World Refugee Day is an international day organised every year on 20 June by the United Nations. It is designed to celebrate and honour refugees from around the world. The day was first established on 20 June 2001, in recognition of the 50th anniversary of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.

The event aims to recognise the strength of the refugees who have fled the conflict and persecution of their country in hope of finding sanctuary and living a better life. World Refugee Day builds the concept of understanding for their plight which shows one's resilience and courage in the rebuilding of their future.

The day is seen as an opportunity for everyone to experience, understand and celebrate "the rich diversity" of the communities of refugees. Events such as theatre, dance, films, and music aim to allow refugee community organisations, voluntary and statutory organisations, local councils, and schools to host events during the week in order to honour the cause.

World Refugee Day is also celebrated through World Refugee Week and is designed to provide an important chance for asylum seekers and refugees to be seen, listened to and valued by the community that they are living in.

Background
A refugee is an individual who leaves their country due to the ramifications of war, conflict persecutions and violence that they have faced within their home country. Through undertaking the process of crossing international borders, some refugees are often found to leave everything behind carrying only the minimal clothing and possessions; with the plan to find safety and haven in a different country.

The 1951 Refugee Convention acknowledges a refugee as an individual who is unable to return to their country of origin owing to the founded fear of being affected by their race, religion, participation of a social group or in different political opinions.

Impact on the globe
Refugees play a role in the globe as when they are positioned to have access to the legal employment opportunities in their host country, they are able to utilises their knowledge to assist in filling the gap of a country's labour market. These inclusions in society create a more diverse in culture and multiculturalisation which provides the community with the opportunity to learn from each other.

Majority of the refugees come from backgrounds where they have been formally employed and can assist their new country in contributing to the security of the country as well as their revenue. Through having refugees in a country, the hosts also need to prepare for an increase in the cost of services such as access to healthcare of education which is provided by the government. They are also able to create the ability to contribute to society by acting as a mediator in different intercultural exchanges, this means that the country will be able to experience a more effective socio-cultural diversity within the community.

History

On 4 December 2000, the United Nations General Assembly in Resolution 55/76 acknowledged that, 2001 and onwards, 20 June would be celebrated as World Refugee Day. The resolution saw that 2001 marked the 50th anniversary of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. The convention had commemorated refugees to honour, raise awareness and solicit support to those affected around the globe.

African Refugee Day had been formally celebrated in several countries prior to 2000. The UN noted that the Organization of African Unity (OAU) had agreed to have International Refugee Day coincide with Africa Refugee Day on 20 June.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees started the #WithRefugees petition to send a message to the people of the action, solidarity, and responsibility on behalf of refugees to governments worldwide. There have been projects and resources that have been put into place which aims to spread the word to educate people about the way of life for refugees. The United Nations works along with the community to try to end the refugee crisis and find homes for displaced people worldwide.

In 1967, the United Nations had expanded the number of people who would apply for a refugee status because of the acts of the 1951 Convention which had defined a refugee as an individual or person who had been forced to flee their homes because of World War II. This came to be known as the 1967 Protocol. The protocol at the time had removed the time limitations and geographical definitions of what it meant to be a refugee.

The United Nation Action – The General Assembly
As one of the six principal cores of the United Nations, the General Assembly is responsible for the main policymaking and representative of issues around the globe. Upon the Fiftieth anniversary of the Office of the United Nations there has been a resolution which is attained by the general assembly specifically to cater for the refugees and World Refugee Day. The eight key goals are as follows:

 Commends the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in regards of its lead and push for coordination within international action for refugees. it acknowledges the process of the protection and aid to refugees and other persons of concern, which aims to create a suitable outcome for their problems of refugees entering the country.
 Pays to the humanitarian workers and the staff of the Office of the High Commissioner in the aid of the refugees this is because they are the individuals who risk their lives while they are on the job.
 Reaffirms its support for the activities of the Office of the High Commissioner, this will be simultaneous to the results of the general assembly, on behalf of the returnees, and identity of the internally displaced persons. The cause of an internally displaced person is the causes of internal displacement, including armed conflict, generalised violence, human rights violations, and "natural and man-made disasters", either through a sudden or slow onset.
 Notes the main role of movements with the global society, for both regional and non-governmental organisations, this includes the participation of refugees in laws that affect their lives. The Protocol obliges States to comply with the substantive provisions of the 1951 Convention to all individuals who are covered by the definition of a refugee without any limitation of date. Although related to the Convention, the Protocol is still an independent instrument, which is an accession to which is not limited to States parties to the Convention.
 Recognises that the High Commissioner will contribute to evaluating the principles of the United Nations, this will be those in relations to peace, human rights and development. This aims to recall the right of individuals to create self-determination, by virtue of which they have the right freely to determine their own political status and to pursue their economic, social and cultural development within themselves.
 Notes that this convention will set out the overarching concepts for international refugee protection. The developments in the international human rights law also reinforce the principle that the Convention will be applied without discrimination to anyone as to their sex, age, disability, sexuality, or other prohibited grounds of discrimination. The Convention also stipulates that, there is only the exceptions, that a refugees should not be penalized for their illegal entry or stay.
 Acknowledges the Organisation of African Unity that has agreed that an international refugee day will coincide with Africa Refugee Day. Africa Refugee Day was also a celebration on 20 June every year and as a gesture to express solidarity with the continent of Africa, The United Nations, on 4 December 2000, adopted a resolution that World Refugee Day would be held on 20 June, starting in 2001. The day was the 50th anniversary of the UN's 1951 convention relating to the status of refugees. The conclusion of the resolution noted that the Organisation of African Unity would coordinate Africa Refugee Day with the new World Refugee Day.
 World Refugee Day will be celebrated on the 20th of June. It also is celebrated during the week which is the annual activity that was organised by Austcare in Sydney 1986, which aims to inform the community about refuges and their positive contribution to the Australian society.

Convention and protocol relating to the status of refugees
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 recognises the right that a person has to seek asylum from persecution in other countries, the united nation protocol has highlighted that they will indifferently and equally be reinforced to the principles that they will face no discrimination as to their sex, age, disability, sexuality, or other prohibited grounds of discrimination.

The status of refugee also highlights that the convention will include a variety of safeguards for the expulsion of refugees. It is stated that through the principles and rights of these refugee where there are no derogations that can be made. It describes this idea that a refugee will be expel or return against his or her will to a country where they feel threaten to their life.

The convention and protocol allow for refugees to have rights in a country for asylum without the persecution from their own home country.

The convention consolidates previous international instruments which also relates to refugees, and it will aim to provide the most comprehensive codification of the rights of refugees at the international level. It is a convention of a status and rights-based instrument and is ultimately under pinned by a number of fundamental principles, most notably the non-discrimination, non-penalisation and non-refoulement roles.

The convention ultimately puts down the law where basic minimum standards for the treatment of refugees, without prejudice to States granting more favourable treatment must be met. This means that refugees have the rights to have access to the courts, to primary education, to work, and the provision for documentation, including a refugee travel document in passport form.

Additionally, the Convention does not apply to those individuals for whom there are serious reasons for considering that they have committed war crimes or crimes against humanity. This also includes serious non-political crimes, or those who are guilty of acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Commemorations

Each year on 20 June the United Nations, United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) and civic groups around the world host World Refugee Day events in order to draw the public's attention to the millions of refugees and Internally displaced persons worldwide who have been forced to flee their homes due to war, conflict and persecution.

The annual commemoration is marked by a variety of events in more than 100 countries, involving government officials, humanitarian aid workers, celebrities, civilians and the forcibly displaced themselves.

The UNHCR puts out messages on each World Refugee Day:
 2020: The COVID-19 pandemic is a sharp reminder of how we are all intimately connected to each other and to nature.
2019: Filippo Grandi today pledged to do all he could to help millions of forcibly displaced people "not just to get by, but also to thrive."
 2018: Today, World Refugee Day, is a time for solidarity with refugees

