Bancel and Pascal Blanchard, along with sociologist Ahmed Boubeker, "the announcement of a civil war is implicit in the theory of the 'great replacement' [...] This thesis is extreme—and so simplistic that it can be understood by anyone—because it validates a racial definition of the nation." Sceptical of Camus's description of second or third generation immigrants as being itself a contradiction in terms—"they do not migrate anymore, they are French"—demographer Hervé Le Bras is also critical of their designation as a fifth column in France or an "internal enemy".

 Inspired attacks
Fears of the white race's extinction, and replacement theory in particular, have been cited by several accused perpetrators of mass shootings between 2018, 2019 and 2022. While Camus has stated his own philosophy is a nonviolent one, analysts including Heidi Beirich of the Southern Poverty Law Center say the idea of white genocide has "undoubtedly influenced" American white supremacists, potentially leading to violence.

In October 2018, a gunman killed 11 people and injured 6 in an attack on the Tree of Life synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The gunman believed Jews were deliberately importing non-white immigrants into the United States as part of a conspiracy against the white race.

Brenton Harrison Tarrant, the Australian terrorist responsible for the mass shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, on 15 March 2019, that killed 51 people and injured 49, named his manifesto The Great Replacement, a reference to Camus's book. In response, Camus condemned violence while reaffirming his desire for a "counter-revolt" against an increase in nonwhite populations.

In 2019, research by the Institute for Strategic Dialogue showed over 24,000 social media mentions of the Great Replacement in the month before the Christchurch shootings, in comparison to just 3,431 mentions in April 2012. The use of the term spiked in April 2019 after the Christchurch mosque shootings.

Patrick Crusius, the suspect in the 2019 El Paso shooting, posted an online manifesto titled The Inconvenient Truth alluding to the "great replacement" and expressing support for "the Christchurch shooter" minutes before the attack. It spoke of a "Hispanic invasion of Texas" leading to "cultural and ethnic replacement" (alluding to the Reconquista) as justifications for the shooting. Available via The Irish Times .

The suspect accused in the 2022 Buffalo shooting listed the Great Replacement in a manifesto he had published prior to the attack. The suspect described himself as a fascist, white supremacist, and antisemite.

 List of proponents

 Tucker Carlson
 Davor Domazet-Lošo
 Mark Finchem
 Matt Gaetz
 Laura Ingraham
 Ron Johnson
 Hermann Kelly
 Steve King
 Giorgia Meloni
 Robert Ménard
 Jean Messiha
 Viktor Orbán
 Wendy Rogers (politician)
 Lauren Southern
 John Waters (columnist)
 Éric Zemmour
 Kais Saïed, President of Tunisia.
 Michel Houellebecq

 See also
 White demographic decline
 Counter-jihad
 Eurabia
 The Kalergi Plan conspiracy theory, another variant of the white genocide conspiracy theory that heavily revolves around a supposed plan to replace and racially mix white Europeans with non-whites through immigration by Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, an Austrian-Japanese politician and founder of the Paneuropean Union
 Race suicide theory of early 20th-century eugenicists
 Reconquista (Southwest United States)
 The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
 The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy Yellow Peril
 Declinism
 Love Jihad conspiracy theory

 Notes

 References
Citations

 Sources

 Alba, Richard. The Great Demographic Illusion: Majority, Minority, and the Expanding American Mainstream'' (Princeton UP, 2020)  https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691202112

Further reading
 . in Swedish

2010 introductions
Alt-right
White genocide conspiracy theory
Eurabia
Anti-immigration politics in Europe
Far-right politics in France
Identitarian movement
Conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump
Conspiracy theories in France
Demography
Anti-immigration politics

Great Replacement


Butterfly Conservation (BC) is a UK-wide nonprofit environmentalist organization and charity dedicated to conserving butterflies, moths, and the environment. The charity uses its research to provide advice on how to conserve and restore butterfly and moth habitats and it runs projects to protect more than 100 threatened species of Lepidoptera. Butterfly Conservation is also involved in conserving hundreds of sites and reserves for butterflies and moths throughout the UK.

Butterfly Conservation has more than 37,000 members and 31 volunteer-led Branches throughout the UK, as well as the European Butterflies Group. The organisation's Head Office is based in East Lulworth, Dorset, with additional offices in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

History
The organisation was originally formed in 1968 as the "British Butterfly Conservation Society" by a small group of naturalists and it was registered as a charity on 7 March 1968.

Butterfly Conservation is a company limited by guarantee, registered in England (2206468). Registered Office: Manor Yard, East Lulworth, Wareham, Dorset, BH20 5QP. Charity registered in England and Wales (254937) and in Scotland (SCO39268) VAT No GB 991 2771 89.

Butterfly Conservation operates three of the world's largest butterfly and moth recording schemes, which together have gathered more than 60 million records.

This includes the world's largest butterfly survey - the Big Butterfly Count, launched in 2010). The citizen science survey encourages people to spot and record common butterflies and two day-flying moths during three weeks of high summer.

The charity also runs a number of moths schemes and conservation activities focusing solely on the conservation of moths that people can get involved in.

Butterfly Conservation produces three editions of its membership magazine Butterfly every year. The magazine is distributed to members, institutions, conservation bodies and others interested or involved in the conservation of butterflies, moths and related wildlife. The publication has an estimated readership of 60,000.

BC celebrated its 50th anniversary year in 2018. Sir David Attenborough became President of the society in 1998.

Function of the organisation
Butterfly Conservation is the UK charity dedicated to saving butterflies and moths.

Why butterflies and moths matter: Butterflies and moths are important parts of the ecosystem. They are beautiful and inspirational and people enjoy seeing them in their gardens and the countryside. They are sensitive to change and their fortunes help us assess the health of our environment. Two-thirds of butterfly and moth species are in decline. This is a warning that cannot be ignored.

Butterfly Conservation aims to maintain and enhance landscapes for butterflies and moths. The charity provides advice to landowners and managers on how to conserve and restore habitats. BC staff and volunteers work to gather extensive butterfly and moth data and conduct research to provide the scientific evidence that underpins and informs the charity's work.

Butterfly Conservation has an established record of reversing declines and run programmes for more than 100 threatened species of butterflies and moths.

Reserves
Butterfly Conservation manages over 30 nature reserves.

England

Scotland

 Allt Mhuic, Loch Arkaig
 Mabie Forest, Dumfries and Galloway
 Wester Moss, Stirling

Wales
 Caeau Ffos Fach, Cross Hands
 Eyarth Rocks, Ruthin, Denbighshire

Organisational structure
Sir David Attenborough has served as President of the charity since 1998.

