The USS Nimitz (CVN-68) is a supercarrier of the United States Navy. Starting in late 2011, The USS Nimitz will be stationed at Naval Station Everett in Everett, Washington. It is named after Admiral Chester W. Nimitz.

It is set to replace the USS Abraham Lincoln. Its length is an amazing 1063 feet or 333 meters. It has four steam catapults that can speed up a 100,000 pound plane to 160 mph in 100 meters. It can launch early warning planes, F/A-18 hornets and Super Hornet fighter-bomber aircraft. It is powered by two nuclear reactors and can stay at sea for 24 years without refueling although refueling needs to be done carefully and only in special naval bases. It weighs 100,000 tons. It carries a maximum of 130 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornets or 85-90 other planes.

Nimitz

USS Nimitz (CVN-68)


Product differentiation is a term from economics and marketing. In most markets, there will be some form of competition: Several companies offer products or services, which are very similar. Using product differentiation, a company can change a product or a service, so that it becomes more attractive to a given market. This means the product or service must be different from the product of the competitors. It also means, it must be sufficiently different from the other products of the company.  Edward Chamberlin first proposed the idea, in his book The Theory of Monopolistic Competition, published in 1933

Rationale

Firms have different ways  that enable them to construct specific competitive advantages over competitors.  Resource endowments allow firms to be different which reduces competition and makes it possible to reach new segments of the market. For this reason, differentiation is the process of distinguishing the differences of a product or offering from others, to make it more attractive to a particular target market.

Although research in a niche market may result in changing a product in order to improve differentiation, the changes themselves are not differentiation. Marketing or product differentiation is the process of describing the differences between products or services, or the resulting list of differences.  This is done to demonstrate the unique aspects of a firm's product and create a sense of value.  Marketing textbooks are firm on the point that any differentiation must be valued by buyers (a differentiation attempt that is not perceived does not count).  The term unique selling proposition refers to advertising to communicate a product's differentiation.

In economics, successful product differentiation leads to competitive advantage. This is inconsistent with  perfect competition. One of the requirement for perfect competition is that the producrs or servces are  perfect substitutes. There are three types of product differentiation:

 Simple: based on a variety of characteristics
 Horizontal: based on a single characteristic but consumers are not clear on quality
 Vertical: based on a single characteristic and consumers are clear on its quality

Most of the time, the brand diffferences are small: the can be as little as  different packaging or an advertising theme.  The physical product need not change, but it may.  Differentiation is about the buyers seeing a difference. Causes of differentiation may be functional aspects of the product or service, how it is distributed and marketed, or who buys it.  The major sources of product differentiation are as follows.

 Differences in quality which are usually accompanied by differences in price.
 Differences in functional features or design
 Ignorance of buyers regarding the essential characteristics and qualities of goods they are purchasing
 Sales promotion activities of sellers and, in particular, advertising
 Differences in availability (e.g. timing and location).

The objective of differentiation is to develop a position that potential customers see as unique. The term is used frequently when dealing with freemium business models, in which businesses market a free and paid version of a given product. Given they target the same group of customers, it is imperative that free and paid versions be effectively differentiated.

Differentiation primarily affects performance through reducing directness of competition: As the product becomes more different, categorization becomes more difficult and hence draws fewer comparisons with its competition.  A successful product differentiation strategy will move your product from competing based primarily on price to competing on non-price factors (such as product characteristics, distribution strategy, or promotional variables).

Most people think that companies differentiate their products to be able to charge more for their product. This is a very simpliticx view, that does not cover all aspects. If customers like what the firs has to offer, they will be less sensitive to the offers of other compamies. Price may not be one of these aspects. Differentiation makes customers in a given segment have a lower sensitivity to other features (non-price) of the product.

Vertical product differentiation
Vertical product differentiation can be measured objectively by a consumer, for example when comparing two similar products the quality and price can clearly be identified and ranked by the customer. If both A and B products are charged the same price to the consumer, then the market share for each one will be positive, according to the Hotelling model. The major theory in this is all consumers prefer the higher quality product if two distinct products are offered at the same price. A product can differ in many vertical attributes such as its operating speed. What really matters is the relationship between consumers willingness to pay for improvements in quality and the increase in cost per unit that comes with such improvements. Therefore, the perceived difference in quality is different with different consumer, so it is objective. A green product might be having a lower or zero negative effect on the environment, however, it may turn out to be inferior than other products in other aspects. Hence, it also depends on the way it is advertised and the social pressure a potential consumer is living in. Even one vertical differentiation can be a decisive factor in purchasing.

Horizontal product differentiation
Horizontal differentiation seeks to affect an individual's subjective decision-making. The difference cannot be measured in an objective way. For example, different color versions of the same iPhone or MacBook. A lemon ice cream is not superior to a chocolate ice cream, is completely based on the user's preference. A restaurant may price all of its desserts at the same price and lets the consumer freely choose its preferences since all the alternatives cost the same. A clear example of Horizontal Product Differentiation can be seen when comparing Coca Cola and Pepsi: if priced the same then individuals will differentiate between the two based purely on their own taste preference.

Other types of product differentiation
Usually, product differentiation is seen as either vertical or horizontal. Most forms of product differentiation have both horizontal and vertical product differentiations. Those two are not the only way to differentiate products. Another way to differentiate a product is through spatial differentiation. Spatial Product Differentiation is using a geographical location as a way to differentiate. An example of Spatial Differentiation is a firm locally sourcing inputs and producing their product.

References

Other webistes

 Spring 1997 - Jonathan B. Baker Director, Bureau of Economics Federal Trade Commission on Product Differentiation
Economics
Marketing

Product differentiation


Joshua Corin is an American author and screenwriter. He is known for writing the novel Nuclear Winter Wonderland and a screenplay for the novel.  Nuclear Winter Wonderland follows the story of an underachieving college kid, Adam Weiss, whose sister Anna is kidnapped by a lunatic nuclear terrorist. Adam sets off for the terrorist, teaming up with a dyspeptic ex-mob thug and a Spanish-speaking female clown. Adam soon learns that twelve nuclear bombs placed around the world will go off at midnight on Christmas Eve.

Corin is also the author of the screenplay for Windfall, the first-place winner in the Open Door Contest.  Joshua Corin grew up in Rhode Island and went to the State University of New York at Binghamton.

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Joshua Corin


Vajubhai Rudabhai Vala (born 23 January 1937) is an Indian statesman who was the 12th Governor of Karnataka from 1 September 2014 to 6 July 2021. He is also the longest serving Governor for Karnataka after Khurshed Alam Khan.

Vajubhai served as the Speaker of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly from 2012 to 2014. He is still a member of Bharatiya Janata Party. He served as a Cabinet Minister in the Government of Gujarat, holding various portfolios, such as finance, labour and employment, from 1997 to 2012. He was elected to Gujarat Legislative Assembly from Rajkot West constituency multiple times.

Career
Vala started his political career at the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and subsequently joined Jan Sangh in 1971. He was jailed for eleven months during the emergency in 1975. He was the Mayor of Rajkot in the 1980s. Later he contested state assembly elections from Rajkot and served as the Cabinet Minister holding finance, revenue portfolios from 1998 to 2012. He was the finance minister for two terms. He holds the record of presenting budget in Gujarat Legislative Assembly; 18 times as the finance minister. He was elected as the Speaker of assembly in December 2012 and served till August 2014. He was appointed as the Governor of Karnataka in September 2014.

Vala has also been closely associated with Rajkot Nagarik Sahakari Bank, where he planned, organised and developed the banking service. He was also the Chairman of the bank for five years on-and-off during 1975-90 period.

Controversy
Vala was involved in a controversy during the 2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly elections. He invited the largest party, Bharatiya Janata Party to form the government and not the largest post poll alliance consisting of the Indian National Congress and the Janata Dal (Secular). He also gave the new Chief Minister BS Yeddyurappa 15 days to prove his majority in the house. His decision was vehemently opposed by all non-BJP alliance parties in the nation, and the INC approached the Supreme Court in this matter. Supreme court decreed that in case when no coalition/party has clear majority, the governor of the state has the legal power to decide who forms the government in that state. But, the same court shortened the 15 day time limit given by Vala to Yeddyurappa to prove majority, into just 3 days, and also mandated that the house proceeding including vote should be telecast live. Yeddyurappa resigned after the house convened, citing that he could not muster the majority. Kumaraswamy of Janata Dal was invited to become the new Chief Minister. However, 14 months later, Kumaraswamy's government collapsed. Later Yeddyurappa easily managed to sail through with 106 BJP MLAs.

References

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Gujarat government

1937 births
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Governors of Karnataka
State cabinet ministers of Gujarat
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Ahmedabad municipal councillors
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Gujarat MLAs 1995–1998
Gujarat MLAs 1998–2002
Gujarat MLAs 2002–2007
Gujarat MLAs 2007–2012
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Vajubhai Vala


The Heshibi, often translated as Mr. He's jade, was a sacred ceremonial bi (a jade annulus) which had an important role in Chinese history. First appearing during the mid–8th century BCE, it was cut into a ritual bi and recognized as an imperial treasure. The Heshibi became the object of contention among the Warring States, stolen from Chu circa 4th century BCE, acquired by the Zhao, and temporarily traded to Qin in 283 BCE. When the Qin dynasty was founded in 221 BCE, the Heshibi was carved into the Heirloom Seal of the Realm, symbol of the Mandate of Heaven, and subsequently transferred through successive Chinese dynasties until it was lost during the 10th century.