UNHCR designates a theme for each World Refugee Day campaign.
2023: Hope away from home. A world where refugees are always included. "This year, World Refugee Day focuses on the power of inclusion and solutions for refugees. "Including refugees in the communities where they have found safety after fleeing conflict and persecution is the most effective way to support them in restarting their lives and enable them to contribute to the countries hosting them. "It's also the best way to prepare them to return home and rebuild their countries, when conditions allow them to do so safely and voluntarily, or to thrive if they are resettled to another country."
2022: Whoever. Wherever. Whenever. Everyone has the right to seek safety. "Whoever they are, people forced to flee should be treated with dignity. Anyone can seek protection, regardless of who they are or what they believe. It is non-negotiable: seeking safety is a human right."Wherever they come from, people forced to flee should be welcomed. Refugees come from all over the globe. To get out of harm's way, they might take a plane, a boat, or travel on foot. What remains universal is the right to seek safety."Whenever people are forced to flee, they have a right to be protected. Whatever the threat – war, violence, persecution – everyone deserves protection. Everyone has a right to be safe."
 2021: Together we can achieve anything: 2021's theme aimed to help heal by expanding refugees' access to health care, sexual and reproductive health, nutrition, and mental health services. the concept of learn is to enable talented individuals to be provided with the opportunity to go to university and have a scholarship to ensure they are provided with a chance to use their knowledge to help others in the community. further, the concept of shine where the concept of sport is being used to enrich the lives of people forced to flee their home country and aims to boost their mental health and help them gain confidence, forge new friendships, and feel welcomed into the society that they are now in.
2020: Every Actions Counts
The COVID-19 pandemic along with the anti-racism protests was evidence to show how desperately the need to fight for a more inclusive and equal world, the movement where a world where no one is left behind. It highlights that everyone has to have a role to play in order to bring about change within the community. Everyone ultimately can make a difference. This aims to create the efforts to create a more just, inclusive, and equal world.
 2019: Take A Step on World Refugee Day
This theme highlights the idea and focuses on the notion that we all need to take a step weather big or small to step in solidarity with refugees from around the globe. This day provides an opportunity to show globally that we all are with refugees every step of the way.
 2018: Now More Than Ever, We Need to Stand with Refugees
The year aims to highlight, as the United Nations of high commissioner stated that it's time to recognise the humanity of refugees in action, it is to challenge ourselves, and others, to join them, in the aims to receive and supporting refugees in our schools, neighbourhoods, and workplaces no matter where we are.
 2017: Embracing Refugees to celebrate our Common Humanity
The year supports refugees all over the world, the day aims to show people that they must stand with them in their plight, and honour the courage, strength and determination of women, men and children who are forced to flee their homeland though threat of persecution, conflict and violence, without having the promise of a better life.
 2016: We stand together with refugees
With the petition of #WithRefugees petition, aims to send a message to different governments that they must work together and do their fair share for refugees and ensure that they are treated fairly and are given the same opportunities for the aims of rebuilding their lives.
 2015: With courage let us all combine
The year aimed to show public support for refugees' courage from individuals, government officials, host communities, companies, celebrities, school children and the general public, among others.
 2014: Migrants and Refugees: Towards a Better World
The year highlighted that although humanitarians can help as a palliative, but political solutions are needed. Without this push for change, conflict and the mass suffering of refugees will continue.
 2013: Take 1 minute to support a family forced to flee
The year aims to concur three things, learn to listen to the stories that families have been thought, take action by attending World Refugee Day events, and Spread the word by following events on social media and share with everyone on how individuals celebrate World Refugee Day.
 2012: 1 family torn apart by war is too many
The year urged industrialised countries not to close their doors to asylum seekers or try to lessen their obligations to refugees. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees argued "In any case, no wall will be high enough to prevent people from coming".
 2010: 1 refugee forced to flee is too many
There are many reasons to which one must flee their country but with so many people having do leave means that everyone in their host country must give them the respect for their strength to push through.
 2009: Real People, Real Needs
Individuals are able to show their support by participating in actives such as educating people about refugees and creating awareness of how different people's experiences are around the world.
 2008: Protection
The nation aims to appreciate the struggle represents a humanitarian emergency, many individuals face discrimination and exclusion from the community they are in therefore by creating this day is enables people to learn the struggles of refugees and understand their perseverance in life.
 2007: Perseverance
The international community seeks to draw attention to the plight of refugees and celebrate their courage and resilience in leaving their everyday to start a new life sometimes in a country where they are unfamiliar with the language.
 2006: Hope
The day will shine a light on the rights, needs and dreams of refugees, helping to mobilise political will and the resources that are available so that the refugees can not only survive but also thrive in the growing community that they are in.
2005: Courage
All refugees have different stories of their anguish from how they have been able to leave their country and leave everything behind, they all share a common thread of uncommon courage, it is the courage not only to survive, but to persevere and rebuild their shattered lives.
2004: A place to call Home
This gives refugees the opportunity to feel like they belong they are faced with an uncertain future in a strange land, the sense of loss and alienation will be overwhelming. To lose one's home can be to lose one's very identity. The country aims to make these individuals feel less alienated.
 2003: Refugee Youth: Building the Future
Education will aim to help people forced to flee build better futures, children should be given the opportunity to learn and be in a safe learning environment so that they are able to be given the future that they deserve.
 2002: Tolerance
The day is a focus on three so-called durable solutions – repatriation to their homeland; possibilities to live in the country of first asylum; or resettlement to a third country, it aims to highlight the tolerance which is needed from an individual whom had to restart their lives with no sense of direction.
 2001: Respect

Individuals and community groups are encouraged to mark the day by attending a local World Refugee Day event, watching and sharing World Refugee Day videos, and raising awareness for refugees on social media.

See also
 International Migrants Day
 International Refugee Day campaign
 No Border network
 No one is illegal
 Right of asylum
United Nations
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

References

External links

 World Refugee Day
 Photographs from World Refugee Day 2012

International observances
June observances
Refugees
Refugee day, World
Civil awareness days

World Refugee Day


Dressed to Kill may refer to:

Film
 Dressed to Kill (1928 film), an American silent film starring Mary Astor
 Dressed to Kill (1941 film), an American crime film starring Lloyd Nolan
 Dressed to Kill (1946 film), a Sherlock Holmes film starring Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce
 Dressed to Kill (1980 film), an American thriller directed by Brian De Palma

Music
 Dressed to Kill (album), a 1975 album by Kiss
 "Dressed to Kill" (song), a 2009 song by Preston, covered by Cher
 "Dressed to Kill", a song by Lita Ford from Dancin' on the Edge
 "Dressed to Kill", a song by Nazareth from 'Snaz
 "Dressed to Kill", a song by New Found Glory from New Found Glory
 "Dressed to Kill", a song by The Nolans
 "Dressed to Kill", a song by Symphony X from The Damnation Game

Other
 Dressed to Kill (book), a 1995 book by Sydney Ross Singer and Soma Grismaijer
 "Dressed to Kill" (The Avengers), an episode of The Avengers
 Dressed to Kill, an episode of Forensic Files
 Dressed to Kill Tour, a 2014 tour by the singer Cher
 Dressed to Kill Tour, a 1975 tour by the band Kiss

See also
 Dress to Kill (disambiguation)

Dressed to Kill


A vlei  () is a shallow minor lake, mostly of a seasonal or intermittent nature. It even might refer to seasonal ponds or marshy patches where frogs and similar marsh dwellers breed. Commonly, vleis vary in their extent, or even in the presence or absence of water, according to the fall of rain or dryness of the season. In terms of water salinity, vleis may be freshwater, saltwater, or brackish. Over time a vlei may degrade into a salt pan or clay pan, such as Dead Vlei or Sossusvlei.

Ecology
Vleis of various types can be of considerable local ecological importance, harboring many endemic and migratory species.

Most vleis are too minor to be granted recognition in the form of a name. However, some major vleis are accorded names, for example Rondevlei and Zeekoevlei in the Cape Peninsula, which are permanent bodies of water. Indeed, Rondevlei is home to hippopotamus.

The term is the basis of various biological common names, such as
 vlei rat, rodents in the genus Otomys
 vleiroos (literally "marsh rose")
 vleikuiken (literally "vlei chick")
 vlei frog.

Etymology
The word  is used predominantly in South Africa. It is an Afrikaans word derived from the Middle Dutch word for "valley" (). In Afrikaans, however, its meaning changed into that of the shallow lake. The Afrikaans and modern Dutch word for "valley" is .

The North American placename vlaie is cognate with , having the same Middle Dutch derivation.

References

Ecoregions

Intermittent lakes
Afrikaans words and phrases

Vlei


Kuzcham Dherai (also sometimes called Dherai, Dehrai or Derai) is a town in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. It is located on the bank of the river Swat and a couple of miles away from Swat Saidu Sharif airport. The population of Dherai is about 10,000 people.

History
It is believed that Alexander the Great once passed through this area.

Towns in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Swat District

Kuzcham Dherai


ⱴ (lowercase only) is a letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the phonetic transcription of African languages to represent a labiodental flap. Although not an approved symbol of the International Phonetic Alphabet, it had been widely used to represent this sound. In 2005, the symbol right-hook v, ⱱ, was added to the IPA to represent the sound.

Computer encoding

References

Latin-script letters
Phonetic transcription symbols

V with curl


Mridula Sarabhai (6 May 1911 – 26 October 1974) was an Indian independence activist and politician. She was a member of the Sarabhai industrialist family of Ahmedabad.

Early life
Mridula was born in Ahmedabad, India to an affluent business family. She was one of eight children of Ambalal Sarabhai and Sarla Devi, and a sister of Vikram Sarabhai. She was home-schooled by a succession of British and Indian teachers under the supervision of her parents. In 1928, she was enrolled for college education at Gujarat Vidyapeeth but dropped out the following year, ostensibly in order to participate in the Salt Satyagraha. At a young age, she heeded Gandhi's call to boycott foreign goods and institutions, and is said to have refused for this reason to go abroad to study.

Congresswoman and Freedom fighter
At an early age, Mridula came under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi. As a child of ten, she worked with the Vanara Sena ("Monkey Army" - a group of child activists organised by Indira Gandhi) of the Congress and carried messages and water for the satyagrahis. Influenced by Jawaharlal Nehru, who was to become her mentor and paramour she helped with the organization of the Youth Conference in Rajkot in 1927. She joined the Congress Seva Dal during the Salt Satyagraha and organized the boycott of foreign cloth and British goods. She was even imprisoned by British for her role in salt satyagraha.

In 1934, she was elected to the All India Congress Committee as a delegate from Gujarat. However, in subsequent years her independent stances caused friction with other leaders from the state. When the party refused to nominate her, she contested as an independent and won with the largest margin of votes.

She played a significant role in the organizational machinery of the Congress, heading its women's wing. She was appointed the Secretary, Sub Committee on Women's Role in the Planned Economy for the National Planning Board. The report was later used by early legislators during the drafting of the Constitution and the first few budgets.

In 1946, Pandit Nehru appointed her as one of the General Secretaries of the Congress party and a member of the Congress Working Committee. She resigned and followed Gandhiji to Noakhali when riots broke out. During the turbulent year of Partition of India, she took active lead in restoring communal amity and harmony, firstly at Patna, where she was attending the flag hoisting ceremony on 15 August 1947, with permission from Gandhiji. When she heard of riots being broken in Punjab, she immediately contacted Nehru and later rushed there to take active role in peace keeping. Her role in preserving communal harmony during the violence of partition was praised by leaders from India and Pakistan.

However, some years after independence of India, she became disillusioned with Congress. In later years, she became an ardent and vocal supporter of Sheikh Abdullah outside Kashmir, her long-time friend. She even funded his expenses for fighting Kashmir Conspiracy Case, for which Abdullah was imprisoned. Later, even she, herself, was imprisoned several months without trial over the Kashmir case, although, she was never charged of conspiracy.

