The Italia was a semi-rigid airship belonging to the Italian Air Force. It was designed  by Italian engineer and General Umberto Nobile who commanded the dirigible in his second series of flights around the North Pole. The Italia crashed in May 1928, with one confirmed fatality from the crash, one fatality from exposure while awaiting rescue, and six missing crew members who were trapped in the still-airborne envelope. At the end of the rescue operations there were a total of 17 dead (crew and rescuers) and a number of survivors.

Design and specifications
Italia was an N-class semi-rigid airship, designation N-4. It was almost identical in design to the N-1  but was slightly larger in gas capacity.

 First flight: 1928
 Length:
 Diameter:
 Gas capacity:
 Performance:
 Payload:
 Power plant: 3 Maybach diesel engines,  total

Polar expedition

At the end of 1927, after much insistence, Nobile gained permission to use this airship for a new scientific expedition to the North Pole under the aegis of the Italian Geographical Society. He obtained strong assistance from the Italian Royal Navy and secured the necessary funds from a financing private Committee of the City of Milan.

Personnel

 Umberto Nobile, expedition leader – survived
 Finn Malmgren, Swedish meteorologist, physicist – died trekking for help
 František Běhounek, Czechoslovak physicist – survived
 Aldo Pontremoli, physicist – disappeared with envelope
 Ugo Lago, journalist – disappeared with envelope
 Francesco Tomaselli, journalist – not on final flight
 Adalberto Mariano (RM), navigator – survived
 Filippo Zappi (RM), navigator – survived
 Alfredo Viglieri (RM), navigator, hydrographer – survived
 Natale Cecioni, elevator operator, chief technician – survived
 Giuseppe Biagi, radio operator – survived
 Ettore Pedretti, radio operator – not on final flight
 Felice Trojani, elevator operator, aeronautical project engineer – survived
 Ettore Arduino, chief engine mechanic – disappeared with envelope
 Calisto Ciocca, starboard engine mechanic – disappeared with envelope
 Attilio Caratti, port engine mechanic – disappeared with envelope
 Vincenzo Pomella, rear engine mechanic – killed in the crash
 Renato Alessandrini, foreman, rigger, helmsman – disappeared with envelope

Milan–Ny-Ålesund

At 01:15 on 15 April 1928, Italia took off from the base at Milano and headed for the Arctic. With 20 personnel on board, and a payload of  of fuel and supplies, the initial journey to Stolp in Germany took 30 hours through a variety of bad weather conditions. Near Trieste, a wind gust damaged one of the tail fins. Later, in the Sudetes, the airship faced severe hailstorms and narrowly escaped lightning strikes.

On arrival at Stolp in Pomerania, at 07:15 on 16 April, inspection revealed hail damage to the propellers and envelope, and severe tail fin damage. All of the ballast and most of the fuel had been used fighting the wind. Repairs took ten days, and the required parts and technicians had to be sent from Italy.

Takeoff from Stolp was further delayed by bad weather, but Italia set off for Norway at 03:28 on 3 May 1928; eight hours later, escorted by Swedish naval planes, she passed over Stockholm. The expedition's meteorologist, Finn Malmgren, spotted his house from the air and the airship descended to drop a letter to his mother. Bad weather forced Italia east over Finland; she passed over Rovaniemi at 01:49 on 4 May, reaching the mooring mast at Vadsø later that day. While the airship was moored without difficulty, blizzard conditions and heavy rain kept the crew in a state of constant anxiety but caused only minor structural damage.

As soon as the weather permitted, Italia took off for Ny-Ålesund (Kings Bay) at 20:34 on 5 May, and by 05:30 the following day, had passed the meteorological station on Bear Island, but ran into high winds shortly afterwards, also suffering an engine failure. By 12:00 on 6 May, Italia had reached Kings Bay where the support ship Città di Milano was anchored under the command of Captain Giuseppe Romagna Manoja.

Polar flights
Nobile planned three polar flights, each exploring a different area of the Arctic, with a return to Kings Bay between flights. Once the necessary engine and structural repairs had been completed, the first flight departed from Kings Bay on 11 May 1928. Italia was forced to turn back eight hours into the flight because of thick ice forming on the envelope, as well as fraying of the control cables due to the extreme conditions.

The second flight left at 13:20 on 15 May and lasted for sixty hours. In contrast to the first flight, the weather conditions were excellent this time and visibility was perfect. Valuable meteorological, magnetic, and geographic data were gathered in a  flight to the hitherto uncharted Nicholas II Land and back. Malmgren carried out weather and ice observations, while Pontremoli and Běhounek took measurements of magnetic phenomena and radioactivity. The airship returned safely to base at Kings Bay in the early hours of 18 May.

The third flight started on the morning of 23 May; following a route along the Greenland coast, with the assistance of strong tailwinds, Italia reached the North Pole nineteen hours later, at 00:24, on 24 May. Nobile had prepared a winch, an inflatable raft, and survival packs (which turned out to be providential) with the intention of lowering some of the scientists onto the ice, but the wind made this task impossible. Instead, they circled the pole, making observations, and at 01:20, they dropped onto the ice the Italian and Milanese colours, as well as a wooden cross presented by Pope Pius XI and a religious medal from the citizens of Forlì, during a short ceremony. Italia started back to base at 02:20, on 24 May.

Crash
The same tail wind that had helped Italia to the pole now impeded her progress. Nobile calculated that the return journey would take 40 hours, and had discussed their options with Malmgren in the hours before their arrival at the pole. Nobile considered a trans-polar route to Mackenzie Bay in Canada but, according to Nobile, Malmgren advised a return to Kings Bay, predicting lessening winds on their return trip. On the other hand, Malmgren anticipated a head wind all the way if the Canadian route was attempted. No doubt the prospect of a forced landing in the Canadian wilderness was unpalatable to both men, as it would mean the end of the expedition.

Travelling directly south on a heading for Kings Bay, after 24 hours of increasing head winds and thick mist, the Italia was only halfway back to base. The airship struggled to gain ground and break through to the zone of calmer winds which Malmgren predicted was just ahead. Ice forming on the propellers was breaking off and tearing holes in the envelope which necessitated constant repairs. Engine speed was increased but with little effect, except for a doubling of fuel consumption. Dr Běhounek, who was in charge of the compass, started to report variations in course of up to 30 degrees, and the elevator man Cecioni had similar problems maintaining control. By 07:30 on 25 May, Nobile, who had been awake for over 48 hours, knew that the situation was critical and Giuseppe Biagi, the wireless operator, sent a message stating if he did not answer a call, there would be a good reason.

By dead reckoning, Nobile estimated the airship's position to be  northeast of Moffen Island; instead they were  east of the island.

The first critical incident occurred at 09:25, on 25 May, when the elevator control jammed in the downward position while the ship was travelling at less than  altitude. All engines were stopped and the Italia began to rise again after it had dropped to within  of the jagged ice pack. The airship was allowed to continue rising to  and above the cloud layer into bright sunlight for 30 minutes. After two engines were restarted, the ship descended to  with no apparent ill effect, with the headwind appearing to decrease slightly allowing an airspeed of 30 mph. Malmgren took the helm with Zappi supervising him, and Cecioni continued to operate the elevators.

At 10:25, the ship was noticed to be tail-heavy and falling at a rate of . Nobile ordered full elevators and emergency power, but although the nose rose to an upward angle of 21 degrees, the descent continued. Nobile ordered foreman rigger Renato Alessandrini to the tail of the envelope to check the automatic gas valves. Shortly afterwards, realising that a crash was unavoidable, Nobile ordered the engines at full stop and the cutting of electrical power to prevent a fire on impact; however, the port engine engineer failed to notice the order, and the ship began to bank. At the same time, Nobile ordered Cecioni to dump the ballast chain, but he was unable to carry out the order in time, owing to the steep angle of the floor and the secure way in which the chain was lashed. Seconds later, the airship's control car hit the jagged ice, smashed open and was torn from the keel. Suddenly relieved of the weight of the gondola, the envelope of the ship began to rise, with a gaping tear in the keel and part of one cabin wall still attached.

Nine survivors (and Titina, Nobile's fox terrier) and one fatality were stranded on the ice. Six more crew were trapped in the still-drifting airship envelope which, along with the crew members on board, has never been found. The position of the crash was close to , approximately  northeast of Nordaustlandet, Svalbard. The drifting sea ice later took the survivors towards Foyn and Broch islands.

Immediate aftermath
Cecioni was hurled out of the ruptured cabin into a mound of ice, injuring both of his legs. He would later recall that he saw the envelope drifting above him, and Ciocca halfway out of the starboard engine car staring down in horror. Lago, Dr Pontremoli, and Alessandrini could also be seen in the torn opening where the companion way had been. Chief engine mechanic Ettore Arduino, with remarkable presence of mind, started throwing anything he could lay his hands on down to the men on the ice as he drifted slowly away with the envelope. These supplies, and the packs intended for the descent to the ice, helped to keep the survivors alive for their long ordeal. Arduino, and the five others, are assumed to have perished with the drifting airship envelope.

Trojani, at the engine control signals, fared better, as he was hurled into soft snow and rolled before immediately jumping to his feet and cleaning the snow off his glasses, which had survived the crash unscathed. Viglieri and Mariano, standing next to the chart table, briefly saw the rear engine car about to strike the ice hard and then found themselves prostrate, but unharmed, in a mass of debris. Biagi, with no time to send out an SOS, grabbed the portable emergency radio and wrapped his arms around it, trying to save it from damage. The impact on the ice had winded him, but he was still inside the wreck of the cabin when it came to rest. Nobile lay unconscious with a head wound, with Malmgren and Zappi nearby. Mariano, Běhounek, Trojani, and Viglieri were the first to rise to their feet, and they began to examine the others for injuries. Nobile gradually regained consciousness; he had a broken leg, right arm, and cracked rib, in addition to the head wound. Cecioni had two badly broken legs. Malmgren had an injured (broken or dislocated) shoulder and was suspected, much later on, to have internal injuries. Zappi had severe chest pains from suspected broken ribs.