Chief Executive Role

2017–present day: Julie Williams

2003 - 2016: Dr. Martin Warren

Vice Presidents: Maurice Avent, Nick Baker, John F Burton, Dudley Cheeseman, Sue Collins, The Earl of Cranbrook, David Dennis, Mike Dilger, Clive Farrell, Julian Gibbs, Ian Hardy MVO, David Hanson, Anthony Hoare, Chris Packham, Prof Jeremy Thomas OBE and Alan Titchmarsh MBE.

Prior to his death in 2004, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 10th Earl of Shaftesbury served as a Vice president of the charity.

The organisation has over 30 volunteer-led Branches across the UK, with offices based in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

UK Branch offices

 Bedfordshire and Northants Branch
 Cambridgeshire and Essex Branch
 Cheshire and Wirral Branch
 Cornwall Branch
 Cumbria Branch
 Devon Branch
 Dorset Branch
 East Midlands Branch
 East Scotland Branch
 Glasgow and South West Scotland Branch
 Gloucestershire Branch
 Hampshire & Isle of Wight Branch
 Hertfordshire and Middlesex Branch
 Highlands and Islands Branch
 Kent and South East London Branch
 Lancashire Branch
 Lincolnshire Branch
 Northern Ireland Branch
 Norfolk Branch
 North East England Branch
 North Wales Branch
 South Wales Branch
 Somerset and Bristol Branch
 Suffolk Branch
 Surrey and South West London Branch
 Sussex Branch
 Upper Thames Branch
 Warwickshire Branch
 West Midlands Branch
 Wiltshire Branch
 Yorkshire Branch

The European Butterflies Group has also been established as a BC volunteer-led Branch, which promotes the study, conservation and enjoyment of butterflies, moths and their habitats in Europe. See also BC Europe.

References

External links
Butterfly Conservation
Big Butterfly Count
Garden Butterfly Survey
Butterfly Conservation on Facebook,
Butterfly Conservation on Twitter
Butterfly Conservation on LinkedIn
Butterfly Conservation on Instagram.

1968 establishments in the United Kingdom
Biology organisations based in the United Kingdom

Butterfly organizations
Conservation in the United Kingdom
Environmental charities based in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in Dorset
Organizations established in 1968
Purbeck District

Butterfly Conservation


Jockin Arputham (15 August 1947 – 13 October 2018) was an Indian community leader and activist, known for his campaigning work of more than 40 years on issues related to slums and shanty towns. He was born in Karnataka, India and moved to Mumbai, where he quickly became politicized and established himself as a community leader. In 2014, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, alongside the organisation he helped to found, Slum Dwellers International.

Early life

Arputham was born to Tamil parents who lived in Kolar Gold Fields (in present-day Kolar district of Karnataka) on 15 August 1947, the same day of India's independence from the United Kingdom . When he was 16, he moved to Bangalore looking for work.

Politicization
When he was eighteen, he moved to Mumbai where he worked as a carpenter and building contractor. Since he had nowhere to live, he slept on the street in Janata Colony, a slum of 70,000 people. He worked at the construction of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). Seeing that he did not need credentials to do so, he began a company to manage workers and organised a school in the slum. The city did not organize a rubbish collection, so he encouraged 3,000 children to bring a bag of garbage to a picnic at the council offices and won a regular rubbish collection service.

Between 1971 and 1972, Arputham went to Kolkata to work with refugees escaping war in Bangladesh.

Back in Mumbai, when Janata colony was threatened with eviction in the 1970s, he helped organize protests and court cases. He was arrested over 40 times. He also sat outside the Parliament in Delhi for 18 days until the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi would see him. She promised they would not be evicted, but in 1976, 12,000 police stormed the slum and evicted all 70,000 people in one night. Everyone was forcibly transferred to the still extant Cheetah Camp slum.

When India declared a state of emergency, Arputham was forced to flee the country in 1977 to avoid imprisonment. With the help of the World Council of Churches he went to the Philippines visiting local slumdwellers groups. Every three months he had to leave the country to renew his visa so he went to Japan, Malaysia and South Korea.

Career
Arputham was the president of the National Slum Dwellers Federation (NSDF) which he founded in the late 1970s. He was also co-founder of Slum Dwellers International (SDI) which networks slum and shack dweller organizations and federations from over thirty countries across the world. The National Slum Dwellers Federation works closely with Mahila Milan, a collective of savings groups formed by homeless women and women living in slums across India, and with SPARC, a Mumbai-based NGO. This alliance has supported thousands of the urban poor access better housing and sanitation.

Slum Dwellers International claimed the alliance helped 1 million people in 15,000 slum dwellers-managed saving groups. Further they had secured land rights for 128,000 families, building over 20,000 toilets and 100,000 houses. The National Slum Dwellers Federation stated it had helped 60,000 families improve their housing situation in Mumbai.

Arputham has also worked with the police to set up "police panchayats" in many of the informal settlements in Mumbai. Here, for the first time, police are assigned to work in these settlements and are supported by a committee of ten residents from the community (made up of three men and seven women). The concept was pioneered by Anami Narayan Roy, the Police Commissioner of Pune.

A week after his death, Arputham was commemorated by a large poster calling him the "slum king" in Dharavi, where he lived.

Awards
2000: The Ramon Magsaysay Award for Peace and International Understanding.
2009: Honorary Ph.D. from KIIT University, Bhubaneswar.
2011: The Government of India bestowed on him its fourth highest civilian honor, the Padma Shri award.
2014: Skoll award for social entrepreneurship.
2014: Nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by Stefan Attefall, Swedish minister for public administration and housing.

Selected works
 Arputham, Jockin. 2008. "Developing new approaches for people-centred development". Environment and Urbanization, 20 (2) 319–337 doi:10.1177/0956247808096115
Arputham, Jockin; Bartlett, Sheridan; Patel, Sheela.  2015. "'We beat the path by walking': How the women of Mahila Milan in India learned to plan, design, finance and build housing". Environment & Urbanization, 28(1) doi:10.1177/0956247815617440
Arputham, Jockin; Patel, Sheela. 2008. "Plans  for  Dharavi:  negotiating  a  reconciliation  between  a  state-driven market redevelopment and residents' aspirations". Environment and Urbanization 20(1) 243–254.

References

External links
Citation for Jockin Arputham on Ramon Magsaysay Award website

Indian urban planners
1947 births
2018 deaths
Shack dwellers
People from Kolar district
Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
Recipients of the Padma Shri in social work
Artists from Karnataka
20th-century Indian architects
Social workers from Karnataka
20th-century Indian educational theorists
Indian squatter leaders

Jockin Arputham


Daniels Mill is a working water mill used for milling flour, located near Bridgnorth in the English county of Shropshire. The mill has the largest cast iron waterwheel in England, spanning a  diameter.