See also
Sarabhai family

References

Further reading

Indian independence activists from Gujarat
People from Gujarat
1911 births
1974 deaths
Gandhians
Indian socialists
Prisoners and detainees of British India
Prisoners and detainees of India
Sarabhai family
Jain Indian independence activists

Mridula Sarabhai


National Insurance was the beginning of the welfare state in the United Kingdom.  It was started by the National Insurance Act 1911. The idea of insurance was attractive to Lloyd George because it kept individual responsibility.  In Britain there were flat rate contributions and flat rate benefits.  In  Europe both contributions and benefits were generally relative to the workers normal pay. It has changed a great deal since then.

in 1912 the workers who paid their National Insurance could visit a General practitioner and get medicine they were prescribed without paying.  But this did not include their families.

People are given a National Insurance number, often called a NINo, when they are 16.  They must have this to get work.  Workers make regular payments calculated as a fraction of their pay. The payments are collected and recorded by HM Revenue and Customs. Until 1973 people had a card for each year with stamps to show they had paid.  After that it was joined to the system for collecting income tax.  They can then get benefits when they cannot work.

Contributions
People over retirement age do not pay.

There are four sort of contributions (payments).

Class 1 contributions are paid by employers and their workers.  Nothing is paid by people who earn less than £123 a week. Between £123 and £242 a week workers get a credit but dont pay. Between £242 and £967 a week workers pay 12%.  Over £175 a week employers pay 13.8% (including for people over retirement age).

Class 2 contributions are £3 a week paid by self-employed people.

Class 3 contributions are voluntary, People pay to improve their contribution record, usually to protect their pension.

Class 4 contributions are paid by self-employed people as a portion of their profits.

People who cannot work for some reason may get NI credits, usually when claiming benefits.

Benefits
The benefits with a contribution condition:

Bereavement benefit
Employment and Support Allowance
Jobseeker's Allowance
Statutory Sick Pay
UK State Pension

References

Taxation
Social security in the United Kingdom

National Insurance


Sirba () is a town in West Darfur, Sudan. It lies approximately  north of El Geneina, which is the capital of West Darfur. The town has been subjected to attacks and violence by the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and allied gunmen during the ongoing conflict in the region.

History
Sirba has been subject to violent seizure and destruction by the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and allied Arab militias multiple times. During the 2023 Sudan conflict, Sirba has experienced significant destruction and has been nearly destroyed or burned to the ground multiple times. Satellite data shows the massive fire destruction in the town in late July 2023, leading to tens of thousands of civilians fleeing for their lives.

The attacks involved looting, burning of homes and markets, and targeted violence against the ethnic African communities, particularly the Eringa tribe. These attacks have led to significant loss of life, with hundreds of residents killed and thousands injured or displaced, including many who fled to Chad seeking safety.

Human Rights Watch has called for robust measures to address the ongoing atrocities, urging the United States to take action at the UN Security Council to protect civilians and hold those responsible for the violence accountable. The United Nations Integrated Transition Assistance Mission in Sudan (UNITAMS) has expressed grave concern over the targeting of civilians and public facilities by the RSF and allied militias, and the need for urgent action to ensure the safety and protection of civilians in Darfur.

The conflict in Darfur has been ongoing for many years, and there have been efforts to resolve the violence through peace talks, but the situation remains volatile. The recent escalation of fighting in the region has raised fears of a new wave of ethnic violence, as civilians, including students and higher education staff, are increasingly caught up in the conflict. The attacks have also prompted the withdrawal of humanitarian workers due to security concerns, leaving refugees and displaced people in precarious conditions.

References

Populated places in West Darfur

Sirba, West Darfur


Stratus clouds are low-level clouds characterized by horizontal layering with a uniform base, as opposed to convective or cumuliform clouds formed by rising thermals. The term stratus describes flat, hazy, featureless clouds at low altitudes varying in color from dark gray to nearly white. The word stratus comes from the Latin prefix strato-, meaning "layer". Stratus clouds may produce a light drizzle or a small amount of snow. These clouds are essentially above-ground fog formed either through the lifting of morning fog or through cold air moving at low altitudes. Some call these clouds "high fog" for their fog-like form.

Formation
Stratus clouds form when weak vertical currents lift a layer of air off the ground and it depressurizes, following the lapse rate. This causes the relative humidity to increase due to the adiabatic cooling. This occurs in environments where atmospheric stability is abundant.

Description
Stratus clouds look like featureless gray to white sheets of cloud. They can be composed of water droplets, supercooled water droplets, or ice crystals depending upon the ambient temperature.

Subforms

Species

Stratus nebulosus clouds appear as a featureless or nebulous veil or layer of stratus clouds with no distinctive features or structure. They are found at low altitudes, and are a good sign of atmospheric stability, which indicates continuous stable weather. Stratus nebulosus may produce light rain and drizzle or flakes of snow. Stratus fractus clouds on the other hand, appear with an irregular shape, and forms with a clearly fragmented or ragged appearance. They mostly appear under the precipitation of major rain-bearing clouds; these are nimbostratus and cumulonimbus clouds, and are classified as pannus clouds. Stratus fractus can also form beside mountain slopes, without the presence of nimbus clouds (clouds that precipitate), and their color can be from dark grey to almost white.

Opacity-based varieties
Stratus fractus are not divided into varieties, but stratus nebulosus on the other hand, are divided into two. The Stratus opacus variety appears as a nebulous or milky sheet of the nebulosus species, but are opaque enough to block the sun from view. Stratus Translucidus is another variety of the nebulosus species. These clouds are considered more thin than the opacus variety because this cloud is rather translucent, allowing the position of the sun or moon to be observed from earth's surface.

Pattern-based variety
Stratus clouds only have one pattern-based variety. This is the stratus undulatus variety. Mild undulations can be observed from this cloud, only associated by the nebulosus species. Though rare, this cloud formation is caused by disturbances on the gentle wind shear. Stratus undulatus clouds are more common on stratus stratocumulomutatus clouds where the wind is stronger as height increases.

Genitus mother clouds
Stratus cumulogenitus clouds occur when the base of cumulus clouds spreads, creating a nebulous sheet of stratiform clouds. This can also occur on nimbostratus clouds (stratus nimbostratogenitus) and on cumulonimbus clouds (stratus cumulonimbogenitus). Stratus fractus clouds can also form under the base of precipitation-bearing clouds and are classified as pannus clouds. Stratus clouds may also form from formation mechanisms that are not typical for the cloud type, for example, Stratus homogenitus, which are stratus formed by human activity, Stratus caractagenitus, which are formed from the spray of waterfalls, and Stratus silvagenitus, which are formed by evaporation or evapotranspiration occurring in a forest.

Mutatus mother cloud
Stratus only has one mutatus mother cloud. Stratus stratocumulomutatus clouds occur when stratocumulus opacus patches fuse to create a stratiform layer.

Accessory clouds and supplementary feature

Stratus clouds do not produce accessory clouds, but a supplementary feature praecipitatio is derived from Latin, which means "precipitation". Stratus clouds are generally too low to produce virga, or rain shears that evaporate before reaching the ground, although higher stratus clouds can produce it.

Forecast
A stratus cloud can form from stratocumulus spreading out under an inversion, indicating a continuation of prolonged cloudy weather with drizzle for several hours and then an improvement as it breaks into stratocumulus. Stratus clouds can persist for days in anticyclone conditions. It is common for a stratus to form on a weak warm front, rather than the usual nimbostratus.

Effects on climate
According to Sednev, Menon, and McFarquhar, Arctic stratus and other low-level clouds form roughly 50% of the annual cloud cover in Arctic regions, causing a large effect on the energy emissions and absorptions through radiation.

Relation to other clouds

Cirrostratus clouds

Cirrostratus clouds, a very high ice-crystal form of stratiform clouds, can appear as a milky sheen in the sky or as a striated sheet. They are sometimes similar to altostratus and are distinguishable from the latter because the sun or moon is always clearly visible through transparent cirrostratus, in contrast to altostratus which tends to be opaque or translucent. Cirrostratus come in two species, fibratus and nebulosus. The ice crystals in these clouds vary depending upon the height in the cloud. Towards the bottom, at temperatures of around  to , the crystals tend to be long, solid, hexagonal columns. Towards the top of the cloud, at temperatures of around  to , the predominant crystal types are thick, hexagonal plates and short, solid, hexagonal columns. These clouds commonly produce halos, and sometimes the halo is the only indication that such clouds are present. They are formed by warm, moist air being lifted slowly to a very high altitude. When a warm front approaches, cirrostratus clouds become thicker and descend forming altostratus clouds, and rain usually begins 12 to 24 hours later.

Altostratus clouds

Nimbostratus clouds

Stratocumulus clouds

A stratocumulus cloud is another type of a cumuliform or stratiform cloud. Like stratus clouds, they form at low levels; but like cumulus clouds (and unlike stratus clouds), they form via convection. Unlike cumulus clouds, their growth is almost completely retarded by a strong inversion, causing them to flatten out like stratus clouds and giving them a layered appearance. These clouds are extremely common, covering on average around twenty-three percent of the earth's oceans and twelve percent of the earth's continents. They are less common in tropical areas and commonly form after cold fronts. Additionally, stratocumulus clouds reflect a large amount of the incoming sunlight, producing a net cooling effect. Stratocumulus clouds can produce drizzle, which stabilizes the cloud by warming it and reducing turbulent mixing.

Sources
 Footnotes

 Bibliography

Stratus cloud


Chichester () is a cathedral city and civil parish in West Sussex, England. It is the only city in West Sussex and is its county town. It was a Roman and Anglo-Saxon settlement and a major market town from those times through Norman and medieval times to the present day. It is the seat of the Church of England Diocese of Chichester, with a 12th-century cathedral.