Almost immediately, the survivors were buoyed by the discovery of a waterproof bag containing chocolate, pemmican, a Colt revolver, ammunition and a flare gun. Biagi's shortwave radio was intact and he began searching for material to construct a radio mast. He soon discovered the rear engine car smashed on the ice, and the body of Pomella, who appeared to have survived the impact and sat down on a block of ice, only to die shortly afterwards from a head injury. Despite this shock, Biagi was able to erect an antenna, and within a few hours began to send the first SOS signals from the stricken survivors. Nobile and Cecioni were placed together in a sleeping bag for warmth and spent the next few hours in semi-consciousness, while the others gathered what they could from the wreck. According to Nobile, Malmgren, who was in immense pain and suffering from guilt about his role in the crash, announced that he would drown himself and began to walk away from the crash site, but he stopped when Nobile sharply ordered him to return. Later the same day, Mariano had to subdue and disarm Malmgren when he found him walking away from the crash site with the loaded Colt revolver. Meanwhile, the uninjured men surveyed the ice pack, collecting supplies, and they chose a stable patch of ice to erect a  silk tent that they had recovered; this was to be their only shelter during the coming ordeal.

The day after the crash was spent looking for more supplies amongst the wreckage. Navigational instruments and charts were recovered, allowing them to calculate the approximate position of the crash site. They also calculated the quantity of rations per man: a scant  of food per day, mainly pemmican and chocolate, calculated for a 25-day stretch on the ice. Eventually  of food were recovered, extending the supply to 45 days. Finally, the crowded tent was dyed with red strips for improved visibility from the air, using dye marker bombs that had been on board the airship. Biagi continued to regularly signal for help with his radio, but the connection with the support ship Città di Milano was long impeded due to the precarious conditions of operation of the field radio, the particular propagation of short waves, and the unscrupulous use of radio stations by journalists at the Italian base in Ny-Ålesund. The men had been equipped with many layers of woollen clothes and lambskin flight suits, but not all of them were fully dressed at the time of the crash and none had proper Arctic survival clothing. Land was sighted in the distance on 28 May, breaking the despondency of the survivors. Discussions began as to whether they should attempt a trek towards land and eventually it was decided that Malmgren, Zappi and Mariano would set off to try to summon help. On 29 May, Malmgren shot a curious polar bear that had wandered to the crash site, augmenting the food supply with about  of fresh meat.

Rescue effort

On 25 May, Captain Romagna Manoja immediately asked for Norway's assistance through the Italian delegation at Oslo. He rented two whaling boats and embarked on a rescue cruise to the northeast coasts. An international rescue effort followed. Word also reached Roald Amundsen in Oslo, whom immediately began to organize a search; American Lincoln Ellsworth who had accompanied Amundsen and Nobile on the earlier polar fight, also offered to aid in the search.

In Italy, Arturo Mercanti, a former air force chief and friend of Nobile, requested that air force planes be sent to the Arctic to begin a search. The Italian Government authorised three sea planes to be used: a Dornier Wal, piloted by Luigi Penzo; a Dornier Wal, piloted by Ivo Ravazzoni; and a Savoia-Marchetti S.55, piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Umberto Maddalena, who was the first rescuer to spot the "Red Tent" survivors on 20 June.

Captain Gennaro Sora (of the Italian Army Alpini ski detachment) ran a heroic over-ice sled attempt from the Città di Milano support ship, while Matteoda and Albertini of the SUCAI (the University Section of the Italian Alpine Club) did the same from the Italian-hired ship Braganza.

The lack of co-ordination among the search efforts meant that it took more than 48 days before all of the crash survivors (and the stranded would-be rescuers) were retrieved. Roald Amundsen was lost and presumed dead after the French Latham sea plane piloted by René Guilbaud, in which he was flying, disappeared en route to Spitsbergen to take part in the rescue operation.

Chronology of Crash
The Italia crashed on the ice on 25 May 1928. These are the events that followed:

 25 May: Radio operator Biagi salvages the radio, constructs a makeshift radio mast and begins transmitting SOS. Captain of the support ship Città di Milano, Giuseppe Romagna Manoja, calls Norway for help through the Italian diplomatic delegation of Oslo.
 26 May: At the request of Captain Romagna, the Norwegian whaler Hobby is hired by the Italian government.
 27–30 May: The ship City of Milan makes a rescue cruise to the North Cape, but is forced to turn back due to the impossibility of tackling the pack ice, but Sucaini Gianni Albertini and Sergio Matteoda manage to land, with the guide Valdemar Kramer, and the Alpini Giuseppe Sandrini and Silvio Pedrotti, who start the search with dogs and sleds.
 28 May: Captain Romagna also hires the Norwegian whaler Braganza.
 29 May: The second radio telegraphist of the expedition, Ettore Pedretti, on board the City of Milan intercepts a fragment of message which may have been transmitted by Biagi, but not being certain he does not transcribe the message, which only later proves to be a genuine transmission.
 30 May: The survivors are unable to establish radio contact because of weather conditions, the particular propagation of short waves and the unscrupulous use of the radio frequencies by journalists based in Ny-Ålesund. Malmgren, with navigators Mariano and Zappi, begin a trek toward land.
 3 June: Nikolai Schmidt, a 21-year-old Soviet amateur radio operator in Vokhma hears the Italia SOS signals with his home-made lamp-regenerative circuit; he immediately sends a telegram to Radio Friends Company in Moscow; in Osoaviakhim aid committee "Italia" was made
 5 June: The  Norwegian pilot Finn Lützow-Holm makes the first flight in search of the Italia. In the ensuing weeks, pilots from Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia and Italy make search and rescue flights.
 9 June: Radio contact is established between the survivors and the Città di Milano. The ship, under the command of Captain Ugo Baccarani, intercepts the coordinates of the survivors and the search takes effect.
 12 June: Icebreaker Malygin headed from Arkhangelsk towards Svalbard.
 16 June: Icebreaker Krasin equipped with one Junkers YuG-1 on board (Boris Chukhnovsky as a pilot) under the command of Rudolf Samoylovich headed from Saint Petersburg.
 15–16 June: Malmgren collapses from exposure on the ice and asks to be left behind. His body has never been found.
 18 June: Roald Amundsen and five others disappear on a flight to Spitsbergen to aid in the rescue operations. Captain Gennaro Sora of the Italian Alpini defies orders and sets off by sled with Arctic explorers Ludvig Varming and Sjef van Dongen to try to reach the crash zone.
 20 June: Icebreaker Malygin was caught in ice in Barents Sea and out of rescue mission.
 20 June: Italian pilot Maddalena spots the survivors and drops supplies, many of which are smashed or useless.
 21 June: Krasin landed in Bergen
 22 June: Italian and Swedish pilots drop more supplies, this time successfully.
 23 June: Krasin headed towards Svalbard.
 23 June: Swedish pilot Einar Lundborg is ordered to rescue Nobile first, but crashes his plane when he returns for more survivors and is trapped on the ice with the others. Rescue operations are suspended pending the arrival of suitable light aircraft capable of landing on the ice.
 6 July: Lundborg is picked up from the ice floe by his Swedish co-pilot Birger Schyberg in a light Cirrus Moth ski-biplane. Schyberg also intends to rescue the other five survivors (including Nobile's dog), but changing ice conditions lead him to change his mind after having brought Lundborg to safety.
 10 July: Chukhnovsky's crew flew out to conduct ice reconnaissance and search for the Italian camp. Malmgren's group was seen but it was unable to count how many people was there. The radiogram sent to the Krasin indicated three survivors. Due to fog Chukhnovsky couldn't find an icebreaker and forced landed on ice floe. Landing gear and two propellers were damaged. Chukhnovsky radioed that he doesn't need any help and rescue effort should be directed towards italians.
 12 July: Krasin rescues Mariano and Zappi, but Malmgren has already been left behind almost four weeks prior. The five remaining Italia survivors are rescued by the icebreaker later the same day. Boris Chukhnovsky and his four crew are also rescued by the Krasin on its way back to Kings Bay.
 13 July: Rescuers Sora and Van Dongen are rescued from Foynøya island by Finnish and Swedish aircraft.

Participants in search of Italia survivors
 Denmark
 State owned Arctic schooner Gustav Holm from Kgl. Grønlandske Handel.
 Finland
 Floatplane / ski aircraft Junkers F 13 Turku K-SALG (from Aero OY / Finnair), commander Olavi Sarko, pilot Gunnar Lihr.
 France
 Flying boat biplane Latham 47 "02" (from French Navy) pilot: René Guilbaud.
 Two small flying boats, Hydravions Louis Schreck FBA type biplane (on board Strasbourg).
 Cruiser , oil supply vessel Durance, fishery inspection vessel Quentin Roosevelt and private expedition vessel .
 Italy
 Flying boat Savoia-Marchetti S.55 I-SAAT Santa Maria (from Italian Air Force) pilot: Maddalena.
 Flying boat Do15 Dornier Wal Marina II I-PLIF (from Italian Air Force) pilot: Penzo.
 Flying boat Do15 Dornier Wal Marina I I-XAAF (from Italian Air Force) pilot: Ravazzoni. (Marina I was stationed exclusively at Tromsø, Northern Norway searching for Amundsen).
 Two small flying boats, Macchi M.18 type biplane stationed at Citta di Milano and Braganza pilots: Penzo and Crosio.
 Cableship Citta di Milano and seal fishery vessels Hobby and Braganza.
 Norwegian trapper Waldemar Kræmer and four Alpini soldiers with a small boat searched the coast of Vestspitsbergen.
 Dog sledge team led by the Italian Alpini captain Sora, the Dutchman van Dongen and the Dane Ludvig Varming searched the coast of Nordaustlandet. Varming was left behind, but Sora and van Dongen reached Foyn Island and Broch island.
 Norway
 Floatplane monoplane Hansa-Brandenburg W.33 "F.36" pilot: Finn Lützow-Holm.
 Floatplane monoplane Hansa-Brandenburg W.33 "F.38" pilot: Riiser-Larsen.
 Floatplane biplane Sopwith Baby "F.100" pilot: Lambrecht (on board Tordenskjold).
 Floatplane biplane Sopwith Baby "F.102" pilot: Ingebrigtsen (on board Tordenskjold).
 Coastal defense ship HNoMS Tordenskjold, and seal fishery vessels Hobby (used thrice, see Italy and USA), Braganza (used twice, see Italy). Veslekari (Tryggve Gran), Heimland, fishery inspection vessel Michael Sars, Svalbard governor's Svalbard and miner's boat (name unknown).
 Dog sledge team led by the trapper Hilmar Nøis and Rolf S. Tandberg supported partly by two Italian alpine students Albertini and Matteoda.
 Soviet Union
 Floatplane / ski monoplane Junkers G 23 Red Bear (on board Krassin) pilot: Boris Chukhnovsky.
 Floatplane / ski monoplane Junkers F 13 RR-DAS (on board Malygin) pilot: Babushkin.
 Icebreakers , ,  and brig
 Sweden
 Floatplane monoplane Hansa Brandenburg (Heinkel HE 5) "255" pilot: Tornberg.
 Floatplane monoplane Hansa Brandenburg (Heinkel HE 5) "257" pilot: Jacobsson.
 Ski biplane Fokker C.V.M. "31" pilot: Einar Lundborg.
 Ski biplane Fokker C.V.M. "32" (never used, in the hold of Tanja).
 Floatplane / ski biplane de Havilland 60 Moth S-AABN pilot: Birger Schyberg.
 Ski monoplane Klemm-Daimler L.20 D-1357 (from Germany) pilot: Ekman.
 Floatplane monoplane Junkers G 24 Uppland S-AABG (from national airline ABA) pilot: Viktor Nilsson.
 Seal fishery vessel Quest and freighter S/S Tanja.
 United States
 Seal fishery vessel Hobby with "F.36" and "F.38" pilots: Lützow-Holm and Riiser-Larsen (Louise Boyd charter).