The present mill worked until 1957 grinding a variety of grain for animal feed, but ceased operation upon the death of the miller, who is the present owner's father. After a great deal of restoration work, the mill was re-opened in 2008.

History
The mill stands below the Oldbury Viaduct of the Severn Valley Railway which runs close by.

The earliest reference to the mill and its surrounding land appears around the late 15th century, when it was known as "Donynges" or "Dunnings" Mill. The property was originally part of the Pitchford estate of the Ottley family, who owned much of the land in Bridgnorth and surrounding parishes. The mill remained in the hands of the Pitchford estate until the 18th century. In the early centuries the mill was probably worked by an itinerant journeyman miller – someone who would visit the mill only when there was work to be done.

The mill has been enlarged and altered several times. The original structure would have had no resemblance to the present building. Originally it would have been a low structure with two floors and extending parallel to the present wheel. It is probable that the old wheel would have been constructed of wood instead of iron, been much smaller than the present wheel, and would have been located on the opposite end of the building. The entrance where corn was delivered also was likely in another location.

The earliest known resident millers, the Crowther family, enlarged the mill and likely built proper living accommodation at that time, though the mill could have also been enlarged prior to their involvement. It is likely the first enlargement would have taken place around the early 17th century, when land was obtained to construct the upper pool. When this pool was made, a small mill was built under its dam. This smaller mill was known locally as the "mill in the hole", or Clover Mill. All that remains of this smaller mill is the building's back wall and the wheel pit. The newest part of the building, the "L" extension, was the last addition and provided a kitchen, bedroom and attic/bedroom.

The present wheel was originally cast at Coalbrookdale in 1854, installed around the middle of the 19th century and replaced an earlier wheel on the same site. Documents show that as early as 1843 a steam engine had been purchased to work in conjunction with the present wheel.

Because of the lack of resources, little modernisation of the house had taken place since Victorian times. This state of affairs continued until 1946 when the miller and resident at that time, Henry Thomason, wired the house for electricity. Though the house had lights and power, Thomason refused to electrify the mill, saying it would be dangerous. When Thomason died in 1957, the mill sat unused for a time.

Restoration

In 1958, the mill was restored. A tremendous amount of work went into the restoration, which included fixing water damage to the wheel, rebuilding several walls around the wheel pit, installing a new steel axle, replacing millstones and their timber framework, replacing floorboards, windows and more. Great care was taken to use old materials, mostly obtained from demolition sites.

In 2007 the mill was awarded a £67,500 grant from GrantScape Community Heritage Fund to reinstate the secondary water feed to the wheel – this involved reinstating both a large feed pool and underground pipe, and the reconstruction of the overwheel water tank which had been removed in the mid 1960s when it became unsafe.

While this work was being planned the mill was badly damaged by serious flooding during the summer of 2007. A grant from the Shropshire Tourism Action Plan programme for European Rural Development Funds was obtained to upgrade the site and improve visitor access. Other funding from the Society of Protection of Ancient Buildings, Bridgnorth District Council and the Midlands Mills Group, along with money raised through a public appeal, helped restore the wheel and workings so three sets of millstones could turn once again. The culmination of these three projects was marked by a re-opening in July 2008.

During 2008 work to uncover the ruin of the smaller mill was also carried out. Fragments of mill stones, one large English mill stone, and evidence of an even older water wheel were exposed during the excavations.

See also
Listed buildings in Eardington

References

External links
Daniels Mill Bridgnorth Official Website
Cotswold Mill Wrights website

Watermills in Shropshire
Tourist attractions in Shropshire
Museums in Shropshire
Mill museums in England
Bridgnorth

Daniels Mill, Shropshire


A sticky note (or Post-it note) is a small piece of paper with a strip of glue along one edge that make it "sticky," so you can stick it to things. It was invented by Arthur Fry.

The most common sticky note is the Post-it, which is made by a company called 3M. In 1974 a man named Arthur Fry came up with the idea for the sticky note. He used a glue that was originally too weak to be used for anything else, so the notes would come off easy. 3M started to sell Post-Its in 1980.

In 2001, the patent for the glue that 3M uses on Post-it notes expired, so many other companies now make similar sticky notes.

References

Other websites

 Official Post-It notes Website
 Post-It notes Generator

Technology

Sticky note


César Aparecido Rodrigues (born 24 October 1974), better known just as César, is a Brazilian retired footballer who played as a left midfielder (his preferred position) or left-back. He is currently under contract as the youth coach of Lazio.

César won 2 Serie A titles with Inter and 2 Coppa Italia titles, one with Inter and the other with Lazio; he represented Brazil on 2 occasions, both in 2001.

Playing career
Born in São Paulo, César started his career at CA Juventus, a small São Paulo team at the time. In 1994 his team was promoted to the top division of the state and the team was awarded an amount of money for the success; however this money was stolen, and César was discovered to be involved, giving information about the delivery, and sentenced to 5 years and 4 months of jail. In 1998, he was released, and returned to football, thanks to the intervention of São Caetano, a team which had signed him one year before being arrested, and loaned to União Barbarense, a satellite club. When back to São Caetano, César immediately became a key player, even becoming the team captain. He then led his team from minor leagues up to the National Brazilian championship finals in 2000.

After being tracked by Lazio for some time, in the summer of 2001 César joined the Italian Serie A team, becoming an important player for the Roman club. In January 2006, after a long courtship, Inter Milan loaned César, giving him the opportunity to play in one of the leading teams of Italy. At the summer of 2006, the contract with Lazio ended. Cesar joined Inter, signed a long-term contract. But César was transferred to major Brazilian Série A team Corinthians on loan. However, in December 2006, the end of Brazilian season, César declared his willingness to return to play in Italy; he signed by Livorno on loan on 25 January 2007, to replace the left of César Prates.

On 11 February 2007, he played his first Serie A match for Livorno against Inter He started the 2007–08 season in good form with Internazionale linking up well with Maxwell down the left flank even managing to get a goal. However, since then, he has been dropped from the squad again, and only featured against Torino, for 45 minutes, during which he disappointed many Inter fans, and was taken off at half time for Luis Jiménez, due to the large number of injuries the Inter squad had suffered.

The summer of 2008 saw César clubless, after his contract with Inter expired. Cesar did not sign for a club in the 2008 summer transfer season, leaving him clubless for the first half of the 2008–09 season. On 18 November 2008, César signed for Bologna, coached by his former Inter assistant coach, Siniša Mihajlović. On 9 October 2009 he joined Italian third division club Valle del Giovenco.

Coaching career
In August 2011, César put an end to his playing career and accepted a coaching role at S.S. Lazio, being appointed in charge of the Giovanissimi Provinciali B youth team.