The city has two main watercourses: the Chichester Canal and the River Lavant. The Lavant, a winterbourne, runs to the south of the city walls; it is hidden mostly in culverts when close to the city centre.

History

Roman period

There is no recorded evidence that the city that became Chichester was a settlement of any size before the coming of the Romans. The area around Chichester is believed to have played a significant part during the Roman invasion of AD 43, as confirmed by evidence of military storage structures in the area of the nearby Fishbourne Roman Palace. The city centre stands on the foundations of the Romano-British city of Noviomagus Reginorum, capital of the Civitas Reginorum.

The Roman road of Stane Street, connecting the city with London, started at the east gate, while the Chichester to Silchester road started from the north gate. The plan of the city is inherited from the Romans: the North, South, East and West shopping streets radiate from the central market cross dating from medieval times.

The original Roman city wall was over  thick with a steep ditch (which was later used to divert the River Lavant). It survived for over 1,500 years before being replaced by a thinner Georgian wall.

The city was also home to some Roman baths, found down Tower Street when preparation for a new car park was underway. A museum, The Novium, preserving the baths was opened on 8 July 2012.

An amphitheatre was built outside the city walls, close to the East Gate, in around 80 AD. The area is now a park, but the site of the amphitheatre is discernible as a gentle bank approximately oval in shape; a notice board in the park gives more information.

In January 2017, archaeologists using underground radar reported the discovery of the relatively untouched ground floor of a Roman townhouse and outbuilding. The exceptional preservation is due to the fact the site, Priory Park, belonged to a monastery and has never been built upon since Roman times.

Anglo-Saxon period

The legendary foundation of Anglo-Saxon Chichester is described by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that says that the area was annexed towards the close of the fifth century, by Ælle and his three sons. The city was supposedly renamed after his son, Cissa. It also says that it was the principal city of the Kingdom of Sussex. However, the foundation story is regarded as a myth by historians as there is no archaeological evidence that Chichester was reoccupied after the Romans left until the 9th century.

In the 9th century Alfred the Great set about building a system of fortified towns or forts, known as burhs, in response to the Viking threat. This included old Roman settlements where the walls could be rebuilt and strengthened. Chichester was one of these and was rebuilt probably between 878–879. The Burghal Hidage is an Anglo-Saxon document that provides a list of over thirty burhs, mainly in the ancient Kingdom of Wessex, and the taxes (recorded as numbers of hides) assigned for their maintenance. For each five hides the town was expected to provide one fully armed soldier in the king's service, and one man from every hide was to be liable to do garrison duty for the burhs and to help in their initial construction and upkeep. Chichester  was one of the larger burhs and was rated at 1500 hides.

The system was supported by a communication network based on hilltop beacons to provide early warning. It has been suggested that one such link ran from Chichester to London.

Norman period
Following the Norman conquest, the cathedral that had been founded in 681 at Selsey was moved to Chichester after the Council of London of 1075 decreed that Sees should be centred in cities.

When the Domesday Book was compiled, Cicestre in the Hundred of Stockbridge (comprising 102 households across the five areas outside the city) comprised 300 dwellings which held a population of 1,500 people, and had an annual value of 25 pounds. There was a mill named Kings Mill that would have been rented to local slaves and villeins. After the Battle of Hastings the township of Chichester was handed to Roger de Mongomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, for courageous efforts in the battle, but it was forfeited in 1104 by the 3rd Earl. Shortly after 1066 Chichester Castle was built by Roger de Mongomerie to consolidate Norman power. In around 1143 the title Earl of Arundel (also known as the Earl of Sussex until that title fell out of use) was created and became the dominant local landowner. In 1216, Chichester Castle, along with Reigate Castle, was captured by the French, but regained the following year, when the castle was ordered to be destroyed by the king. Between 1250 and 1262, the Rape of Chichester was created from the western half of Arundel rape, with the castle as its administrative centre.

Medieval to Victorian period

In about 1400 Bishop  Robert Reed  erected a cross in the Market Place.

At Christmas 1642 during the First English Civil War, the city was besieged and St Pancras church was destroyed by gunfire.

A military presence was established in the city in 1795 with the construction of a depot on land where the Hawkhurst Gang had been hanged. It was named the Roussillon Barracks in 1958.

The military presence had mostly ceased by 2014 and the site was being developed for housing. with the former Guardroom known as The Keep playing host to a detachment of the Army Cadet Force.

At the beginning of the 19th-century, Chichester's livestock market was recorded as the second largest in the country.

World War II to present
Chichester was bombed by the Luftwaffe during World War II, but fared relatively well compared to larger English cities. On 11 May 1944, a United States Air Force B-24 Liberator Bomber crashed in the city, killing three, injuring 38, and damaging hundreds of local buildings.

In December 1993 and January 1994, Chichester was affected by the 1993–94 West Sussex floods.

On 21 November 2017, the Chichester District Council adopted a 'Southern Gateway' plan to redevelop an area from the law courts to the canal basin, including the two railway level crossings.

Governance

Historically, Chichester was a city and liberty, thereby largely self-governing. Although it has retained its city status, in 1888 it became a municipal borough, transferring some powers to West Sussex administrative county. In 1974 the municipal borough became part of the much larger Chichester District. There is a city council but it only has the powers of a parish council; control of services is largely in the hands of Chichester District Council and West Sussex County Council.

The city council consists of twenty elected members serving four wards of the city – North, South, East, and West.

The Council House on North Street dates from 1731; prior to this the City Corporation had met in Chichester Guildhall. In addition to its own council offices, those of the Chichester District and the West Sussex County Council are located in the city.

Parliament
Chichester is represented in the House of Commons by the Chichester constituency, held since 8 June 2017 by Gillian Keegan. From 1660 to 1868, Chichester returned two members of Parliament, this was reduced to one member by the Reform Act 1867. The Conservative Party is dominant, with the constituency returning a Conservative member at every election since 1868, with the exception of the Liberal Charles Rudkin in 1923. Between 1812 and 1894 the constituency was represented exclusively by members of the Lennox family.

Arms

Freedom of the City
The following people and organisations have received the Freedom of the City of Chichester.

 1951 – The Royal Sussex Regiment
 1960 – RAF Tangmere
 1981 – The Royal Military Police
 2000 – The West Sussex Fire Brigade
 2008 – 47th Regiment Royal Artillery
 2008 – His Grace The Duke of Richmond
 2013 – The Very Reverend Nicholas Frayling
 2018 – Major Tim Peake CMG
 2021 – Philip Jackson CVO DL

Geography

The City of Chichester is located on the River Lavant south of its gap through the South Downs. This winterbourne for part of its course now runs through the city in underground culverts. The city's site made it an ideal place for settlement, with many ancient routeways converging here. The oldest section lies within the medieval walls of the city, which are built on Roman foundations.

The Chichester conservation area, designated for its architectural and historic interest, encompasses the whole of the Roman town, and includes many Grade I and II listed buildings. Further to the north lies the separate conservation area around the former Graylingwell Hospital, and to the south, the Chichester Conservation Area has been extended recently to include the newly restored canal basin and part of the canal itself. The Conservation Area has been split into eight 'character' areas, based on historic development, building type, uses and activities.

Climate
Chichester has a maritime climate. With its position in southern England, Chichester has mild winters and cool summers. West Sussex has high sunshine levels compared with other parts of the UK with around 1,900 hours annually.

Demography
The 2011 census recorded a population of 26,795 for the city of Chichester, forming 12,316 households. There is a small imbalance in the sex ratio, with 14,184 female residents (52.9%) and 12,611 male residents (47.1%). Chichester is a majority Christian city with 16,245 (60.6%) residents identifying as such. 25,158 residents (93.9%) listed their ethnic group as White. The median age of Chichester city was 40.

Economy

The city has a tourist industry. Several marinas are situated in the area together with related industries. A recent government study suggested that the area has a lot of employment with the public sector (as well as within the tourism and leisure industries), with a growing number of self-employed people in the area.

Culture

The city holds an annual four-week arts and music festival ("Festival of Chichester") held in June and July.

Chichester Festival Theatre, is one of the United Kingdom's flagship producing and touring theatres, whose annual summer season attracts actors, writers and directors from the West End theatre and the USA.

Pallant House Gallery, winner of the 2007 gallery of the year Gulbenkian Prize, has a major collection of chiefly modern British art and in 2006 opened a new extension that houses the collection of Sir Colin St John Wilson. It has a changing programme of exhibitions.

Chichester is home to the South Downs Planetarium & Science Centre, which opened in 2001 and features a program of public star shows in its 100-seat theatre.

The Sloe Fair, a funfair that dates back to the 12th Century, is held annually on 20 October in the city's Northgate car park.

Chichester Cinema at New Park is the city's first and only arthouse cinema. It shows a selection of mainstream, small-budget and older films 7 days a week. It hosts an annual 18-day International Film Festival in August/September. Vice-presidents are Dame Maggie Smith and Kenneth Branagh. There is a larger, multiplex cinema located at Chichester Gate. Chichester's previous cinemas were the Olympia Electric on Northgate (1911-1922). the Plaza CInema on South Street (1920-1960, the Odeon from 1945 and now Iceland supermarket), the Granada Exchange at the Corn Exchange (1922-1980) and the Gaumont on Eastgate Square (1937-1961, later the swimming baths).

The Chichester Open Mic has supported regular programmes of readings by contemporary poets in the city since 2010. It also hosts a high-profile annual event under the banner Poetry and All That Jazz which included performances by Don Paterson in 2010, Sam Willetts in 2011, and David Harsent in 2012.

In 2012 The Novium, Chichester's museum, was opened by author Kate Mosse. Designed by the architect Keith Williams, is approximately 2.4 times the size of the previous museum in Little London. Key highlights are Roman Bath House, Jupiter Stone and Chilgrove Mosaic.