The early historicity of the stone is uncertain, though its great antiquity seems clear. The earliest mention of it is from the 3rd century BCE. The story of its finding is likely apocryphal. Whether it was turned into the Heirloom Seal of the Realm is also a matter of dispute. If it was turned into the seal, it was certainly lost by the time of the Ming dynasty. It has been used as a metaphor for a precious object since its earliest mentions.

Terminology

Héshìbì (和氏璧, "He's jade annulus") or Héshìzhībì (和氏之璧) using the Classical Chinese grammatical possessive affix zhī (之) was a Bì (璧, "jade annulus") or ceremonial jade annulus. Bi artifacts date back to the Liangzhu culture (3400–2250 BCE). Bi signified heavenly kingship in Zhou times, and were often used ceremonially as symbolic of a covenant or guarantee. The word can also be used to refer to jade in general. The Heshibi is named after Bian He, the person who first discovered the jade stone.

Bian He (卞和) is a Chinese name, Biàn (卞) is the surname (e.g., Bian Lan) and Hé (和) is the given name. However, He is also an uncommon surname (e.g., He Qia) and early texts refer to Bian He as both Bianshi (卞氏, "of Bian clan") and Heshi (和氏, "of He clan"), with the word shì (氏, "Chinese clan; family").  Some alternate names are Heshi (龢氏, with the ancient variant character Hé), Heshi (咼氏, with the unique variant Guō (咼) only pronounced He in this name), and Jing He (荊和, "He from Jingzhou"). Most scholars translate Heshi as "Mr. He" with suffixed shi, some as "Master He", and a few literally interpret shi and translate Heshi as "He Clan" or "He family".

Legends
The Chinese story of the Heshibi has been retold and developed for over two millennia.

Hanfeizi
The earliest extant account is the Heshi (和氏, "Mr. He") chapter of the classic Hanfeizi, attributed to Han Fei (c. 280–233 BC). The Hanfeizi version involves Mr. He presenting his jade to the first three "kings" of Chu state: "King Li of Chu" (楚厲王) posthumously refers to Viscount Fenmao (r. 757–741 BCE), his brother King Wu of Chu (楚武王, r. 740–690 BCE) who was the first to style himself "king", and his son King Wen of Chu (楚文王, r. 689–677 BCE). Several Hanfeizi commentaries say these three 8th-century BCE Chu rulers of Bian He should be three Zhou dynasty rulers: King Wu of Zhou (周武王, r. c. 1050–1043 BCE), his father King Wen of Zhou (周文王, r. 1100–1050), and King Cheng of Zhou (周成王, r. 1042–1021 BCE).

Once a man of Ch'u, named Pien Ho, came by an uncut jade in the Ch'u Hills. He brought it home and submitted it as a present to King Wu. Thereupon King Wu had a jeweller give an opinion of it. "It is an ordinary stone," said the jeweller. The King, regarding Ho as a liar, had his left foot cut off. Upon King Wu's death, King Wên ascended the throne, when Ho again submitted it as a present to King Wên. King Wên also had a jeweller give an opinion of it. Again he said, "It is an ordinary stone." The King, also regarding Ho as a liar, had his right foot cut off. When King Wên died and King Ch'êng ascended the throne, Ho, carrying the uncut jade in his arms, cried at the foot of the Ching Hills. After three days and three nights his tears were all exhausted and blood flowed out. At this news the King sent men out to ask him the reason, saying, "Throughout All-under-Heaven men whose feet were cut off are many. Why should you be crying so bitterly?" "I am lamenting not the loss of my feet," said Ho in reply, "but for the calling a precious gem an ordinary stone and for their dubbing an honest man a liar. This is the reason why I am lamenting." Meanwhile, the King had a jeweller polish up the jade and got the treasure out at last. So it was designated "the Jade of Pien Ho" [和氏之璧].
The subsequent Hanfeizi context criticizes contemporary rulers and recommends that a wise person who hopes to avoid punishment should not present a ruler any "uncut jewels of wisdom and statecraft".

Joseph P. Yap translates the Hanfeizi story with the three Chu kings Li, Wu, and Wen.
At around 8th century BCE, Bian He a jeweller from the kingdom of Chu discovered a piece of stone; he knew from experience that it was a piece of priceless jade. He presented the piece of stone to King Li of Chu, (757–741 BCE). The king thought the jeweller was trying to deceive him and had his left foot chopped off as a punishment. When the next king, King Wu of Chu (r. 740–691 BCE) ascended to the throne, Bian He again presented the piece of stone to the new king; this time, the king had his right foot chopped off as he also maintained that the jeweller was trying to deceive him. Bian He embracing his piece of stone cried for three days and three nights at the foothills of Jingshan Mountain. Much later, when King Wen of Chu (r. 690–675 BCE) ascended the throne the king sent someone to ask the jeweller why he was so adamant about his belief. He answered, 'This is a piece of priceless jade, and the two former kings regarded it as a useless piece of stone. I am not saddened by the loss of my feet, but I am distressed by the fact that a patriot is misconstrued as being wicked and evil." [The king] then asked a jade expert to cut open the stone, and it transpired that it was indeed a piece of priceless jade. Legend has it that it was pure white and flawless. The king of Chu named it Heshibi, Master He's jade.

Gao's Huainanzi commentary
The next significant version of Pian He's story is found in Gao You's 212 CE Huainanzi commentary for the passage (below) that compares the Way of Heaven with the Marquis of Sui's pearl and the Heshibi. Gao changes the original three Chu kings state to the three Zhou kings.
A man from Ch'u named Pien Ho found a piece of unpolished jade at the foot of the Ching Mountains. He offered it as tribute to King Wu [of the Chou dynasty]. King Wu had it inspected by a jade expert, who declared it to be ordinary stone. [Pien Ho] had his left leg cut off [as punishment]. When King Wen came to the throne, [Pien Ho] once more presented the jade. King Wen took it to be ordinary stone, and [Pien Ho] had his right leg cut off. Pien Ho wrapped the jade carefully and wept tears of blood. When King Ch'eng ascended the throne, Pien Ho once again presented the jade. King Ch'eng said: 'Dear sir, you disregard having your legs cut off, as long as you can have your jade piece cut up for examination.' As soon as the stone was cut, it appeared that it was truly fine jade, and it was made into a jade [annulus] (pi).

History
Beginning with the Zhanguo ce and Shiji, many Chinese histories have discussed the Heshibi, but the early historicity remains uncertain.

Zhanguo ce
The 3rd-century BCE Zhanguo ce (Strategies of the Warring States), which is a compendium of political and military anecdotes dating from 490 to 221 BCE, relates that the Heshibi was a national treasure of Chu, stolen from the Prime Minister, and eventually obtained by Zhao state.

King Wei of Chu (r. 339–329 BCE) bestowed the priceless jade upon Prime Minister Zhao Yang (昭陽) in gratitude for his defeat of the Yue kingdom in 333 BCE. On one occasion, Zhao Yang displayed the jade for his guests at a banquet when someone started a commotion, and in the midst of the confusion, the jade annulus disappeared. The School of Diplomacy political strategist Zhang Yi (fl. 328–309 BCE) was accused as the thief, and Zhao Yang had him questioned under torture before he was released. After this incident, the whereabouts of the jade was lost until it resurfaced at Zhao.

Chapter 250 of the Zhanguo ce records how another School of Diplomacy strategist Su Qin (380–284 BCE) persuaded Li Dui (李兌), the Chancellor of Zhao, to provide the Heshibi in order to acquire funding for the Vertical Alliance of six states against Qin. During their first audience, Su Qin convincingly explained his Vertical Alliance strategies to Li Dui and said, "You killed your ruler, [i.e., King Wuling of Zhao], and you extirpated his kin, and find your position in the empire as perilous as though you were perched atop a pile of eggs. If you heed my plans you will live; if you heed them not you will die." After Li told Su to return on the next day for an audience, one of his attendants said Su's "arguments and their scope are beyond you. Will you be able to do as he advises?" Li replied that he could not and followed the attendant's suggestion that he plug up his ears in order to avoid listening to Su's rhetoric. Su Qin persuasively spoke for the entire day during the second audience with Li. When the attendant escorted him out, Su asked "A day ago I spoke only crudely and your ruler was moved. Today I spoke in detail and he was not. Why?" "Your plans are great and their scope is lofty, sir", replied the attendant. "My lord cannot use them, so I asked him firmly to stop both his ears so that he would not heed what was said. However, come again on the morrow and I will ask that the Master be well rewarded." During the final audience, Li Dui gave Su Qin "a moon pearl [秦明月之珠], the Jade of Ho [和氏之璧], a black sable coat and a hundred pieces of pure gold." Thus, Su got the wealth he needed in order to go westward into Qin state.

Shiji
The Han dynasty historiographer Sima Qian's c. 94 BCE Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) relates the history and background of Hr. He's jade annulus in two biographies.

Lin Xiangru
The Shiji "Biographies of Lian Po and Lin Xiangru" section records a famous story. In 283 BCE, King Zhaoxiang of Qin (r. 306–251 BCE) schemed to obtain Mr. He's jade annulus – this is the first recorded usage of modern term Heshibi 和氏璧 without classical zhi 之—from King Huiwen of Zhao (r. 298–266 BCE) – and deceitfully offered to trade away a large portion of Qin territory for the jade. However, when Xiangru discovered that Zhaoxiang never intended to give away Qin land, he tricked the king and managed to return the jade annulus back to Zhao.