References

External links
César's profile from inter.it
 A biography of César

1974 births
Living people
Footballers from São Paulo
Men's association football midfielders
Brazilian men's footballers
Brazil men's international footballers
Brazilian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Clube Atlético Juventus players
Sport Club Corinthians Paulista players
Associação Desportiva São Caetano players
SS Lazio players
Inter Milan players
US Livorno 1915 players
Bologna FC 1909 players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A players
Serie A players
Serie C players

César (footballer, born 1974)


Joseph Koterski, S.J. (November 28, 1953 – August 9, 2021) was an American Jesuit priest, philosopher, author, and professor at Fordham University in the Bronx, New York.

Biography
In 1976, Koterski graduated with a H.A.B. degree in Classics from Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1980, he earned a M.A. from Saint Louis University with a thesis titled Aristotle's Ethics and Reflective Equilibrium, and then two years later a Ph.D. from the same school, while there on a Danforth Fellowship. His dissertation, mentored by James Collins, was titled Truth and Freedom in Karl Jasper's Philosophy of Science.

Immediately, after obtaining his degree in 1982, Koterski taught at the University of St. Thomas in Houston, Texas. At the time, he was also discerning a vocation to the religious life. After two years of teaching, he applied to the Maryland Province of the Society of Jesus. His studies continued and as a Jesuit Koterski earned his Masters of Divinity and License in Sacred Theology from Weston School of Theology in Cambridge, Massachusetts with a thesis titled Natural Law and the Book of Wisdom. From 1986 to 1988, he was Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Loyola College in Baltimore, Maryland.

Koterski was ordained a priest in 1992. Soon afterwards, he was assigned as a professor at Fordham.  In the late 1990s he also began teaching philosophical courses at the minor seminary of the Archdiocese of New York. From 1996 to 2001, he was director of the MA program in philosophical resources at Fordham. From 1994, he has served as chaplain for Queens Court Residential College Freshmen. He was a pillar of the University Faculty for Life, serving on the Board of Directors since 1993, Treasurer 1997-2006, and Secretary since 2006. In 2008, Koterski was elected president of the Fellowship of Catholic Scholars.

Koterski died on August 9, 2021, while on a retreat on Enders Island, New London County, Connecticut.

Publications
Koterski was the editor or author of numerous articles and reviews.

Since 1992, he served as the editor of Life and Learning, the peer-review proceedings of the University Faculty for Life. In 1994, he began serving as the editor-in-chief of International Philosophical Quarterly. Since 1999, he was co-editor of the Fordham University Press Series in Moral Philosophy and Moral Theology. In 2016, he began editing the Fellowship of Catholic Scholars Quarterly. He was also an associate editor for the New Catholic Encyclopedia (Gale-Cengage).

Books
An Introduction to Medieval Philosophy: Some Basic Concepts (Malden MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).

Co-edited books
(with Graham Oppy), Theism and Atheism: Opposing Arguments In Philosophy (Farmington Hills MI: Cengage Gale, 2018).
(with Ron Begley), Medieval Education (Bronx NY: Fordham University Press, 2005).
(with John Conley, S.J.), Culture and Creed (Philadelphia PA: St Joseph's University Press, 2004).
(with David Ruel Foster), The Two Wings of Catholic Thought: Essays on Fides et Ratio (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2003).
(with Raymond J. Langley), Karl Jaspers on Philosophy of History and History of Philosophy (Amherst, NY: Humanity Press, 2003).
 (with John J. Conley, S.J.), Prophecy and Diplomacy: The Moral Teaching of Pope John Paul II (New York: Fordham Univ. Press, 1999).

Selected articles
"A Reading Guide to Natural Law Ethics" in Ressourcement Thomism: Essays in Honor of Romanus Cessario, O.P., edited by Matthew Levering and Reinhard Hutter (forthcoming).
"The Status of Personalism in Catholic Moral Thinking Today" - Dunwoodie Review (forthcoming).
"Memory and The Tempest" in Tolle lege: Essays on Augustine and Medieval Philosophy in Honor of Roland J. Teske, S.J., edited by David Twetten et al. (forthcoming).
"Society and the Formation of Free Persons" in Yves R. Simon: The Call of Philosophy (Texts with Commentaries), edited by John W. Carlson (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, forthcoming).
"Jaspers on Truth and Freedom" in Companion to Karl Jaspers, edited by Gregory J. Walters (Amherst NY: Humanity Press, forthcoming).
"Aquinas on the Sacrament of Marriage" in Rediscovering Aquinas and the Sacraments, edited by Mtthew Levering and Michael Dauphinais (Chicago IL: Hillenbrand Books, 2009), pp. 102–13.
"Theological Reflections on Natural Family Planning" in Nova et Vetera 6/4 (2008): 765-77.
"Calderon's La vida es un sueno" in St. Austin Review 8/1 (2008): 15-17.
"More's Reflections on Complicity with Evil in The History of King Richard III" in Thomas More Studies 2 (2007): 53-62.
"Non-Negotiable Principles of Christian Politics" in Inside Fordham 29/15 (June 29, 2007): 5.
"The Four Senses of Scripture" in The Brandsma Review 16/2 (2007): 14-16.
"The Use of Philosophical Principles in Catholic Social Thought: The Case of Gaudium et Spes" in The Journal of Catholic Legal Studies (St. John's University Law Review) 45/2 (2007): 277-92.
"The Doctrine of Participation in Aquinas's Commentary on St. John" in Being and Thought in Aquinas, edited by Jeremiah Hackett, William Murnion, and Carl Still (Binghamton NY: Global Academic Publ., 2004), pp. 109–21.
"Boethius and the Theological Origins of the Concept of Person" in American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly 78/2 (2004): 203-24.
Thomas More on Conscience" in Thomas More: Spiritual Writings (New York NY: Vintage Press, 2003), pp. xi-xxix.
"The New IGMR and Mass versus populum" (co-authored with Christopher Cullen, S.J.) in Homiletic and Pastoral Review 101/9 (June 2001): 51-54.
"Response to Robert P. George:  Natural Law, The Constitution, and the Theory and Practice of Judicial Review" in Fordham Law Review 69 (2001): 101-04.
"How Jefferson Honored Religion in Crisis 19/3 (March 2001): 35.
"On the Aristotelian Heritage of John of Damascus" in The Failure of Modernism: The Cartesian Legacy and Contemporary Pluralism, edited by Brendan Sweetman (Washington, D.C.: The American Maritain Association and Catholic University of America Press, 1999), pp. 58–71.
"Jaspers on Realism and Idealism" in Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Karl Jaspers Gesellschaft 11 (1998): 58-69.
"C. S. Lewis and the Natural Law" in CSL: The Bulletin of the New York C. S. Lewis Society  26/6 #306 (April 1995): 1-7.
"Certain Essentially Human Aspects of Intelligence," paper and discussion in the Proceedings of the ITEST Workshop on Artificial Intelligence (St. Louis MO: March 1984), pp. 38–43 et passim.
"A Mystic's Epistemology: Truth and Freedom in the Thought of St. Bernard of Clairvaux" in the Proceedings of the Patristic, Medieval and Renaissance Studies Conference 8 (1983): 47-52.
"Secularization or Christian Culture?" in The Dawson Newsletter 1/2 (1981): 1-4.
"St. Augustine on the Moral Law" in Augustinian Studies 11 (1980): 65-77.
"Aristotle on Signifying Definitions" in The New Scholasticism 54 (1980): 75-86