In May 2013 Chichester hosted the Chichester Street Art Festival week where international street artists created colourful murals around the city.

Chichester is mentioned in a 1992 episode of A Bit of Fry and Laurie, the 2003 film Bright Young Things directed by Stephen Fry, the 2005 film Stoned about Brian Jones from the Rolling Stones, and also in the 2009 film Sherlock Holmes. The city is periodically referred to in Call the Midwife, as the seat of the Order of Saint Raymond Nonnatus, the mother house's exterior being depicted in episode 1.6.

The West Sussex Record Office is in Orchard Street and contains the county archives. On 21 April 2017 it was announced that a second parchment manuscript copy of the United States Declaration of Independence, now termed The Sussex Declaration, had been discovered in the archives.

Chichester has one of the highest rates of empty homes in England, with 1 in every 17 houses vacant. In October 2020, 3,444 houses were vacant, of which 3,302 were second homes.

Music
Founded in 1881, the Chichester Symphony Orchestra has both amateur and professional players. Three concerts are given each year with the summer concert being part of the Chichester Festivities while the autumn concert is included in the Chichester Cathedral Lunchtime Series. The Chichester Singers, under musical director Jonathan Willcocks, perform classical and contemporary works in concert.

The Chichester RAJF (From "Real Ale and Jazz Festival"), was a four-day festival of music and real ale held each July in tents beside the 13th century Guildhall in Priory Park. Founded in 1980 by members of Chichester Hockey Club as a fund-raising event, the festival's early years focused on traditional jazz and featured performers such as Kenny Ball, Humphrey Lyttelton and Kenny Baker. In the 1990s blues and R&B were introduced and acts including Status Quo, Blondie, Boney M, Howard Jones, Go West, The Pretenders and Simple Minds played the festival up until its final staging, in 2011.

Twinning
The City of Chichester has been twinned with Chartres, France, since February 1959 and Ravenna, Italy, since December 1996 and Speyer, Germany, since 2023.  Friendship links have also been established with Marktredwitz in Germany, Kursk in Russia and Valletta in Malta.

Local Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC South and ITV Meridian. Television signals are received from the Rowridge TV transmitter.

Chichester's local radio stations are BBC Radio Sussex on 104.8 FM, Heart South on 96.7 FM, Greatest Hits Radio West Sussex on 96.6 FM and community based radio stations V2 Radio which broadcast online and Chichester Hospital Radio that broadcast on 1431 AM from the St Richard's Hospital in the town.

The city is served by the weekly newspaper Chichester Observer.

Landmarks

The Butter Market in North Street was designed by John Nash, and was opened in 1808 as a food and produce market.

The Corn Exchange on East Street was built in 1833, one of the first in the country. From the 1880s it was used for drama and entertainment and became a cinema from the 1910s.  An attempt to convert it to a bingo hall was refused in 1977. As it could not be converted to a multiplex it was closed on 9 August 1980. It remained closed and unused for six years until the front was opened as a fast food restaurant and the rear converted for offices. From 2005 the front has been used by a clothing retailer.

Chichester Cross, which is a type of buttercross familiar in old market towns, was built in 1501 as a covered marketplace, and stands at the intersection of the four main roads in the centre of the city.

In 1921, Sir William Robertson unveiled a war memorial in Eastgate Square for soldiers who died in World War I. The memorial was relocated to Litten Gardens in 1940. The city council has subsequently added the names of soldiers who died in World War II.

Transport

Railway

Chichester railway station, on the West Coastway Line, has regular services to Brighton, London Victoria via Gatwick Airport, Portsmouth and Southampton.

In the past, there was a branch line to Midhurst in the north and a light railway, built by Colonel HF Stephens; it was known as the West Sussex Railway, which ran south to Selsey, and closed in 1935.

Roads
Chichester is the hub of several main roads. The most important of these is the A27 coastal trunk road, which connects Eastbourne with Southampton; it passes to the south of the city. The A27 connects Chichester to the M3, M27 and M275 motorways. The secondary coastal road, the A259, which begins its journey at Folkestone in Kent, joins the A27 here and ends in Havant to the west. Both of those roads make east–west connections.

Three roads give Chichester access to the north: the A29 to London joins the A27 several miles to the east of the city; the A285 runs north-east to Petworth and beyond; and the A286 runs northwards towards Haslemere, Surrey.

Buses
Chichester bus station, which is adjacent to the railway station, is the local hub for bus services. Operators include Stagecoach in the South Downs and Compass Travel. National Express's Poole-Gatwick Airport route passes through Chichester.

Air

Chichester/Goodwood Airport is situated north of the city.

Paths
There are several long-distance routes for walkers, cyclists and riders in the area; some of these routes, like the Centurion Way to West Dean, start here. Centurion Way was opened in the mid-1990s and runs along the former railway line. The name was chosen by Ben Adams, a local schoolboy who won a competition to name the path.

In summer 2020, COVID-19 temporary pop-up segregated cycle lanes were implemented predominately around parts of the city inner ring road and associated routes.

Education

There are three secondary schools in Chichester: Chichester Free School (which also has a primary sector in Bognor Regis), Bishop Luffa School and Chichester High School formed after the Chichester High School for Boys and Chichester High School for Girls merged in 2016. In the primary sector there are two infant-only schools: Lancastrian and Rumboldswyke; the Central C of E Junior School; six all-level schools; and two special-needs schools at Fordwater and St Anthony's. There is also a Roman Catholic school, St Richard's Primary School, and a Sure Start Children's Centre, Chichester Nursery School, Children and Family Centre.

In the independent sector there are three-day preparatory schools (Oakwood Preparatory School, The Prebendal School and Westbourne House).

The higher and further educational institutions include the Chichester High School Sixth Form, which is the largest Sixth Form in West Sussex. It offers a range of A-Level and vocational courses with full use of a wide range of facilities at both boys and girls high schools, Bishop Luffa School sixth form which also offers a range of A-Level courses and Chichester College, formerly Chichester College of Arts, Science and Technology; offers both foundation-level and degree-equivalent courses, mainly focused towards vocational qualifications for industry. The college has recently made significant investment in upgrading facilities, and is now offering a wider range of subject areas in its prospectus.

The University of Chichester was granted degree-awarding body status by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority in October 2005.

Religion

Chichester Cathedral, founded in the 11th century, is dedicated to the Holy Trinity, and contains a shrine to Saint Richard of Chichester. Its spire, built of the weak local stone, collapsed and was rebuilt during the 19th century. In the south aisle of the cathedral a glass panel in the floor enables a view of the remains of a Roman mosaic pavement. The cathedral is unusual in Britain in having a separate bell tower a few metres away from the main building, rather than integrated into it. Within the cathedral there is a medieval tomb of a knight and his wife, the inspiration of the poem "An Arundel Tomb", by Philip Larkin. A memorial statue exists of William Huskisson, once member of parliament for the city, but best remembered as the first man to be run over by a railway engine. Leonard Bernstein's Chichester Psalms were commissioned for the cathedral. The statue of St Richard (pictured left) is by the sculptor Philip Jackson. There are further Philip Jackson sculptures outside the Chichester Festival Theatre and St Richard's Hospital in Chichester.

In addition to the cathedral there are five Church of England churches, St Richard's Roman Catholic church and nine religious buildings of other denominations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chichester Web''': churches of Chichester|url=http://www.chichesterweb.co.uk/07churches.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926190131/http://www.chichesterweb.co.uk/07churches.htm|archive-date=26 September 2011|access-date=16 July 2010|publisher=Chichesterweb.co.uk}}</ref> Redundant churches include the Grade I-listed St John the Evangelist's Church, an octagonal white-brick proprietary chapel with an impressive three-decker pulpit.

St Mary's Hospital Almshouses are a 13th-century religious foundation located at St Martin's Square, providing housing and care for elderly people from the Chichester diocese.

Sport and leisure

Chichester City F.C. is the main football club and is based at Oaklands Park. They play in the Isthmian League South East Division. The rugby club, Chichester R.F.C., is also based at Oaklands Park.

Chichester Priory Park Cricket Club and Chichester Priory Park Hockey Club share a clubhouse at Priory Park.

Chichester is also host to a Detachment of the Army Cadet Army Cadet Force who meet several times a week at the detachment located within the former Roussillon Roussilon Barracks

The army cadet force is a national voluntary youth organisation. It is sponsored by the MoD and provides challenging military, adventurous, and community activities, its aim is to inspire young people to achieve success in life with a spirit of service to the queen, their country and their local community, and to develop in them the qualities of a good citizen. By providing progressive training of an exciting and often challenging nature.

The city is home to the Chichester Sharks Flag American Football Club who are members of the BAFA National League.

Chichester Runners and A.C. is a club with runners and athletes of all ages. Other sports include cycling.

Notable people

William Juxon, born 1582, attended The Prebendal School before studying at Oxford. He became chaplain to Charles I and was the last English cleric to hold both church and secular high office. He became Archbishop of Canterbury following the Restoration. William Cawley, born 1602 in Chichester, was on the other side of the English Civil War. Also educated at Oxford University he became the Member of Parliament for Chichester in 1628 and for Midhurst in 1640. He was a regicide and served on the Council of State during the Commonwealth, being forced to flee to Switzerland after the Restoration. A later MP for the town, William Huskisson was one of the earlier people to die from a railway accident, when he was run over by Stephenson's Rocket at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. In modern times middle-distance runner Christopher Chataway was elected to Parliament in 1969.

Military people have included Edric Gifford, 3rd Baron Gifford who won a Victoria Cross during the Third Anglo-Ashanti War. General Charles Harington Harington served in the Second Boer War and as a staff officer throughout World War I, and military theorist Major General J. F. C. Fuller planned the first large scale tank assault at the Battle of Cambrai in 1917.

