"There's a Star" is a song by Ash, released as the fifth single from their album Free All Angels, on 31 December 2001. It was released as a single CD (released on two CD formats, the first of which being an enhanced CD) as a 7-inch vinyl record and on DVD. "There's a Star" was a surprise hit for the band, reaching number 13 on the UK Singles Chart and giving them one of their best-selling singles, even though the single was deleted after one week. The song also reached number 38 in Ireland.

The track was originally written for "Nu-Clear Sounds" like "Burn Baby Burn", but did not make the cut. The track was slightly re-written for "Free All Angels", and was always intentioned for a Christmas release.

The track is very rarely performed live, and can also be found on the Intergalactic Sonic 7″s greatest hits collection.

B-Sides
"No Place to Hide" is the first B-side on CD 1, as well as the first track on B-side collection "Cosmic Debris". It's widely regarded as Ash's favourite B-side, and is Mark Hamilton's favourite. The song was written while Ash were in the Far East shortly after the September 11 attacks and it reflects the prevailing atmosphere at the time. The song has been performed live on several occasions.

"Coasting" is one of Ash's oldest tracks and appears on the "Garage Girl" demo tape. It was also re-recorded as part of BBC music session in 1995, but was never released because the band disliked their performance. Due to fan demand, the band finally re-recorded the song for release on the "There's a Star" single. The newer recording was pretty much the same, but had better production values and slightly altered lyrics. The song was often performed on pre-"1977" gigs. It also appears on "Cosmic Debris", and the US version of "Free All Angels".

The first CD 2 B-side, "Here Comes the Music" continues Ash's tradition of covering little-known songs by their friends' bands. "Here Comes the Music" was originally performed by "Fixed Stars" and written by Mark Cullen.

Lastly, "Grey Will Fade" on CD 2 was written by Charlotte Hatherley, and she plays every instrument on the delicate track, with the exception of Rick McMurray's drumming. The song was highly praised on its release, and especially praised by Tim Wheeler himself. Wheeler encouraged Hatherley to record her own solo vehicle after the success of this track. She did so, and the song appears on the album, also called "Grey Will Fade". After the successes of her new solo album, Hatherley left the band in 2006.

Music video
The video for "There's a Star" was again directed by Jeff Thomas. It stars the band on top of a snow-covered mountain, and Wheeler desperately searching for his beloved "Flying V" guitar. Eventually he find it just time for the guitar solo in the middle of the song, and returns to his band to play the final chorus of the song, although this time at night. It was meant to be snowing to the video, but sadly it was not to be.

There was originally meant to be more to the video, but it didn't work out. Mark explained the original plan: "We're off to Iceland to shoot it up in the mountains, imagine vast area covered in snow, think Hoth in The Empire Strikes Back, we're all dressed Han Solo style with Rebel Alliance logos with rescue flares going up in the night and we're gonna comes across 'Snow Jawas'. Whilst Tim makes a quest across the snow scape searching for his "Flying V" just in time for the solo. How epic".

"There's a Star" was also released as a DVD. The DVD featured the single, a stills gallery, lyrics and an Ash discography. It also starred Ash's fourth and final 20-minute short, "Episode 4: Ash Go Global".

The CD 2 version of the CD contained Version 1.3 of the "Ash Video Mixer" software.

Track listing
CD1
"There's a Star (Radio Edit)" (Wheeler)
"No Place to Hide" (Wheeler)
"Coasting" (Wheeler)
"There's a Star (Video)"

CD2
"There's a Star (Album Version)" (Wheeler)
"Here Comes the Music" (Cullen)
"Grey Will Fade" (Hatherley)

DVD
"There's a Star (DVD Audio)" (Wheeler)
Episode 4: Ash Go Global
Stills Gallery
Discography
Lyrics

7-inch vinyl
"There's a Star (Radio Edit)" (Wheeler)
"No Place to Hide" (Wheeler)
"Here Comes the Music" (Cullen)
"Coasting" (Wheeler)

Charts

References

2000 songs
2001 singles
Ash (band) songs
Songs written by Tim Wheeler

There's a Star


The Copenhagen interpretation is a collection of views about the meaning of quantum mechanics, stemming from the work of Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and others. The term "Copenhagen interpretation" was apparently coined by Heisenberg during the 1950s to refer to ideas developed in the 1925–1927 period, glossing over his disagreements with Bohr. Consequently, there is no definitive historical statement of what the interpretation entails. Features common across versions of the Copenhagen interpretation include the idea that quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic, with probabilities calculated using the Born rule, and the principle of complementarity, which states that objects have certain pairs of complementary properties that cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously. Moreover, the act of "observing" or "measuring" an object is irreversible, and no truth can be attributed to an object except according to the results of its measurement (that is, the Copenhagen interpretation rejects counterfactual definiteness). Copenhagen-type interpretations hold that quantum descriptions are objective, in that they are independent of physicists' personal beliefs and other arbitrary mental factors.

Over the years, there have been many objections to aspects of Copenhagen-type interpretations, including the discontinuous and stochastic nature of the "observation" or "measurement" process, the apparent subjectivity of requiring an observer, the difficulty of defining what might count as a measuring device, and the seeming reliance upon classical physics in describing such devices. Still, including all the variations, the interpretation remains one of the most commonly taught.

Background

Starting in 1900, investigations into atomic and subatomic phenomena forced a revision to the basic concepts of classical physics. However, it was not until a quarter-century had elapsed that the revision reached the status of a coherent theory. During the intervening period, now known as the time of the "old quantum theory", physicists worked with approximations and heuristic corrections to classical physics. Notable results from this period include Max Planck's calculation of the blackbody radiation spectrum, Albert Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, Einstein and Peter Debye's work on the specific heat of solids, Niels Bohr and Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen's proof that classical physics cannot account for diamagnetism, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom and Arnold Sommerfeld's extension of the Bohr model to include relativistic effects. From 1922 through 1925, this method of heuristic corrections encountered increasing difficulties; for example, the Bohr–Sommerfeld model could not be extended from hydrogen to the next simplest case, the helium atom.

The transition from the old quantum theory to full-fledged quantum physics began in 1925, when Werner Heisenberg presented a treatment of electron behavior based on discussing only "observable" quantities, meaning to Heisenberg the frequencies of light that atoms absorbed and emitted. Max Born then realized that in Heisenberg's theory, the classical variables of position and momentum would instead be represented by matrices, mathematical objects that can be multiplied together like numbers with the crucial difference that the order of multiplication matters. Erwin Schrödinger presented an equation that treated the electron as a wave, and Born discovered that the way to successfully interpret the wave function that appeared in the Schrödinger equation was as a tool for calculating probabilities.

Quantum mechanics cannot easily be reconciled with everyday language and observation, and has often seemed counter-intuitive to physicists, including its inventors. The ideas grouped together as the Copenhagen interpretation suggest a way to think about how the mathematics of quantum theory relates to physical reality.

Origin and use of the term

The term refers to the city of Copenhagen in Denmark, and was apparently coined during the 1950s. Earlier, during the mid-1920s, Heisenberg had been an assistant to Bohr at his institute in Copenhagen, where they helped originate quantum mechanical theory. At the 1927 Solvay Conference, a dual talk by Max Born and Heisenberg declared "we consider quantum mechanics to be a closed theory, whose fundamental physical and mathematical assumptions are no longer susceptible of any modification." In 1929, Heisenberg gave a series of invited lectures at the University of Chicago explaining the new field of quantum mechanics. The lectures then served as the basis for his textbook, The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, published in 1930.  In the book's preface, Heisenberg wrote:

On the whole, the book contains nothing that is not to be found in previous publications, particularly in the investigations of Bohr.  The purpose of the book seems to me to be fulfilled if it contributes somewhat to the diffusion of that 'Kopenhagener Geist der Quantentheorie' [Copenhagen spirit of quantum theory] if I may so express myself, which has directed the entire development of modern atomic physics.

The term 'Copenhagen interpretation' suggests something more than just a spirit, such as some definite set of rules for interpreting the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, presumably dating back to the 1920s. However, no such text exists, and the writings of Bohr and Heisenberg contradict each other on several important issues. It appears that the particular term, with its more definite sense, was coined by Heisenberg around 1955, while criticizing alternative "interpretations" (e.g., David Bohm's) that had been developed.  Lectures with the titles 'The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Theory' and 'Criticisms and Counterproposals to the Copenhagen Interpretation', that Heisenberg delivered in 1955, are reprinted in the collection Physics and Philosophy.  Before the book was released for sale, Heisenberg privately expressed regret for having used the term, due to its suggestion of the existence of other interpretations, that he considered to be "nonsense". In a 1960 review of Heisenberg's book, Bohr's close collaborator Léon Rosenfeld called the term an "ambiguous expression" and suggested it be discarded. However, this did not come to pass, and the term entered widespread use.

Principles
There is no uniquely definitive statement of the Copenhagen interpretation. The term encompasses the views developed by a number of scientists and philosophers during the second quarter of the 20th century. This lack of a single, authoritative source that establishes the Copenhagen interpretation is one difficulty with discussing it; another complication is that the philosophical background familiar to Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, and contemporaries is much less so to physicists and even philosophers of physics in more recent times. Bohr and Heisenberg never totally agreed on how to understand the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, and Bohr distanced himself from what he considered Heisenberg's more subjective interpretation. Bohr offered an interpretation that is independent of a subjective observer, or measurement, or collapse; instead, an "irreversible" or effectively irreversible process causes the decay of quantum coherence which imparts the classical behavior of "observation" or "measurement".

Different commentators and researchers have associated various ideas with the term. Asher Peres remarked that very different, sometimes opposite, views are presented as "the Copenhagen interpretation" by different authors. N. David Mermin coined the phrase "Shut up and calculate!" to summarize Copenhagen-type views, a saying often misattributed to Richard Feynman and which Mermin later found insufficiently nuanced. Mermin described the Copenhagen interpretation as coming in different "versions", "varieties", or "flavors".

Some basic principles generally accepted as part of the interpretation include the following:
 Quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic.
 The correspondence principle: in the appropriate limit, quantum theory comes to resemble classical physics and reproduces the classical predictions.
 The Born rule: the wave function of a system yields probabilities for the outcomes of measurements upon that system.
 Complementarity: certain properties cannot be jointly defined for the same system at the same time. In order to talk about a specific property of a system, that system must be considered within the context of a specific laboratory arrangement. Observable quantities corresponding to mutually exclusive laboratory arrangements cannot be predicted together, but considering multiple such mutually exclusive experiments is necessary to characterize a system.