Multimedia
The Teaching Company has employed Koterski for several lectures in its Great Courses series, namely:
Biblical Wisdom Literature
Ethics of Aristotle
Natural Law and Human Nature

References

External links

1953 births
2021 deaths
Xavier University alumni
Saint Louis University alumni
20th-century American philosophers
American educational theorists
American Roman Catholic priests
20th-century American Roman Catholic theologians
21st-century American Roman Catholic theologians
Fordham University faculty
Writers from New York City
Aristotelian philosophers
Catholic philosophers
20th-century American Jesuits
21st-century American Jesuits
21st-century American non-fiction writers

Joseph Koterski


Herbert Ninaus (31 March 1937 in Voitsberg - 24 April 2015) was an Austrian-Australian international Football player and manager.

Career
Herbert Ninaus began his career at FC St. Veit, after which he, and later his brother, moved to first division side GAK.
The winger soon debuted in the Austrian league in the 1954/55 season, becoming a regular player. After a strong 1957/58 season, scoring 24 goals in 25 games, Herbert Ninaus was called up for the 1958 World Cup but was not used. He was needed only a short time later, however, making his international debut against Yugoslavia on 5 October 1958 and celebrated the occasion by scoring a goal.

During the winter break in 1958/59, Ninaus decided to emigrate to Australia, where he played at Sydney Prague and was a member of their New South Wales Division One championship winning team in 1959. Later he played for Sydney Hakoah and scored the decisive goal in their 1965 Australia Cup triumph. After becoming an Australian citizen he played two B international games in 1964 for Australia against touring English team Everton F.C., scoring three goals. He also played several times for New South Wales.

After finishing his playing career, Ninaus worked as a trainer for Marrickville and Canterbury.

Achievements
 New South Wales Division One champions: 1959
 Australia Cup winner: 1965
 2 caps and 1 goal for the Austria national football team, 1958
 2 caps and 3 goals for the Australia National Football team, 1964

See also
 List of Australia international soccer players born outside Australia

References

External links

1937 births
2015 deaths
Australian men's soccer players
Austrian men's footballers
Australia men's international soccer players
Austria men's international footballers
Grazer AK players
1958 FIFA World Cup players
Austrian emigrants to Australia
Men's association football forwards
Sydney FC Prague players
People from Voitsberg
Footballers from Styria

Herbert Ninaus


Dreams of Love – Liszt (, also known in English as The Loves of Liszt) is a Hungarian-Soviet epic musical/drama produced and directed by Márton Keleti, based on the biography of the Hungarian composer and pianist Franz Liszt.

While the movie was criticized for some of its historical inaccuracies, its epic scope and intense scenes of virtuoso musical performances won wide praise and has been credited with affecting the cultural landscape of the 1970s Eastern Europe.

Plot summary
An epic film about the Hungarian virtuoso pianist and composer Franz Liszt. He is an international star giving performances all over Europe and goes on a concert tour to St. Petersburg, Russia. Liszt's brilliant piano playing impressed the Russian royalty and aristocracy. Even the Russian Tsar stops talking when Liszt plays his piano. Liszt becomes a friend of the Russian composer Glinka. Liszt's beautiful music touches everyone's heart. Women are pursuing him and his lengthy affair with countess Marie d'Agoult is in trouble.

In Russia, Liszt meets the beautiful Princess Carolyne, they fall in love, and she soon leaves her husband for Liszt. She becomes a muse and inspiration for Liszt, and his last and strongest love. Inspired by his love for Carolyne, Liszt creates the most beautiful romantic piano composition, "Liebestraum" (also known as "Dream of Love") dedicated to her, and the piece becomes a classic hit. But the church does not allow Liszt to marry Carolyne, because she could not terminate her first marriage. The unmarried couple moves to the city of Weimar, where Liszt becomes the music director for the royal orchestra. This becomes the most productive and happy period in Liszt's life.

The brilliant pianist and composer Franz Liszt becomes a superstar. He tours many countries and makes people happy with his music, albeit his love life is in trouble. Carolyne cannot terminate her marriage while her husband is alive. Her relatives are against Liszt. She and Liszt remain unmarried, and Liszt suffers from emotional pain until the end of his life. Being loved by the public, Liszt is never really happy in his personal life, so he expresses himself making beautiful music.

Cast
 Imre Sinkovits as Franz Liszt
 Ariadna Shengelaya as Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein
 Sándor Pécsi as Gaetano Belloni, Liszt's secretary
 Klara Luchko as Marie d'Agoult
 Igor Dmitriev as prince Nikolay Petrovich Wittgenstein
 Larisa Trembovelskaya as Lola Montez
 Tamás Major as Pope Pius IX
 Klári Tolnay as Cosima, Liszt's daughter
 Lajos Básti as Ágoston Trefort
 Ferenc Bessenyei as Mihály Vörösmarty
 Ádám Szirtes as Miska, Liszt's servant
 Petr Shelokhonov as Mikhail Glinka, Russian composer
 Sándor Suka as Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer
 Natalya Baytalskaya as Vera Timanova
 Gennady Bednostin
 Irina Gubanova as Olga Yanina
 Tibor Bitskey as Liszt's friend
 Kornél Gelley as priest
 Peter Huszti as Franz Joseph I of Austria
 Sergei Ivanov as Nicholas I of Russia
 György Kálmán as police officer
 Sergei Karnovich-Valua as Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
 Zsolt Kocsy as Franz Liszt in his childhood
 Ivan Kolejev
 Valentin Kulik as Sigismond Thalberg
 Vasili Leonov as Alexander Borodin
 Gábor Mádi Szabó as Liszt's father
 Vera Szemere as Liszt's mother
 László Márkus as Miklós Esterházy
 Sergei Polezhayev as courtier
 Emmanuil Schwarzberg
 Anatoli Shvedersky as Gustav Adolf, Cardinal Prince of Hohenlohe-Schillinsgfürst
 Bertalan Solti
 Géza Tordy as Carl Czerny
 Marina Yurasova as Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia
 Éva Ruttkai (voice dubbing for the character of Carolyne in the Hungarian version)
 Ildikó Pécsi (voice dubbing for the character of Lola Montez in the Hungarian version)