"During the time of King Huiwen, Zhao [趙] acquired Chu's Jade of the Ho Clan [楚和氏璧]. King Zhao [昭] of Qin heard of this and sent a messenger to deliver a letter to the King of Zhao, saying that he wished to offer fifteen walled cities in exchange for the jade annulus [願以十五城請易璧]." The King of Zhao was distrustful and told his advisors "If we give it to Qin, we most likely will not obtain Qin's cities, but will only be cheated. If we do not give it, then we must fear the arrival of Qin's soldiers." The king sought the opinion of Lin Xiangru, who said, "Qin is mighty and Zhao is weak, you must grant his request." The king replied, "If he takes my jade, but gives us no cities, what then?" Lin said, "If Qin seeks the jade with its cities and Zhao does not accede, the fault lies with Zhao. If Zhao gives Qin the jade and Qin does not give Zhao the cities, the fault lies with Qin. In weighing these two measures, it would be better to accede, and lay the fault on Qin." Xiangru agreed to undertake the mission to Qin, and promised the king, "If the cities are granted to Zhao, the jade will remain in Qin; if the cities are not granted, allow your servant to return to Zhao with the jade intact." When Lin Xiangru arrived in the Qin capital, he respectfully presented the jade to King Zhaoxiang with both hands. The king was delighted and "passed it around to his Beauties and courtiers, who all shouted 'Long live the King!'" When Xiangru realized that the King of Qin had no intention of honoring the agreement, he came forward and said, "The jade has a flaw. Allow me to show it to Your Majesty." The king handed him the jade, and Xiangru retreated and stood with his back to a pillar. With his "hair bristling against his hat in rage," he threatened to destroy the jade. "It seems to me that Your Majesty has no intention of giving the King of Zhao the cities owed him. Thus I have reclaimed the jade. If you must press me, Great King, my head and the jade will both shatter against this pillar!" Since the King of Qin feared the jade would be demolished, he apologized and said, "The fifteen cities from here on will be given to Zhao." Concluding that Zhao would never acquire the Qin cities, Xiangru then told the king, "The jade of the Ho Clan [和氏璧] is a treasure that the entire world has transmitted with reverence." He then falsely said that before the King of Zhao sent off the jade, he fasted and purified himself for five days, and convinced the King of Qin that he too needed to fast for five days, after which, "your servant would dare to offer up the jade." The king agreed, and while he was fasting, Xiangru arranged for his retainer to disguise himself as a commoner, conceal the jade, and safely smuggle it back to Zhao.

After the King of Qin had finished fasting and purification, he held a ritual ceremony in his court. When Lin Xiangru arrived, he confessed having secretly sent the jade back to Zhao and then insulted the king's ancestors: "Out of the twenty odd lords of Qin since Duke Mu 穆 (r. 659–621 B.C.), not one has honored his agreements and oaths. Your servant truly feared he would be cheated by Your Majesty and thus betray Zhao." Xiangru told the enraged king that he would willingly accept the Qin death penalty for deceiving a king, and requested the pēng (烹, "death by boiling") punishment. Although some of the courtiers wanted to boil Xiangru immediately, the King of Qin said, "If We kill Xiangru now, We still cannot acquire the jade, and it would ruin the good relations between Qin and Zhao. It would be better to treat him with great civility instead, then send him back to Zhao." After Xiangru had returned, the King of Zhao praised the skillful diplomacy of his mission to Qin, and appointed him Senior Grand Master. (Chapter 81)

This story is the source of the Chinese idioms jiàzhíliánchéng (價值連城, lit. "as valuable as multiple cites") meaning "invaluable; priceless" and wánbìguīzhào (完璧歸趙, lit. "return the whole jade annulus to Zhao") meaning "to return something intact to its rightful owner".

Li Si
The Shiji biography of Qin dynasty Grand chancellor Li Si (c. 280–208 BCE) collectively mentions Sui He zhi bao (隨和之寶, "treasures of [Marquis] Sui and [Mr.] He") in a letter advising Emperor Qin Shi Huang not to follow Zheng Guo's advice to expel all foreigners from Qin.
Now Your Majesty imports jade from the Kun Mountains and possesses the treasures of Sui and He [隨和之寶]. Dangling moon–bright pearls [明月之珠], you buckle on the sword Taia, are drawn by fine steeds like Xianli, set up phoenix banners blazoned with kingfisher feathers, and employ drums of sacred lizard skin. Not one of these various precious things is a product native to Qin, and yet Your Majesty takes joy in them. Why? If something must be a product of Qin before it can be acceptable, then no night–shining jewels [夜光之璧] would adorn the court chambers, no vessels of rhinoceros horn or elephant tusk would amuse and delight you, no women of Zheng and Wey would throng the harem, and no fine horses and spirited thoroughbreds would fill your stables. The gold and tin from south of the Yangtze could not be utilized, the vermilion and blue of Shu could not be used for pigment. (Chapter 87)

Imperial seal of China

ln 228 BCE, Qin overwhelmed the kingdom of Zhao and seized the Heshibi from King Dai of Zhao. In 221 BCE, the Qin kingdom had conquered all six Warring States and Qin Shi Huangdi founded the Qin dynasty. The emperor ordered that the Heshibi jade annulus be carved into his imperial jade seal that read, "Having received the Mandate from Heaven, may (the emperor) lead a long and prosperous life." (受命於天, 既壽永昌). The Qin Chancellor Li Si wrote this inscription in Seal script characters and Sun Shou (孫壽) carved them into the jade.

This Qin dynasty jade seal came to symbolize the Mandate of Heaven, and beginning when the last Qin ruler Ziying handed it over to Emperor Gaozu of Han in 206 BCE, it was successively passed on to later dynastic emperors signifying the right to govern the Chinese world. The Heirloom Seal of the Realm was lost sometime between the Tang and Ming dynasties.

Another version of the legend claims that it was interred in the burial crypt of the first Emperor of Qin Shi Huangdi and the jade seal which was passed on for over one thousand years was another piece of jade from Lantian.

The China Daily writes that the Heshibi and the Heirloom seal have been conflated, and considers the Heshibi to be a legend.

Literature
The jade annulus of Mr. He was mentioned in numerous classical Chinese texts, and present day Sinophones know the story from traditional chengyu idioms, such as wánbìguīzhào (完璧歸趙, lit. "return the whole jade annulus to Zhao") means "to return something intact to its rightful owner". The following literary examples are divided between using the Heshibi as a trope for something valuable or using it with other legendary treasures such as the Marquis of Sui's pearl.

Heshibi as a single treasure

The c. 239 BCE Lüshi Chunqiu (Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals) is an encyclopedic text compiled under the patronage of the Qin dynasty Chancellor Lü Buwei. The Mengdong (孟冬, "Almanac for the First Month of Winter") writes Mr. He (龢氏) with an early variant character.
Now, if one were to show a child a hundred pieces of gold and a ball of glutinous millet, the child would surely take the millet. If one were to show an ignorant person the jade disc of the He family [龢氏之璧] and a hundred pieces of gold, the ignorant man would surely take the gold. If one were to show a worthy man a jade [annulus] of the He family and the most perfect teachings concerning the Dao and its Power, the worthy man would surely take the teachings. The more refined one's knowledge, the more refined one's choices. The cruder one's knowledge, the cruder one's choices. (Chapter 10)
The preceding Lüshi Chunqiu story similarly concerns "A rustic from Song found a jade while plowing and presented it to the Director of the City Walls, [who refused it and explained] "You regard jade as a treasure, but I regard not accepting it as a treasure."

The c. 3rd–1st century BCE Chuci (Songs of Chu) poetry anthology mentions the story of Bian He several times. "Disgust with the World" includes him in a context of rulers who rejected loyal people, "And I grieve, too, for Bian He, the man of Chu [悲楚人之和氏兮] / The jade he presented was judged worthless stone [獻寶玉以為石] / Both King Li and King Wu refused to examine it / And he ended with both his feet cut off for his pains." "Reckless Remonstrance" says, "Bian He clasps his block of jade and weeps tears of blood [和抱璞而泣血兮] / Where can he find a craftsman good enough to shape it?" "Lament for the Worthy" includes Jing He in a list of loyal retainers who were mistreated, "Or Shen Sheng of Jin who met a hapless end / Or Jing He who wept tears of blood [荊和氏之泣血] / Or Shen Xu of Wu who had his eyes gouged out."

Two contexts in the c. 139 BCE Huananzi (quoted above) refer to Mr. Bian's (卞氏) jade annulus and to Mr. He (和氏) crying bloody tears. "If you understand the proper sequence of things, you will be calm. Now when it came to giving away Mr. Bian's jade annulus [卞氏之璧], when he had not yet obtained it, [Mr. Bian] was ahead. When he pleaded to present it and would not give up despite his indignation, he was behind." (Chapter 14.56) "Thus when your [views] tally with what is essential, you will value what is true and [give] equal [consideration to] the present and the ancient. If you do not have the means to heed persuasions, then you will value what has come down from the past, [simply] because it is remote. This is why [Bian] He [和氏] cried so hard that he bled at the foot of Mount Jing." (Chapter 19.7).

Heshibi with other treasures

The Marquis of Sui's pearl is commonly used with the Heshibi, for example, the Shiji lists "the treasures of Sui and He [隨和之寶] among Qin Shi Huangdi's imported valuables.