Hans Primas and Roland Omnès give a more detailed breakdown that, in addition to the above, includes the following:
 Quantum physics applies to individual objects. The probabilities computed by the Born rule do not require an ensemble or collection of "identically prepared" systems to understand.
 The results provided by measuring devices are essentially classical, and should be described in ordinary language.  This was particularly emphasized by Bohr, and was accepted by Heisenberg.
 Per the above point, the device used to observe a system must be described in classical language, while the system under observation is treated in quantum terms. This is a particularly subtle issue for which Bohr and Heisenberg came to differing conclusions. According to Heisenberg, the boundary between classical and quantum can be shifted in either direction at the observer's discretion. That is, the observer has the freedom to move what would become known as the "Heisenberg cut" without changing any physically meaningful predictions. On the other hand, Bohr argued both systems are quantum in principle, and the object-instrument distinction (the "cut") is dictated by the experimental arrangement. For Bohr, the "cut" was not a change in the dynamical laws that govern the systems in question, but a change in the language applied to them.
 During an observation, the system must interact with a laboratory device. When that device makes a measurement, the wave function of the system collapses, irreversibly reducing to an eigenstate of the observable that is registered. The result of this process is a tangible record of the event, made by a potentiality becoming an actuality.
 Statements about measurements that are not actually made do not have meaning. For example, there is no meaning to the statement that a photon traversed the upper path of a Mach–Zehnder interferometer unless the interferometer were actually built in such a way that the path taken by the photon is detected and registered.
 Wave functions are objective, in that they do not depend upon personal opinions of individual physicists or other such arbitrary influences.

There are some fundamental agreements and disagreements between the views of Bohr and Heisenberg. For example, Heisenberg emphasized a sharp "cut" between the observer (or the instrument) and the system being observed, while Bohr offered an interpretation that is independent of a subjective observer or measurement or collapse, which relies on an "irreversible" or effectively irreversible process, which could take place within the quantum system.

Another issue of importance where Bohr and Heisenberg disagreed is wave–particle duality. Bohr maintained that the distinction between a wave view and a particle view was defined by a distinction between experimental setups, whereas Heisenberg held that it was defined by the possibility of viewing the mathematical formulas as referring to waves or particles. Bohr thought that a particular experimental setup would display either a wave picture or a particle picture, but not both. Heisenberg thought that every mathematical formulation was capable of both wave and particle interpretations.

Nature of the wave function
A wave function is a mathematical entity that provides a probability distribution for the outcomes of each possible measurement on a system. Knowledge of the wave function together with the rules for the system's evolution in time exhausts all that can be predicted about the system's behavior. Generally, Copenhagen-type interpretations deny that the wave function provides a directly apprehensible image of an ordinary material body or a discernible component of some such, or anything more than a theoretical concept.

Probabilities via the Born rule

The Born rule is essential to the Copenhagen interpretation. Formulated by Max Born in 1926, it gives the probability that a measurement of a quantum system will yield a given result. In its simplest form, it states that the probability density of finding a particle at a given point, when measured, is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the particle's wave function at that point.

Collapse

The concept of wave function collapse postulates that the wave function of a system can change suddenly and discontinuously upon measurement. Prior to a measurement, a wave function involves the various probabilities for the different potential outcomes of that measurement. But when the apparatus registers one of those outcomes, no traces of the others linger. Since Bohr did not view the wavefunction as something physical, he never talks about "collapse". Nevertheless, many physicists and philosophers associate collapse with the Copenhagen interpretation.

Heisenberg spoke of the wave function as representing available knowledge of a system, and did not use the term "collapse", but instead termed it "reduction" of the wave function to a new state representing the change in available knowledge which occurs once a particular phenomenon is registered by the apparatus.

Role of the observer
Because they assert that the existence of an observed value depends upon the intercession of the observer, Copenhagen-type interpretations are sometimes called "subjective". This term is rejected by many Copenhagenists because the process of observation is mechanical and does not depend on the individuality of the observer. Wolfgang Pauli, for example, insisted that measurement results could be obtained and recorded by "objective registering apparatus". As Heisenberg wrote,

In the 1970s and 1980s, the theory of decoherence helped to explain the appearance of quasi-classical realities emerging from quantum theory, but was insufficient to provide a technical explanation for the apparent wave function collapse.

Completion by hidden variables?

In metaphysical terms, the Copenhagen interpretation views quantum mechanics as providing knowledge of phenomena, but not as pointing to 'really existing objects', which it regards as residues of ordinary intuition. This makes it an epistemic theory. This may be contrasted with Einstein's view, that physics should look for 'really existing objects', making itself an ontic theory.

The metaphysical question is sometimes asked: "Could quantum mechanics be extended by adding so-called "hidden variables" to the mathematical formalism, to convert it from an epistemic to an ontic theory?" The Copenhagen interpretation answers this with a strong 'No'. It is sometimes alleged, for example by J.S. Bell, that Einstein opposed the Copenhagen interpretation because he believed that the answer to that question of "hidden variables" was "yes". By contrast, Max Jammer writes "Einstein never proposed a hidden variable theory." Einstein explored the possibility of a hidden variable theory, and wrote a paper describing his exploration, but withdrew it from publication because he felt it was faulty.

Acceptance among physicists
During the 1930s and 1940s, views about quantum mechanics attributed to Bohr and emphasizing complementarity became commonplace among physicists. Textbooks of the time generally maintained the principle that the numerical value of a physical quantity is not meaningful or does not exist until it is measured. Prominent physicists associated with Copenhagen-type interpretations have included Lev Landau, Wolfgang Pauli, Rudolf Peierls, Asher Peres, Léon Rosenfeld, and Ray Streater.

Throughout much of the 20th century, the Copenhagen tradition had overwhelming acceptance among physicists. According to a very informal poll (some people voted for multiple interpretations) conducted at a quantum mechanics conference in 1997, the Copenhagen interpretation remained the most widely accepted label that physicists applied to their own views. A similar result was found in a poll conducted in 2011.

Consequences
The nature of the Copenhagen interpretation is exposed by considering a number of experiments and paradoxes.

Schrödinger's cat

This thought experiment highlights the implications that accepting uncertainty at the microscopic level has on macroscopic objects.  A cat is put in a sealed box, with its life or death made dependent on the state of a subatomic particle. Thus a description of the cat during the course of the experiment—having been entangled with the state of a subatomic particle—becomes a "blur" of "living and dead cat."  But this can't be accurate because it implies the cat is actually both dead and alive until the box is opened to check on it. But the cat, if it survives, will only remember being alive.  Schrödinger resists "so naively accepting as valid a 'blurred model' for representing reality." How can the cat be both alive and dead?

In Copenhagen-type views, the wave function reflects our knowledge of the system. The wave function  means that, once the cat is observed, there is a 50% chance it will be dead, and 50% chance it will be alive. (Some versions of the Copenhagen interpretation reject the idea that a wave function can be assigned to a physical system that meets the everyday definition of "cat"; in this view, the correct quantum-mechanical description of the cat-and-particle system must include a superselection rule.)

Wigner's friend

"Wigner's friend" is a thought experiment intended to make that of Schrödinger's cat more striking by involving two conscious beings, traditionally known as Wigner and his friend. (In more recent literature, they may also be known as Alice and Bob, per the convention of describing protocols in information theory.) Wigner puts his friend in with the cat. The external observer believes the system is in state . However, his friend is convinced that the cat is alive, i.e. for him, the cat is in the state . How can Wigner and his friend see different wave functions?

In a Heisenbergian view, the answer depends on the positioning of Heisenberg cut, which can be placed arbitrarily (at least according to Heisenberg, though not to Bohr). If Wigner's friend is positioned on the same side of the cut as the external observer, his measurements collapse the wave function for both observers. If he is positioned on the cat's side, his interaction with the cat is not considered a measurement. Different Copenhagen-type interpretations take different positions as to whether observers can be placed on the quantum side of the cut.

Double-slit experiment

In the basic version of this experiment, a light source, such as a laser beam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate. The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits to interfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles. However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles (not waves); the interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detected photon passes through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave). Such experiments demonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through.

According to Bohr's complementarity principle, light is neither a wave nor a stream of particles. A particular experiment can demonstrate particle behavior (passing through a definite slit) or wave behavior (interference), but not both at the same time.

The same experiment has been performed for light, electrons, atoms, and molecules. The extremely small de Broglie wavelength of objects with larger mass makes experiments increasingly difficult, but in general quantum mechanics considers all matter as possessing both particle and wave behaviors.

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox

This thought experiment involves a pair of particles prepared in what later authors would refer to as an entangled state. In a 1935 paper, Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted. If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) criterion of reality", positing that, "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity". From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of position and of momentum prior to either being measured.

Bohr's response to the EPR paper was published in the Physical Review later that same year. He argued that EPR had reasoned fallaciously. Because measurements of position and of momentum are complementary, making the choice to measure one excludes the possibility of measuring the other. Consequently, a fact deduced regarding one arrangement of laboratory apparatus could not be combined with a fact deduced by means of the other, and so, the inference of predetermined position and momentum values for the second particle was not valid. Bohr concluded that EPR's "arguments do not justify their conclusion that the quantum description turns out to be essentially incomplete."

Criticism

Incompleteness and indeterminism

Einstein was an early and persistent supporter of objective reality. Bohr and Heisenberg advanced the position that no physical property could be understood without an act of measurement, while Einstein refused to accept this. Abraham Pais recalled a walk with Einstein when the two discussed quantum mechanics: "Einstein suddenly stopped, turned to me and asked whether I really believed that the moon exists only when I look at it." While Einstein did not doubt that quantum mechanics was a correct physical theory in that it gave correct predictions, he maintained that it could not be a complete theory. The most famous product of his efforts to argue the incompleteness of quantum theory is the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen thought experiment, which was intended to show that physical properties like position and momentum have values even if not measured. The argument of EPR was not generally persuasive to other physicists.

Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, while participating in a colloquium at Cambridge, denied that the Copenhagen interpretation asserted "What cannot be observed does not exist". Instead, he suggested that the Copenhagen interpretation follows the principle "What is observed certainly exists; about what is not observed we are still free to make suitable assumptions. We use that freedom to avoid paradoxes."

Einstein was likewise dissatisfied with the indeterminism of quantum theory. Regarding the possibility of randomness in nature, Einstein said that he was "convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." Bohr, in response, reputedly said that "it cannot be for us to tell God, how he is to run the world".

The Heisenberg cut
Much criticism of Copenhagen-type interpretations has focused on the need for a classical domain where observers or measuring devices can reside, and the imprecision of how the boundary between quantum and classical might be defined. This boundary came to be termed the Heisenberg cut (while John Bell derisively called it the "shifty split"). As typically portrayed, Copenhagen-type interpretations involve two different kinds of time evolution for wave functions, the deterministic flow according to the Schrödinger equation and the probabilistic jump during measurement, without a clear criterion for when each kind applies. Why should these two different processes exist, when physicists and laboratory equipment are made of the same matter as the rest of the universe? And if there is somehow a split, where should it be placed? Steven Weinberg writes that the traditional presentation gives "no way to locate the boundary between the realms in which [...] quantum mechanics does or does not apply."

The problem of thinking in terms of classical measurements of a quantum system becomes particularly acute in the field of quantum cosmology, where the quantum system is the universe. How does an observer stand outside the universe in order to measure it, and who was there to observe the universe in its earliest stages? Advocates of Copenhagen-type interpretations have disputed the seriousness of these objections. Rudolf Peierls noted that "the observer does not have to be contemporaneous with the event"; for example, we study the early universe through the cosmic microwave background, and we can apply quantum mechanics to that just as well as to any electromagnetic field. Likewise, Asher Peres argued that physicists are, conceptually, outside those degrees of freedom that cosmology studies, and applying quantum mechanics to the radius of the universe while neglecting the physicists in it is no different from quantizing the electric current in a superconductor while neglecting the atomic-level details.

Alternatives

A large number of alternative interpretations have appeared, sharing some aspects of the Copenhagen interpretation while providing alternatives to other aspects.
The ensemble interpretation is similar; it offers an interpretation of the wave function, but not for single particles. The consistent histories interpretation advertises itself as "Copenhagen done right". More recently, interpretations inspired by quantum information theory like QBism and relational quantum mechanics have appeared. Experts on quantum foundational issues continue to favor the Copenhagen interpretation over other alternatives. Physicists who have suggested that the Copenhagen tradition needs to be built upon or extended include Rudolf Haag and Anton Zeilinger.

Under realism and determinism, if the wave function is regarded as ontologically real, and collapse is entirely rejected, a many-worlds interpretation results. If wave function collapse is regarded as ontologically real as well, an objective collapse theory is obtained. Bohmian mechanics shows that it is possible to reformulate quantum mechanics to make it deterministic, at the price of making it explicitly nonlocal. It attributes not only a wave function to a physical system, but in addition a real position, that evolves deterministically under a nonlocal guiding equation. The evolution of a physical system is given at all times by the Schrödinger equation together with the guiding equation; there is never a collapse of the wave function. The transactional interpretation is also explicitly nonlocal.

Some physicists espoused views in the "Copenhagen spirit" and then went on to advocate other interpretations. For example, David Bohm and Alfred Landé both wrote textbooks that put forth ideas in the Bohr–Heisenberg tradition, and later promoted nonlocal hidden variables and an ensemble interpretation respectively. John Archibald Wheeler began his career as an "apostle of Niels Bohr"; he then supervised the PhD thesis of Hugh Everett that proposed the many-worlds interpretation. After supporting Everett's work for several years, he began to distance himself from the many-worlds interpretation in the 1970s. Late in life, he wrote that while the Copenhagen interpretation might fairly be called "the fog from the north", it "remains the best interpretation of the quantum that we have".

Other physicists, while influenced by the Copenhagen tradition, have expressed frustration at how it took the mathematical formalism of quantum theory as given, rather than trying to understand how it might arise from something more fundamental. (E. T. Jaynes described the mathematical formalism of quantum physics as "a peculiar mixture describing in part realities of Nature, in part incomplete human information about Nature—all scrambled up together by Heisenberg and Bohr into an omelette that nobody has seen how to unscramble".) This dissatisfaction has motivated new interpretative variants as well as technical work in quantum foundations.

See also

Bohr–Einstein debates
Einstein's thought experiments
Fifth Solvay Conference
Philosophical interpretation of classical physics
Physical ontology
Popper's experiment
Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation

Notes

References

Further reading

Interpretations of quantum mechanics
Quantum measurement
University of Copenhagen

Copenhagen interpretation


Darby and Joan is a 1920 British drama film directed by Percy Nash and starring Derwent Hall Caine, Leal Douglas, Ivy Close, Meggie Albanesi and George Wynn. The screenplay was written by the novelist Hall Caine and set on the Isle of Man.

Plot
Sir Patrick and Lady Gorry sit by the fireside, and turning the pages of an old album, recall their past life. As a boy Patrick's mother, a widow, kept the mill in a small village in the Isle of Man. Sayle Moore, a large landowner, diverted the mill stream to create an artificial lake in his grounds, robbing the widow of her means of earning a living and bringing poverty to the Gorry's house. Mrs. Gorry and her son Patrick were left nearly destitute and in her heart there grew a great bitterness. She opened a small shop and earned enough for her son's education. One night Mrs. Gorry made her son kneel down and swear vengeance on Sayle Moore.
Moore had a daughter of whom he was fond. Patrick Gorry and Sheila Moore fell in love. Their parents would not agree to the marriage, particularly as Patrick has to stand trial on a charge of manslaughter, of which he is acquitted. The young couple married without consent and moved to London where Patrick reads for the bar to which he is called. After a long struggle with poverty he rises in his profession, becoming a judge.

Moore came to see Patrick, and wanted to adopt his little son, but the parents would not consent. Later the little boy was accidentally killed by his grandfather's carriage. The years passed on and Patrick was made a Judge. As a Judge he had to try the case of the man who in his early years had victimised the Gorry family. Patrick has the opportunity of securing the acquittal of the youth to whom his daughter is engaged, who like himself, has to stand in the dock to answer a charge of murder. They are only reconciled to their parents at the end of Sayle Moore's life, but have the satisfaction of assisting Mrs. Gorry in her declining years.

Cast
 Derwent Hall Caine - Patrick Gorry
 Ivy Close - Sheila Moore
 George Wynn - Reginald Stevenson
 Meggie Albanesi - Elin Gorry
 Joan Ritz - Lizzie
 Leal Douglas - Mrs Gorry
 Edward O'Neill - Sayle Moore
 Douglas Munro - Malatesta
 Ernest A. Douglas - Joseph Montague
 Edward Craig - David Montagne
 Mary Taviner - Sheila

References

External links

1920 films
Films directed by Percy Nash
1920 drama films
British silent feature films
British black-and-white films
1920s English-language films
1920s British films
Silent British drama films
English-language drama films

Darby and Joan (1920 film)


Mexico is a novel by James A. Michener published in 1992.

Plot

The main action of Mexico takes place in Mexico over a three-day period in the fictional city of Toledo in 1961. The occasion is the annual bullfighting festival, at which two matadors — one an acclaimed hero of the sport, the other a scrapping contender — are prepared to fight to the death for fame and glory.

Through the memories of the book's narrator, Norman Clay, an American journalist of Spanish and Indian descent, Michener provides plenty of historical background, including a depiction of the fictitious Indian civilization that once flourished on the city's periphery. The story focuses on bullfighting, but also provides insight into Mexican culture. The reader follows the bulls from their breeding to their "sorting" to the pageantry and spectacle of the bullring, where picadors and banderilleros prepare the bull for the entrance of the matador with his red cape.

References

1992 American novels
Novels by James A. Michener
Random House books
Novels set in Mexico
Fiction set in 1961
Novels set in the 1960s
Novels about journalists

Mexico (novel)


The Oral Roberts Golden Eagles baseball team is the intercollegiate baseball team of Oral Roberts University. It plays in the NCAA Division I Summit League. The team won the Mid-Con and Summit League regular season and tournament titles for 15 years straight between 1998 and 2012. Upon returning to the Summit League, the team repeated the feat in 2015 and 2016. In 2006, they advanced to the NCAA Super Regional.

Key moments

The ORU baseball team advanced to the College World Series in 1978 and has made 22 NCAA tournament appearances overall. In addition, ORU baseball made 15 consecutive NCAA tournament appearances from 1998 to 2012 and played in the regional finals in 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, and 2011, winning the 2006 Regional Championship. On June 4, 2023, ORU defeated Dallas Baptist University to advance to the Super Regional round of the NCAA tournament.

Notable players

Mike Moore was an ORU standout from 1979–81 and first-round draft pick. He played 14 seasons in the big leagues and was selected an American League All-Star in 1989. He played in consecutive World Series with the Oakland Athletics (1989 and 1990), winning a championship in 1989. Todd Burns (1982–84) was Moore's teammate in Oakland and helped the A's win three straight American League pennants (1988–90) and the 1989 World Series. Keith Lockhart (1985–86) played in the 1999 World Series as a member of the Atlanta Braves and helped that team win five consecutive National League Eastern Division titles. Tom Nieto (1981) played in the 1985 World Series with St. Louis Cardinals and won a championship in 1987 as a member of the Minnesota Twins. Doug Bernier, Michael Hollimon and Steve Holm all made their Major League debuts in 2008. Mike Mason, Keith Miller, Bob Zupcic, Larry Casian and Craig Colbert also played in the Major Leagues.

Notable coaches

Former head coach Larry Cochell guided ORU from 1977–86, leading the school to seven NCAA Regional appearances and the 1978 College World Series. Former coach Sunny Golloway was one of the best skippers in the NCAA Division I, guiding the Golden Eagles to a 294–136 record and five NCAA Regional appearances in seven years at the helm. He was an assistant coach for Team USA in the summer of 2002.

As first year head coach in 2004, Rob Walton guided ORU to the nation's best winning percentage (.820) while also setting a Summit League Conference mark with a 50–11 overall record. The 2004 Golden Eagles were ranked in the Top 20 for 12 consecutive weeks, reaching a high of No. 13 in late May. Walton led ORU to its ninth consecutive Summit League Tournament title and the program's 18th NCAA Regional appearance in 2006. Walton also earned ABCA Midwest Region Coach of the Year honors after guiding the Golden Eagles to a regional championship and final Top 25 ranking in all three major, a program first. Walton also served as the head coach for USA Baseball's National Team during the summer of 2008.