Causes of crash
The causes of the crash of the Italia remain controversial even today. The main causes were the severe Arctic climate and the decision to return to base in Spitsbergen in the midst of a worsening gale, rather than to continue across the Pole and attempt a landing in Canada. This fact drove meteorologist Finn Malmgren to attempt suicide twice soon after the crash.

Another factor is the decision to let the airship rise above the cloud layer, causing heating and then expansion of the hydrogen, which triggered automatic valving of the gas. Once the engines were restarted, the ship descended through the clouds into freezing air again and, either because the automatic valves were jammed open, or because the ship had already valved too much hydrogen, it could no longer stay aloft. Although Nobile was blamed for the crash by the Italian fascist government and was the victim of a smear campaign in the press, one criticism, from the master airship commander Hugo Eckener is perhaps justified—that Nobile should never have climbed above the cloud layer in the first place.

Another possibility is a rupture of one of the gas cells, although this is unlikely as it almost certainly would have been noticed immediately by any of the crew on duty. The most recent theory suggests that the outer cover of the airship may have sustained damaged during the pre-flight ice removal, when a group of men wearing ice cleats hacked at the airship with pickaxes. Felice Trojani, one of the airship engineers, reported in his book that in the years after the crash, he examined eleven different possible causes in detail without coming to any real solution.

Recent analysis of the historical evidence shows that human fatigue probably played an important role in the crash of the Italia. At the time of the crash, Nobile may have been awake for at least 72 hours, i.e., three days; just prior to the crash, Nobile made three command errors of types associated with inadequate sleep. Sleep deprivation impairs aspects of cognitive functioning necessary for commanding flights, especially under such challenging conditions. Nobile's failure (or refusal) to choose a second-in-command was the primary reason for his sleep deprivation and may have directly led to the crash of the Italia.

Search for wreckage
The latest documented, targeted attempt to locate the wreckage of the Italia was carried out in 2018, ninety years after the crash. On 13 August 2018, a team of researchers with the PolarQuest2018 expedition reached the GPS coordinates of the first SOS message radioed by Giuseppe Biagi from the Red Tent and were aided by the fact that global climate change has greatly reduced the area of the North Atlantic Ocean that is typically covered by ice. After a short commemoration ceremony, the team on board deployed an innovative 3D multi-beam sonar device to search the seabed for any potential wreckage of the Italia (the same technology has successfully located other wreckage such as that of the USS Susan B. Anthony which sank off the coast of France in 1944).  They scanned along the most probable search areas for the missing airship envelope, following the drift of the Red Tent. The search, however, produced no results.  , the remains of the Italia and her crew have never been found.

Popular culture
 The 1928 Soviet documentary film Heroic Deed Among the Ice, by Georgi Vasilyev and Sergei Vasilyev, describes the rescue mission of the Soviet icebreaker Krassin.
 František Běhounek, one of the survivors, wrote several books depicting the events, including  (translation: Survivors on cold ice) (1928). He was also advisor for the 1968 Czechoslovak documentary film,  (translation: Airship to the Northern Pole).
 The story of the Italia disaster was made into a film in 1969, titled The Red Tent.
 Midnight Sun is a 2007 graphic novel by Ben Towle, which tells a semi-fictionalised account of the rescue mission.
 The Spitsbergen Airship Museum in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, features many objects from the Italia, and attempts to portray the events of the expedition and subsequent rescue efforts in a neutral tone.

See also
 List of airship accidents

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

Further reading

 Steinar Aas, Tragedien Umberto Nobile, Det Norske Samlaget, Oslo 2002
 Odd Arnesen & Einar Lundborg, Italia Tragedien på naert hold, Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, Oslo 1928
 František Běhounek, Männen På Isflaket, med Italia till Nordpolen, 1928
 Giuseppe Biagi, Biagi Racconta, A. Mondadori, Milano 1929, second edition.
 Cameron, Garth. Umberto Nobile and the Arctic Search for the Airship Italia (Stroud, Fonthill Media, 2017).
 Commissione d'indagine per la spedizione dell'aeronave Italia, Relazione, in Rivista Marittima, Roma, Gennaio 1930, Ministero della Marina
 Wilbur Cross, Disaster at the Pole: The Tragedy of the Airship Italia and the 1928 Nobile Expedition to the North Pole, Lyons, 2000
 Ovidio Ferrante, Umberto Nobile, Roma, Tatangelo, 1985
 Fred Goldberg, Drama in the Arctic - S.O.S. Italia, Oslo, Fram Museum, 2003
 Einar Lundborg, När Nobile Räddades, Hugo Gerbers Förlag, Stockholm 1928
 Alexander McKee, Ice crash, 1980,
 Capitano Gennaro Sora, Con gli alpini all'80º parallelo, A. Mondadori Editore, 1929
 R. Samoilovic, S.O.S. nel Mare Artico, R. Bemporad e figlio Editori 1930
 Felice Trojani, La coda di Minosse, Milano, Mursia, 1964
 Lord Ventry and Eugene Kolesnik, Airship saga: The history of airships seen through the eyes of the men who designed, built, and flew them, 1982,
 Alfredo Viglieri, 48 giorni sul pack, A. Mondadori, Milano 1929
 Alfredo Viglieri, In mare, in terra, in cielo. Vicende di pace e di guerra 1915–1945, Mursia Editore - 1977

External links

1920s Italian civil utility aircraft
Accidents and incidents involving balloons and airships
Airships of Italy
Arctic exploration vessels
Aviation accidents and incidents in 1928
Aviation accidents and incidents in Norway
Missing aircraft
Hydrogen airships

Italia (airship)


Quemuenchatocha or Quimuinchateca (named in the earliest sources Eucaneme) (Hunza, 1472–Ramiriquí, 1538) was the second-last hoa of Hunza, currently known as Tunja, as of 1490. He was the ruler of the northern Muisca when the Spanish conquistadores arrived in the Muisca highlands. His contemporary enemy psihipquas of the southern Muisca were successively Nemequene and Bogotá.

Biography
Eucaneme was eighteen years old when he accessed the throne, succeeding his predecessor Michuá as ruler of the northern Muisca. His reign was cruel and under his tyranny the Muisca feared him. His rule was so brutal that when the Spanish conquerors entered the outskirts of the capital Hunza and found a hill with poles where bodies were dangling, they named it Cerro de la Horca ("Gallows Hill").

Both his predecessor Michuá and their eternal enemies, the southern Muisca led by psihipqua Saguamanchica died in the Battle of Chocontá in 1490. Eucaneme succeeded the throne for the northern Muisca based in Hunza while Nemequene accessed for the southern Muisca, ruled from Muyquytá. To halt the northern expansion politics of their southern enemies, Quemuenchatocha sought the help of the caciques of Gámeza, Sugamuxi, Tundama and Sáchica. In 1514 to prevent blood loss Eucaneme proposed to fight only man-to-man battles. This idea didn't work out and the southern zipa Nemequene, while having won the battle of the Arroyo de las Vueltas, was fatally hurt. The southern troops retreated and installed the new ruler Tisquesusa. The iraca, Sugamuxi, negotiated a truce between the northern and southern factions of the Muisca which held until the arrival of the Spanish in 1537.

Upon the advancement of the Spanish instead of fighting them, he tried to please them with gifts while hiding the rich treasures of the Muisca, famous for their trade in emeralds and vast quantities of gold. He forbade his people to show the upcoming Spanish conquerors the way to his fortress and installed harsh penalties for doing so.

The strategy didn't work out. On August 20, 1537 the Spanish conquerors led by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada found Eucaneme sitting on this throne decorated with gold, emeralds and precious cloths and he was taken prisoner and deported to Suesca. This happened where today the Convento de San Agustín is located. Eucaneme fled to the village of Ramiriquí where he shortly afterwards died. Following the Muisca rules of heritance, his nephew Quiminza succeeded to the throne as last ruler of Muisca before the New Granada viceroyalty of Spain in northern South America was established.

While not named as Quemuenchatocha, the defeat of the hoa of Hunza is described in the work of uncertain authorship about the conquest; Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada.

In Tunja, capital of the Boyacá department, a statue honouring Quemuenchatocha and his successor Aquiminzaque (Monumento a la Raza Indígena) has been erected.

Quemuenchatocha in Muisca history

See also

Spanish conquest of the Muisca
Muisca rulers, history of Colombia, Pacanchique

References

Bibliography

External links
  Animated video about Quemuenchatocha

Muisca rulers
1472 births
1538 deaths
15th-century South American people
16th-century South American people
Warriors of Central and South America
People from Tunja

Quemuenchatocha


Oakley is a neighborhood in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States, that borders Pleasant Ridge, Madisonville, and Hyde Park. Oakley's business district, called Oakley Square, lies along Madison Road. Oakley is a primary thoroughfare and a major crosstown artery in Cincinnati.

In addition to Oakley Square, Oakley contains two shopping centers. Hyde Park Plaza on the south edge is named for the neighborhood to the south and is located at the intersection of two smaller neighborhood streets, Paxton Ave, which connects Oakley to Hyde Park and Mt Lookout, and Wasson Rd, which runs along the former Cincinnati and Eastern Railway line and connects Hyde Park Plaza to the larger Rookwood shopping centers in Norwood. The Center of Cincinnati on the north edge is part of continuing development on the south side of the I-71/Norwood Lateral/Ridge Rd interchange. Both of these centers are urban infill and car oriented, located on the edge of Oakley and designed to serve multiple neighborhoods. Oakley Square, by contrast, is located in the center of Oakley along several bus routes, making it more pedestrian and transit oriented.