The c. 4th to 2nd centuries BCE Mozi ([Sayings of] Mozi) mentions them with the legendary Nine Tripod Cauldrons, namely, a set of Chinese ritual bronze ding "tripod cauldrons", said to have been cast by mythical Yu the Great after controlling the Great Flood. In response to criticism from his disciple Wu Mazi (巫馬子) that "To leave contemporaries alone and to praise the early kings is to praise rotten bones", Mozi (c. 470–391 BCE) explains how a state's yi ("righteousness; justice") is more important than the ritual "efficacy" (lì, 利 "benefit; profit") of its treasures.
The jade of Ho [和氏之璧], the pearl of Duke Sui, and the nine tings—these are what the feudal lords value as excellent treasures. Can they enrich the country, multiply the people, put the government in order, and place the state in safety? Of course they cannot. Excellent treasures are to be valued for their efficacy. Now since the jade of Ho, the pearl of Duke Sui, and the nine tings cannot benefit men, then they are not the excellent treasures in the world. On the other hand, if righteousness is employed in the government of the state the population will be increased, the government will be in order, and the state will be secure. The excellent treasures are to be valued for their efficacy. Now righteousness can benefit men. So then righteousness is the excellent treasure of the world. (Chapger 11)

The 3rd-century Hanfeizi Jie Lao (解老, "Explanations of Laozi") chapter uses He's jade annulus and Sui's pearl in order to differentiate between lǐ (禮, "ritual; ceremony; good form; propriety") and wén (文, "ornamentation; embellishment; elaboration; cultured").
Propriety is the mode expressive of feelings. Embellishment is the decoration of qualities. Indeed, the superior man takes the inner feelings but leaves the outer looks, likes the inner qualities but hates the outer decorations. Who judges inner feelings by outer looks, finds the feelings bad. Who judges inner qualities by outer decorations, finds the inner qualities rotten. How can I prove this? The jade of Pien Ho was not decorated with the five bright colours [和氏之璧不飾以五采]. The bead of Marquis Sui was not decorated with yellow gold. Their qualities are so good that nothing is fit to decorate them. Verily, anything that functions only after being decorated must have poor qualities. For this reason, between father and son propriety is simple and not brilliant. Hence the saying: "Propriety is superficial semblance only."

The c. 3rd–1st century BCE Chuci anthology collectively refers to Marquis Sui's pearl and Bian He's jade annulus as Sui He (隨和), and with the Tai'e sword. The "Quenching the Light" poem says, "Shards and stones are prized as jewels / Sui and He rejected [捐棄隨和] / The leaden knife is praised for sharpness / Tai E discarded as blunt."

King Liu An's c. 139 BCE Huainanzi (Philosophers of Huainan) philosophical compendium has five occurrences of the Heshibi, three with the Marquis of Sui's pearl, and one with the Xiahou clan's jade.

The "Surveying Obscurities" chapter figuratively uses these legendary gems as a simile for someone who has attained the Tiandao (天道, Way of Heaven), "It is like the pearl of Marquis Sui [隨侯之珠] / or the jade annulus of Mr. He [和氏之璧] / Those who achieved it became rich / those who lost it became poor." (Chapter 6.3). "A Mountain of Persuasions" chapter mentions the treasures of Mr. He and Marquis Sui twice. The former explains the philosophical essence of Chinese jade.
When a piece of jade is moistened, it looks bright. [When struck], its sound is slow and harmonious. How expansive are its aspects! With no interior or exterior, it does not conceal its flaws or imperfections. Close up, it looks glossy; from a distance, it shines brightly. It reflects like a mirror revealing the pupil of your eye. Subtly it picks up the tip of an autumn hair. It brightly illuminates the dark and obscure. Thus the jade [annulus] of Mr. He [和氏之璧] and the pearl of the marquis of Sui [隨侯之珠] emerged from the essence of a mountain and a spring. When the Superior Man wears them, he complies with their purity and secures his repose. When lords and kings treasure them, they rectify the world. (Chapter 16.19)
The latter compares true understanding with wealth, "Acquiring an army of ten thousand men does not compare to hearing one word that is apposite / acquiring the pearl of the marquis of Sui [隨侯之珠] does not compare to understanding from whence events arise / Acquiring the jade annulus of Mr. Gua [咼氏之璧] does not compare to understanding where events will lead." (Chapter 16.105)

The Huainanzi mentions the Heshibi along with the Xiahou clan's semi-circular jade. "As for [ritual emblems like] the jade annulus of Mr. He [咼氏之璧] and the jade half-annulus of the Xiahou clan [夏后之璜]," if [courtiers] bow courteously and advance with them, they create harmony and amity. [But] at night because of thieves, they create resentment. Such is the difference between the right time and the wrong time." (Chapter 16.90)

Other regalia
Many Chinese classics refer to Bian He's jade annulus in context with other legendary gems, jades, and swords constituting the ceremonial regalia of ancient Chinese states. The most common example is Marquis of Sui's pearl, a legendary glow-in-the-dark gemstone given to the marquis by a grateful snake whose life he saved.

Other luminous gemstones frequently mentioned with the Heshibi are the Yeguangzhibi (夜光之璧, "night-shining jade annulus") and the Míngyuèzhīzhū (明月之珠, "bright-/luminous-moon pearl"). These ancient Chinese names were sufficiently well known to have been applied to foreign gemstones in the earliest accounts of Daqin (the Roman Empire). "The Kingdom of Daqin" section of the 5th-century Book of the Later Han, which was largely based on Ban Yong's report presented to Emperor An of Han in around 125, lists precious Roman trade goods including "luminous jade [夜光璧]" and "bright moon pearls [明月珠]".

The Heshibi is mentioned in the Huainanzi with the Xiahou clan's semi-circular jade pendant: Xiahoushi zhi huang (夏后氏之璜), which was a jewel supposedly included in the ducal regalia of Lu state. Xiàhòu (夏后) is a Chinese compound surname from the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE), and the huáng (璜, "semi-circular jade pendant") was anciently used for ritual purposes or as a belt ornament.

Tai'e or Tai'a (太阿) is the name of a famous Spring and Autumn period iron sword that is usually considered one of the ten legendary swords of China. The legendary bladesmith Ou Yezi made three swords for King Goujian of Yue, named Tài'ē (泰阿), Lóngyuān (龍渊), and Gōngbù (工布).

See also
Heirloom Seal of the Realm
Nine Tripod Cauldrons

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
The Difficulty of Pien Ho, Liao 1939 translation.
A Tale of Two Treasures, Adventures in translation, 3 April 2012.
Century–old jade disc found confirms ancient legend, People's Daily Online, 4 June 2014.

Chinese legends
Chu (state)
Cultural history of China
Jade

Mr. He's jade


Zohra Begum Kazi (15 October 19127 November 2007) was the first Bengali Muslim female physician. She was awarded Tamgha-e-Pakistan (1964), Begum Rokeya Padak (2002) and Ekushey Padak (2008).

Early life and family
Kazi was born in Rajnandgaon, British India now in Chhattisgarh, India. She has been called the Florence Nightingale of Dhaka. Kazi came from Kazi family of Gopalpur in the Madaripur District in what was then Bengal. Her father, Kazi Abdus Sattar was also a physician and a politician. At the age of 32, Kazi married a lawmaker, Razuddin Bhuiyan MLC MP, the only son of the Zamindar of Hatirdia in Monohardi Upazila, Narsingdi District.  She was widowed in 1963. Although she did not have any children of her own, Kazi adopted and educated many children from impoverished families throughout Bangladesh.

Her eldest brother Kazi Ashraf Mahmud was a Hindi poet. He retired as a professor of botany, Dhaka University. Mahmud is most noted for a controversial book of correspondence between Mahatma Gandhi and himself, published privately immediately after the partition of India. Kazi's family was closely tied to Mahatma Gandhi and several prominent Indian and later Pakistani politicians of that era.  Ashraf served as the secretary general of All India Students Federation when Kazi Nazrul Islam was the organizations president.

Her youngest sister Shirin Kazi was also a physician, and a poet. She was noted as being the first Bengali female doctor to obtain a DRCOG degree in 1951. Shirin Kazi later specialized in pediatrics. She was also known for having adopted and raised several children from less fortunate families.

All three siblings once lived in Sevagram, the ashram established by Mahatma Gandhi in Nagpur, India. Zohra Kazi also volunteered at Mahatma Gandhi's Sevashram, (which later gave birth to the Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences) providing free medical care for the poor. She also served as an honorary secretary of the Kasturba Gandhi Hospital.

Education
Kazi obtained her MBBS degree in 1935 from Lady Hardinge Medical College for Women in Delhi. She ranked First Class First and was awarded the Viceroy of India's Medal (Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GBE, PC (12 September 1866 – 12 August 1941)).

Kazi completed her FCPS degree and received a scholarship from the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists in London and obtained DRCOG degree. She continued her studies in London and obtained FRCOG and MRCOG degrees. Upon her return to East Bengal (then renamed East Pakistan), she joined Dhaka Medical College and Hospital as a professor and Head of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Career
During her long career, Kazi held several key positions in medicine. Kazi was posthumously awarded the Ekushey Padak in February 2008 for her notable social work. During her lifetime, she also received several other distinctions and acknowledgements for her contributions, both medical and philanthropic, to society.

On 21 February 1952, Kazi is said to have organized emergency treatment for the wounded students of the Bengali Language Movement. During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, she sought out and provided medical attention to the wounded Freedom Fighters. Throughout her life, she took an active interest in the well-being of all her patients and the children she delivered.Kazi died on 7 November 2007 at the age of 95.

Documentary
A documentary film titled Zohra Kazi was recently released in Bangladesh. The film was directed by Mahbubul Alam Taru. The documentary illustrates Kazi's life and her success; her lifelong fight against illogical superstitions and backward beliefs, convincing uneducated female patients all over India and Bangladesh, the need for modern medical treatment.

References

1912 births
2007 deaths
Bangladeshi gynecologists
Recipients of Begum Rokeya Padak
Recipients of the Ekushey Padak
Burials at Banani Graveyard
Academic staff of Dhaka Medical College and Hospital
Bangladeshi people of Indian descent
People from Rajnandgaon

Zohra Begum Kazi


Rachel Dard (born 2 September 1951) was a French professional cyclist said to have raced across France to avoid a positive dope finding and ended up in a row which exposed organised drug-taking in cycling in the 1970s. His sporting career began with ACBB Paris.