Artists who were born or lived most of their lives in Chichester include Richard Buckner, Heywood Hardy, James Hayllar, William Shayer and George Smith. Author Kate Mosse (born 1961) studied at Chichester High School For Girls, living in Chichester until moving to Oxford to attend New College. She is author of the first main-stage new play by a woman at Chichester Festival Theatre, an adaptation of her novel The Taxidermist's Daughter, set in and around Chichester.

Tim Peake, who became the first official British astronaut when he arrived on the International Space Station in December 2015, was born in Chichester in 1972. Peake attended the Chichester High School for Boys, which now has a Sports and Conference centre named after him and opened by him.

Tom Odell, who was born in Chichester, is a singer and songwriter who gained success with his album, Wrong Crowd''.

Edward Bradford Titchener, born in Chichester, created the school of thought in psychology that described the structure of the mind: structuralism.

== Public services ==
Territorial policing in Chichester is provided by Sussex Police, who have a station and a custody suite in Chichester on Kingsham Road. The Police and Crime Commissioner is Katy Bourne. Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the West Sussex Fire and Rescue Service, which has a station in Northgate.

St Richard's Hospital, on Spitalfield Lane, is a medium-sized NHS hospital administered by the University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust. The South East Coast Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport to and from this facility. Nuffield Health operates a private hospital in the city.

Chichester's distribution network operator for electricity is Scottish and Southern Electricity Networks, and for gas is SGN. Portsmouth Water manages Chichester's drinking water, whilst Southern Water manages the city's wastewater.

References

Further reading

External links

 Chichester District Council
 British History Online - The City of Chichester - Historical Introduction

Cities in South East England
County towns in England
Local government in West Sussex
Market towns in West Sussex
Staple ports
Towns in West Sussex

Chichester


Jonathan Meese (born January 23, 1970 in Tokyo) is a German painter, sculptor, performance artist, and installation artist based in Berlin and Hamburg. Meese's (often multi-media) works include paintings, collages, drawings and writing. He also designs theater sets and wrote and starred in a play, De Frau: Dr. Poundaddylein - Dr. Ezodysseusszeusuzur in 2007 at the Volksbühne Theater. He is mainly concerned with personalities of world history, primordial myths and heroes. Jonathan Meese lives and works in Ahrensburg and Berlin.

Life and work

Childhood and youth (1970–1995)
Jonathan Meese was born as a third child of his parents, a German and a Welsh, in Tokyo, Japan. His mother, Brigitte Renate Meese, returned to Germany in the mid-1970s. His father, the banker Reginald Selby Meese, born in Newport (Wales), lived in Japan until his death in 1988. Since Meese only spoke English after his return to Germany, he had difficulties adapting. After a period spent in Scotland, his mother-in-law suggested he study Economics.

Study and first success (1995–1998)

Meese studied with Franz Erhard Walther, Daniel Richter, Martin Kippenberger, Horst Janssen, Vicco von Bülow alias Loriot, and Otto Waalkes at the University of Fine Arts of Hamburg from 1995 to 1998, but he left the university without a degree. Daniel Richter recommended Meese to the gallery of Contemporary Fine Arts (Berlin, Germany).

Jonathan Meese exhibited for the first time at the Frankfurter Kunstverein gallery in a group exhibition. The first solo exhibition "Glockengeschrei nach Deutz" followed in the Galerie Buchholz in Cologne.

Inspired by Meese's space installations, the producer Claus Boje and the director Leander Haußmann commissioned him to produce a backdrop for their film Sonnenallee (1999). Finally, he also got a role in the film and played the role of a crazy artist. Meese's works for Sonnenallee were shown in 1999 in an exhibition at the Neuer Aachener Kunstverei art museum (Aachen, Germany).

First Berlin Bienniale (1998)

Since 1998 Meese has attracted attention with installations, performances and other actions on the art scene. At the Berlin Biennale, curated by Klaus Biesenbach, Hans-Ulrich Obrist and Nancy Spector, Meese met a broad public. Meese presented the installation Ahoi der Angst, a photo-collage dedicated to the Marquis de Sade, which was also to be considered later in the work of Meese. Politicians, actors and musicians were presented in photo-collage. The visitors could listen to music, read poems by Rolf Dieter Brinkmann or watch the video Caligula. There were also posters by Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Klaus Kinski, Nina Hagen, and Oscar Wilde.

Due to the increased media presence at the Berlin Biennale, Meese's work was also analyzed and commented upon at home and abroad. Kunstmagazine Art described the installation as a "labyrinth of sentimentalities". The author, Peter Richter, also addressed the spatial aspect by describing the work as a "horror cabinet between porn, Charles Bronson and Slayer". The Berliner Zeitung described it as a "stuffed boy's room". Susanne Titz, writing about the Biennale said: "It was thus clear that Meese had indeed put his finger on the pulse of his generation and presented it."

National and international exhibitions (1999–)

From 1999, Meese participated in a variety of national and international group and individual exhibitions. Particularly space installations and performances were shown. Often, the central figure of his works is Meese himself: whether in the form of self-portraits or disguised persona, in actions, collages, pictures and drawings. The thematic contents stem mainly from national socialism, as well as linguistic and theatrical references to German philosophy and literary history. In actions and performances Meese especially addressed Adolf Hitler, showing repeatedly and provocatively the Nazi salute.

According to Karel Schampers, "Jonathan Meese can tell a story in such a gripping way that you would never have the idea to doubt its truth. Especially his installations benefit from this quality."

Meese has been included in exhibitions "Spezialbilder" at Contemporary Fine Arts in Berlin, "Grotesk!" at Schirn Kunsthalle in Frankfurt and "Schnitt bringt Schnitte" at Ausstellungsraum Schnitt in Köln. Recent exhibitions include Thanks, Wally Whyton (Revendaddy Phantomilky on Coconut Islandaddy) at Stuart Shave/Modern Art, in London, and a performance at Tate Modern, entitled Noel Coward Is Back — Dr. Humpty Dumpty vs. Fra No-Finger. He has exhibited at Stuart Shave/Modern Art, London, Galerie Daniel Templon, Paris, and Centro Cultural Andratx, Mallorca.

In 2008 Meese created "Marlene Dietrich in Dr. No's Ludovico-Clinic (Dr. Baby's Erzland)", an immersive multimedia installation within The Watermill Center on Long Island, New York.

The Museum of Contemporary Art (MoCA), North Miami presented in 2014 the first major solo museum exhibition in the United States for Jonathan Meese, which included Meese's paintings that mix personal hieroglyphics and collage, installations, ecstatic performances, and a powerful body of sculptures in a variety of media. The exhibition was on view from December 1, 2010 – February 13, 2011, during Art Basel Miami Beach 2010. Jonathan Meese: Sculpture was organized by the Museum of Contemporary Art, North Miami and curated by Director and Chief Curator Bonnie Clearwater. In 2007, he collaborated with the composer Karlheinz Essl on the installation FRÄULEIN ATLANTIS shown at the Essl Museum in Vienna/Klosterneuburg.

For the Salzburg Festival 2010, Meese created an acclaimed stage design for the world premiere of Wolfgang Rihm's opera Dionysus. For the Bayreuth Festival in 2016 Meese was offered a contract to direct a new production of Parsifal. This contract has since been rescinded,  the official reason being that it would have been too expensive for the Festival to maintain.

Controversy and criticism

In June, 2013 Meese was accused and brought before the German Court for performing the Hitler salute in his stage performance "Megalomania in the Art World" which was organized by Der Spiegel in Kassel. The artist claimed that it was an artistic gesture and he was acquitted from charges, in the same year, by the District Court of Kassel (Germany).

Art market

Meese is represented by Galerie Templon in Paris (since 2001), David Nolan Gallery in New York, Tim van Laere Gallery in Antwerp, Galerie Krinzinger in Vienna and Sies + Höke in Düsseldorf.

He has worked collaboratively with the painters Jörg Immendorff, Albert Oehlen, Tim Berresheim, Daniel Richter, Tal R, and the composer Karlheinz Essl.

Collections

Collections of art that own examples of Meese's work include:

Literature
Stefan Üner: Jonathan Meese. Spontan und unberechenbar, in: stayinart, Innsbruck 2021, p. 62–68.

See also
 Die Humpty-Dumpty-Maschine der totalen Zukunft (2010), Berlin, Germany

References

External links

 Official website

Jonathan Meese – Exhibitions listed on Artaspects.de.
Jonathan Meese: The Story of Jonathan Meese. Video interview by Louisiana Channel, from 2011.
Video interview with Meese and his mother by Louisiana Channel, from 2014.

1970 births
Living people
20th-century German painters
20th-century German male artists
German male painters
German installation artists
German performance artists
Painters from Tokyo
German contemporary artists
University of Fine Arts of Hamburg alumni
21st-century German painters
21st-century German male artists

Jonathan Meese


The Frosty is the signature frozen dessert of Wendy's restaurants. The Frosty's original light chocolate flavor (a mix of chocolate and vanilla), was at first the only flavor offered. Wendy's founder Dave Thomas thought that a pure chocolate flavor would overwhelm the taste of the restaurant's hamburgers. In August 2006, a vanilla flavor was introduced after repeated consumer requests.

Ice cream

Frosty (frozen dairy dessert)


Navegantes (, Seafarers) is a coastal and tourist city located in Santa Catarina state, southern Brazil. The population is 83,626 (2020 est.) in an area of 112.0 km².

Ministro Victor Konder International Airport serves the popular beach resort of Balneário Camboriú, and other cities including Itajaí and Blumenau.

Economy
The main activity is fishing industry and ship building.  A private port was built in 2007, served by 4 berths (approximately 900m straight) and focused on refrigerated container cargo, due to Santa Catarina State have the biggest meat industry in Brazil.  As of 2012, there were 6 cranes, and plans for expansion of the quay.