Demographics

History

Oakley was originally known as "Four Mile," and was a popular stop in the mid-19th century for wagon drivers on the Madison Turnpike, now Madison Road. The village of Oakley, a name referring to the many oak trees in the area, was officially registered with the Hamilton County Courthouse in 1869 and the village was incorporated in 1898.  Oakley was once the home of the famed markswoman Annie Oakley, who made her public debut in 1876.

During the 1890s the community began to grow and the Oakley Race Course, famous for thoroughbred racing, was opened. The race track closed a few years later due to a state law prohibiting betting. The Cincinnati Milling Machine Company, often referred to as "the mill," moved to Oakley in 1905 and library service began in 1910, when a deposit station opened in Barton's Drug Store.

Oakley was annexed to the city of Cincinnati in 1913. In the same year, Aglamesis Bro's Ice Cream Parlor and Candy Shoppe opened to accommodate the growing population of workers at the Mill, as the Cincinnati Milling Machine Company was called.

The Geier Esplanade, commonly known as Oakley Square, was created when two parcels of land were acquired in 1927 and 1932 and were converted into green space. It is situated in the heart of Oakley on Madison Road and, through the generosity of the Geier family, flowers and bulbs are planted each year to beautify this small parcel of land in memory of Mr. Fred Geier and Mr. Philip O. Geier, Sr.

The Twentieth Century Theatre was built in 1941 and is a distinctive Oakley landmark with its 72-foot tower rising over the business district. The deteriorating theater was slated for demolition in the early 1990s, but was spared due to its historical significance and is finding a new life as a concert and special events venue.

Oakley After Hours
Formerly known as "Final Fridays", Oakley After Hours is a monthly street festival held from 6-10PM on the second Friday of each month May through October. Oakley stores and restaurants keep their doors open for extended hours and offer sales, dining and drink specials, live music, and fun in the neighborhood. The event is sponsored each year by local businesses and is coordinated with the support of the Oakley Community Council.

References

External links

Oakley Community Council

Neighborhoods in Cincinnati
Former municipalities in Ohio

Oakley, Cincinnati


Rodney William Whitaker (June 12, 1931 – December 14, 2005) was an American film scholar and writer who wrote several novels under the pen name Trevanian. Whitaker wrote in a wide variety of genres, achieved bestseller status, and published under several other names, as well, including Nicholas Seare, Beñat Le Cagot, and Edoard Moran. He published the nonfiction book The Language of Film under his own name.

Between 1972 and 1983, five of his novels sold more than a million copies each.  He was described as "the only writer of airport paperbacks to be compared to Zola, Ian Fleming, Poe, and Chaucer." Whitaker adamantly avoided publicity for most of his life, his real name a closely held secret for many years. The 1980 reference book Twentieth-Century Crime and Mystery Writers listed his real name in its Trevanian entry.

Life
Born in Granville, New York, Whitaker became enthralled with stories as a boy. His family struggled with poverty. He lived for several years in Albany, New York, as a youth (a time portrayed in his last published work).

Whitaker earned bachelor's and master's degrees in drama at the University of Washington.  While there, he wrote and directed his three-act play Eve of the Bursting, which was his master's thesis production in the UW Playhouse.  The company manager and assistant director of the production was Jerry Pournelle. Whitaker went on to earn a doctorate in communications and film at Northwestern University.

He taught at Dana College in Blair, Nebraska, where he was chairman of the communications division. He served in the US Navy during the Korean War. Later, he was awarded a Fulbright scholarship for study in England.

When Whitaker wrote his first two novels, he was chairman of the Department of Radio, TV, and Film at the University of Texas at Austin, where he continued to teach for many years.

Whitaker married the former Diane Brandon, and they had four children: sons Lance and Christian, and daughters Alexandra and Tomasin. They lived for years in the Basque countryside of France.

Whitaker died December 14, 2005, in Somerset, England. He was survived by his wife and grown children.

Literary works
Whitaker said his wife chose the pen name Trevanian based on her appreciation of English historian G. M. Trevelyan. Trevanian wrote many bestselling novels in different genres, which received highly favorable critical reviews.

His first novel, published at the age of 40 when he was teaching at the University of Texas, was The Eiger Sanction, a thriller that became a worldwide best seller. In 1975, it was adapted as a movie directed by and starring Clint Eastwood. Trevanian described the movie as "vapid" in a footnote in his later novel Shibumi. He requested (and received) a screenwriting credit as Rod Whitaker. The balance of the script was written by Warren Murphy, the mystery writer perhaps best known for co-writing the Destroyer series of action novels.

Saddened that some critics did not recognize the story as a spoof, Trevanian followed it with a more intense spoof, The Loo Sanction (1973), which depicted an ingenious art theft. Then came The Main (1976), a detective novel set in a poor neighborhood of Montreal, featuring widowed, 50-ish police lieutenant Claude LaPointe. Trevanian originally intended to publish The Main under the pen name Jean-Paul Morin.

Next came Shibumi in 1979, a meta-spy novel, which received the most critical acclaim. In 1983, he published The Summer of Katya, a psychological horror novel. The wide diversity of genres led to a popular theory that "Trevanian" was a collective pen name for a group of writers working together. Under the name Nicholas Seare, Trevanian also published 1339...or So: Being an Apology for a Pedlar (1975), a witty medieval tale of love and courage; and Rude Tales and Glorious (1983), a bawdy retelling of Arthurian tales.

After a 15-year hiatus, Trevanian returned with a Western novel called Incident at Twenty-Mile (1998), and then a collection of short stories, Hot Night in the City (2000).  His last published novel, written while he was in declining health, was The Crazyladies of Pearl Street (2005), an autobiographical coming-of-age story of a boy surviving with his mother and sister in the slums of Albany, New York, in the years preceding and during World War II.  In November 2005, it was selected as one of 11 Editors' Choice books by the Historical Novel Society.

Street of the Four Winds, Trevanian's tale of Parisian artists caught in the 1848 revolution, based on his research of the era, remains unpublished. An excerpt is posted on Trevanian's web site.

In 2005, Crown Publishers reprinted five of Trevanian's early books—The Eiger Sanction, The Loo Sanction, The Main, The Summer of Katya, and Shibumi—as a trade paperback set.

Whitaker kept his true identity unknown for years. He refused to grant interviews or contribute to the publicity efforts of his publishers. His first known interview was granted to Carol Lawson of The New York Times for a  June 10, 1979 article coinciding with the release of Shibumi. In this article, Trevanian stated that "Trevanian is going out of business.  Now he can talk."

It was rumored that Trevanian was Robert Ludlum writing under a pen name. Trevanian rejected that idea, stating, "I don't even know who he is. I read Proust, but not much else written in the 20th century."

Trevanian wrote successfully in several genres. In a 1998 interview with Newsweek, he said that with each new book, he first decided what author should tell the story. He used method-acting techniques to imagine himself as the author  to work into the story he wanted to tell. Trevanian fans followed his style changes with delight.

Trevanian said of his fans:

The Trevanian Buff is a strange and wonderful creature: an outsider, a natural elitist, not so much a cynic as an idealist mugged by reality, not just one of those who march to a different drummer, but the solo drummer in a parade of one.

This was another poke at the masses—most notably the United States and Americans in general—since his apparent disillusion with the country led him to abandon it. In later years, Trevanian was more outspoken about the reasons surrounding his voluntary exile from the country of his birth; he cited US material obsession as one of the main reasons behind the declining quality of life in the United States. He said that one day Americans would wake up and realize that cheaper is not necessarily better. Trevanian also addressed the issue of value on his website.

Non-fiction (as Rod Whitaker)
 The Language of Film (1970)
 "Christ on Stage", Dialog 5, Summer 1966, pp. 226–7 (1966).
 "Conversation: On translating Senecan tragedy into film", James Hynd (an interview with Rod Whitaker). Arion (Boston), v. 7 (Spring 1968), pp. 58–67 (1968).
 Stasis. Script to a film by Rod Whitaker and Richard Kooris (1968).
 "The Lawyer, The Lawman, and The Law: Public Image", Texas Law Review: Volume 50, Issue 4. pp. 822–7 (1972).

Novels

As Trevanian
 The Eiger Sanction (1972)
 The Loo Sanction (1973)
 The Main (1976)
 Shibumi (1979)
 The Summer of Katya (1983)
 Incident at Twenty-Mile (1998)
 Hot Night in the City (2000)
 The Crazyladies of Pearl Street (2005)

As Nicholas Seare
 1339...or So: Being an Apology for a Pedlar (1975) (Based on his stage play, Eve of the Bursting)
 Rude Tales and Glorious (1983)

Short stories
 "Switching", Trevanian. Playboy magazine. December 1978. (A revised version of this story appeared in Hot Night in the City as "After Hours at Rick's")
 "Minutes of a Village Meeting", by Beñat Le Cagot, translated by Trevanian. Harper's Monthly. February 1979. pp. 60–63. (A revised version of this story appeared in Hot Night in the City.)
 "That Fox-of-a-Beñat", by Beñat Le Cagot, translated by Trevanian. Yale Literary Magazine. 1984. Vol. 151, No 1, pp. 25–33. (A revised version of this story appeared in Hot Night in the City.)
 "The Secrets of Miss Plimsoll, Private Secretary", by Trevanian. Redbook. March 1984. (A revised version of this story appeared in Hot Night in the City as "The Sacking of Miss Plimsoll".)
 "The Apple Tree", by Trevanian. The Antioch Review, Yellow Springs: Spring 2000. Vol. 58, Iss. 2; p. 195 (14 pages). "The Apple Tree" was also anthologized in the Best American Short Stories collection for 2001.
 "Waking to the Spirit Clock", The Antioch Review, Yellow Springs: Summer 2003. Vol. 61, Issue 3; p. 409.

Other works
 Eve of the Bursting, Rod Whitaker.  A drama in three acts, 1959; performed at the University Playhouse at the University of Washington. Whitaker also directed this performance.
 Introduction to the 1998 Re-issue of The Climb Up to Hell by Jack Olsen. 1st Ed. Harper & Row, 1962, New York, 1962. Reprint Edition by Griffin House (St. Martins Press), New York, 1998.
 Editor and Introduction to the short-story mystery collection Death Dance: Suspenseful Stories of the Dance Macabre. Cumberland House, 2002.
 The Crazyladies of Pearl Street Cybernotes Companion (2005)
 The Street of the Four Winds – Part I Internet Edition''' (2005)
 Threads for the Emperor,  a one-act children's play retelling of The Emperor's New Clothes.''