Dope test
Dard was riding for Peugeot in 1976. Maurice De Muer was the manager, Bernard Thévenet the star rider and François Bellocq the doctor. At the start of that year the team rode L'Étoile des Espoirs, a stage race in south-west France. Jean-Luc Vandenbroucke was race leader and Dard, his teammate, had won the  stage to Dax.

Dard and a further teammate, Bourreau, were called for a dope test. Both were caught trying to defraud the control with a condom of untainted urine in their shorts to give the impression they were urinating.

Dard, it was reported, left the control room and then realised that his place in the race, perhaps his team, were over before the season had properly started. He found the doctor, Bruno Chaumont, and begged him not to report the positive. Chaumont agreed to burn the reports.  Dard then realised that while there may be no positive report, the absence of a report meant there had been no test either. He would have to explain why Chaumont had returned to the French federation with two empty bottles identified as his.

Bourreau had accepted his guilt and didn't want to take it further. But Dard is said to have gone back to the test centre for the empty bottles. But Chaumont had left by train to Paris. Dard got a lift to the station with another Peugeot rider, Bernard Croyet. They arrived just as Chaumont's train left for Paris. The two ran back to their car and drove across France to get to Paris before him. They reached Austerlitz station in time to meet Chaumont on the platform. Dard begged until tears ran down his face, literally. And again Chaumont relented. He took out the two bottles and smashed them. Dard (see below) disputes the story.

Chaumont said:
That evening, I took the train with the empty test bottles closed with seals. There was no question of taking samples from the riders because they had cheated. The next morning, at Austerlitz station in Paris, at 6.30am, who do I see? Rachel Dard, accompanied by a second person, short with brown curly hair, that I didn't recognise. He begged me not to denounce him. After hesitating, I agreed. I threw the test bottles into the gutter to show him that I understood his problems but I made him promise not to say anything. Well, pretty quickly, everything was revealed. Who talked? Certainly not me.

Revelations
Weeks passed and nothing happened. Then L'Équipe coincidentally ran a story about dope-taking in French cycling. Chaumont told the tale. Dard now had nothing more to lose, so he too went to L'Équipe and spilled the inside story, right down to providing the prescriptions for dope that Bellocq, the team doctor, had given him. He said riders treated with cortisone and steroids were now in "a pitiful state".

Row
A row then broke out between Dard and the doctor. Dard said:

To which the doctor replied:
His attitude is incredible [c'est fabuleux, une pareille attitude]. But I can understand Rachel Dard; but finally, if he had never confessed, I would never have dropped him. I would have defended him. I don't want the death of a sinner. I came into cycling to try to overcome the wall that exists between the cyclist and the doctor. I'm not there to do the dirty on anyone [pour faire tomber un tel ou un autre].

The story, however, also appears in a book by the team doctor, Bellocq, who died aged 47 in 1993 and was a believer in cortisone as a treatment for racing cyclists. Bernard Thévenet accused him of ruining his career.

Aftermath
Bellocq was banned from working for the French federation, although he continued to work for teams. Chaumont, too, was disciplined by the Fédération Française de Cyclisme.

The doping historian, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, named Peugeot's manager, Maurice de Muer, as the "gold medallist" in doping in cycling. "You'd be hard-pushed to count how many doping affairs [Maurice de Muer] has been involved with... at the head of Bic, then Peugeot. [He had] for the period 1970–1978 twenty-four positive cases concerning riders in these teams of the 70 total. That's 36 per cent!"

Peugeot was in no moral position to fire Dard. He raced at least once again but de Muer told him he would never ride anything better than third-rate events. Dard left the team and racing at the end of his contract. He opened a bike shop in Saint-Germain-du-Plain in Burgundy.

See also
List of doping cases in cycling

References

French male cyclists
1951 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Saône-et-Loire
Cyclists from Bourgogne-Franche-Comté

Rachel Dard


Northwest hip hop is hip hop or rap music that originates from the Pacific Northwest of North America, encompassing major cities such as Portland (Oregon), Seattle (Washington), and other towns. Northwest hip hop music mixes elements from various genres of music to form a sound different from its southern neighbor, West Coast hip hop. For many years the scene existed mainly as an underground genre, but recently Northwest hip-hop has seen more and more mainstream acceptance, with artists such as Macklemore gaining nationwide attention.

Overview
During the late 1970s, high school kids from the Rainier Beach, Rainier Valley, and Central District areas started to perfect early hip hop forms of dancing in the northwest defined as bopping. Many of the local underage clubs and high schools in South Seattle held formal contests called bop-offs where dancers would compete against one another. There were also informal bop offs that occurred at house parties and school yards where urban kids "called out" one another to compete. Some of the more prominent dancers (or boppers) during this period were James "PJ" Daniels, John "Sir John III" Arnold, James "Captain Crunch" Croone, Pojo, Snake, among others in the south Seattle area. Bopping, also known as poppin', was seen as the precursor for many popular forms of urban style dancing today.  These bop-offs were a segue to some of the first rap competitions in the northwest.  A student group from Rainier Beach High School called LTD (Leaders of Tomorrow's Democracy) with its DJ, John "Sir John III" Arnold, put on all-city rap competitions offering prize money.  These events attracted the top rappers across the city which included the Emerald Street Boys among others in the early 80s.

In the early 1980s, soldiers positioned at Tacoma's military bases provided the foundation for a growing hip-hop fan base in the Northwest. In the 1980s, Seattle rapper Sir Mix-A-Lot started his career.  Fresh Tracks was a two hour show that played on Sunday nights on KKFX 1250 ("KFOX" and formerly KKDZ), and consisted of a mix of new songs and a mastermix created by Nasty Nes. These mixes were made up of songs by The World's Famous Supreme Team, Malcolm McLaren, Run-D.M.C. and many others. Due to the show's popularity, the station's producer allowed Nes to expand it to a Monday through Friday, 9pm to midnight show called NightBeat that featured prominent R&B songs as well as intermixed rap songs. As Seattle's music scene evolved, so did the Seattle breakdance and graffiti crews, including B-Boy groups like Silver Chain Gang, Circuit Breakers, and Breaking Mechanism, and graffiti writers such as Spaide, Streak, DadOne, and Spraycan. With this space there was room for an eclectic group of identities to form, however none were successful in formulating a Seattle identity. Old school rapper Kid Sensation was also from Seattle.

History

1986-1992
In 1986, the first radio show in Spokane to play rap and hip hop on commercial radio was The Power Switch on POWER 104 FM (KXVO). Hosted by TJ Collins, Collins also featured local rappers and began airing mixes by GrandMixer GMS (who was a young teenager at the time). (PROP$ Magazine article, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 12, Dec. 1993).

Nastymix Records, the Northwest's first hip-hop label was founded with the local release of Sir Mix-A-Lot's "Square Dance Rap". Nastymix Records gained national recognition with Sir Mix-A-Lot's 1992 #1 hit "Baby Got Back", which won a Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance. This award came after Nastymix's last release, Criminal Nation's 1992 album Trouble in the Hood.

1993-2002
Seattle hip-hop culture was confined to the only venues that would play hip-hop, all of which were in Seattle's traditionally African-American neighborhood, the Central District (referred to in Seattle as "The CD".) In 1993, Jonathon "Wordsayer" Moore of Source of Labor approached Caroline Davenport of Tasty Shows, who was responsible for booking a popular Seattle venue called RCKCNDY. In 1996 a venue called the Power Plant, 825 Western Ave, Seattle (now a Dania Furniture store 2015)became a popular venue on Saturday nights with a hip hop group called The High Children. Home for B-Boys, break-dance battles and hosted the legendary Invisible Scratch Pickles versus X-men.

Funk Daddy, Gangsta Nut, Dee Lyrious, Crooked Path, Mob Related, Self-Titld were from Seattle and Bosko, Cool Nutz, Maniak Loc & CN, Hakim & J-Mack were from Portland, Oregon. The alternative/grunge music scene soon dominated the Northwest's musical image, and in both Seattle and Portland this contributed to the troubled adolescence of local hip-hop. The Teen Dance Ordinance, which had been in effect since 1985, made it almost impossible for most Seattle venues to book all-ages shows. The social turmoil of Seattle during the late 1990s (The World Trade Organization Protest), the city's outspoken political opposition to President George W. Bush, and the despised Teen Dance Ordinance characterized the socially conscious style that defined Northwest hip-hop after 1993, a style that was continually strengthened as the hip-hop culture was attacked and labeled as violent and disruptive. However, production companies grew in NW like Winetime productions producing in the 1990s for national artists like The Click, Celly Cel and E-40. Winetime then took Midwest/local artist Tony-O and climbed the Billboard charts in 1998 and 1999 peaking at #14 in Rap Singles with a song called "PHD (Playa Hater Degree)". Rap artist Tony-O is the only NW artist other than Sir Mix-A-Lot until Macklemore to top the billboard charts in hip-hop at that time.

2002-present
Macklemore is a hip hop artist from the Pacific Northwest who received much national and international attention. At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, Macklemore received seven Grammy award nominations, and won four of those, including the awards for Best New Artist, Best Rap Album (The Heist), Best Rap Song and Best Rap Performance ("Thrift Shop"). However, Macklemore's success has been met with frustration from many local PNW hip hop artists who feel that Macklemore's status as a white, middle class male has led him to his popular position and feel disheartened that the underground artists are not better able to represent their city and region.