J. L. Johnson Stadium

J. L. Johnson Stadium has been the home of Golden Eagles baseball since 1978. It hosted its first game on March 6, 1978.

In 2008, a  facility was added which includes coaches' offices, a state-of-the-art weight room and the Grand Slam Room in which boosters and fans can watch ORU games in a climate-controlled environment. The facility is located down the right-field line.

Johnson Stadium has been host to three NCAA Regionals (1978,1980,1981), 14 conference tournaments, and many All-Americans. Many Major Leaguers have played at Johnson Stadium, including Roger Clemens, Joe Carter, Kirk Gibson, Tony Gwynn, Keith Lockhart, Pete Incaviglia, Kevin McReynolds, Mike Moore, and Robin Ventura.

H.A. Chapman Indoor Practice Facility

The H.A. Chapman Indoor Practice Facility opened in the Fall of 2009. The  facility, located just west of J. L. Johnson Stadium, features indoor practices areas for both baseball and track & field programs. Built at a cost of $1.2 million, the facility was funded exclusively through private donations, including a lead gift from the H.A. and Mary K. Chapman Charitable Trust. The baseball portion of the facility features a regulation-sized infield, three pitching areas and three netted batting cages. The track and field area features a complete pole vault area, high jump pit and long jump and triple jump practice areas.

Mid-Continent Conference/Summit League achievements

 Overall Record of 567–222 (.719)
 12 Summit League Regular-Season Titles
 13 Summit League Tournament Titles
 13 NCAA post-season appearances
 2006 Regional Champion
 2002, 2004, 2005, 2008 and 2009 NCAA Regional Runner-up
 Ranked as high as No. 23 nationally in 2008
 Ranked as high as No. 24 nationally in 2007
 Ranked as high as No. 14 nationally in 2006
 Ranked as high as No. 13 nationally in 2004
 Ranked as high as No. 20 nationally in 2002
 Ranked as high as No. 23 nationally in 1998
 Ranked No. 11 nationally in 1987 year end rankings
 21 All-Americans
 10 Freshman All-Americans
 4 Summit League Players of the Year
 11 Summit League Pitchers of the Year
 88 First Team All-Summit league selections
 42 Second Team All-Summit League selections
 70 Summit League All-Tournament selections
 13 Summit League Tournament MVPs

NCAA First-Team All-Americans selections

 1977 Bob Volk
 1978 Bill Springman
 1981 Mike Moore
 1981 Tom Nieto
 1982 Keith Mucha
 1984 Todd Burns
 1999 Jeff Stallings
 2004 Dennis Bigley
 2008 Brian Van Kirk

Major League Baseball
Oral Roberts has had 137 Major League Baseball Draft selections since the draft began in 1965.

See also
 List of NCAA Division I baseball programs

References

Oral Roberts Golden Eagles baseball


Period Records was an American record label that was founded in 1949.

History
Period Records was the label of Period Music Company. Period had a large catalog of classical and operetta recordings, as well as jazz and popular music.  In 1956, Period sold its jazz LP catalog (10 disks) to Bethlehem Records. Production of all its jazz recordings were supervised by Leonard Feather.  Several of the Period recordings had been previously released by Jazztone for mail-order club release.  Hungarian-born William Avar (né Vilmos Avar; 1899–1986) was president; Frank Stevens was general manager; Leonard Feather was head of A&R for jazz.  In 1950, Period was the American distributor for the French label L'Oiseau Lyre.  In 1965, Everest Records acquired Period Records. Period re-issued several European labels, including Swing (fr) and Disques Vogue, as well as American labels, including Dawn.  But Period also produced its own original recordings of artists that included Charles Mingus (1954), Jack Teagarden (1954), Ralph Burns (1954, 1955), Osie Johnson (1955), Maxine Sullivan (1955), Sonny Rollins (1957), Charlie Shavers (1957), Thad Jones (1957), Luckey Roberts (1958), and Danny Barker (1958).

References

Record labels established in 1949
Classical music record labels
Jazz record labels
New York (state) record labels
Mail-order retailers
Defunct record labels of the United States

Period Records


Thomas Chippendale, the younger (1749–1822) was an  English artist, furniture maker and designer, and the eldest of Thomas Chippendale's eleven children. He was devoted to his father and worked with Chippendale Senior until the later died in 1779. Thereafter he took over his father's business until Thomas Chippendale Jr. was obliged to close the doors on the family business.  The company, listed in Sheraton's The Cabinet Directory of 1803, went bankrupt in 1804 but was later re-established.  Thomas Chippendale was also a member of the Society of Arts and exhibited his paintings at the Royal Academy of Arts between 1784 and 1801.

References

External links
  The Chippendale Society, UK.

1749 births
1822 deaths
British cabinetmakers
18th-century English painters
English male painters
19th-century English painters
19th-century English male artists
18th-century English male artists

Thomas Chippendale, the younger


Surat Davud oghlu Huseynov (; 12 February 1959 – 31 July 2023) was an Azerbaijani colonel who served as Prime Minister. He rose to prominence during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, and his military career led, in 1993, to his rise to power, but he was later imprisoned.

Prior to the war
After serving in the army in 1977–1979 and later graduating from the Leninabad Technological Institute, Surat Huseynov worked as a plumber, a warehouse employee and an assistant operator at the Kirovabad Textile Factory. In 1983–1984 he resided in Novopavlovsk, Russian SFSR. For the next two years he worked as a wool sorter at a storing department in Shaki, Azerbaijan. In 1986 he became senior inspector of a textile factory in Yevlakh and was promoted to manager just before the war. He was considered one of key figures in Soviet Azerbaijan's black market and was known for having funded the sovereigntist Popular Front of Azerbaijan in the late Soviet era. He was married and had two children.

First Nagorno-Karabakh War
At the dawn of the conflict in 1990, Huseynov formed an armed group supported by the local Soviet Ground Forces division. He has been reported to have originated the group in Yevlakh. In the summer of 1992, his detachment took part in the Azerbaijani offensive which led to the capture of Mardakert on 4 July 1992. Two days prior to that President Abulfaz Elchibey appointed Huseynov his official representative in Nagorno-Karabakh and the neighbouring regions. In winter 1992–1993, when at the time Azerbaijani Minister of Defence Rahim Gaziyev ordered troops out of Haterk (a village near Mardakert), Huseynov relocated his detachments to Ganja and refused to disband them. As a result, Mardakert fell to Armenians in February 1993. Elchibey responded by removing Huseynov from the government.

During this period, Huseynov received extensive support from the leadership of the 104th Guards Airborne Division of the Soviet Airborne Troops headquartered in Ganja. This was due not only to the good personal relationship between them, but also because Huseynov was pro-Russian and did not conceal his feelings. At the end of May 1993 the last sub-units of the 104th Division left Azerbaijan, eventually to be relocated to Ulyanovsk in Russia, but handed over all their arms and military equipment to Huseynov.

Ganja revolt
The Popular Front of Azerbaijan blamed Huseynov for treason and for intentionally ceding the villages around Mardakert to Armenians (allowing their advance into Kalbajar region) to benefit Russian geopolitical interests in the region. After the remaining Soviet turned Russian troops left Ganja on 28 May 1993, President Abulfaz Elchibey initiated a military operation called Tufan aimed at arresting Huseynov and disarming his detachments. Elchibey deployed 4,000 troops led by Minister of Defence Dadash Rzayev, Commander of Internal Forces Fahmin Hajiyev and Attorney General Ikhtiyar Shirinov to Ganja. On 4 June 1993, at 6 o'clock in the morning, the two groups confronted each other, however not only did the Presidential Guard fail to disarm Huseynov, but the latter quickly defeated it. The number of casualties on both sides, as well as among civilians, was 69. Attorney General Ikhtiyar Shirinov among others was taken hostage, while Dadash Rzayev and Fahmin Hajiyev fled Ganja. Surat Huseynov demanded that Ikhtiyar Shirinov signed a warrant for President Elchibey's arrest on grounds of conspiracy, murder, and abuse of power, which was exercised immediately. Within several days Huseynov extended his control onto the neighbouring regions without meeting any opposition and started advancing toward the capital city of Baku. Upon Huseynov's approach on 18 June, Elchibey secretly fled the capital to his native village of Kalaki in Nakhchivan. Heydar Aliyev who had just returned to Baku from Nakhchivan City and was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan on 15 June, was subsequently voted to take over presidency in the country. On 27–29 June, Aliyev negotiated with Surat Huseynov, and as a result the latter agreed to stop his advance on the capital city in exchange to becoming Prime Minister of Azerbaijan with extensive authority over the Ministry of National Security of Azerbaijan, Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Internal Affairs. On 30 June, the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan elected Huseynov to the requested office.

Escape, conviction and later release
Surat Huseynov, now Prime Minister, reportedly expressed dissatisfaction with Heydar Aliyev signing the so-called "Contract of the Century" with the international oil consortium AIOC, which allowed Western companies to extract Azerbaijani oil in the Caspian Sea. According to Huseynov, such infringement of Russian interests in the region would not lead to positive outcomes for Azerbaijan. Some saw that as a manifestation of Huseynov's pro-Russian agenda which went back to his active contacts with Russian military commanders in 1990–1993. On 5 October 1994, riot squads reportedly accompanied by Huseynov's units attempted a coup d'état, supported by the military, against Aliyev, which was immediately suppressed. Huseynov fled to Russia. Negotiations with the Russian government resulted in Huseynov's extradition to Azerbaijan on 26 March 1997, where he was charged with treason and attempted coup, among other crimes. The arrest was performed simultaneously with the signing of the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between Azerbaijan and Russia, and a contract by which the Russian oil company LUKoil was to exploit the oil field of Yalama. On 15 February 1999, Surat Huseynov was sentenced to life in prison (highest form of punishment in Azerbaijan). In 2004, under pressure from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, President Ilham Aliyev pardoned him. Huseynov was released and later lived a secluded life in the town of Buzovna, near Baku.