References

External links
Trevanian.com

1931 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American mystery writers
Novelists from New York (state)
University of Texas at Austin faculty
University of Washington School of Drama alumni
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Texas
Northwestern University alumni
20th-century pseudonymous writers
21st-century pseudonymous writers

Trevanian


Edward William Samcoff (September 1, 1924 – March 29, 2018) was an American professional baseball player. An infielder, his six-season (1946–1951) career in the game included a four-game stint in the Major Leagues for the Philadelphia Athletics at the outset of the  season. Samcoff threw and batted right-handed; he stood  tall and weighed . He was born in Sacramento, California.

Samcoff made his MLB debut on April 21, 1951 as a pinch hitter at Fenway Park against Chuck Stobbs of the Boston Red Sox; he batted for Philadelphia pitcher Bob Hooper and grounded out, Stobbs to first baseman Billy Goodman. He then started three consecutive games for the Athletics at second base from April 24–26. Samcoff went hitless in ten at bats with one base on balls, but played errorless ball in the field, handling ten chances and turning three double plays. He spent the remainder of the 1951 campaign in the minor leagues, with the Double-A Memphis Chicks of the Southern Association. In 795 minor league games played, Samcoff collected 851 hits and posted a batting average of .291. Samcoff died in March 2018 at the age of 93.

References

External links

1924 births
2018 deaths
Baseball players from Sacramento, California
Bremerton Bluejackets players
Charleston Rebels players
Major League Baseball second basemen
Memphis Chickasaws players
Oakland Oaks (baseball) players
Philadelphia Athletics players
Sioux City Soos players
Stockton Ports players

Ed Samcoff


Campbell Barracks, in Heidelberg, Germany, was home to Headquarters, United States Army Europe (USAREUR) from 1948 to 2013. It was also home to Headquarters, V Corps and Headquarters, Allied Force Command Heidelberg.

History
As part of the German rearmament, the German 110th Infantry Regiment was activated in May 1936 and stationed in Heidelberg. The existing Grenadier-Kaserne (now Patton Barracks) was not large enough for the regiment. Accordingly, a new installation was built in 1937 on what was then farmland on the southern outskirts of Heidelberg near the suburb of Rohrbach.

At first unnamed, the new installation was designated Großdeutschland-Kaserne after Austria became part of Nazi Germany in March 1938. Stories linking Großdeutschland-Kaserne to the Großdeutschland Division of World War II have no foundation. The casern predates the division, which was not formed until May 1942. Neither the division nor any of its subordinate units were ever stationed in Heidelberg, nor was the 110th Infantry Regiment ever attached to the Großdeutschland-Division.

When completed, the new Heidelberg barracks became the home of the 110th Infantry's headquarters, its 1st Battalion and its two regimental support companies. The regiment's 2d Battalion was stationed at Loretto-Kaserne (now called Hammonds Barracks) in Seckenheim and the 3d Battalion at Grenadier-Kaserne. The Keyes Building on Campbell originally served as the regimental officers mess.

The first Allied troops entered Heidelberg on the morning of Good Friday, March 30, 1945, and the city surrendered without a fight. The Wehrmacht had left Heidelberg a day earlier but not before blowing up the bridges crossing the River Neckar, which in Heidelberg meant blowing up the old bridge.

The U.S. units that initially occupied Großdeutschland-Kaserne are not known, but by V-E Day, 8 May 1945, the headquarters of the U.S. 6th Army Group occupied the Kaserne. The Army Group headquarters was inactivated in June 1945, whereupon the headquarters of the U.S. Seventh Army moved from Augsburg to Heidelberg, officially opening at Großdeutschland-Kaserne on July 22, 1945.

The Seventh Army headquarters remained in Heidelberg until its inactivation on 31 March 1946. The headquarters of the U.S. Third Army then moved from Bad Tölz to Großdeutschland-Kaserne on 2 April 1946. In the meantime the Third Army had activated a new organization on 15 February 1946 called the U.S. Constabulary. The Constabulary was basically a police force with the mission of maintaining law and order in the U.S. Zone of occupied Germany. On February 15, 1947, the Constabulary headquarters moved from Bamberg to Großdeutschland-Kaserne and the Third Army headquarters was inactivated on March 15, 1947.

During this time the headquarters of the U.S. Army in Europe, then known as the U.S. Forces, European Theater (USFET), was stationed in Frankfurt in the IG Farben Building (the Abrams Building). The same day Third Army headquarters was inactivated, USFET was redesignated as the European Command (EUCOM), not to be confused with the joint United States European Command (USEUCOM) of today.

In the series of phased moves between February and June 1948, the Constabulary headquarters moved from Heidelberg to Stuttgart and the EUCOM headquarters moved into the vacated facilities at Großdeutschland-Kaserne.

The Kaserne was formally renamed Campbell Barracks on August 23, 1948 in memory of Staff Sergeant Charles L. Campbell, 14th Infantry Regiment, 71st Infantry Division, who was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross posthumously for extraordinary heroism. On March 28, 1945, two days before the surrender of Heidelberg, Staff Sergeant Campbell led a patrol across the Rhine River near Mannheim and was killed while covering the withdrawal of his patrol as it returned to the west bank with valuable information.

Until July 1949, the Commander in Chief, EUCOM, was also the U.S. Military Governor of occupied Germany. His office and staff were in Berlin. The ranking officer in Heidelberg was the EUCOM Chief of Staff. While Lieutenant General Clarence R. Huebner was the EUCOM Chief of Staff, the riding hall in building 31 was converted to the Wilson Theater, a protected monument building because of the wooden architecture of its roof, which opened on March 4, 1949.

Joint Headquarters
The next significant organizational change came on August 1, 1952 when a new joint headquarters, the United States European Command (USEUCOM), was activated in Frankfurt. At the same time, the EUCOM headquarters in Heidelberg was redesignated the United States Army, Europe (USAREUR). A small NATO planning cell called the CENTAG Plans Staff was also established at this time within the USAREUR headquarters staff, with the Commander in Chief, USAREUR, given the additional title of Commander, CENTAG (COMCENTAG). In April 1959, the CENTAG Plans Staff was designated Headquarters, CENTAG, and separated from the USAREUR headquarters staff. The USAREUR G3 (as the Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations, was then known) nevertheless continued to serve as the CENTAG Chief of Staff while serving as the USAREUR G3.

The Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR), formally activated a separated CENTAG headquarters on 1 October 1960. Between June and August 1961 the CENTAG headquarters staff moved from Campbell Barracks to Hammond Barracks in Seckenheim.

On December 1, 1966, the Seventh Army headquarters (which had been reactivated in Stuttgart in November 1950) merged with the USAREUR headquarters. This new headquarters was designated Headquarters, United States Army, Europe, and Seventh Army (HQ USAREUR/7A).

In the late 1970s, a series of studies concluded that interallied coordination would be improved by stationing three international NATO headquarters on the same installation with HQ USAREUR/7A. This resulted in the headquarters of the Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force (4ATAF) moving into building 8 of Campbell Barracks in September 1980. The CENTAG headquarters returned to Campbell Barracks in December 1980, occupying offices in buildings 3,5, and 7 (with an office for the CENTAG Chief of Staff in building 1). Finally, the headquarters of the Allied Command Europe Mobile Force (Land) moved to Campbell Barracks in December 1980, occupying part of building 7.

Post Cold War
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the collapse of the Berlin Wall, the demise of the Soviet Union, and the dissolution of the East European Communist Bloc radically changed the politico-military situation in Europe. In addition to significant reductions and realignments of U.S. Forces in Germany, a number of changes occurred in the NATO military organizational structure, all of which affected stationing at Campbell Barracks.

On 30 June 1993 CENTAG and 4ATAF discontinued operations. On July 1, 1993, the headquarters of NATO's Allied Land Forces Central Europe (LANDCENT) became operational on Campbell Barracks with a staff from seven nations (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States). LANDCENT moved into offices in buildings 3,7, and 8, formerly used by CENTAG and 4ATAF. The CENTAG Chief of Staff office suite in building 1 was returned to USAREUR. In the summer of 1994, V Corps headquarters moved from Frankfurt to Campbell Barracks.

The departure from the Cold War era brought the implementation of a new NATO Integrated Military Structure and LandCENT was formally designated Joint Headquarters Centre (JHQ CENT) in a ceremony held on March 9, 2000. The new structure, which accompanied this designation, included personnel from five additional nations: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Norway, and Poland - making a total of 12 NATO Nations contributing to the Headquarters.

The devastation caused in the September 11, 2001 attacks sent shock waves through the military and on April 30, 2002 the Lieutenant General Timothy J. Maude Center for Human Resources was dedicated to Timothy Maude (November 18, 1947 - September 11, 2001) in his honor. He was the highest-ranking military officer killed in the attacks at the Pentagon. He worked on Campbell Barracks from 1995 to 1998 as Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel and Installation Management. It was his last assignment before being stationed in Washington D.C.

On July 1, 2004, the Headquarters once again transitioned in a ceremony marking its designation to Component Command-Land Headquarters, Heidelberg. New structure is currently represented by 15 NATO nations, including its newest members Lithuania and Slovakia. This transformation to CC-Land HQ HD was part of a major NATO restructuring, and  realized a fundamental change in headquarters mission and operations, as this headquarters turns its focus from one of six joint sub-regional command headquarters, to assume roles as one of only two land centric headquarters in the NATO command structure designed to provide expeditionary command and control at the operational level of conflict.

With this increased operational focus, there remains the critical element of promoting enhanced interoperability and standardization through provisions of land advice and guidance within Allied Command for Operations. Headquarters will also work closely with Allied Command for Transformation on aspects such as land concept development, exercises and training. Within JFC Brunssum,  headquarters serves as the principal focus for all land matters. CC-Land HQ HD has conducted work in the fields of land-based operational planning, intelligence, logistics, command and control, training and exercises.

Closure
In 2010, the US Army announced that Campbell Barracks would close, with the troop drawdown process completed by no later than 2015. NATO central army operations were relocated to Izmir, Turkey in March 2013. Flags were lowered for the last time at Campbell Barracks on 6 September 2013, with all personnel already re-located to Wiesbaden Army Airfield. According to the New York Times  closure will save the Pentagon $112 million a year, mostly in costly security expenses for several scattered facilities. As the headquarters of the United States Army in Europe, the Barracks issued the orders for the millions of American soldiers – 15 million in Germany alone – who have served in Europe since 1945. The US Army is now concentrated in just five key locations in Germany, with its new European headquarters in Wiesbaden. The base will be turned over to the German government.