Macklemore & Ryan Lewis went on to self-produce their first full-length album The Heist, released in October 2012, and earned a 2014 Grammy for Best Rap Song for their national hit, "Thrift Shop", and MTV Video Music Awards for Best Hip Hop Video, Best Video with a Social Message, and Best Cinematography for "Can't Hold Us", "Same Love", and "Can't Hold Us", respectively.

In 2019, DJ Nasty Nes revived his classic radio show, KFOX Nightbeat, featuring songs he originally played on Fresh Tracks and Nightbeat, as well as exclusive new music (like he did on Fresh Tracks), and mastermixes by Spokane's GrandMixer GMS. The Beacon strives to create a safe place for the hip hop community.

The Legacy of Seattle Hip-Hop at MOHAI
Seattle's Museum of History and Industry (MOHAI) curated and showcased an exhibit called The Legacy of Seattle Hip Hop from September 19, 2015 through May 1, 2016. This exhibit was curated by Jazmyn Scott of The Town Entertainment and Aaron Walker-Loud of Big World Breaks.

Items on display included Macklemore's fur jacket and scooter from his and Ryan Lewis' iconic "Thrift Shop" music video as well as Nasty Nes' NASTYMIX bomber jacket. There were several different sections of the exhibit focusing on different elements of Hip Hop culture. One section was devoted to music production. It featured two mixing stations that played tracks by Vitamin D and Jake One, as well as letting visitors interact with the tracks by using the mixing boards.

Another section was dedicated to breakdancing, highlighting some of the early b-boys and b-girls in the Seattle scene as well as well-known groups like the Massive Monkees. In the middle of the floor was a raised dancing platform (Seattle Met article) and on the walls were items like a Boom Squad jersey from the group that used to perform during halftime at Seattle SuperSonics games.

See also
G funk
Gangsta rap
Funk
Miami bass

References

External links
http://www.seattle.gov/music/history.htm

American hip hop scenes
hip hop
Music of Oregon
Music of Washington (state)
Hip hop
American music-related lists
Canadian music-related lists

Hip hop music in the Pacific Northwest


Louis Charles Marx (26 July 1903 – 13 June 1946) was a Luxembourgian politician for the Communist Party of Luxembourg. He was a medical doctor by profession, and fought for the French Resistance during the Second World War.

He had very well succeeded in his medical studies in Paris starting as an intern (1929), to become chief of clinical surgery, then a laureate of the Académie Nationale de Médecine and finally a member of the Committee of the French Association of Surgery (1935). He founded his own hospital, of 50 beds, in Ettelbruck, in north-western Luxembourg. There, in 1940, he helped two interned French airmen to escape to France. Charles Marx escaped himself, with his family, just before the German invasion. He briefly directed four French hospitals, in Nevers and Quillan. In July, he founded the first resistance group of the Armée secrète, which, in May 1943, was followed by a first maquis in the western Pyrenees. In June 1943, he was condemned to death in absentia in Montpellier by the Nazis.

In February 1944, Marx was appointed medical commander of the FFI and chief health manager of the Resistance in the oriental Pyrenees. In September 1944, he took part in the liberation of Lyon. In October, being the delegate of the medical resistance council, he was named attaché to the Health Minister and was charged to organise French-American military surgical structures. At the end of July, he took up the management of the Ettelbruck hospital. In November 1945, he was nominated Minister for Social Assistance and Public Health in Luxembourg.

Marx participated in the National Union Government under Prime Minister Pierre Dupong, representing the Communist Party in the all-party administration. However, Marx and his Romanian wife died on 13 June 1946 in a car accident at La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, in France. He was replaced by Dominique Urbany.

References

1903 births
1946 deaths
Health ministers of Luxembourg
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)
Communist Party of Luxembourg politicians
Communist members of the French Resistance
Luxembourgian surgeons
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Politicians from Luxembourg City
Road incident deaths in France
Alumni of the Athénée de Luxembourg
Luxembourgian military doctors
20th-century surgeons
People condemned by Nazi courts in absentia

Charles Marx


Geological engineering is a discipline of engineering concerned with the application of geological science and engineering principles to fields, such as civil engineering, mining, environmental engineering, and forestry, among others. The work of geological engineers often directs or supports the work of other engineering disciplines such as assessing the suitability of locations for civil engineering, environmental engineering, mining operations, and oil and gas projects by conducting geological, geoenvironmental, geophysical, and geotechnical studies. They are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments. The engineering design input and other recommendations made by geological engineers on these projects will often have a large impact on construction and operations. Geological engineers plan, design, and implement geotechnical, geological, geophysical, hydrogeological, and environmental data acquisition. This ranges from manual ground-based methods to deep drilling, to geochemical sampling, to advanced geophysical techniques and satellite surveying. Geological engineers are also concerned with the analysis of past and future ground behaviour, mapping at all scales, and ground characterization programs for specific engineering requirements. These analyses lead geological engineers to make recommendations and prepare reports which could have major effects on the foundations of construction, mining, and civil engineering projects. Some examples of projects include rock excavation, building foundation consolidation, pressure grouting, hydraulic channel erosion control, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, and assessment and remediation of contamination. In addition, geological engineers are included on design teams that develop solutions to surface hazards, groundwater remediation, underground and surface excavation projects, and resource management. Like mining engineers, geological engineers also conduct resource exploration campaigns, mine evaluation and feasibility assessments, and contribute to the ongoing efficiency, sustainability, and safety of active mining projects

History
While the term geological engineering was not coined until the 19th century, principles of geological engineering are demonstrated through millennia of human history.

Ancient engineering
One of the oldest examples of geological engineering principles is the Euphrates tunnel, which was constructed around 2180 B.C. – 2160 B.C... This, and other tunnels and qanats from around the same time were used by ancient civilizations such as Babylon and Persia for the purposes of irrigation. Another famous example where geological engineering principles were used in an ancient engineering project was the construction of the Eupalinos aqueduct tunnel in Ancient Greece. This was the first tunnel to be constructed inward from both ends using principles of geometry and trigonometry, marking a significant milestone for both civil engineering and geological engineering

Geological engineering as a discipline

Although projects that applied geological engineering principles in their design and construction have been around for thousands of years, these were included within the civil engineering discipline for most of this time. Courses in geological engineering have been offered since the early 1900's; however, these remained specialized offerings until a large increase in demand arose in the mid-20th century. This demand was created by issues encountered from development of increasingly large and ambitious structures, human-generated waste, scarcity of mineral and energy resources, and anthropogenic climate change – all of which created the need for a more specialized field of engineering with professional engineers who were also experts in geological or Earth sciences.

Notable disasters that are attributed to the formal creation of the geological engineering discipline include dam failures in the United States and western Europe in the 1950's and 1960's. These most famously include the St Francis dam failure (1928), Malpasset dam failure (1959), and the Vajont dam failure (1963), where a lack of knowledge of geology resulted in almost 3,000 deaths between the latter two alone. The Malpasset dam failure is regarded as the largest civil engineering disaster of the 20th century in France and Vajont dam failure is still the deadliest landslide in European history.

Education

Post-secondary degrees in geological engineering are offered at various universities around the world but are concentrated primarily in North America. Geological engineers often obtain degrees that include courses in both geological or Earth sciences and engineering.  To practice as a professional geological engineer, a bachelor's degree in a related discipline from an accredited institution is required. For certain positions, a Master's or Doctorate degree in a related engineering discipline may be required. After obtaining these degrees, an individual who wishes to practice as a professional geological engineer must go through the process of becoming licensed by a professional association or regulatory body in their jurisdiction.

Canadian institutions
In Canada, 8 universities are accredited by Engineer's Canada to offer undergraduate degrees in geological engineering. Many of these universities also offer graduate degree programs in geological engineering. These include:

 Queen's University (Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering) (1975 – present),
 École Polytechnique (1965 – present),
 Université Laval (1965 – present),
 Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (1983 – present),
 University of British Columbia (1965 – present),
 University of New Brunswick (jointly administered by Department of Earth Sciences and Department of Civil Engineering) (1984 – present),
 University of Saskatchewan (1965 – present), and
 University of Waterloo (1986 – present).

American institutions
In the United States there are 13 geological engineering programs recognized by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). These include:

 Colorado School of Mines (1936 – present),
 Michigan Technological University (1951 – present),
 Missouri University of Science and Technology (1973 – present),
 Montana Technological University (1972–present),
 South Dakota School of Mines and Technology (1950 – present),
 The University of Utah (1952 – present),
 University of Alaska-Fairbanks (1941 – present),
 University of Minnesota Twin Cities (1950 – present),
 University of Mississippi (1987 – present),
 University of Nevada, Reno (1958 – present),
 University of North Dakota (1984 – present),
 University of Texas at Austin (1998 – present), and
 University of Wisconsin – Madison (1993 – present).

Other institutions
Universities in other countries that hold accreditation to offer degree programs in geological engineering from the EAC by the ABET include:

 Escuela Superior Politécnica Del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador (2018 – present),
 Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey (2009 – present),
 Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Rímac, Peru (2017 – present), and
 Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain (2014 – present).

Specializations
In geological engineering there are multiple subdisciplines which analyze different aspects of Earth sciences and apply them to a variety of engineering projects. The subdisciplines listed below are commonly taught at the undergraduate level, and each has overlap with disciplines external to geological engineering. However, a geological engineer who specializes in one of these subdisciplines throughout their education may still be licensed to work in any of the other subdisciplines.