In July 2023, Huseynov, who was suffering from stomach and kidney problems, travelled to Istanbul, Turkey on a flight from Moscow, to seek medical treatment. He died from gastrointestinal bleeding upon landing at Istanbul Airport on 31 July, at the age of 64.

References

1959 births
2023 deaths
Azerbaijani colonels
Military personnel from Ganja, Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani military personnel of the Nagorno-Karabakh War
Warlords
Politicians from Ganja, Azerbaijan
Prime Ministers of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan Technical University alumni
National Heroes of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani prisoners and detainees
People extradited to Azerbaijan
Prisoners and detainees of Azerbaijan
Deaths from gastrointestinal hemorrhage

Surat Huseynov


A writ of attaint is an obsolete writ in English law, issued to inquire whether a jury had given a false verdict in a trial.

In criminal cases, the writ of attaint was issued at the suit of the Crown, and in civil cases at the suit of either party.  The correctness of the verdict would be determined by a body known as the grand jury of attaint. This panel, consisting of twenty-four members, was twice the size of a normal trial jury. The party bringing the attaint could introduce only the same evidence that was originally given at trial while the jury whose verdict was questioned was allowed to present new matter.

If it were found that an erroneous verdict had been given, the wrong was redressed, and the original jury was punished. The punishment inflicted was quite severe; at the common law, the judgement was:

However, during the reign of Henry VIII, Parliament passed an act reducing the punishment to perpetual infamy and a fine.

In criminal cases, it appears to have become obsolete by the end of the 15th century. Procedure by attaint in civil cases had also been gradually giving place to the practice of granting new trials, and after the decision in Bushell's Case in 1670 it became obsolete. The writ was finally abolished by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors guilty of embracery.

References

Attaint
Attaint
Medieval English law

Writ of attaint


Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is a common sulfate mineral made of calcium sulfate. Gypsum has been used as a building material for a long time, possibly since the neolithic. Today, it is used in drywall, and as an ingredient of plaster of Paris. It can also be used as a fertilizer. It is softer than most minerals, with a value of 2 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. This mineral can be, somewhat, scratched with your fingernail. A fingernail, with a value of 2.5 on the  Mohs scale of mineral hardness is in fact higher than the mineral shown above. It is an ingredient of Portland cement. Gypsum was used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia by sculptors. It is also used in making surgical and orthopedic cast molds.

Minerals
Calcium compounds

Gypsum


Shiraz Maher (born 12 July 1981) is a British writer and analyst, and Director at the International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR) at King's College London. He also teaches at Johns Hopkins University. The son of Pakistani immigrants, for several years after 9/11 Maher was a member of the Islamist organisation Hizb ut-Tahrir, but left the movement after the 2005 London bombings and became an outspoken critic of radical Islam. He has written for leading newspapers in Britain and elsewhere, produced reports and studies on counterterrorism strategy, and appeared in the international news media as a commentator on jihad and radicalisation.

Early life
Maher was born in 1981 in Birmingham to British-Pakistani parents. His father was an accountant, and when Shiraz was an infant the family moved to Saudi Arabia. He stated he had never been very concerned about Saudi culture, noting he "lived in a Western compound, with everything you could want: tennis courts, swimming pools, cricket, basketball, bike races, all gender-mixed."

One day when he was eleven, he was wearing a Daffy Duck T-shirt bearing the slogan "I Support Operation Desert Storm" and a Saudi man challenged him about the sentiment. "I said, 'Why not? Saddam's a terrible man.' The man said: 'No. This is an American conspiracy. These people use us as an excuse to establish bases on holy soil.'"

In 1995, when he was age 14, Maher moved back to Britain. He attended Solihull School from 1995 to 2000. In 2000, he enrolled at the University of Leeds.

Radical phase
Reacting to the attacks on 9/11, Maher thought to himself that America deserved the attacks as reciprocation for meddling with the affairs of the Arab world, and supporting Israel. "You shall reap what you sow, and this is what you've sown for a long time." He later said that 9/11 "activated" latent anti-American ideas he had picked up in Saudi Arabia. After the attacks, he gave up alcohol, ended his relationship with his girlfriend, and joined Hizb ut-Tahrir. By the time the US invaded Afghanistan, Maher had recovered his Muslim faith and moved into an apartment across the street from a local mosque.

He became a graduate student at University of Cambridge. Meanwhile, he rose in ranks at Hizb ut-Tahrir, advancing from cell leader to regional director. He was even invited to join the group's British executive committee. In 2005, however, he began to hold doubts about Hizb ut-Tahrir. At Cambridge, he encountered numerous sects of Islam and decided that Hizb ut-Tahrir's ideology was erroneous and led to terrorism. He left Hizb ut-Tahrir on 7 July 2005, the day the London Underground bombings took place, killing 52 people.

Post-radical years
After leaving radical Islam, Maher dedicated his life to opposing jihad. For a time, he ran Standpoint magazine's "Focus on Islamism" blog with Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens. He produced a television program for BBC's Panorama entitled "How I became a Muslim extremist." He also worked for Policy Exchange, writing a series of studies on national security. His report on reforming the government's counter-terrorism strategy was praised by both Michael Gove, then Britain's Secretary of State for Education, and Lord Guthrie of Craigiebank, former Chief of the Defence Staff.

Maher is today a senior fellow at the International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation, King's College London, where "he researches Europe's homegrown Islamist movement and profiles the droves of young Britons who are decamping for Syria and Iraq to wage jihad with ISIS, aka the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham." He also researches the development of Salafi jihadism ideology, and jihadist organisations in the broader Middle East. As a result of this research he has been invited to give evidence before three parliamentary committees. In addition, Maher works as an adjunct at Johns Hopkins University, where he co-teaches a course on radicalisation with Peter Neumann. He was a visiting lecturer at Washington College during the spring semester of 2012.

Views
Maher has said that the British government spent years ignoring the radicalisation of a generation of British Muslims. "In the late 1980s, early '90s," he said, "this country opened its doors to radical Islamist preachers from around the world who began to preach a very hard-line, totalitarian message about what Islam should look like." Sohrab Ahmari wrote in the Wall Street Journal that, thanks in part to Maher's efforts, "the British branch of Hizbut Tahrir has been decimated ... Hizbut Tahrir rallies used to draw 20,000 supporters. Today 'they struggle to get 1,000.'"

Maher has stated, "Did bin Laden win? Yes. He did not want there to be a strong hand in the region for the world's greatest and most powerful force for good—the United States. And voluntarily, we chose to disengage, and watched as these radical millenarians came in and took over ... This is a disgrace and a humiliation." Maher has described Iran's Press TV and Russia Today as "propaganda channels." He has praised Benjamin Netanyahu for bombing Syria, has described it as a "palpable falsity" to call Israel an apartheid state, and has urged the European Union to blacklist Hezbollah as a terrorist organisation.

Honors and awards
Maher was awarded the first Konrad Adenauer Foundation Fellowship in Energy Security. He was a fellow at the European Centre for Energy and Resource Security (EUCERS) where he explored the impact of political unrest in the Middle East on energy markets.

Publications
Maher's articles have appeared in Standpoint, Foreign Affairs, The Telegraph, The Guardian, The Spectator, The Wall Street Journal, The Independent, The Daily Mail, Haaretz, The Jewish Chronicle, and The New Statesman, and on the websites of BBC News and the Gatestone Institute. His reports and studies include the following:
Salafi-Jihadism:  The History of an Idea, Hurst Publ. (April 2016).
"Greenbirds: Measuring Importance and Influence in Syrian Foreign Fighter Networks", ICSR (April 2014; co-authored with Joseph Carter and Peter Neumann).
"The Arab Spring and its impact on supply and production in global markets", European Centre for Energy and Resource Security, (October 2013).
"Between 'engagement' and a 'values-led' approach: Britain and the Muslim Brotherhood from 9/11 to the Arab Spring, in Western reactions to the rise of Islamists in the MENA" (Al-Mesbar, January 2013; co-authored with Martyn Frampton).
"Change and Continuity: Hizb ut Tahrir's strategy and ideology in Britain, in Revisionism and Diversification in New Religious Movements" (Ashgate, October 2013).
"Al-Qaeda at the crossroads: how the terror group is responding to the loss of its leaders and the Arab Spring", ICSR (August 2012; co-authored with Peter Neumann).
"Lights, Camera, Jihad: Al-Shabaab's Western media strategy", ICSR (November 2012; co-authored with Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens and James Sheehan).
"Preventing Violent Extremism: Lessons from the Government's revised 'Prevent' Strategy", World Defence Systems (September 2011).
"Ties that Bind: How the story of Muslim soldiers can forge a national identity", Policy Exchange (September 2011).
"Choosing our friends wisely: criteria for engagement with Muslim groups", Policy Exchange (April 2009; co-authored with Martyn Frampton)
Mapping contemporary Salafi-Jihadism, Fathom, Summer 2016

References

Alumni of the University of Leeds
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Critics of Islamism
British journalists
British writers
British writers of Pakistani descent
Former members of Hizb ut-Tahrir
1981 births
Living people

Shiraz Maher


Andrea Cionna (born 1968) is an Italian athlete from Osimo in the Province of Ancona. He holds the world record for the fastest marathon run by a totally blind man, set in 2:31:59 in Rome in 2007, and has won two bronze medals in blind long-distance running at the Paralympic Games.

Biography
Cionna first competed at the Paralympic Games in 2004, entering two long-distance events and running with a sighted guide. In the 10,000 metres T11 event for totally blind runners, he finished third in 33:59.98, winning the bronze medal, behind Kenya's Henry Wanyoike (gold) and Portugal's Carlos Amaral Ferreira (silver). In the T11 marathon, he also finished third, in 2:49:59, behind Japan's Yuichi Takahashi (gold), and Portugal's Carlos Ferreira (silver).

He competed again at the Paralympics in 2008, a year after setting a world record in the blind marathon. At the 2008 Paralympics, however, the T11 marathon had been abolished as a separate event, and athletes categorised T11 (totally blind) ran in the same marathon as athletes categorised T12 (partially sighted). Cionna ran fastest of the blind athletes, setting a Paralympic record for his category in 2:36:43, but he finished the race in seventh place, behind six runners categorised T12. The marathon was the only event he entered; the 10,000 metre race was now also a T12 event.