References

External links
United States Army, Europe and 7th Army
Großdeutschland-Kaserne (110.Infanterie-Regiment)

Buildings and structures in Heidelberg
Installations of the United States Army in Germany
Military command and control installations

Campbell Barracks


Tinikling is a traditional Philippine folk dance which originated during the Spanish colonial era. The dance involves at least two people beating, tapping, and sliding bamboo poles on the ground and against each other in coordination with one or more dancers who step over and in between the poles in a dance. It is traditionally danced to rondalla music, a sort of serenade played by an ensemble of stringed instruments which originated in Spain during the Middle Ages. The locomotor movements used in this dance are hopping, jumping, and turning.

Origin

The name tinikling is a reference to birds locally known as tikling, which can be any of a number of rail species, but more specifically refers to the slaty-breasted rail (Gallirallus striatus), the buff-banded rail (Gallirallus philippensis), and the barred rail (Gallirallus torquatus). The term tinikling literally means "to perform it tickling-like."

The dance originated in Palo, Leyte, Island in the Visayas. It imitates the movement of the tikling birds as they walk between grass stems, run over tree branches, or dodge bamboo traps set by rice farmers." Dancers imitate the tikling bird's legendary grace and speed by skillfully manoeuvring between large bamboo poles.
However, other known stories also explain where this national dance originated from. A more popular one is that legend says the tinikling dance originated from Filipino field workers during the time of Spanish colonization. It was a form of punishment for workers who worked too slowly in the large haciendas the Spanish had. More specifically,  two spine-tipped bamboo poles were used to hit the feet of the field workers. Legend claims that after a while, the workers trained themselves to dodge the strikes of the bamboo poles. What was once a way to avoid punishment now became a form of art and dance.

Today tinikling is taught throughout the United States. In grades K-12 the dance is used as an aerobic exercise for physical education classes, to help expand physical movements such as hand coordination, foot speed, and also rhythm. Tinikling is commonly performed at schools and on special occasions, such as the Filipino Independence Day, as a celebration of Filipino culture and Filipino pride.

Description
Two or four parallel pairs of bamboo poles, each around  long, are held by two or more sitting or kneeling people ("clappers" or "clickers"). The poles are used as percussive instruments accompanying rondalla music played with string instruments (usually bandurrias, guitars, laúdes, octavinas, or ukuleles). They produce clapping sounds as they are struck against the ground (or two raised pieces of wood) and each other in a triple metre pattern. Traditionally, the poles are tapped twice on the ground on the first two beats, then brought together on the third beat.

Two or more dancers then weave through the rapidly moving bamboo poles with bare feet and ankles. The dancers have to carefully follow the rhythm so as not to get their ankles caught between the poles as they snap closed. They start the dance with their hands at their hips or clasped behind their backs. The tempo of the bamboo poles becomes faster as the dance progresses, forcing the dancers closer together as their movements become more frantic. The dancers hold hands at the last part of the dance when the tempo is the fastest. They end the dance by letting go of each other's hands and stepping out entirely of the moving bamboo poles.

For the dance, women traditionally wear a dress called Balintawak or patadyong, and men wear an untucked embroidered shirt called the barong Tagalog. The Balintawak are colorful dresses with wide arched sleeves and the patadyong is a pineapple fiber blouse paired with checkered skirts. The barong Tagalog is usually a light long-sleeved shirt worn with red trousers. Dancers wear no footwear while performing.

Modern variants of the dance can include innovations like increasing the number or arrangement of the poles (including switching poles mid-dance), changing the number of dancers, or using different music and choreography. Tinikling has also been noted to have the music changed in modern times to modern songs with strong percussions and bass to connect the traditions of the Philippine folk dance with their modern-day lifestyle. In the Philippines, the dance is often performed on certain Sundays.

Adaptations
When performed by dance troupes or in cultural shows, Tinikling is typically performed in the "Rural Suite," which includes dances originating from Filipino Christians that have a more "folksy" character. These dances originate mostly from the islands of Visayas and Luzon and imitate the simplicity and joy of the lifestyle of the Filipino villagers living in those regions during the Spanish period. Other Filipino folk dances of this category include Sayaw sa Bangko, Maglalatik, and Pandanggo sa Ilaw''.

In the United States, this dance has been altered into a four-beat rhythm to adjust to popular music. In some cases, it has been used in conjunction with traditional Filipino martial arts to demonstrate fleetness of foot and flow of movement. As mentioned earlier, Tinikling is used as aerobic exercise for physical education classes in the United States for grades K-12. Instead of using traditional bamboo poles, most schools create their poles using plastic PVC pipe or wooden dowels. Another alternative is to tie elastic bands to the ankles of two students. The two students switch between jumping with their feet apart and their feet together to simulate the movement of the wooden poles. This way, more students are engaged in the aerobic exercise, rather than just the dancer.

Regional Versions of the Dance

Similar dances are found throughout Asia signifying close genetic and cultural relationships of people within the region. In Taiwan, there are the Ami and Puyuma bamboo dances. In Southeast Asia similar dances such as the Rangku Alu of the Manggarai and the Gaba-gaba of the Ambonese in Indonesia, Múa Sạp from Vietnam, Lao Kra Top Mai from Thailand, Robam Kom Araek from Cambodia, Karen or Chin Bamboo Dance from Myanmar, Alai Sekap in Brunei, and Magunatip of the Murut people of Borneo. In Northeast India, various bamboo dances like the Cheraw dance from Mizoram people and various other Naga groups like the bamboo dances of the Kuki people are still conducted today. Multiple bamboo dances in southern China: the Zhuang, the Li (called Da Chai), Yao, etc.

See also
 Cariñosa, another Philippine dance.
 Maglalatik, a Philippine folk dance performed by male dancers with coconut shell halves secured onto the dancers' hands
 Singkil, a similar Filipino folk dance depicting the Darangen epic
 Culture of the Philippines
 Music of the Philippines
 Cheraw dance, a similar Indian dance
 Pangalay, the traditional "fingernail" dance of the Tausūg people of the Sulu Archipelago

References

External links

Dances of the Philippines
Visayan culture
Culture of Leyte (province)
Aerobic exercise

Tinikling


The Birmingham Back to Backs (also known as Court 15) are the city's last surviving court of back-to-back houses. They are preserved as examples of the thousands of similar houses that were built around shared courtyards, for the rapidly increasing population of Britain's expanding industrial towns. They are a very particular sort of British terraced housing. This sort of housing was deemed unsatisfactory, and the passage of the Public Health Act 1875 meant that no more were built; instead byelaw terraced houses took their place. This court, at 50–54 Inge Street and 55–63 Hurst Street, is now operated as a historic house museum by the National Trust.

Numerous back-to-back houses, two or three storeys high, were built in Birmingham during the 19th century. Most of these houses were concentrated in inner-city areas such as Ladywood, Handsworth, Aston, Small Heath and Highgate. Most were still in quite good condition in the early 20th century and also prior to their demolition. By the early 1970s, almost all of Birmingham's back-to-back houses had been demolished. The occupants were rehoused in new council houses and flats, some in redeveloped inner-city areas, while the majority moved to new housing estates such as Castle Vale and Chelmsley Wood.

History

Lease
By the end of the 18th century, the land where the houses are now located was owned by several families. The Inge family, after whom Inge Street is named, owned the land on the west side of the street whilst the Gooch family owned the land to the east side, where the back to backs were built. The plot of land was 50 yards long and 20 yards wide.

In 1789, Sir Thomas Gooch leased the land to John Willmore, a local toymaker. It was agreed that within a year, Willmore should construct two or more large houses at a total cost, including the outbuildings, of no less than £700. Willmore failed to do this and Court 15, as well as Court 14 adjacent, were built by his successors who remained on the street throughout the 19th century. When John Willmore died, the land was split between his sons Joseph and John Willmore, leading to the constructions looking different.

Construction
Court 14 was completed in 1802 by Joseph Willmore, a silversmith. It consisted of six front and eleven back houses with some workshops on the larger southern end of the building plot. When opened, it was known as Willmore's Court but was later renamed Court 14 Inge Street. It has since been demolished.

At this time, John Willmore, a carpenter and joiner, constructed a house and workshop for himself. By 1809, the undeveloped remainder of the plot consisted of two nailer's workshops and a cooper's workshop with a knacker's yard behind. The Hurst Street frontage was filled with sheds. By 1821, No. 50 Inge Street/ 1 Court 15 had been converted into a pair of back to backs. No. 52 Inge Street/ 2 Court 15 and No. 54 Inge Street/3 Court 15 were built about 1830. The terrace along Hurst Street was constructed in 1831.

Occupants

Throughout the 19th century, the court was occupied by workers who worked in such industries as button making, glasswork, woodwork, leatherwork, tailoring and were also skilled craftsmen in the jewellery and small metal trades. Many of such workers worked from home. Over 500 families have lived in Court 15.

From the 1830s to the 1930s, the Mitchells, a family of locksmiths and bellhangers, lived in the court. At one time, they were occupying both No. 55 Hurst Street and No. 54 Inge Street/3 Court 15. The family also worked at the workshop in the court for over 70 years.

In 1851, Joseph Barnett, a travelling jeweller, lived at number 35 Inge Street, with his wife Hanna, and four children, Samuel, Eli Louis, Rebecca and Henry.

Other people who lived there highlight the crowded conditions of the houses, which were usually occupied by single families. In 1851, for example Sophia Hudson, a widow who worked as a pearl button driller, probably from home, lived at No. 1 Court 15 with her five children and her mother who also a widow.  In 1861, Herbert Oldfield, a glass eye maker, occupied the same address with his wife and their eight children. At the same time, the Mitchell family had an apprentice who lived with them. Despite the cramped conditions, some families, such as the one who occupied 61 Hurst Street in 1851, were able to afford a servant.

By 1900, the ground floors had been converted into shops. Services offered from the buildings were a cycle maker, a hairdresser, a ticket writer, a fruiterer and a furniture dealer. The upper floors of No. 55 and No. 59 Hurst Street, the cycle maker's and the ticket writer's properties respectively, were converted into workshops as opposed to residential.

Most of the buildings remained in residential use until 1966 when they were declared as unfit for habitation. This resulted in those living in the buildings being required to leave.

Restoration
In 1988, the court received Grade II listed status from the Department of National Heritage. In 1995, Birmingham City Council commissioned the City of Hereford Archaeological Unit to survey and record them. Funding for this project was provided by the city council and English Heritage.