Production
 This is a joint Hungarian-Soviet production of MAFILM Studio 3 and Lenfilm Studio.
 Production dates: 1968–1970.
 Filmed in the Soviet Union, East Germany and Hungary.
 Liszt's historic performance in Russia was filmed at St. Petersburg Bolshoi Philharmonic Hall.
 Sviatoslav Richter plays piano for the character of Liszt, including études and the famous "Liebestraum".
 The Hungarian version runtime is 174 minutes.
 The Soviet version is reduced down to 150 minutes, with some scenes deleted.
 The American version is reduced to 130 minutes, with many scenes deleted.
 Released in 1970 in Hungary and the Soviet Union.
 Released on September 29, 1972, in Finland, and in December 1975, in the USA.

External links

1970 films
1970s biographical drama films
Soviet biographical drama films
Russian biographical drama films
Hungary–Soviet Union relations
1970s Hungarian-language films
1970s Russian-language films
1970s romantic musical films
Films set in the 19th century
Films directed by Márton Keleti
Cultural depictions of Franz Liszt
Cultural depictions of Lola Montez
Films about classical music and musicians
Films about composers
Biographical films about musicians
Lenfilm films
Hungarian multilingual films
Soviet multilingual films
1970s multilingual films
Hungarian biographical drama films
1970 drama films

Dreams of Love – Liszt


In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the k-space or reciprocal space (a mathematical space of spatial frequencies) is obtained as the 2D or 3D Fourier transform of the image measured.
It was introduced in 1979 by Likes and in 1983 by Ljunggren and Twieg.

In MRI physics, complex values are sampled in k-space during an MR measurement in a premeditated scheme controlled by a pulse sequence, i.e. an accurately timed sequence of radiofrequency and gradient pulses. In practice, k-space often refers to the temporary image space, usually a matrix, in which data from digitized MR signals are stored during data acquisition. When k-space is full (at the end of the scan) the data are mathematically processed to produce a final image. Thus k-space holds raw data before reconstruction.

It can be formulated by defining wave vectors  and  for "frequency encoding" (FE) and "phase encoding" (PE):

where  is the sampling time (the reciprocal of sampling frequency),  is the duration of GPE,  (gamma bar) is the gyromagnetic ratio, m is the sample number in the FE direction and n is the sample number in the PE direction (also known as partition number). Then, the 2D-Fourier Transform of this encoded signal results in a representation of the spin density distribution in two dimensions. Thus position (x,y) and spatial frequency (, ) constitute a Fourier transform pair.

Typically, k-space has the same number of rows and columns as the final image and is filled with raw data during the scan, usually one line per TR (Repetition Time).

An MR image is a complex-valued map of the spatial distribution of the transverse magnetization Mxy in the sample at a specific time point after an excitation. Conventional qualitative interpretation of Fourier Analysis asserts that low spatial frequencies (near the center of k-space) contain the signal to noise and contrast information of the image, whereas high spatial frequencies (outer peripheral regions of k-space) contain the information determining the image resolution. This is the basis for advanced scanning techniques, such as the keyhole acquisition, in which a first complete k-space is acquired, and subsequent scans are performed for acquiring just the central part of the k-space; in this way, different contrast images can be acquired without the need of running full scans.

A nice symmetry property exists in k-space if the image magnetization Mxy is prepared to be proportional simply to a contrast-weighted proton density and thus is a real quantity. In such a case, the signal at two opposite locations in k-space is:

where the star () denotes complex conjugation.
Thus k-space information is somewhat redundant then, and an image can be reconstructed using only one half of the k-space, either in the PE (Phase Encode) direction saving scan time (such a technique is known as half Fourier or half scan) or in the FE (Frequency Encode) direction, allowing for lower sampling frequencies and/or shorter echo times (such a technique is known as half echo). However, these techniques are approximate due to phase errors in the MRI data which can rarely be completely controlled (due to imperfect static field shim, effects of spatially selective excitation, signal detection coil properties, motion etc.) or nonzero phase due to just physical reasons (such as the different chemical shift of fat and water in gradient echo techniques).

MRI k-space is related to NMR time-domain  in all aspects, both being used for raw data storage. The only difference between the MRI k-space and the NMR time domain is that a gradient G is present in MRI data acquisition, but is absent in NMR data acquisition. As a result of this difference, the NMR FID signal and the MRI spin-echo signal take different mathematical forms:
 cosexp
and
 sin
where

Due to the presence of the gradient G, the spatial information r (not the spatial frequency information k) is encoded onto the frequency , and at the same time the time-domain is renamed as k-space.

References

Further reading
McRobbie D., et al. MRI, From picture to proton. 2003
Hashemi Ray, et al. MRI, The Basics 2ED. 2004.

Magnetic resonance imaging

K-space in magnetic resonance imaging


is a miniature Shinto shrine either found on the precincts of a larger shrine and dedicated to folk kami, or on a street side, enshrining kami not under the jurisdiction of any large shrine. Dōsojin, minor kami protecting travelers from evil spirits, can for example be enshrined in a hokora.

The term hokora, believed to have been one of the first Japanese words for Shinto shrine, evolved from , literally meaning "kami repository", a fact that seems to indicate that the first shrines were huts built to house some yorishiro.

See also
 Glossary of Shinto
 Setsumatsusha
 Spirit house

Notes

References

Architecture in Japan
Shinto
Shinto religious objects

Hokora


Falling Down is a 1993 American crime drama movie directed by Joel Schumacher. It stars Michael Douglas as divorced defense engineer who was laid off the previous month. Foster has a mental breakdown and walks out of his car whilst in a traffic jam. He crosses Los Angeles, California on foot to go to his daughter's birthday party. He uses violence against many people he encounters. He is pursued by LAPD detective Prendergast, played by Robert Duvall.

Other websites

1993 crime drama movies
1993 crime thriller movies
1993 drama thriller movies
1990s satirical movies
American crime drama movies
American crime thriller movies
American drama thriller movies
American satirical movies
Borderline personality disorder in fiction
1990s English-language movies
Midlife crisis movies
Movies about dysfunctional families
Movies set in Los Angeles
Warner Bros. movies
Movies directed by Joel Schumacher

Falling Down


The Northern Cheyenne Exodus, also known as Dull Knife's Raid, the Cheyenne War, or the Cheyenne Campaign, was the attempt of the Northern Cheyenne to return to the north, after being placed on the Southern Cheyenne reservation in the Indian Territory, and the United States Army operations to stop them. The period lasted from 1878 to 1879.