See also
 Marathon at the Paralympics
 Italy at the 2004 Summer Paralympics

References

External links

Paralympic athletes for Italy
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Paralympics
Paralympic bronze medalists for Italy
Italian male marathon runners
1968 births
Living people
Sportspeople from the Province of Ancona
World record holders in para-athletics
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
Paralympic medalists in athletics (track and field)

Andrea Cionna


Mistelbach an der Zaya (; Mistelbach on the (River) Zaya; Central Bavarian: Mistlboch) is a town in the northeast of Austria in Lower Austria, one of Austria's nine federal states. It is located roughly 40 km northeast of Austria's capital Vienna. Furthermore, it consists of 8 subordinated municipalities.

Geographical location
Mistelbach is located in the North East of Lower Austria's Wine Quarter (Weinviertel), approximately 25 to 30 km from the Czech and the Slovak borders. It lies next to the main road connection between Brno (Czech Republic) and Vienna (Road B7).

History
Early settlements in the Mistelbach area can be traced back to pre-Christian times.

Around 1130 Mistelbach was mentioned on official deeds for the first time. After the Lords of Mistelbach had ceased around 1370 the initially royal estates of Wilfersdorf were given to the House of Lichtenstein.

Mistelbach was granted its first right to hold markets in 1372. Today, the town still hosts four markets per year. Mistelbach received its town charter July 5, 1874.

In the 19th century Mistelbach was strongly influenced by its connection to the Austrian Eastern Railway. It eventually became the district's capital and schools were built. In the 20th century Mistelbach experienced difficulties caused by its geographical proximity to the Iron Curtain. Nevertheless, the town developed into a regional center of the Eastern Winequarter (Weinviertel).

Population
According to the 2011 census, Mistelbach had 10,963 residents, compared to a 2001 census population of 10,644. In 1991 Mistelbach counted 10,234 residents, in 1981 10,251 and in 1971 10,235.

Politics
The post of mayor is held by Mr. Chrisitan Balon. Mr. Gabauer acts as Chief Municipal Officer.
After local elections March 6, 2005 the 37 seats of the Municipal Council are divided as follows:
ÖVP (Austrian Christian Democratic Party): 20 seats, SPÖ (Austrian Social Democratic Party): 11 seats, LAB: 3 seats, Green Party of Austria: 2 seats, and FPÖ (Austrian Freedom Party): 1 seat.

Schools
 HTL (Higher Technical School) for Healthcare Technologies
 HAK & HAS (Higher Commercial Academy/Higher Commercial School)
 BORG (Grammar School)
 HS (Public School)
 VS (Elementary School)
 ASO (School for Mentally Handicapped Children)
 Vocational School
 Wine Farmer's School
 Nurse's Training School

Sights

 Gothic Church on Church Hill
 built around 1500, with a gothic Madonna out of sandstone
 Romanic mortuary (Karner)
 built around 1200
 Town Hall
 Trinity Column
 Baroque castle (Barockschlößl) in Museum Lane (Museumsgasse)
 Monastery of the Fraternity of the Barnabiten
 built 1687, with precious ceiling frescos by Kainz, Rossaforte and Maulpertsch
 Column commemorating Mistelbach's suffering under the Black Death (Pestsäule)
 Weather Station in Mistelbach's Town Park
 Town center (Stadtsaal)
 Museum Center Mistelbach
 including the Hermann Nitsch Museum, opened in May 2007
 Hermann Nitsch lived near Mistelbach, in the small village of Prinzendorf. The artist is famous for his unconventional style and for his performance art, for which he also faces considerable criticism.
 Culture Scenery (Kulturlandschaft) around Paasdorf
 Historic Barn (Hofstadl), built in the 19th century in the so-called ship-body style Siebenhirten.

Mistelbach is also home to one of the region's most popular, though traditional Vienna-style coffee houses "Cafe Harlekin" which has become an icon of the city's lifestyle over the years.

Subordinated municipalities
 Ebendorf
 Eibesthal
 Frättingsdorf
 Hörersdorf
 Hüttendorf, within the municipality of Mistelbach
 Kettlasbrunn
 Lanzendorf, within the municipality of Mistelbach
 Paasdorf
 Siebenhirten

Economy and infrastructure
In 2001 there were 583 non-agricultural enterprises in Mistelbach. In 1999 agriculture- and forestry-related enterprises amounted to 281. According to 2001 census data 4,776 people out of the total population worked in Mistelbach. The labor force participation rate is 45.9%.

Gallery

Notable people
 Oswald Kabasta, conductor

References

External links

 ivinginmistelbach.at

Cities and towns in Mistelbach District

Mistelbach


The Redland is an American hip hop and R&B duo that originated in Atlanta, Georgia. The group was formed in August 2005, when both its members Earvin Rodney (rhymes, vocals) and Robert Nkosi Evans (vocals) were still attending Morehouse College. Band members state that The Redland title symbolizes The Redlands of Louisiana and Oklahoma, where Earvin Rodney and Robert Nkosi Evans come from respectively. After founding The Redland, Earvin Rodney and Robert Nkosi Evans became better known by their stage names Earv Legend and Kose respectively.

With the debut of their single release, "So Far", featured on the NBA 2K11 soundtrack, NBA 2K11 officially introduced The Redland beyond the Morehouse College campus.

Beginnings
The Redland members both had individual passions for music. However, after meeting at Morehouse College in 2001, they discovered and cultivated their talents together as The Redland. Initially, the band was creating music for fun, but after building on-campus fan base and getting attention, they invested in professional studio equipment and decided to devote themselves to a musical career.

Career
In 2009, The Redland released their debut album EPIC that was made available for purchase on iTunes. The album featured singer Billie Miles. The album cover was shot by photographer and cinematographer Damien Marcano, and a video was shot for the single EPIC. The video aired on Fuse and VH1 Soul.

Following the success of EPIC, The Redland released free mixtape Dontknowwhatitmeans.com (Mixtape) in 2009. Djbooth.net sponsored and introduced the free album's lead single "Don't Know What It Means". Mixtape tracks sample from such classic artists as Nirvana, Tupac, Led Zeppelin, Jay Z, Outkast, Jimi Hendrix, The Killers, Ice Cube, Lil Wayne, and Red Hot Chili Peppers. The mixtape was a Djbooth.net success receiving 4.6 out of 5 stars in member ratings.

In 2011, The Redland released Hip Hop Evolved on iTunes and the video for the album's lead single "Cool Out" appeared on YouTube. Featuring singer Bree D'Val and Grammy winner Bobby Avila as guitarist, the video showed the collaborators' crossing paths in Juarez, Mexico. The strangers go on to ride off  together after sharing a cool, tranquil performance. The video was shot in California's  Mojave Dessert.

The Redland's mixtape The Life. TheParty was released in late 2012 on the band's website. The Life. The Party's most popular song, "Bad Girls" (The Redland's take on Lana Del Rey's hit video "Games"), was featured in BeforetheBig Remix Battle against Kinetics and One Love. The Redland won the competition with 78% of all votes.

An Enlightened Contagion which is The Redland's first full studio album, was released in 2014 on iTunes. Album is written entirely by Earv and Kose, with every track produced by Kose. An Enlightened Contagion draws from the language of The Redland Manifesto, which is full of declarations about their goals and viewpoint. In 2015 The Redland released An Enlightened Contagion Deluxe which includes remixes and is a 16-track collection with messages on empowerment, survival, tolerance, consciousness and social justice.

Band members
 Earvin Rodney (rhymes, vocals), born October 20, 1983, is from New York City and grew up in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
 Robert Nkosi Evans (vocals), born March 10, 1983, is from Waco, Texas and grew up in Ardmore, Oklahoma.

Earv Legend stamps each song with rap lyrics. Kose serves The Redland not only as a rapper and singer, but he also produces each of their beats.

Kose described his counterpart Earv Legend in an interview for Adam's World: "As an artist Earv Legend provides a vivid view of what he sees around him. He does this without judgment. He can find the poetry in any subject or person. I really don't look at him as just a rapper. To me he is more like an author who has just chosen music as his platform for now."
The interview continues with Earv's apt description of Kose: "Kose is that once in a generation musician. He literally, out of everyone, is one of my favorite artists of all time. It's just a matter of time before the world hears what I've heard and comes to the same conclusion."

Musical style and influences
The Redland has citied Tupac, John Legend, Bob Dylan and Common as their influencers. The band mixes various styles and genres from hip-hop, rap and R&B to pop and alternative to create a different sound.

Media and appearances
The Redland's most widespread success has been its song placement on Visual Concepts and 2K Sport's NBA 2K11 video game. The Redland's song, "So Far", was chosen to be featured on the game that went on to sell over 5.5 million units worldwide. "So Far"'s presence on YouTube encouraged covers, inspired tributes, and even fueled arguments over lyrics and meanings.

Over the years, The Redland has visited many radio stations for on-air interviews, including National Public Radio's Chocolate City; hosted by L.A.'s own Garth Trinidad. The band had video placement on On Demand. The Redland was selected for Virgin American In-Flight Airplay in the "New Music Discovered" category, and also for the Road to the Canadian Music Fest Tour 2010. The Redland's single Epic also made Rap Networks Record Breakers Top 30, marking number 17.

The band has performed across Atlanta at Stankonia, The Sweet Auburn Festival, The Masquerade, East Atlanta Lounge, MJQ's, and Smith's Olde Bar. While in L.A., they performed at The Roxy Theatre. On a trip to London in 2013, The Redland performed at popular night club Jalouse. In 2015 The Redland performed live at Midem, annual live music and networking festival and conference in Cannes, France.

According to The Redland website and social media posts, the band supports social justice and wants to use the power of music to influence issues such as Equality, World Hunger, Youth Development, Education, Voting, Political Activism, Women's Rights, Racial Incarceration Disparity and Gun Violence. The Redland has chosen the tagline "Where Music Meets Social Justice" to communicate their overall philosophy.

Discography

Albums

Songs

Music Videos

References

External links
The Redland Official website
The Redland Facebook page
The Redland Twitter

Alternative hip hop groups
American rhythm and blues musical groups
Musical groups established in 2005
Musical groups from Atlanta
Rappers from Atlanta
Southern hip hop groups
Musical duos from Georgia (U.S. state)
Hip hop duos
2005 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
African-American musical groups

The Redland


Angella Nazarian is an Iranian-born American former academic, non-fiction author, conference organizer and philanthropist.