Geoenvironmental and hydrogeological engineering
Geoenvironmental engineering is the subdiscipline of geological engineering that focuses on preventing or mitigating the environmental effects of anthropogenic contaminants within soil and water. It solves these issues via the development of processes and infrastructure for the supply of clean water, waste disposal, and control of pollution of all kinds. The work of geoenvironmental engineers largely deals with investigating the migration, interaction, and result of contaminants; remediating contaminated sites; and protecting uncontaminated sites. Typical work of a geoenvironmental engineer includes:

 The preparation, review, and update of environmental investigation reports,
 The design of projects such as water reclamation facilities or groundwater monitoring wells which lead to the protection of the environment,
 Conducting feasibility studies and economic analyses of environmental projects,
 Obtaining and revising permits, plans, and standard procedures,
 Providing technical expertise for environmental remediation projects which require legal actions,
 The analysis of groundwater data for the purpose of quality-control checks,
 The site investigation and monitoring of environmental remediation and sustainability projects to ensure compliance with environmental regulations, and
 Advising corporations and government agencies regarding procedures for cleaning up contaminated sites.

Geotechnical and rock engineering
Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of geological engineering that deals with safely excavating, stabilizing, and monitoring the rock and soil surrounding underground excavations and surface construction, as well as managing ground natural and induced settlement of buildings, stability of slopes and fills, and probable effects of landslides and earthquakes on human infrastructure. Geotechnical engineers focus their work primarily around geomechanical deformation properties of rocks and soils which are then applied to ongoing problems in fields such as rock mechanics, soil mechanics, and natural hazard mitigation and prevention. They work in designing and monitoring a variety of construction projects in urban and rural settings, including roads, railways, tunnels, dams, caverns, surface and underground mines, sewers, underground utilities, deep geological repositories for long-term nuclear waste storage, onshore infrastructure, and offshore infrastructure. In addition, geotechnical engineering also focusses on slope stability and risk assessment of projects which could be the subject of natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and landslides. Some geotechnical engineers also work in the restoration or expansion of historical infrastructure for uses in transportation and tourism.

Mineral and energy resource exploration engineering
Mineral and energy resource exploration (commonly known as MinEx for short) is the subdiscipline of geological engineering that applies modern tools and concepts to the discovery and sustainable extraction of natural mineral and energy resources. A geological engineer who specializes in this field may work on several stages of mineral exploration and mining projects, including exploration and orebody delineation, mine production operations, mineral processing, and environmental impact and risk assessment programs for mine tailings and other mine waste. Like a mining engineer, mineral and energy resource exploration engineers may also be responsible for the design, finance, and management of mine sites.

Geophysical engineering (applied geophysics)
Geophysical engineering is the subdiscipline of geological engineering that applies geophysics principles to the design of engineering projects such as tunnels, dams, and mines or for the detection of subsurface geohazards, groundwater, and pollution. Geophysical investigations are undertaken from ground surface, in boreholes, or from space to analyze ground conditions, composition, and structure at all scales. Geophysical techniques apply a variety of physics principles such as seismicity, magnetism, gravity, and resistivity. This subdiscipline was created in the early 1990's as a result of an increased demand in more accurate subsurface information created by a rapidly increasing global population. Geophysical engineering and applied geophysics differ from traditional geophysics primarily by their need for marginal returns and optimized designs and practices as opposed to satisfying regulatory requirements at a minimum cost

Job responsibilities

Geological engineers are responsible for the planning, development, and coordination of site investigation and data acquisition programs for geological, geotechnical, geophysical, geoenvironmental, and hydrogeological studies. These studies are traditionally conducted for civil engineering, mining, petroleum, waste management, and regional development projects but are becoming increasingly focused on environmental and coastal engineering projects and on more specialized projects for long-term underground nuclear waste storage. Geological engineers are also responsible for analyzing and preparing recommendations and reports to improve construction of foundations for civil engineering projects such as rock and soil excavation, pressure grouting, and hydraulic channel erosion control. In addition, geological engineers analyze and prepare recommendations and reports on the settlement of buildings, stability of slopes and fills, and probable effects of landslides and earthquakes to support construction and civil engineering projects. They must design means to safely excavate and stabilize the surrounding rock or soil in underground excavations and surface construction, in addition to managing water flow from, and within these excavations.

Geological engineers also perform a primary role in all forms of underground infrastructure including tunnelling, mining, hydropower projects, shafts, deep repositories and caverns for power, storage, industrial activities, and recreation. Moreover, geological engineers design monitoring systems, analyze natural and induced ground response, and prepare recommendations and reports on the settlement of buildings, stability of slopes and fills, and the probable effects of natural disasters to support construction and civil engineering projects. In some jobs, geological engineers conduct theoretical and applied studies of groundwater flow and contamination to develop site specific solutions which treat the contaminants and allow for safe construction. Additionally, they design means to manage and protect surface and groundwater resources and remediation solutions in the event of contamination. If working on a mine site, geological engineers may be tasked with planning, development, coordination, and conducting theoretical and experimental studies in mining exploration, mine evaluation and feasibility studies relative to the mining industry. They conduct surveys and studies of ore deposits, ore reserve calculations, and contribute mineral resource expertise, geotechnical and geomechanical design and monitoring expertise and environmental management to a developing or ongoing mining operation. In a variety of projects, they may be expected to design and perform geophysical investigations from surface using boreholes or from space to analyze ground conditions, composition, and structure at all scales

Professional associations and licensing
Professional Engineering Licenses may be issued through a municipal, provincial/state, or federal/national government organization, depending on the jurisdiction. The purpose of this licensing process is to ensure professional engineers possess the necessary technical knowledge, real-world experience, and basic understanding of the local legal system to practice engineering at a professional level. In Canada, the United States, Japan, South Korea, Bangladesh, and South Africa, the title of Professional Engineer is granted through licensure. In the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, and Zimbabwe the granted title is Chartered Engineer . In Australia, the granted title is Chartered Professional Engineer. Lastly, in the European Union, the granted title is European Engineer. All these titles have similar requirements for accreditation, including a recognized post-secondary degree and relevant work experience.

Canada
In Canada, Professional Engineer (P.Eng.) and Professional Geoscientist (P.Geo.) licenses are regulated by provincial professional bodies which have the groundwork for their legislation laid out by Engineers Canada and Geoscientists Canada. The provincial organizations are listed in the table below.

United States
In the United States, all individuals seeking to become a Professional Engineer (P.E.) must attain their license through the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Licenses to be a Certified Professional Geologist in the United States are issued and regulated by the American Institute of Professional Geologists (AIPG)

Professional Societies
Professional societies in geological engineering are not-for-profit organizations that seek to advance and promote the represented profession(s) and connect professionals using networking, regular conferences, meetings, and other events, as well as provide platforms to publish technical literature through forms of conference proceedings, books, technical standards, and suggested methods, and provide opportunities for professional development such as short courses, workshops, and technical tours. Some regional, national, and international professional societies relevant to geological engineers are listed here:

 American Geophysical Union (AGU)
 American Geosciences Institute (AGI)
 American Rock Mechanics Association (ARMA)
 Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists (AEG)
 Association for Mineral Exploration (AME)
 Atlantic Geoscience Society (AGS)
 Canadian Dam Association (CDA)
 Canadian Federation of Earth Sciences (CFES)
 Canadian Geophysical Union (CGU)
 Canadian Geotechnical Society (CGS)
 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM)
 Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists (CSPG)
 Canadian Rock Mechanics Association (CARMA)
 European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers (EAGE)
 European Geosciences Union (EGU)
 European Federation of Geologists (EFG)
 Geological Association of Canada (GAC)
 Geological Society of America (GSA)
 Geoscience Information Society (GSIS)
 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IOM3)
 International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment (IAEG)
 International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH)
 International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM)
 International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (ISRM)
 International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE)
 International Tunnelling Association (ITA)
 International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS)
 Mineralogical Association of Canada (MAC)
 Mining Association of Canada (MAC)
 Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada (PDAC)
 Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration (SME)
 Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG)
 Tunnelling Association of Canada (TAC)
 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
 U.S. National Mining Association (NMA)

Distinction from engineering geology
Engineering geologists and geological engineers are both interested in the study of the Earth, its shifting movement, and alterations, and the interactions of human society and infrastructure with, on, and in Earth materials. Both disciplines require licenses from professional bodies in most jurisdictions to conduct related work. The primary difference between geological engineers and engineering geologists is that geological engineers are licensed professional engineers (and sometimes also professional geoscientists/geologists) with a combined understanding of Earth sciences and engineering principles, while engineering geologists are geological scientists whose work focusses on applications to engineering projects, and they may be licensed professional geoscientists/geologists, but not professional engineers. The following subsections provide more details on the differing responsibilities between engineering geologists and geological engineers.

Engineering geology
Engineering geologists are applied geological scientists who assess problems that might arise before, during, and after an engineering project. They are trained to be aware of potential problems like:

 landslides,
 faults,
 unstable ground,
 groundwater challenges, and
 floodplains.

They use a variety of field and laboratory testing techniques to characterize ground materials that might affect the construction, the long-term safety, or environmental footprint of a project. Job responsibilities of an engineering geologist include:

 collecting samples and surveys,
 conducting lab tests on samples,
 assessing in situ soil or rock conditions at many scales,
 preparing reports based on testing and on-site observations for clients, and
 creating geological models, maps, and sections.

Geological engineering
Geological engineers are engineers with extensive knowledge of geological or Earth sciences as well as engineering geology, engineering principles, and engineering design practices.  These professionals are qualified to perform the role of or interact with engineering geologists. Their primary focus, however, is the use of engineering geology data, as well as engineering skills to:

 Design advanced exploration programs, environmental management or remediation projects including:
 Groundwater extraction and sustainability,
 Natural hazard mitigation systems,
 Energy resource exploration and extraction,
 Mineral resource exploration and extraction, and
 Environmental remediation.
 Design Infrastructure, including:
 Surface works,
 Foundations,
 Tunnels,
 Dams,
 Caverns, and
 Other construction that interfaces with the ground.
 Oversee components of mining including:
 Advanced resource assessment and economics,
 Mineral processing,
 Mine planning, and
 Geomechanical and geotechnical stability.