Background
Following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, attempts by the U.S. Army to subdue the Northern Cheyenne intensified. In 1877, after the previous November's Dull Knife Fight, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson in northwestern Nebraska a few Cheyenne chiefs and their people surrendered as well. The chiefs that surrendered at the fort were Dull Knife, Little Wolf, Standing Elk, and Wild Hog with nearly one thousand Cheyenne. On the other hand, Two Moon surrendered at Fort Keogh with three hundred Cheyenne in 1877. The Cheyenne wanted and expected to live on the reservation with the Sioux in accordance with an April 29, 1868 treaty of Fort Laramie of which both Dull Knife and Little Wolf had signed. However, shortly after arriving at Fort Robinson it was recommended that the Northern Cheyenne be moved to the Darlington Agency on the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Indian Reservation near Fort Reno in present-day Oklahoma.

Confinement in the South
Following confirmation from Washington D.C., the Cheyenne started their move with 972 people; upon reaching the Cheyenne-Arapaho reservation on August 5, 1877 there were only 937. Some elderly had perished along the way and some young men crept away and headed back north. After reaching the reservation, the Northern Cheyenne noticed how poverty-stricken it was, and began to fall sick in the late summer of 1877. When conditions did not improve after a federal investigation into reservation conditions, the Cheyenne were given authorization to hunt.

When the Cheyenne attempted to hunt game they found none: by the winter of 1877–78 the territory was just a wasteland of dead buffalo remains, as the U.S. Army had sanctioned and actively endorsed the wholesale slaughter of bison herds. Through the past decade the federal government had promoted bison hunting for various reasons, to allow ranchers to range their cattle without competition from other bovines, but primarily to weaken the North American Indian population by removing their main food source and to pressure them onto the Indian reservations during times of conflict; Unfortunately in 1878 there was also a measles outbreak that struck the Northern Cheyenne, and in August 1878 the Cheyenne chiefs began preparations to move back north. On September 9, 1878 Little Wolf, Dull Knife, Wild Hog, and Left Hand told their people to organize to leave. The runaways totalled 353 in all: 92 were men of fighting age, while the remaining 261 were women, children and elderly.

Escape to the North
In the early morning of September 10 the band fled up the North Canadian River. By 3 a.m. the alarm was sounded that the Cheyenne were gone. Passing the present sites of Watonga, Oklahoma and Canton, Oklahoma they crossed north over the watershed into the Cimarron Basin, crossing the Cimarron River the evening of September 10. There, near the present site of Freedom, Oklahoma they rested and then trailed 11 miles up Turkey Creek to a waterhole called Turkey Springs in hilly country near the border of Oklahoma and Kansas. After a few hours rest there, Dull Knife and a few others led the women and children on to St. Jacob's Well and The Big Basin in what is now Clark County, Kansas where they camped.

Battle of Turkey Springs

The remaining Cheyenne, anticipating pursuit, prepared an ambush at Turkey Springs. While one band prepared rifle pits at the springs, other bands fanned out over the country looking for supplies. In one case, attacking and killing two cowboys nearby, they obtained two mules. In another, attacking some cowboys during breakfast, they obtained both some food and a Sharps carbine.

On 10 September, a veteran soldier, Captain Joseph Rendlebrock, with 85 officers and men and two Arapaho scouts had departed Fort Reno with the objective of catching and capturing the fleeing Cheyenne. Rendlebrock reported that he was on their trail and, being well-mounted, that he hoped to catch them near the Arkansas River in Kansas near Dodge City. Instead, he found them waiting for him at Turkey Springs.

On September 13, following the trail of the Cheyenne, Captain Rendlebrock saw warriors on a hilltop. He formed a skirmish line with his soldiers and sent an Arapaho scout named "Chalk" or "Ghost Man" to talk to Dull Knife and Little Wolf. Chalk conveyed the message that the Cheyenne must return to the reservation, but the Cheyenne leaders declined to return and warriors began moving around the flanks of the soldiers. The soldiers opened fire and the Cheyenne responded in kind, although the firing was sparse as the Cheyenne preserved their limited ammunition. Desultory fighting continued all day with two soldiers killed and three wounded. After dark, desperate for water, seven soldiers attempted and failed to gain access to the water in the springs.

By the next morning the Cheyenne had completely surrounded the soldiers and Rendlebrock ordered a retreat through ravines with Cheyenne firing down at the soldiers. Another soldier was killed during the retreat. Rendlebrock retreated about  to the Cimarron River. The Cheyenne suffered five wounded. The next day they divided themselves into several different groups to confuse pursuers attempting to track them and continued their trek northward. Rendelbrock was later court-martialed for the disorderly retreat.

Battle of Punished Woman's Fork

After crossing the Arkansas River the Cheyenne were followed closely by a mixed command of 238 soldiers of the 19th Infantry and 4th Cavalry under Lieutenant Colonel William H. Lewis of the 19th Infantry. On September 27, the Cheyenne prepared an ambush in a canyon on Punished Woman's Fork (nowadays called Ladder Creek), north of present-day Scott City, Kansas), but it was aborted due to an over-eager brave who fired on the scouts before the ambush was sprung.

In the ensuing battle, Lewis deployed a company of infantry to block the entrance to the canyon and attacked late in the afternoon along the rim of the canyon with four troops of dismounted cavalry, advancing by bounds, pinning the Cheyenne including their families in the closed end below. However, Lewis was unaware of the Cheyenne's marksmanship and was shot in the leg, severing his femoral artery. This left a vacuum in Cavalry Regiment's leadership which the Cheyenne were able to exploit, escaping after dark. Lewis bled to death the next day and several other soldiers were wounded. However, the Cheyenne lost 60 horses, much baggage, and all of their food when part of the pony herd was discovered by the troopers.

Depredations in northwestern Kansas
A party of drovers encountered Cheyenne camped on Prairie Dog Creek in northwestern Kansas on September 29 and lost 80 cattle. Between September 30 and October 3, in present-day Decatur County and Rawlins County near Oberlin, Kansas, then a tiny hamlet, small parties of Cheyenne foraging for horses, cattle and supplies fell on isolated settlers who had recently homesteaded along Sappa and Beaver Creeks. Some of the settlers, recent immigrants from eastern Europe, had never seen an Indian before.

Men and boys were killed; women and older girls were raped. Often the settlers were approached in a friendly manner, then shot point blank. About 41 white men and boys were killed and, according to a Kansas senate report, 25 white women and girls raped, although the latter number seems inflated given existing evidence.