The Birmingham Back to Backs were restored by the Birmingham Conservation Trust, in collaboration with architects S. T. Walker & Duckham, and opened to the public on 21 July 2004. Their restoration was the subject of a five-part documentary by Carlton Television. Each of the four houses is decorated and furnished as if in a different era; 1840s, 1870s, 1930s and 1970s. Visits are by pre-booked, timed guided tours only.

Layout and design

The court consists of three pairs of back-to-back houses on Inge Street and a terrace of five blind back houses on Hurst Street, in the form of an L-shaped footprint. All the buildings are three storeys tall with one room on each floor.

No. 50 Inge Street/ 1 Court 15, the first to be constructed, is the tallest and the largest in the court. Some evidence exists to indicate that it was originally a single dwelling but it has been occupied for most of its life as a pair of back to backs. Evidence to show that it may have originally been one house is available through the layout of the attic. The attic runs across the whole depth of the pair of houses, but was never divided and can only be reached from the back house of No. 1 Court 15 where the surviving staircase is of much better quality than any remaining in the other houses in Court 15. On the second floor, there is a now-blocked doorway in the spine wall between the two houses indicating that the floors to both houses were both accessible. At this level too, No. 50 Inge Street has been split into two rooms by a partition wall. The smaller of the two rooms is unheated and lit by a casement window. There are two tall chimney stacks, one for each house, in the pair.

The tunnel entrance to the court runs between No. 52 Inge Street/ 2 Court 15 and No. 54 Inge Street/ 3 Court 15. Each pair of houses shares a single chimney set on the ridge of the roof. The two back houses each have a bay window to allow more light into the ground floor room. The lower floors to these houses have been divided by two spine walls. The upper floors are divided by one spine wall.

In No. 52 Inge Street/ 2 Court 15 only one original stairway remains — from the ground to the first floor in the front house. The stair in No. 54 Inge Street has been removed at ground floor level but in No. 3 Court 15 the complete staircase survives.

The rear entrances to Nos. 55, 57 and 59 are gained through a very narrow tunnel entry from Court 15. A staircase on the back wall of each house led up to the first and second floors. The houses were lit by windows on the Hurst Street side and heated by shared chimney stacks. No. 63 Hurst Street shared a chimney with No. 65 Hurst Street, the front house of a pair of back to backs which were part of Court 2 Hurst Street, now demolished. No. 55 Hurst Street has a large bay window at first floor level overlooking Inge Street, which is an early feature. All the houses in the terrace have late 20th century shop fronts, replacing earlier ones which were installed about 1900.

Court 15 may have originally had a water pump in the courtyard, though this is not known for certain. By the 1880s, a single tap had been installed. The brick paved yard contains an open drain running in front of the three back houses. In the 1930s, the two washhouses and water closets (outdoor flush toilets) were constructed on the site of the workshops and outbuildings in the courtyard.

References

Birmingham City Council: Back to back in Birmingham

Birmingham Back to Backs; Do something unforgettable..., The National Trust, 2006, HH Associates (leaflet)

External links

Birmingham Back to Backs information at the National Trust
BBC 360degree panorama of courtyard

Grade II listed buildings in Birmingham
Houses in Birmingham, West Midlands
Museums in Birmingham, West Midlands
National Trust properties in the West Midlands (county)
Historic house museums in the West Midlands (county)
1802 establishments in England

Birmingham Back to Backs


Trial advocacy is the branch of knowledge concerned with making attorneys and other advocates more effective in trial proceedings. Trial advocacy is an essential trade skill for litigators and is taught in law schools and continuing legal education programs. It may also be taught in primary, secondary, and undergraduate schools, usually as a mock trial elective.

The skills of trial advocacy can be broken into two categories: skills that accomplish individual tasks (tactical skills) such as selecting jurors, delivering opening statements and closing arguments, and examining witnesses, and those skills that integrate the individual actions to achieve greater effects and to drive unfolding events toward the advocate's desired outcome (strategy) .

Most law school trial advocacy courses focus on tactical skills, though some integrate basic strategic planning methods. Some academics have expressed disfavor with advanced strategic techniques because of the imbalance they create, especially against attorneys who are unaware of them. Proponents of advanced strategic techniques argue that these methods are the only effective means to counter the already-existing imbalances in the system, as between indigent defendants and the state, and between working-class plaintiffs and well-resourced, wealthy corporations.

History
Like most legal skills, trial advocacy evolved through the apprenticeship and practice of attorneys. Even after 1900 (when the education of attorneys shifted to law schools,) most law schools offered little education in advocacy.
In 1969, in response to criticism within the judicial system that law schools were not properly preparing attorneys for trial practice, a group of lawyers and law professors combined to form the National Institute for Trial Advocacy (NITA). Since then, many law schools have added or improved their instruction in trial advocacy, and numerous Continuing Legal Education organizations have offered classes surveying the subject area, and on specific topics within the field. Nearly one dozen law schools in the United States offer Master of Law (LL.M.) degrees in trial advocacy.
Trial advocacy originally focused on individual actions within the trial, proposing improved juror selection, argument delivery, and direct and cross-examination methods. However, in the 1970s, NITA advanced the concepts of theme and theory as methods of integrating the various components into a cohesive whole.  More recently, litigation strategy has blossomed with the importation of concepts from economic game theory, complexity theory, Gestalt psychology, and the application of maneuver warfare as a means not only of integrating the various actions within the trial into a comprehensive case but also as a means of gaining a decisive advantage over opposing counsel.

Topics
The topics commonly encompassed within Trial Advocacy are:

Jury selection or voir dire

The selection of jurors that will be receptive to the argument the attorney intends to make.

Opening statement

Presenting a non-argumentative overview of what the jury will see, often in the context of the attorney's theme, theory, and story.

Direct examination

Eliciting evidence from one's witnesses through non-leading questions. Because studies have shown that people best remember the first and the most recent (last) information heard (methods referred to as primacy and recency), the preferred method is to start with an engaging and favorable topic, move through more mundane matters, and to finish on a strong, favorable point.

Cross examination

Working with witnesses offered by the opposing party who may be hostile or uncooperative.

Closing argument

Using argument to create within the jurors a perception of what they have seen and heard that influences them to find in favor of the attorney's client.

Persuasion

The general principles that enable an advocate to make the jurors more receptive to his claims.

Mock trial

In mock trials, students take responsibility for the prosecution/plaintiff or defense case in a trial presented using fabricated evidence, and role-players as witnesses and faculty or volunteers as judge or jury. It evaluates the participants' skills in argument, evidence handling, and examination of witnesses but omits jury selection and strategic matters. Mock trial differs from moot court in that moot court practices appellate argument and so involves no handling of witnesses or evidence, but instead is an exercise in legal research and oral advocacy.

Basic trial strategy

The means of organizing a case into a clear and complete presentation.
 Case Diagrams: The attorney charts the elements they intend to prove (or attack) and the evidence supporting each. These ensures the case is comprehensively addressed.
 Theme and Theory: The theme is a sound bite that captures the emotional appeal of the case, and the theory is an explanation of events. These serve as strategic focal points, allowing individual actions (opening, examination of each witness, etc.) to be united with a common focus and in a way that clarifies and reinforces the perception of the case the attorney wants the jury or judge to adopt.

Advanced trial strategy

The means of organizing a case to maximize the combined impact of every element and to overwhelm or outmaneuver the opposing counsel while presenting a clear, decisive argument to the jury (or judge, in the case of bench trials).

Advanced strategic skills, based upon psychology and military maneuver philosophy, are generally learned outside the classroom, as few law schools teach them. In fact, academics have criticized advanced strategic techniques for tipping verdicts through means unrelated to the merits of the case. For example, these techniques may cause an unfamiliar advocate to take actions that unwittingly undermine his client's interests. There is particular concern regarding the use of advanced strategic techniques by prosecutors, who already wield the substantial power of the state against often poorly resourced defendants.

The counterargument is that strategy can correct already-existing imbalances in the justice system, such as when inexperienced advocates must face highly experienced ones, when small firms oppose large ones, and when poor clients must litigate their rights against wealthy ones. Under the current system, without a well-developed strategy, a small firm with an impoverished client stands almost no chance of success against a large firm with more significant resources, regardless of the case's merits.
 Maneuver strategy: An alternative to arguing the evidence or the law, maneuver strategies pursue solutions such as redirecting the focus of the trial, reshaping the way events are perceived, or disrupting or surprising the opposing counsel, rendering him ineffective at responding to unfolding events.  While these methods are practiced widely, even by advocates not educated in strategy, some object to this as improper even when practiced ethically, as it subordinates the importance of the evidence and the law in determining a trial's outcome. One proponent of maneuver strategy, however, has noted that regardless of whether the attorney intends to leverage the tools of maneuver strategy, the attorney must understand the methods, or they will be ill-equipped to identify and counter them.
 Gestalt psychology: This branch of psychology focuses on how things are perceived as a whole instead of how individual components appear. It aids in ensuring the jury (or judge in bench trials) perceives events as the attorney desires. It also offers a way of shaping how witnesses and opposing counsel will perceive the problems an attorney raises for them during the trial. When coupled with game theory, shaping perception allows an attorney to influence or shape the hostile witness or counsel's actions.
 Game theory: Game theory offers models of how people make decisions. In trial practice, game theory is useful in predicting witnesses' likely actions when presented with a decision. Because decisions are framed according to how they perceive a situation, when game theory is coupled with Gestalt psychology, attorneys can present problems to witnesses or opposing counsel to increase the likelihood of them making decisions about their responses that improve the attorney's strategic position.
 Lines of effort: In the way a case diagram matches evidence to elements, the line of effort matches actions to specific effects the attorney intends to the various results that achieve their goal.

References

Bibliography

 Dreier, A.S. Strategy, Planning & Litigating to Win. Boston MA: Conatus, 2012.
 Korzen, John Make Your Argument: Succeeding in Moot Court and Mock Trial. New York NY: Kaplan 2010.
 Lubet, Steven Modern Trial Advocacy.  South Bend IN. NITA, 2004.

Legal education

Trial advocacy


Sacagawea Glacier is east of the Continental Divide in the northern Wind River Range in the U.S. state of Wyoming. The glacier is located in the Fitzpatrick Wilderness of Shoshone National Forest, and is among the largest grouping of glaciers in the American Rocky Mountains. Sacagawea Glacier flows to the east, from a northeast facing cirque, starting near the summit of Mount Sacagawea. A large moraine and small  proglacial lake are situated beyond the terminal east end of the glacier.