References

Populated coastal places in Santa Catarina (state)
Municipalities in Santa Catarina (state)

Navegantes


Fricktal was a canton of the Helvetic Republic from February 1802 to February 1803, consisting of that part of the Breisgau (previously part of Habsburg Further Austria) south of the Rhine ("the Fricktal"). Now, the territories of Fricktal form the districts of Rheinfelden and Laufenburg in the canton of Aargau.

In 1799, a year after the proclamation of the Helvetic Republic, French Revolutionary troops marched into the Fricktal. Thanks to good relations with leading French and Swiss politicians, the brothers Karl and Sebastian Fahrländer from Ettenheim and some colleagues were able to proclaim the creation of an independent canton of Fricktal, relying on the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lunéville (1801) for the legal basis of this proclamation.

A constitution was written in the rectory of Eiken in December 1801; on 20 February 1802 the new canton was finally declared, with Laufenburg as its capital. This impetuous action of the governor Sebastian Fahrländer met with some criticism, however; his opponents met with community representatives in a guesthouse in Frick in September 1802 — the governor was unseated and the capital was relocated to Rheinfelden.

Despite intense diplomatic efforts by the protectors of Fricktal on 19 February 1803 to retain the canton's right of existence, exactly a year after its foundation, Napoleon Bonaparte decreed its merger with the cantons of Aargau and Baden on 19 March (forming the modern-day canton of Aargau), in the Act of Mediation, disestablishing the Helvetic Republic.

References

Bibliography
 Patrick Bircher: Der Kanton Fricktal — Bauern, Bürger und Revolutionäre an der Wende vom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert; Forum Fricktal, Laufenburg, 2002;

External links

  Jubiläumswebsite Kanton Fricktal

Cantons of the Helvetic Republic
Aargau
Former cantons of Switzerland
1802 establishments in Switzerland

Canton of Fricktal


Duel in the Sun is a 1946 American psychological Western film directed by King Vidor, produced and written by David O. Selznick, and starring Jennifer Jones, Joseph Cotten, Gregory Peck, Lillian Gish, Walter Huston. and Lionel Barrymore. Based on the 1944 novel of the same name by Niven Busch, it follows a young orphaned Mestiza woman experiences prejudice and forbidden love while residing with her white relatives on a large Texas ranch.

Plot
Pearl Chavez is orphaned after her father Scott Chavez kills her mother, having caught her with a lover. Before Scott Chavez is executed as a punishment for killing his wife, he arranges for his daughter Pearl to live with his second cousin and old sweetheart, Laura Belle in Texas.

Arriving by stagecoach, Pearl is met by Jesse McCanles, one of Laura Belle's two grown sons. He takes her to Spanish Bit, their enormous cattle ranch. The gentle and gracious Laura Belle is happy to welcome her to their home, but not so her husband, the Senator Jackson McCanles, who uses a wheelchair. He calls Pearl "a half-breed" and jealously despises Pearl's father.

The second son, Lewt, is a ladies' man with a personality quite unlike that of his gentlemanly brother Jesse. He expresses his interest in Pearl in direct terms and she takes a strong dislike to him. Laura Belle calls in Mr. Jubal Crabbe, the "Sinkiller", a gun-toting preacher, to counsel Pearl on how to avoid the evils of temptation. Pearl is determined to remain "a good girl."

When she submits to Lewt's aggressive advances one night, Pearl is angry with him and ashamed of her own behavior. But she also cannot help but be flattered by his lust and attentions. Jesse, meanwhile, is ostracized by his father and no longer welcome at the ranch after siding with railroad men, headed by Mr. Langford, against the Senator's personal interests. Jesse is in love with Pearl but he leaves for Austin to pursue a political career and becomes engaged to Helen Langford, Langford's daughter.

Offended when Lewt reneges on a promise to marry her, Pearl takes up with Sam Pierce, a neighboring rancher who is smitten with her. She does not love him but says yes to his proposal. Before they can be married, however, Lewt picks a fight with Pierce in a saloon and guns him down. He insists that Pearl can belong only to him.  Lewt becomes a wanted man.

On the run from the law, Lewt finds time to derail a train and occasionally drop by the ranch late at night and press his attentions on Pearl. She cannot resist her desire for him and lies for Lewt to the law, hiding him in her room.  Afterward, however, he walks out on her, despite her pleas that she loves him.

Laura Belle's health takes a turn for the worse and the Senator admits his love for her before she dies. Jesse returns to visit but is too late; his mother is dead. The Senator continues to shun him, as does Lewt, their family feud finally resulting in a showdown. Lewt tosses a gun to his unarmed brother but Jesse stands his ground without attempting to pick it up.  Jesse warns that Lewt will eventually be hanged as a murderer, and Lewt responds by shooting Jesse.

The Senator's old friend, Lem Smoot tells him that Jesse's wound is not mortal and the old man softens up towards his son and reconciles. Pearl is relieved that Jesse is going to survive. When Helen arrives, she invites Pearl to leave Spanish Bit forever and come live with them in Austin. Pearl agrees, but when she is tipped off by one of the Spanish Bit hands that Lewt intends to come after Jesse again, she arms herself and engages in a shootout with Lewt in the desert. They die in each other's arms.

Cast

Themes and analysis
Duel in the Sun was released the same year as John Ford's film My Darling Clementine and has been described as taking "the moment of sadism" from Ford's film to extremes. Released in the postwar years during a period of economic boom and the changing role of women in society including marriage, sexuality and inclusion in the work force that left some Americans feeling alienated. Psychological westerns, popular in the 1940s, featured characters plagued by a dark torment that reflected the post-war attitudes. The march of progress is symbolized by an advancing railroad cutting across a senator's cattle lands.

The "civilizing forces" of the American West are represented by the characters of Pearl's father, Laura Belle and Jesse, while Lewt and Senator McCanles are constant reminders that she is not part of the white patriarchal order. After being raped by Lewt, Pearl is not able to meet the Victorian-era standards for moral conduct. Her identity as part Indian is "linked to notions of uncontrollable drives, the fading of subjectivity, and the loss of conscious agency". Believing she encouraged the rape, Jesse ends their romantic relationship. The "dark" or savage element of her sexuality and unrestrained passions has a racial dimension, contrasted with the white feminine ideal in the film's imagery, it is something needing to be tamed. She is "too sexual to be a proper wife, too dark to be a comfortable part of [white] society, and too passionate to be controlled with anything but violence".

As Pearl is already "spoiled" by the rape she no longer needs to control her sexuality and enters into a sadomasochistic relationship with Lewt who treats her viciously and with racist abuse like calling her a "bob-tailed little half-breed". Marriage with Pearl is out of the question for Lewt due to his father's expectations that the family ranch not be "turned into an Injun reservation" though Lewt continues to exhibit jealous, controlling behaviors including attempting to murder his brother Jesse when he makes plans for Pearl to attend school in Austin. While in many ways the typical hero of American westerns, Lewt crosses over into the realm of the "savage" or "uncivilized". The violence Pearl encounters from Lewt leads her to develop gradually into a femme fatale type character who eventually murders him even as she loves him in order to protect the goodness of Jesse and his fiancée Helen.

Production

Development
The film was adapted by Oliver H. P. Garrett and David O. Selznick from the novel by Niven Busch. The film proved to be a turbulent experience for Selznick and Vidor, with several directors being left uncredited for their work in the film, such as Josef von Sternberg, William Dieterle, William Cameron Menzies, Otto Brower, Sidney Franklin and Selznick himself. Production unit managers Glenn Cook and William McGarry were also uncredited.

Filming
Duel in the Sun had a protracted filming process that last approximately a year and a half, with principal photography beginning March 1, 1945, and concluding in September 1946. The film was largely shot in Wildwood Regional Park in Thousand Oaks, California. The train derailment scenes were filmed on the Sierra Railroad in Tuolumne County, California, using a combination of a real train and large scale models.

Release

Censorship
As shot, the film could not make it past the Hays Code censors or religious review boards and so was heavily edited by state censor boards while several states (mostly in the South but also in New England) refused to license the film. It was nicknamed Lust in the Dust, which eventually became the name of another movie. A scene in which Pearl does a seductive dance for Lewton was cut from the film before it was released.

Box office

Duel in the Sun had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 31, 1946 at the Egyptian Theatre. It opened in New York City on May 8, 1947. The film was shown at increased admission prices which boosted its earnings to $8.7 million in rentals in the United States and Canada during its initial release.

Because of the film's huge production costs, rumored to be over $6,000,000 (equivalent to approximately $ in ), its $2,000,000 advertising campaign (unheard of at the time) and Selznick's costly distribution tactics, the film only broke even.

Critical reaction
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote, "For, despite all his flashy exploitation, Mr. Selznick can't long hide the fact that his multimillion-dollar Western is a spectacularly disappointing job... Those are also harsh words about a picture which promises very much and which, even for all its disappointments, has some flashes of brilliance in it. But the ultimate banality of the story and its juvenile slobbering over sex (or should we say "primitive passion," as says a ponderous foreword?) compels their use." William Brogdon of Variety gave the film a favorable review writing, "As a production it adds no class distinction to David O. Selznick but assures him a top commercial success. The star lineup is impressive. Vastness of the western locale is splendidly displayed in color by mobile cameras. Footage is overwhelmingly expansive, too much so at times considering its length."

Harrison's Reports deemed the film as a glorified' Western, produced on an immense scale. Its theme is tragic love-making, with tragic consequences...Some of the photographic shots are extremely effective; they make the film look immense." Edwin Schallert of the Los Angeles Times praised the film as "a picture of terrific in fact, well-nigh bewildering impact. It embodies a strange tragical drama of love, hate and death, set against wild western desert wastes and mesas and fierce mountain fastnesses. Historical in pattern, the narrative, as told on the screen, seems to draw from the most elemental sources, with few of its characters that are not, at times, motivated by the most primitive and even brutal impulses. A tremendously strong production, lurid and violent in the handling of many of its scenes, it still possesses a bigness of design which commands appreciation and respect."