Early life
Angella Nazarian was born as Angella Maddahi in Tehran, Iran in the late 1960s, to a Jewish family. Her father was a bazaar trader from Rasht. Her family name was originally Yacobzadeh; he changed it to Maddahi to obviate anti-Semitic discrimination. Moreover, they did not tell other people they were Jewish. She has a sister and three brothers. She was educated at Ettefagh, a Jewish school in Tehran.

During the Iranian Revolution of 1979, she immigrated to the United States with her family, settling in Beverly Hills, California, where her uncle and brothers lived. The next year, her parents went back to Iran to sell their assets, but they were not allowed to leave because of the ongoing Iran–Iraq War. By 1985, they managed to escape to Pakistan, and were sent back to the United States by the Jewish Federations of North America. Both Angella and her parents received political asylum in the United States. They are not allowed to visit Iran again. An interview of her early life as a refugee conducted by JIMENA was published in The Jerusalem Post.

Career
Nazarian was a Professor of Psychology at Mount St. Mary's University, California State University, Long Beach and the Los Angeles Valley College for eleven years.

She is a non-fiction author and has written four books. Her first book, Life as a Visitor, chronicled her departure from Iran and life as a refugee in California. Her second book, Pioneers of the Possible: Celebrating Visionary Women of the World, was a collection of essays about female role models. Her third book, Visionary Women, highlights the lives of twenty female luminaries of modern times. In her fourth book "Creative Couples: Collaborations that Changed History", Nazarian explores the various forms a couple can take and dives deep into the stories of fifteen couples who motivate one another, work together, and change lives as a team.

Nazarian was a speaker at the 2012 Milken Institute Global Conference. In 2013, she organized a conference on women's rights called Women A.R.E.. Speakers included Wallis Annenberg and Sharon Stone.

Philanthropy
Angella co-founded Looking Beyond, a non-profit organization that promotes awareness and enriches the lives of children and young adults with special needs.

In 2015, Angella co-founded the non-profit women's leadership organization, Visionary Women, along with her co-founders, former Mayor of Beverly Hills and City Council member, Honorable Lili Bosse, and former US Ambassador, Nicole Avant, and Veronica Smiley, bringing together some of the most dynamic thought leaders in the country for in-depth conversations. She now serves as the organization's president. Speakers include 2011 Nobel Peace Laureate Leymah Gbowee, President of Conde Nast Entertainment, Dawn Ostroff, Vice President of Original Content at Netflix, Pauline Fischer, and five-time Emmy Winning journalist Giselle Fernandez.

With her husband, she has endowed the David and Angella Nazarian Youth Program at Sinai Temple, a Conservative synagogue in Westwood, for children from the 9th to the 12th grade. In 2014, they were also honored for their Jewish and pro-Israel philanthropy by Hillel 818, the chapter of Hillel: The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life for students at California State University, Northridge (CSUN), Pierce College and the Los Angeles Valley College. Additionally, they endowed the Angella and David Nazarian Social Innovators in Residence program at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.

She is a member of the Iranian American Women Foundation and has spoken at conferences on their behalf.

Awards
Nazarian was awarded an honorary Doctorate Degree in Letters and Science from Woodbury University in 2017. She is also the recipient of the Ellis Island Medal of Honor, which is presented annually to American citizens whose accomplishments in their field and inspired service to the United States are cause for celebration.

In October 2020, Angeleno Magazine honored Nazarian on their list of "The 25 Most Influential Angelenos".

In 2018, CSQ honored Nazarian in the "Visionaries Awards in Philanthropy, Art,  & Culture".

In 2017, LA Confidential listed Nazarian as a "Woman of Influence" in their women's issue.

In 2015, the Los Angeles Lakers and Comerica Bank presented Ms. Nazarian with the Women's Leadership Award in the category of Women of Diversity.

Personal life
She is married to David Nazarian, an investor, philanthropist and son of business mogul and philanthropist Younes Nazarian. They have two sons.

Bibliography
Life as a Visitor (Assouline, 2009).
Pioneers of the Possible: Celebrating Visionary Women of the World (Assouline, 2012).
Visionary Women (Assouline, 2015)
Creative Couples: Collaborations that Changed History (Assouline, 2019)

References

External links
Official website
The David and Angella Nazarian Leadership Program at Sinai Temple

Living people
Writers from Tehran
Academics from Tehran
People from Beverly Hills, California
Iranian emigrants to the United States
Refugees in the United States
Mount St. Mary's University (Los Angeles) faculty
California State University, Long Beach faculty
American women writers
Philanthropists from California
American philanthropists
Iranian philanthropists
Iranian Jews
Conservative Jews
Angella
Exiles of the Iranian Revolution in Pakistan
Exiles of the Iranian Revolution in the United States
Year of birth missing (living people)

Angella Nazarian


Jessica Campbell Jones Cage is a fictional character and superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, and is the protagonist of her series of the same name, who had used the aliases Jewel, Knightress, and Power Woman. After hanging up her costume, she became the owner and sole employee of Alias Private Investigations, but would also marry Luke Cage and start a family with him.

She was created by Brian Michael Bendis and Michael Gaydos, and first appeared in Alias #1 in November of 2001.

Portrayal
The character made her professional debut in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series Jessica Jones and in The Defenders, played by American actress Krysten Ritter.
Marvel Comics superheroes
Avengers (comics) characters

Jessica Jones


Joaquín Bernardo Calvo Rosales (1799–1865) Joaquin Bernardo Calvo Rosales was a Costa Rican politician, born in Cartago, Costa Rica, in 1799. His first wife was Juana Vicenta Fernandez y Quirós and he remarried to Salvadora Mora y Perez.

He studied in Cartago with Rafael Francisco Osejo.

He was interim General Minister of Costa Rica 1827 to 1835 and Political Head of the Eastern Department in 1835. For his participation in the War of Liga (civil war of 1835) he was for a time exiled in Nicaragua. Later he was Magistrate of the Court of appeal, Minister of Property and War, Minister of Interior and Exterior Relations, Minister of Exterior Relations and Ecclesiastic Businesses, Minister of Interior and annexed portfolios and President of the Senate and the Legislative Body. As Chancellor, he signed in 1856 the Calvo treaty, the first bordering agreement between Costa Rica and Colombia.

He died in San José, Costa Rica, in 1865.

His son Joaquín Bernardo Calvo Mora was, for many years, Minister Plenipotentiary of Costa Rica in Washington, D.C.

1799 births
1865 deaths
People from Cartago Province
Government ministers of Costa Rica
Presidents of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
Finance ministers of Costa Rica
Foreign ministers of Costa Rica

Joaquín Bernardo Calvo Rosales


Clopton is a small village and civil parish located in North Northamptonshire, close to the Cambridgeshire border. The village stretches along the north side of the B662 and was recorded in the Domesday Book as 'Clotone'. At the time of the 2001 census, the parish's population was 134 people. The Village Church of St Peter was built in about 1863 by Richard Armstrong.

In 1395, the noblewoman Agnes Hotot married into the Dudley family at Clopton. Before her marriage, she was known for besting a man in a lance fight; when her ailing father was unable to meet the arranged dueling challenge, Hotot took his place, disguising herself in his armour. She knocked her opponent off his horse – and then revealed her true identity. The Dudley family later created a new crest in honour of her victory.

The village is reputed to be haunted by a ghost known as Skulking Dudley, who lived in the area in the 14th century. Skulking Dudley Coppice is named after him.

References

External links

Villages in Northamptonshire
North Northamptonshire
Civil parishes in Northamptonshire

Clopton, Northamptonshire


Field can mean:
an area of land in a farm, which may be used for crops or animals; also a meadow or area that is empty of trees, and has mostly grass.
in computing, a field is an item/category of data, e.g. first name; a field contains data about one aspect of the table, e.g. a field can contain all of the first names of a table. An individual entry in a field, e.g. Anna for the first name field, is called a field value. A record contains all of the field values about a particular subject, such as an employee.
field of vision, the area in sight of a person.
in mathematics, a certain kind of algebraic structure: field (mathematics)
in physics, a field is seen as extending throughout a large region of space so that it influences everything: field (physics).
magnetic field,  the area around a magnet in which there is magnetic force

See also: force field (technology)

Basic English 850 words

Field


Italian irredentism in Dalmatia is related to the tentative of accession to Italy of coastal Dalmatia, promoted by the Dalmatian Italians from the Napoleonic era to World War II.

History

With the rise of the Risorgimento, in all Italian areas that were excluded from the unification of Italy (and with Italian majority population) started to be widely diffused the Italian movement called "Irredentism".

In the case of Dalmatia, after Napoleon, there was the development of Slav nationalism against Italian irredentism. But until 1848 there was still some convergence between these two ethnic groups, in order to create an independent Dalmatia inside the Hapsburg Empire.

Dalmatian Italians always felt connected to the Italian Risorgimento, and among them were widely followed the ideas, intentions and ideals that flourished in the Peninsula. At Zara, in 1822, the Imperial Government made an 'Inquisition of State' to twenty-five Dalmatian Italians "Carbonari", another twenty-five were "persecuted" and sixty declared "suspicious." One of the supporters of this initial irredentism was Niccolo Tommaseo, born in Sebenico. He was an Italian Dalmatian linguist, journalist and essayist who become internationally famous because editor of the first Dizionario della Lingua Italiana.

In 1848, many young Italians from Istria and Dalmatia formed a 'Legion', crossed the Adriatic, and fought with Niccolo Tommaseo for the "Republic of Venice". And in the same year, six Dalmatian Italians also fought for the "Roman Republic". One of them was Federico Seismit-Doda from Ragusa, who became a member of the Italian Parliament and even Finance Minister of the Kingdom of Italy under Benedetto Cairoli (1878) and Francesco Crispi (1889–1890). In the battle of Curtatone, as a first lieutenant of the Battalion 'Bande Nere', fought against the Austrians the Dalmatian Giurovich Marino: he was killed by the Austrian soldiers in Livorno as a promoter of the ideals of Giuseppe Mazzini. Twenty were the Dalmatians in the Italian independence war of 1859-1860 enrolled in the Italian army, or in the red shirts of Giuseppe Garibaldi. Among others, Marco Cossovich, a former lieutenant of the "Guardia Nobile" for the protection of Venice, fought in Calatafimi and Palermo: one of the few that Garibaldi recalled by name in his book "I Mille". In the third Italian war of Independence, George Caravan from Tenin (near Zara), commanded the 5th Regiment of Grenadiers; after promotion, he became adjutant general of the King of Italy Umberto I.