In all these activities, the geological model, geological history, and environment, as well as measured engineering properties of relevant Earth materials are critical to engineering design and decision making.

References

See also

 Civil engineering
 Engineering geology
 Geology
 Environmental engineering
 Mining engineering
 Petroleum engineering

Engineering disciplines

Geological engineering


Frumentius was a Bishop known as the person who started the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and who brought Christianity to Ethiopia.

Life
Frumentius was born in the 4th Century in Tyre which is now Lebanon. Frumentius and his brother Edesius were shipwrecked in Eritrea. Everyone else on the ship was killed by the people there but Frumentius and Edesius were captured and sold into slavery. They became slaves of Ousanas, the King of the tribe of Axum. Ousanas freed them before his death and his widow hired them to tutor her son Ezana, King of Axum.

While teaching Ezana, Frumentius tried to convince as many people as he could to become Christian.  Once Ezana was an adult both Frumentius and his brother Edesius left Ethiopia. Edesius went back home to Tyre but Frumentius went to Egypt to convince  Athanasias the creator of the Athanasian Creed to appoint missionaries to Axum. So Athanasius appointed Frumentius as a bishop. Frumentius went back to Ethiopia this time with Christian priests to start Churches and to convince people there to become Christians. Frumentius even managed to get King Ezana to convert to Christianity. When the Roman Empire told Ezana to replace Frumentius with another bishop, because Frumentius didn't believe in the Nicene Creed, Ezana said no.

Sainthood
In Ethiopia, the Orthodox Church says that Frumentius is a Saint and they call him Saint Frumentius.

Bishops

Frumentius


An event store is a type of database optimized for storage of events.

Conceptually, an event store records only the events affecting an entity, dossier, or policy, and the state of the entity at any point in its history can be reconstructed by replaying its contributing events in sequential order. Events (and their corresponding data) are the only "real" facts that should be stored in the database. All other objects can be derived from these events, meaning they are instantiated in memory by runtime code as needed (e.g. for showing in a user interface). In theory, any object that aggregates over recorded event data is not stored in the database. Instead these objects are built 'on the fly', by traversing the event history. When the aggregated object instance is no longer needed, it can simply be discarded (released from memory).

Example with insurance policies
For example, the event store concept of a database can be applied to insurance policies or pension dossiers. In these policies or dossiers the instantiation of each object that make up the dossier or policy (the person, partner(s), employments, etc.) can be derived and can be instantiated in memory based on the real world events.

Double timeline
A crucial part of an event store database is that each event has a double timeline: This enables event stores to correct errors of events that have been entered into the event store database before.

The two dates are:
 Valid date is the date at which the event has become valid.
 Transaction date is the date at which the event is entered into the database.

Error correction
Another crucial part of an event store database is that events that are stored are not allowed to be changed. Once stored, also erroneous events are not changed anymore. The only way to change (or better: correct) these events is to instantiate a new event with the new values and using the double timeline. A correcting event would have the new values of the original event, with an event data of that corrected event, but a different transaction date. This mechanism ensures reproducibility at each moment in the time, even in the time period before the correction has taken place. It also allows to reproduce situations based on erroneous events (if required).

Advantages and disadvantages
One advantage of the event store concept is that handling the effects of back dated events (events that take effect before previous events and that may even invalidate them) is much easier.

An event store will simplify the code in that rolling back erroneous situations and rolling up the new, correct situations is not needed anymore.

Disadvantage may be that the code needs to re-instantiate all objects in memory based on the events each time a service call is received for a specific dossier or policy.

Compared to regular databases
In regular databases, handling backdated events to correct previous, erroneous events can be painful as it often results in rolling back all previous, erroneous transactions and objects and rolling up the new, correct transactions and objects. In an event store, only the new event (and its corresponding facts) are stored. The code will then redetermine the transactions and objects based on the new facts in memory.

See also
 Temporal database, a database which stores data relating to time instances (e.g. past, present and future) to determine transactions, validity or decisions

External links
 DB-Engines Ranking of Event Stores by popularity, updated monthly

Databases

Event store


Kinderhaus is a district of Münster, a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It lies approximately 4 km to the north of the centre of Münster and belongs to the borough Münster-Nord, together with Coerde and Sprakel. It has 16,000 inhabitants and is mainly a residential area, though it has attracted some service enterprises, primarily in a large strip mall surrounding the Bürgerzentrum.

History
Kinderhaus was founded in 1333, at that time far outside the city walls of Münster. The name is derived from a
house for lepers with the name "kinderen hus". Until the start of the 19th century, Kinderhaus consisted only of this house, a church and a few farms.

In the year 1903 Kinderhaus became a part of Münster, and since then it has been steadily growing.

During the Cold War period, Kinderhaus was home to a very large number of USA and British Armed Forces Personnel and their families, probably the biggest enclave in Münster at the time.

Sights
 Wasserschloss Wilkinghege built in 1311, now used as hotel and restaurant
 The leprosy museum of Münster
 The Waldschule (forest school) built in 1673, probably the oldest schoolbuilding in Germany that is still in use

External links
 Homepage of the leprosy museum

Münster
States and territories established in 1333

Münster-Kinderhaus


Donji Petrovci (Serbian Cyrillic: Доњи Петровци) is a village in Serbia. It is situated in Ruma municipality, Srem District, Vojvodina province. The village has a Serb ethnic majority and a population of 991 people (2002 census). There is a significant ancient Roman archaeological site near the village - the remains of large city Bassianae, which in the 3rd century had the highest status of colonia.

Name
In Serbian the village is known as Donji Petrovci (Доњи Петровци) or sometimes simply Petrovci (Петровци); in Croatian as Donji Petrovci; and in Hungarian as Petrovcze. The name of the town in Serbian is plural.

History

In ancient times, an important Roman town known as Bassianae existed at this location. Today only small amount of this ancient settlement have been preserved. Bassianae was founded as an autonomous civitas in the 1st century and existed until the 6th century. It obtained the municipium status in 124 AD, while in 214 AD it was recorded as a colony. Initially, the town was part of Pannonia province, but due to the subsequent divisions of this province, Bassianae was included into Pannonia Inferior (2nd century) and later into Pannonia Secunda (3rd century). Bassianae was devastated during Barbarian invasions in the 5th-6th century.

Modern village of Donji Petrovci was mentioned first under this name in 1520, during administration of medieval Kingdom of Hungary. Since 1526, the village is part of the Ottoman Empire and from 1527 to 1530 it belonged to vassal Serb duchy in Syrmia, ruled by Radoslav Čelnik. Later, the village was included into Ottoman Sanjak of Syrmia, which was part of the Budin Eyalet.

Following the Treaty of Passarowitz from 1718, the village was transferred from Ottoman Empire to Habsburg monarchy. Until 1745, the village was under military administration, and since 1745, it was part of the Syrmia County of the Habsburg Kingdom of Slavonia (this kingdom was administratively part of both, the Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia and the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary). In 1828, village was mainly populated by Orthodox Christians. In 1848-1849, the village was part of autonomous Serbian Vojvodina and from 1849 to 1860 it was part of the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar, which was a separate Habsburg crownland. After abolishment of the voivodeship in 1860, the village was again included into Syrmia County of the Kingdom of Slavonia (in this time, Kingdom of Slavonia was completely separate Habsburg crownland). Following the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement from 1868, the Kingdom of Slavonia and the Kingdom of Croatia were joined into newly formed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, which administratively was part of the Kingdom of Hungary and Austria-Hungary. In 1910, the village had Serb ethnic majority and Hungarian minority.

Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the village firstly became part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, then part of the Kingdom of Serbia, and finally part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed to Yugoslavia). From 1918 to 1922, the village was part of the Syrmia County, from 1922 to 1929 part of the Syrmia Oblast, and from 1929 to 1941 part of Danube Banovina. From 1941 to 1944, the village was occupied by Axis troops and was attached to the Pavelić's Independent State of Croatia. In 1944, Soviet Red Army and Yugoslav partisans expelled Axis troops from the region and village was included into Autonomous Province of Vojvodina within new socialist Yugoslavia. Since 1945, Vojvodina is part of the People's Republic of Serbia within Yugoslavia.

Demographics

Ethnic groups
In 2002, population of the village included:
Serbs = 902
Romani = 55
others = 34

Historical population
1961: 1,015
1971: 944
1981: 842
1991: 843
2002: 991

See also
Archaeological Sites of Exceptional Importance
List of places in Serbia
List of cities, towns and villages in Vojvodina

References

Literature
Slobodan Ćurčić, Broj stanovnika Vojvodine, Novi Sad, 1996.
Slobodan Ćurčić, Naselja Srema - geografske karakteristike, Novi Sad, 2000.
Dr Nikola Vulić, Vojvodina u rimsko doba, Zbornik "Vojvodina", knjiga I, PROMETEJ, Novi Sad, 2008.
Petar Milošević, Arheologija i istorija Sirmijuma, Novi Sad, 2001.
Prof. dr Radmilo Petrović, Vojvodina - petnaest milenijuma kulturne istorije, Beograd, 2003.
Dr Dušan J. Popović, Srbi u Vojvodini, knjiga 1, Novi Sad, 1990.

Populated places in Syrmia
Populated places in Srem District
Ruma

Donji Petrovci