Awards and nominations

Home media
The film never received a LaserDisc release, though 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment did issue a VHS edition of the film. Anchor Bay Entertainment released the film on DVD in 1999 in a standard edition, followed by a "Roadshow Edition" (featuring its original theatrical musical overture, narration, and outro) in 2001.

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Home Entertainment released a subsequent DVD edition on May 25, 2004. The film was released for the first time on Blu-ray by Kino Lorber (in the "Roadshow Edition") on August 15, 2017.

Legacy
The film was one of the first to be honored by a record album, featuring selections from Dimitri Tiomkin's musical score. Rather than use excerpts from the soundtrack, RCA Victor recorded some of the music with the Boston Pops Orchestra conducted by Arthur Fiedler. The music was split into approximately three-minute sections and released on 10-inch 78-rpm discs in 1946. A musical prelude lasting nine and a half minutes as well as a two-minute overture preceded the film with Tiomkin conducting the studio orchestra; this recording was later issued on LP and CD.

Duel in the Sun was first shown on American television on ABC on January 23, 1972.

Martin Scorsese has stated to James Lipton on Inside the Actors Studio that this was the first film he saw and holds it in high regard. He mentioned it in his documentary of American movies. David Stratton has also stated a similar high opinion of the film, at the ACMI's  "Desert Island Flicks" on March 10, 2010,. He first saw the film at the age of six.

The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated
 2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated
 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:
 Nominated Western Film

Many of the film's plot points (such as the Pearl/Lewt/Sam love triangle) were reused in the Hindi movie Janbaaz (1986). In February 2020, the film was shown at the 70th Berlin International Film Festival, as part of a retrospective dedicated to King Vidor's career.

Duel in the Sun was remade as Saiyan in Hindi, and was released in 1951.

See also
 List of American films of 1946
 Lillian Gish filmography

References

Sources

External links

1946 films
1946 Western (genre) films
American Western (genre) epic films
American epic films
Films about capital punishment
Films about interracial romance
Films based on American novels
Films directed by King Vidor
Films directed by William Dieterle
Films produced by David O. Selznick
Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin
Films set on farms
Films set in the 1860s
Films set in the 1880s
Films set in Texas
Films shot in California
Selznick International Pictures films
1940s American films
1940s English-language films
1940s psychological drama films

Duel in the Sun (film)


Gale Ann Norton (born March 11, 1954)  is an American politician and attorney who served as the 48th United States Secretary of the Interior under President George W. Bush from 2001 to 2006. A member of the Republican Party, she previously served as the 35th Attorney General of Colorado from 1991 to 1999. Norton was the first woman to hold each of those posts.

Early life and education
Norton was born in Wichita, Kansas, to Dale and Anna Norton. She was raised in Wichita and Thornton, Colorado, and graduated magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from the University of Denver in 1975. Norton earned her Juris Doctor degree with honors from that university's College of Law in 1978. In the late 1970s, she was a member of the Libertarian Party; she was nearly selected as its national director in 1980, before later becoming a Republican. Norton was influenced by the works of novelist Ayn Rand, and has been associated with a number of groups in the "wise use" or "free-market environmentalist" movement such as the Property and Environmental Research Center, of which she is a fellow.

Career
Following her graduation from law school, Norton worked as a senior attorney at the Mountain States Legal Foundation from 1979 to 1983. Norton was a National Fellow at the Hoover Institution during 1983–1984, before taking a position at the U.S. Department of Agriculture as an assistant to Deputy Secretary Richard Edmund Lyng. From 1985 to 1990, she served as Associate Solicitor for the United States Department of the Interior, in which capacity she managed attorneys employed by the National Park Service and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

Colorado Attorney General
Norton returned to Colorado after her stint at the Department of the Interior, and was elected as the state's first female Attorney General in 1991. As Attorney General, Norton led the state's attorneys in defending state laws, including Colorado Amendment 2, a 1992 state constitutional amendment that prohibited any level or branch of state government from recognizing homosexuals as a protected class. Challenges to Amendment 2 reached the United States Supreme Court, which invalidated the amendment in Romer v. Evans (1996).

Norton ran for election to the U.S. Senate in 1996 as a Republican, but was defeated in the primary by then-U.S. Representative Wayne Allard. During that year, Norton delivered a controversial speech in which she remarked that while state sovereignty had been misused to defend slavery prior to and during the Civil War, with the end of the war, the United States "lost the idea that the states were to stand against the federal government having too much power over our lives".

With the attorneys general of 45 other states, Norton participated in the negotiation of the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement (entered into in 1998) a settlement of Medicaid lawsuits by the states against U.S. tobacco companies for the recovery of public health costs attributed to the treatment of smoking-related illnesses. Norton's second term ended in 1999. Due to state term limits, she did not seek a third term.

After leaving the Attorney General's Office, Norton was a senior counsel at Brownstein, Hyatt & Farber, a Denver-based law firm.

U.S. Secretary of the Interior

She worked at Brownstein until President George W. Bush nominated her as the U.S. Secretary of the Interior in 2001. Norton, the first female to hold the position, was confirmed by the Senate and served as Secretary until 2006. She was succeeded by Idaho Governor Dirk Kempthorne during the second term of the administration of George W. Bush.

On January 29, 2002 she served as the designated survivor during President Bush's first State of the Union Address.

On September 17, 2009, the United States Department of Justice opened a criminal investigation into whether Norton's employment at Royal Dutch Shell violated a law that bars federal employees from discussing employment with a company if the employee is involved in decisions that could benefit that company. The investigation focused on a 2006 decision by Norton's agency to grant oil shale leases to Royal Dutch Shell. The DOJ closed the investigation in 2010, declining to press charges.

Post-government career
At the time of her resignation as Secretary, Norton was considered "the Bush administration's leading advocate for expanding oil and gas drilling and other industrial interests in the West." After leaving Washington, she joined Royal Dutch Shell as a general counsel in its exploration and production business.

As of 2017, Norton worked for Norton Regulatory Strategies, an Aurora-based consulting firm that deals with environmental regulations. In 2012, she also was a senior adviser for Clean Range Ventures, an energy venture capital firm. She serves as a board member for the Federalist Society, the Reagan Alumni Association, the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute at the University of Colorado.

Electoral history
 1996 United States Senate Republican Primary (Colorado)
 Wayne Allard (R), 57%
 Gale Norton (R), 43%

Personal life
Norton lives in Colorado with John Hughes, her second husband.

See also
 List of female state attorneys general in the United States
 List of female United States Cabinet members

References

External links

 Official White House biography of Gale A. Norton, 2001–2006
 University of Denver profile of Gale A. Norton
 Collection of Gale Norton quotes

 A memo written by Gale Norton in 1987 on 'endangered' Humans
 Remarks by Gale Norton at the opening of the Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site
 Gale Norton joining Royal Dutch Shell

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1954 births
Living people
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women lawyers
20th-century American women politicians
21st-century American politicians
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George W. Bush administration cabinet members
Colorado Attorneys General
Colorado Libertarians
Colorado Republicans
Female interior ministers
Politicians from Wichita, Kansas
Shell plc people
Sturm College of Law alumni
United States Secretaries of the Interior
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Gale Norton


Lori Elaine Lightfoot (born August 4, 1962) is an American lawyer and politician. Lightfoot was the 56th Mayor of Chicago from 2019 to 2023. On April 2, 2019, Lightfoot was elected mayor. She is the first African-American woman and first LGBT individual elected to the position of Mayor of Chicago. She lost her re-election campaign in 2023, becoming the first Chicago mayor to lose re-election in 40 years.

Early life
Lightfoot was born in Massillon, Ohio. She studied at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor and University of Chicago. Lightfoot took jobs working for Congress members Ralph Regula and Barbara Mikulski.

Legal career
Lightfoot had several different jobs working for the government in Chicago. She used to be Chief of Staff and General Counsel of the Chicago Office of Emergency Management and Communications (OEMC). She also used to be First Deputy of the Chicago Department of Procurement Services. Lightfoot was President of the Chicago Police Board and Chair of the Chicago Police Accountability Task Force.

A lawyer, she worked for the Senior Equity Partner in the Litigation & Conflict Resolution Group at Mayer Brown LLP.

Mayor of Chicago

Campaign
On May 10, 2018, Lori Lightfoot announced her candidacy for Mayor of Chicago in the 2019 Mayoral Election. Lightfoot is the first openly-lesbian candidate in the history of Chicago. She, along with Toni Preckwinkle, advanced to the runoff election on April 2. Some activists were against her becoming mayor because she worked with the police.

On April 2, 2019, Lori Lightfoot won the election, becoming the first African-American woman and openly lesbian individual to be mayor of Chicago. She got 77% of the vote while Preckwinkle got 23%.

Tenure
Lightfoot took office on May 20, 2019. A few days later, Lightfoot picked Tom Tunney as Vice Mayor. People continued to protest against her, especially when the Black Lives Matter movement became even bigger after George Floyd was killed. She had also ordered a stay-at-home order and closed many restaurants and people gatherings due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Illinois.

Lightfoot ran for re-election in 2023, however came in third place in the first round of voting, becoming the city's first mayor to lose re-election in 40 years.

Personal life
Lightfoot lives in the Logan Square neighborhood on Chicago's North Side and is married to Amy Eshleman. They have an adopted daughter named Vivian who was eleven when Lightfoot was elected.

References

Other websites

1962 births
Living people
Mayors of Chicago
Lesbians
American LGBT politicians
LGBT people from Ohio
Politicians from Ohio
LGBT people from Chicago
Democratic Party (United States) politicians
Lawyers from Chicago
21st-century American politicians
African American lawyers
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LGBT lawyers
Lawyers from Ohio
University of Chicago alumni
People from Massillon, Ohio
African American politicians

Lori Lightfoot