With the battle of Lissa, part of Third Italian War of Independence, in 1866 began a period of open hostility against the Dalmatian Italians by the Austrians, who favored the Croatian part because on their side.

The historian Matteo Bartoli in his book "The language of the Italian Venezia Giulia and Dalmatia", wrote that:

The most renowned Dalmatian Italian in those years was Antonio Bajamonti, the last Italian mayor of Spalato. He spent his entire life and his own activity for this city, but his economic expenses were never reimbursed by the Austrians despite repeated promises. He was a moderate irredentist who was the propeller of important public works in his city, including the introduction of lighting gas, building the aqueduct and the hospital, creating technical schools, and doing the foundation of the Dalmatian Bank. For his initiative Split was also given a square surrounded by galleries. His most famous work was the construction of the big fountain that was named later after him. Three months later after the second opening of the fountain, Antonio Bajamonti died (the fountain was destroyed in 1947 by Yugoslav authorities who considered it as a symbol of fascism and Italian domination of the city). He created the Società Politica Dalmata in 1886 in order to defend the Italian characteristics of Spalato but died at age 69 in 1891 with debt up to his neck.

Another famous Dalmatian irredentist was Arturo Colautti. He was a writer and journalist who -from his native Zara- relocated to Spalato in 1876, where he founded the magazine of culture and literature, Rivista Dalmatica. The magazine did not last long, because strongly pro-Italian and related to Antonio Bajamonti. In the same year, he was asked to direct L'Avvenire and, from 1876 al 1880, he developed it as an irredentist newspaper. Following the publication of an anti-Austrian article on his newspaper, in September 1880, Colautti was attacked by a group of Croatian soldiers who rendered him impaired for a few months. Shortly after, also because of the threat of a lawsuit for crimes against the stringent Austrian press laws and for his support of Italian irredentism, Colautti chose the path of exile and took refuge in the Kingdom of Italy (where he strongly supported the intervention of Italy in World War I).

In 1885 a group of young Dalmatian Italians created a sort of secret pact that pledged to fight on a united front against the government of Vienna. They chose to use all legal means available. They were: John Marino Bonda Avoscan (from Ragusa), Stefano Smerchinich (from Curzola) and Ercolano Salvi Pezzoli Leonardo (from Premuda), John Lubin (from Trau), Emanuele Fenzi and Louise Pini (from Sebenico), Christmas Krekich, Luigi and Roberto Ziliotto Ghiglianovich (from Zara), all representatives of the Italian irredentistm with the most sincere patriotism. The same (precisely Ghiglianovich, Krekich, Lubin, Pini, Salvi, Ziliotto, Smerchinich) in 1919, during the crisis in the city of Fiume (Rijeka), wrote the articles "Application of the Dalmatians" and "Cry of Sebenico" published on 2 October by the national newspaper "The national responsibility" (according to one of the few Italian newspapers promoting the union of Dalmatia to Italy).

In the late nineteenth century were created in Dalmatia some Italian cultural associations, as the irredentist "Philological circle" in Ragusa and the "National Union Committee," the "Diadora" and "Iuventus Iadertina" in Zara. Also active in these years was the "National Association" in Spalato, based on the Bajamonti theater, which was set on fire (officially by unknown people) in 1893. In Spalato, the city of Emperor Diocletian, in the year 1910 there were 1,046 Italians officially counted when in the same year more than 3,000 were enrolled in the cultural and patriotic public association "Dante Alighieri." In Zara a group, under the leadership of irredentists Desanti and Boxich (dissatisfied followers of the "Dalmatian Autonomist Party" of Luigi Ziliotto), founded the newspaper Il Risorgimento in 1908, promoting openly the unification to Italy of Dalmatia, but was closed in 1914.

About 3,500 Italians in Dalmatia during World War I took refuge as exiles in Italy. They were led by Antonio Cippico, Alessandro, and Roberto Dudan Ghiglianovich: more than 250 volunteers enrolled in the Italian army and risked the gallows, as when the Austrians killed Francesco Rismondo (executed in Gorizia in 1915 and active member of the irredentist organization "Pro Patria" in Spalato). To Francesco Rismondo the Kingdom of Italy awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valor.

The number of volunteers from the remote ports of Montenegro (as Cattaro, Castelnuovo di Cattaro, and Perasto) appears very high in proportion to the total number of enrolled in the Italian Army. In fact, these volunteers in Spalato, Cattaro, Ragusa, Perasto, Castelnuovo di Cattaro, Trau, and Macarsca (not less than 90 in total, almost half of all volunteers in Dalmatia) fought in Italy despite the "Treaty of London", which categorically excluded the possible "Redemption" and annexation to Italy of their cities.

Dalmatia "Redenta"

Dalmatian Italians obtained their "Redenzione" (meaning redemption or union to Italy) in the years following the Italian victory in World War I. In the peace treaty, the territory of Zara and some Dalmatian islands (Cherso, Lussino and Lagosta) was united to the Kingdom of Italy. But the full agreements reached in 1915 in the Treaty of London were not respected by the Allies, because of the opposition from US president Woodrow Wilson. This created huge resentment, that was pinpointed in the phrase "Vittoria mutilata" (mutilated victory) created by the nationalist D'Annunzio.

As a direct consequence in 1920 Gabriele D'Annunzio made his famous Occupation of Fiume. The so-called "Poeta imaginífico" did a dramatic attack with paramilitaries and a group of "Legionnaires" from the Italian city of Monfalcone and occupied the city of Fiume, which the Allied powers had assigned to Italy as the winner of the war. With this gesture D'Annunzio reached the pinnacle of the process of building their own personal and political myth. D'Annunzio personally entered Fiume with a column of Dalmatian Italian volunteers (mostly irredentist).

On 12 November 1920 was signed the Treaty of Rapallo: Fiume became a free city (Free State of Fiume), while Zara was given to Italy. But D'Annunzio did not accept the agreement and the Italian Government, on 26 December 1920, evicted from Fiume the Legionaries by force. Fiume and the more northern islands of Dalmatia were incorporated in 1924 to the Kingdom of Italy, thanks to the large contribution of the Italian irredentists in town.

Even in Trau the irredentists attempted to repeat what D'Annunzio did in Fiume: the local Count Farfogna in September 1919 occupied Trau with some Italian troops, but the Us intervention blocked him. Other problems arose in Spalato in 1920, in the so-called Incidents of Spalato.

The irredentist aspiration of the Dalmatian Italians was fully met when Yugoslavia in April 1941 was conquered and occupied by Italy and Germany. At the end of that month almost all of the Dalmatian coast, with the major cities of Spalato, Sebenico, and Cattaro was annexed to Italy with the name Governatorate of Dalmatia. The coastal area between Fiume and Segna was not incorporated in the Governorate and went to the fascist Croatia of Ante Pavelić (although it was controlled militarily by the Italian army). Even the area around Ragusa was theoretically Croatian, but the Italians ruled everything in the city, opening even Italian schools.

The Governorate was divided between the three provinces of Zara, Spalato, and Cattaro. Many families of Dalmatian Italians were forced to move to Italy after World War in these provinces (mainly in order to administer it).

Though Italy had initially larger territorial aims that extended from the Velebit mountains to the Albanian Alps, Mussolini decided against annexing further territories due to a number of factors. One was that Dalmatian irredentists like Antonio Tacconi complained that a larger annexation would have included hundreds of thousands of Slavs, who were partially hostile to Italy within the enlarged national borders.

But this "Redemption" (as was called by the Dalmatian Italians) lasted only a few years: with the defeat of Italy in World War II the Italians of Istria and Dalmatia were expelled 'en masse' during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus (while Zara was fully destroyed by Allies bombings promoted by Tito and later nicknamed the "Italian Dresden" by Enzo Bettiza).

References

Bibliography
 Dalbello M.C.; Razza antonello. Per una storia delle comunità italiane della Dalmazia. Fondazione Culturale Maria ed Eugenio Dario Rustia Traine. Trieste, 2004.
 Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. Vintage Books. New York, 1989.

Related pages
 Italian irredentism in Istria
 Dalmatian Italians
 Incidents of Spalato.

History of Italy
Dalmatia

Italian irredentism in Dalmatia


A wiigwaasi-makak (plural: wiigwaasi-makakoon), meaning "birch-bark box" in the Anishinaabe language, is a box made of panels of birchbark sewn together with watap.  The construction of makakoon from birchbark was an essential element in the culture of the Anishinaabe people and other members of the Native Americans and First Nations of the Upper Great Lakes, particularly in the regions surrounding Lake Superior.  Birchbark makakoon continue to be crafted to this day as heritage heirlooms and for the tourist trade.

Lake Superior-area geology is short in supplies of clay, making pottery scarce for the people who lived there.  However, the paper birch grows in profusion in this area, and sheets and panels of its strong, papery bark can be cut and carved from a tree for use.  Birchbark boxes played a key role in creating durable packages and utensils for storage and everyday use.  Skilled harvesting of the bark, done at the proper season of the year, does not fatally injure the tree.

Well-made makakoon were close to waterproof, and could be used to store soluble goods such as maple sugar.  This sugar was used not only for a sweetener but as a seasoning, since the North American natives of the time had no salt. Important documents written on birchbark (wiigwaasabak) were placed in makakoon for safekeeping.  Anishinaabe initiates of the Midewiwin would often secure their numinous items in a wiigwaasi-makak.

Exceptionally well-made makakoon could be used as cooking utensils, although this use declined after the arrival of Euro-American traders in the 1600s with metal pots and saucepans for sale.  The makak would be filled with water and the foodstuff to be cooked, and then carefully hung over a campfire in such a way as to heat the water to the boiling point while falling short of combustion.

Today
Anishinaabe craftspeople sometimes decorate their wiigwaasi-makakoon with dyed and undyed quills from the porcupine.  The sharp quills are sewn into the surface of the box so as to create an abstract design or illustration.

See also
 Medicine bag

References

Bibliography

American Indian relics
Anishinaabe culture
Native American ethnobotany

Wiigwaasi-makak