See also
 List of glaciers in the United States

References

Glaciers of Fremont County, Wyoming
Shoshone National Forest
Glaciers of Wyoming
Sacagawea

Sacagawea Glacier


In folkloristics, morphology is the study of the structure of folklore and fairy tales.

Some pioneering work in this field was begun in the nineteenth century, such as Marian Roalfe Cox's work on Cinderella, Cinderella: Three Hundred and Forty-Five Variants of Cinderella, Catskin and, Cap O' Rushes, Abstracted and Tabulated with a Discussion of Medieval Analogues and Notes.

However, folkloristic morphology took on much more form in the twentieth century, driven by the work of two researchers and theorists: Russian scholar Vladimir Propp and Finnish folklorist Antti Aarne.

Antti Aarne's theories, enlarged and expanded by American folklorist Stith Thompson in 1961 and by Hans-Jörg Uther in 2004, look at motifs rather than actions – for example, "a soldier makes a deal with the devil" or "a soldier marries the youngest of three sisters". More than 2500 folk and fairy tales have been cataloged under this taxonomy; the AaTh or Aarne–Thompson number is as well-known to folklorists as Francis James Child's identification of ballads are to scholars of folk songs.

Vladimir Propp was a Russian formalist scholar. He criticized Aarne's work for ignoring what motifs did in a tale, and analysed the basic plot, or action, components of Russian folk tales to identify their simplest irreducible narrative elements. His Morphology of the Folk Tale was published in Russian in 1928 and influenced Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland Barthes, though it received little attention from Western scholars until it was translated into English in the 1950s.

In the Afanasyev's collection of Russian fairy tales, Propp found a limited number of plot elements or "functions" that constructed all. These elements occurred in a standard, consistent sequence. He derived thirty-one generic functions, such as "a difficult task is proposed" or "donor tests the hero" or "a magical agent is directly transferred".

See also
 Historic-geographic method
 The Thirty-Six Dramatic Situations

References

Folklore studies
Literary criticism
Literary theory
Morphology

Morphology (folkloristics)


Komuna (full legal name: Komuna-International mešovito preduzeće za unutrašnju i spoljnu trgovinu d.o.o. Beograd) is a Serbian record label and media production company. Established in 1985, its headquarters are in Belgrade, Serbia with a branch office Budva, Montenegro. Registered in the Belgrade municipality of Rakovica, the company is owned by Maksa Ćatović.

Film and television production
The main scope of Komuna involves audiovisual productions: films, television programs, commercials, live transmissions and music videos. Komuna delivers full support and assistance to foreign production companies interested in shooting in former Yugoslavia and Bulgaria.

Komuna was involved in production films like Savior by Predrag Antonijević, Underground and Black Cat, White Cat by Emir Kusturica, Normal People by Oleg Novković, Barking at the Stars by Zdravko Šotra, The Red Colored Grey Truck by Srđan Koljević, and others. In realization of these films Komuna co-operated with production companies from the United States (Savior), as well as companies from Germany and France (Underground, Black Cat, White Cat, Normal People and The Red Colored Grey Truck).

From the very beginning Komuna has provided a wide range of services to the Radio Television of Serbia. With RTS, Komuna produced popular TV series like Porodično blago (62 episodes), Stižu dolari (52 episodes), Svaštara Duška Radovića (13 episodes), Lisice (18 episodes) and Neki novi klinci (15 episodes).

Record publishing
Some of the artist that have been signed to the label include:
Amajlija
Apsolutno Romantično
Dragana Mirković
Bajaga i Instruktori
Goran Bregović
Gru
Dejan Cukić & Spori Ritam Band
Zdravko Čolić
Nikola Čuturilo
Familija
Instant Karma
Jugosloveni
Aleksandra Kovač
Kornelije Kovač
Laboratorija Zvuka
Love Hunters
Oliver Mandić
Piloti
Laza Ristovski & Aleksandar Lokner
Rambo Amadeus
Rambo Amadeus & Goran Vejvoda
Smak
Sunshine
S Vremena Na Vreme
Vampiri

References

External links
Official website
Komuna at The Internet Movie Database
Komuna at Discogs

Serbian record labels
Rock record labels
Pop record labels
Serbian rock music
Serbian brands

Komuna (company)


"Lights Come On" is a song written by Jimmy Robbins, Jordan Schmidt, Brad Warren, Brett Warren, and Florida Georgia Line members Tyler Hubbard and Brian Kelley and recorded by American country music artist Jason Aldean. It was released on April 1, 2016, as the lead single from Aldean's 2016 album They Don't Know.

Critical reception
The single has mostly received negative reviews from critics. Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe was critical of the concert-orientated theme of the song, writing that ""Lights Come On" seems written for the sole purpose of kicking off a Jason Aldean concert. It's all very meta, and easy to picture the audience saying, "Hey! He's singing about us! Cool!"" and "But that's every Jason Aldean song these days, isn't it? Soulless, monotonous, assembly line records that are interchangeable with one another and forgotten as soon as the song ends." He rated the song a D grade.

An uncredited Taste of Country review was more favorable, praising the country rock instrumentation and compared the song favorably to that of Aldean's earlier hits "My Kinda Party" and "She's Country."

Commercial reception
The song debuted at No. 29 on the Country Airplay chart, his third highest debut on the chart. The airplay  also placed the song at No. 43 on the Hot Country Songs.  The following week when the song was released for sale, Jason Aldean performed the song at the 2016 ACM Awards where he won Entertainer of the Year.  The song sold 70,000 copies in its first sales week, which made it the No. 1 on the Country Digital Songs chart, and its sales pushed it up to No. 7 on Hot Country Songs. The song has sold 408,000 copies in the US as of September 2016.

Music video
The music video was directed by Shaun Silva and premiered in June 2016. It is 5 minutes long, and combines tour footage of Aldean's 2016 Six String Circus Tour, with an in-depth interview with Aldean, in which he states what touring means to him.

Charts

Year end charts

Certifications

References

2016 songs
2016 singles
Jason Aldean songs
BBR Music Group singles
Songs written by Tyler Hubbard
Songs written by Brian Kelley (musician)
Songs written by Jimmy Robbins
Songs written by the Warren Brothers
Song recordings produced by Michael Knox (record producer)
Music videos directed by Shaun Silva
Songs written by Jordan Schmidt

Lights Come On


Geological Park Iskar–Panega is an UNESCO-run Geopark in Northern Bulgaria, located 3 km south of the municipal centre Lukovit. It consists of two sections: the Karlukovo Karst Complex () lies in the valley of the Iskar River, while the Roadside Landscape Park "Panega" () is at the Zlatna Panega valley. Started in 2006, it became the first geopark in Bulgaria, and created temporary employment for 20 previously unemployed people. Another economic effect was that the number of overnights at main lodging facilities in Lukovit increased by 40%, and the number of visits to the city and region rose significantly.

Geopark Iskar–Panega Project was implemented with the financial support of the PHARE Program, (Development of Bulgarian Ecotourism). The main objective of the program was to provide technical and financial support for improvement of the quality of the priority sector of ecotourism in Bulgaria and contribute to raising its competitiveness.

Formation
Geopark Iskar–Panega Project was implemented with the financial support of the PHARE Program "Development of Bulgarian Ecotourism" BG 0202.02/ESC/G/DBET. The main objective of the program was to provide technical and financial support for improvement of the quality of the priority sector of ecotourism in Bulgaria and contribute to raising its competitiveness.
The beneficiary is the Municipality of Lukovit.

Results
The main result of the project was the development of the first Geopark in Bulgaria encompassing different natural and historical landmarks located on the territory of the Municipality of Lukovit. As a result of the project the development of the municipality as tourist destination is a fact, geotourism was promoted as a factor for socio-economic development, the competitiveness of the tourist industry in the region and the attractiveness of this natural heritage tourism area were raised. As a result of project activities a temporary employment was ensured for 20 unemployed people, the number of overnights at main lodging facilities increased (with over 40%) and the number of visits of the city and the region rose significantly.

Activities
The project activities included the development of tourist infrastructure at the territory of Geopark "Iskar–Panega" (wooden bridges, summer houses, and stairs, shelters and picnic sites, platforms) which ensured access for tourists to natural landmarks of national importance and different attractive karts forms. The tourist infrastructure and the tracing of paths created tourist routes of different lengths, through which the tourist is navigated by a system of orientation boards. To make tourist routes more attractive, a non-verbal animation (through information boards) of main sites were made. An assessment of the potential and a marketing strategy were developed to ensure proper management and popularization of the new tourist product. The project also developed and equipped a Balkan Centre of Speleology, in which with prior request, tourists can learn more scientific and curious information about objects in the Geopark from representatives of the local Speleological Club or from specialists from the Bulgarian federation of speleology. During the project first steps for positioning the product were at the tourist market through advertising, meetings with media and local community and other interested parties were organized.

Goals
To establish the first geopark in Bulgaria as a tool for promoting the national geotourism potential at European level through the European Networks of Geoparks;
To create an integrated tourist product based on the mosaic of various national landmarks from karst regions in the Municipality of Lukovit;
To raise the attractiveness of natural heritage while at the same time promoting sustainable tourism development and preserving natural resources for future generations;
To broadly promote the created tourist product and develop a marketing strategy for its further popularization in the long run and to larger target groups;
To stimulate entrepreneurship in the tourism sector and coordinate the interests of public authorities, local communities and private entities in the region.

Sustainability
For a period of one year after project completion the Geopark Iskar–Panega destination will be managed by Municipality of Lukovit. For ensuring additional services that are offered the Municipality works in partnership with the "Unique nature" foundation, Lukovit, Speleological club "Petar Tranteev", Lukovit, and Club for Extreme Sports "Adrenalin". To raise the sustainability of the project, the municipality will continue maintain the infrastructure and will take care for its development and improvement through the development of public–private partnership, whose main purpose will be in a midterm period to prepare the candidature of the Geopark for membership in the European Network of Geoparks. This will significantly raise the image of the destination, the interest to it and its visitation.

Overcoming Challenges
The extremely sophisticated conditions for the execution of the objects from the tourist infrastructure created difficulties for project implementation. To build the infrastructure according to the working design project and overcome difficulties, alpine method of work were used.

See also
 Prohodna
 List of national geoparks
 Global Geoparks Network

References

External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20080807142007/http://www.geopark-bg.com/e_index.html The Geopark's official website.

Geography of Lovech Province
Tourist attractions in Lovech Province
Geoparks in Bulgaria
Parks in Bulgaria
Tourism in Bulgaria

Iskar–Panega Geopark