Some observers link the autumn 1878 actions of the Cheyenne as being a response to an earlier Battle at Sappa Creek (also known as the Massacre at Cheyenne Hole), an action in the spring of 1875 in the same area when a small village of Cheyenne was surprised and destroyed by Army troops. Other observers stress that this link has no basis in Cheyenne accounts and trace the depredation back to the fact that elderly or injured Cheyennes who could no longer keep up with the pace of the exodus and remained behind had been mercilessly shot or clubbed to death by white posses and the fleeing Cheyennes had lost most of their ponies and all of their food in the Battle of Punished Woman's Fork, which created a crisis among the tribespeople.

On to Nebraska
From Turkey Creek on it was a running battle across Kansas and Nebraska, and soldiers from all surrounding forts (Fort Wallace, Fort Hays, Fort Dodge, Fort Riley, and Fort Kearney) were in pursuit of the Cheyenne. About ten thousand soldiers and three thousand settlers chased the Cheyenne both day and night. During the last two weeks of September the army had caught up to the Cheyenne five times but the Cheyenne were able to evade the army by keeping to arduous grounds where it was challenging for the army to follow.

Division
In the fall of 1878 after six weeks of running the Cheyenne chiefs held council and it was discovered that 34 of the original 297 were missing, most had been killed but a few had decided to take other paths to the north. This is where the Cheyenne split into two groups. The ones that wished to stop running were going along with Dull Knife to Red Cloud Agency, Wild Hog and Left Hand also decided to follow Dull Knife. Little Wolf continued north intending to go to the Powder River country.

Dull Knife's band
On October 23, 1878, Dull Knife's band of Cheyenne, only two days from Fort Robinson, were surrounded by the Army. After hearing that Lakota chiefs Red Cloud and Spotted Tail had been relocated to Pine Ridge in Dakota Territory, Dull Knife decided, due to weather and his people's condition, to go to Fort Robinson. That night the Cheyenne took apart their best guns with the women hiding the barrels under their clothing, and attaching the smaller pieces to clothes and moccasins as ornaments.

On October 25, 1878, Dull Knife, Left Hand, Wild Hog and the rest of the Cheyenne finally reached Fort Robinson. The barracks that had been built to house 75 soldiers now held 150 Cheyenne.

In December, Red Cloud was brought to Fort Robinson for a council with Dull Knife and the other chiefs. Dull Knife agreed to fight no more if the great father in Washington would let his people live on Pine Ridge that now held Red Cloud and his tribe. However, on January 3, 1879, the Cheyenne were ordered to return south to the Southern Cheyenne reservation. When the Cheyenne refused, bars were put on the windows and all rations were stopped, including wood for heat.

Fort breakout and aftermath

On January 9, 1879, Dull Knife still refused to return south. However, Wild Hog and Left Hand agreed to talk but said their people would not go. As a result, Wild Hog was held as a prisoner and shackled. At 9:45 that night the Cheyenne tried to make a daring escape using the dismantled guns they had hidden upon arriving at the fort. The Cheyenne were immediately followed and many were killed in the Fort Robinson breakout.

 By morning 65 Cheyenne, 23 of them wounded, were returned to Fort Robinson as prisoners. Only 38 Cheyenne had fully escaped, 32 of whom were together moving north pursued by the Army. Six Cheyenne were hiding only a few miles from the fort among rocks and were found during the next few days. The other 32 Cheyenne led by Little Finger Nail were discovered in a small hollow above Antelope Creek, a tributary of Hat Creek some 35 miles northwest of Fort Robinson, and after a final battle only nine were left alive. The dead were buried in a mass grave called "The Pit."

In 1994 the Northern Cheyenne reclaimed the remains of all those killed and buried in Nebraska. They were reinterred on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, on a hill overlooking Busby, Montana.

In January 1879, Dull Knife reached Pine Ridge where Red Cloud was being held as a prisoner. After months of delay from Washington the prisoners from Fort Robinson were released and allowed to go to Fort Keogh where Little Wolf had ended up. However, seven of the escapees had to stand trial for the murders that had been committed in Kansas. The seven were Old Crow, Wild Hog, Strong Left Hand, Porcupine, Tangle Hair, Noisy Walker, and Blacksmith. Charges were dismissed against them after a civilian court trial in 1879 in Kansas.

Little Wolf's band
After the council near the North Platte where the Northern Cheyenne split up, Little Wolf's band continued north to the Sand Hills of Nebraska where they wintered along Wild Chokecherry Creek where there was plentiful deer, antelope and cattle. They saw a few white men during the winter but were undisturbed. In early spring they moved north to the Powder River. There they were located by scouts attached to troops from Fort Keogh commanded by Lieutenant W. P. Clark, an army officer known as White Hat to the Cheyenne and who had been friendly with Little Wolf in the past. After negotiation with first the scouts, then later Lieutenant Clark, the band agreed to surrender and go with the troopers to Fort Keogh. There they were offered service in the army as scouts. After some discussion even Little Wolf agreed to become a scout, as did Red Armed Panther.

Northern Cheyenne Reservation
After some delay, the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation was established in southeastern Montana near the Black Hills, and they were never forced to return to the south.

Notes and references

Chapter 14, "Cheyenne Exodus", pages 331 to 359, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, Dee Brown, Henry Holt (1970, Owl paperback edition 1991), trade paperback, 488 pages,
Chapter 29, "Little Wolf and Dull Knife, 1876-79", pages 398 to 413 and Chapter 30, "The Fort Robinson Outbreak", pages 414 to 427, The Fighting Cheyennes, George Bird Grinnell, University of Oklahoma Press (1956, Scribner's Sons 1915), hardcover, 454 pages
Maddux, Vernon R. (2003). In Dull Knife's Wake: The True Story of the Northern Cheyenne Exodus of 1878, Horse Creek Publications.
Dennis Collins, The Indians' last fight or the Dull Knife raid, Press of the Appeal to Reason (1915), hardcover, 326 pages Read on line or Download
Alan Boye, Holding Stone Hands: On the Trail of the Cheyenne Exodus, Bison Books (September 1, 2001), trade paperback: 347 pages,   Google Books
John H. Monnett, Tell Them We Are Going Home: The Odyssey of the Northern Cheyennes, University of Oklahoma Press (December 2004), trade paperback, 255 pages
Mari Sandoz, Cheyenne Autumn, Bison Books (February 1, 1992), trade paperback, 290 pages,

1878 in the United States
1879 in the United States
Northern Cheyenne Tribe
Cheyenne
Native American history of Oklahoma
Native American history of Kansas
Native American history of Nebraska
Native American history of South Dakota
Native American history of Montana

Northern Cheyenne Exodus