The Tudor conquest (or reconquest) of Ireland took place during the 16th century under the Tudor dynasty, which ruled the Kingdom of England. The Anglo-Normans had conquered swathes of Ireland in the late 12th century, bringing it under English rule. In the 14th century, the effective area of English rule shrank markedly, and from then most of Ireland was held by native Gaelic chiefdoms. Following a failed rebellion by the Earl of Kildare in the 1530s, the English Crown set about restoring its authority. Henry VIII of England was made "King of Ireland" by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542. The conquest involved assimilating the Gaelic nobility by way of "surrender and regrant"; the confiscation and colonization ('plantation') of lands with settlers from Britain; imposing English law and language; banning Catholicism, dissolving the monasteries and making Anglican Protestantism the state religion.

The Tudor policies in Ireland sparked the Desmond Rebellions (1569–73, 1579–83) and the Nine Years' War (1594–1603). Despite Spanish support for Irish Catholics during the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), by 1603 the entire country was under English rule. The Flight of the Earls in 1607 largely completed the destruction of the Gaelic aristocracy and left the way open for the Plantation of Ulster, which established a large British Protestant population in the north. Several people who helped establish the plantations of Ireland also played a part later in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country men.

Situation before the Tudors
Ireland in 1500 was shaped by the Norman conquest, initiated by Cambro-Norman barons in the 12th century. Many of the native Gaelic Irish had been expelled from various parts of the country (mainly the east and southeast) and replaced with English peasants and labourers. A large area on the east coast, extending from the Wicklow Mountains in the south to Dundalk in the north (covering parts of modern counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath, Westmeath, Kildare, Offaly, and Laois), became known as the Pale. Protected along much of its length by a ditch and rampart, the Pale was a defended area in which English language and culture predominated and where English law was enforced by a government in Dublin.

The Gaelic Irish were largely outside English jurisdiction, maintaining their own language, social system, customs, and laws. The English referred to them as "His Majesty's Irish enemies". In legal terms, they had never been admitted as subjects of the Crown. Ireland was not formally a realm, but rather a lordship; the title was assumed by the English monarch upon coronation. The rise of Gaelic influence resulted in the passing in 1366 of the Statutes of Kilkenny, which outlawed many social practices that had been developing apace (e.g. intermarriage, use of the Irish language and Irish dress). In the 15th century, the Dublin government remained weak, owing principally to the Wars of the Roses.

Beyond the Pale, the authority of the Dublin government was tenuous. The Hiberno-Norman lords had been able to carve out fiefdoms for themselves but not to settle them with English tenants. As a result, in the 14th and 15th centuries, in the wake of Irish rebellion, Scottish invasion, the Black Death, and a lack of interest on the part of the London government, the territories controlled by those lords achieved a high degree of independence. The Butlers, Fitzgeralds, and Burkes raised their own armed forces, enforced their own law, and adopted Gaelic language and culture.

Beyond those territories large areas of land previously held by authority of the English crown were taken by the resurgent Gaelic Irish, particularly in the north and midlands. Among the most important septs were the O'Neills (Uí Néill) in central Ulster (Tír Eóghain), flanked to their west by the O'Donnells (Uí Dhomnaill); the O'Byrnes (Uí Bhroin) and O'Tooles (Uí Thuathail) in County Wicklow; the Kavanaghs (Uí Chaomhánach) in County Wexford; the MacCarthys ((Uí) Mhic Chárthaigh) and O'Sullivans (Uí Shúilleabháin) in County Cork and County Kerry; and the O'Brien (Uí Bhriain) lordship of Thomond in County Clare.

Henry VIII
By 1500, English monarchs had delegated government of Ireland to the most powerful of the Hiberno-Norman dynasties – the FitzGeralds of Kildare – to keep the costs of running Ireland down and to protect the Pale. The King's Lord Deputy of Ireland was chief of the administration, based in Dublin Castle, but maintained no formal court and had a limited privy purse. In 1495, laws were passed during Poynings's Parliament that imposed English statutory law wholesale upon the lordship and compromised the independence of the Parliament of Ireland.

The head of the Kildare FitzGeralds held the position of lord deputy until 1534. The problem was that the House of Kildare had become unreliable for the English monarch, scheming with Yorkist pretenders to the English throne, signing private treaties with foreign powers, and finally rebelling after the head of its hereditary rivals, the Butlers of Ormonde, was awarded the position of lord deputy. The Reformation also led to growing tension between England and Ireland as Protestantism gained sway within England. Thomas, Earl of Kildare, a Catholic, offered control of Ireland to both the pope and Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry put down the rebellion by executing the leader ("Silken Thomas" FitzGerald), along with several of his uncles, and imprisoned Gearóid Óg, the head of the family. But now the king had to find a replacement for the FitzGeralds to keep Ireland quiet. What was needed was a cost-effective new policy that protected the Pale and guaranteed the safety of England's vulnerable west flank from foreign invasion.

With the assistance of Thomas Cromwell, the King implemented the policy of surrender and regrant. This extended royal protection to all of Ireland's elite without regard to ethnicity; in return the whole country was expected to obey the law of the central government; and all Irish lords were to officially surrender their lands to the Crown, and to receive them back in return by Royal Charter. The keystone to the reform was in a statute passed by the Irish Parliament in 1542, whereby the lordship was converted to the Kingdom of Ireland. Overall, the intention was to assimilate the Gaelic and Gaelicised upper classes and to develop a loyalty on their part to the new crown. To this end, they were granted English titles and for the first time admitted to the Irish Parliament. One of the more important was the earldom of Tyrone, which was created for the Uí Néill dynasty in 1542. In a felicitous phrase, the king summed up his efforts at reform as "politic drifts and amiable persuasions".

In practice, lords around Ireland accepted their new privileges but carried on as they had before. For the Irish Lordships, the English monarch was but another overlord similar to that found in the Gaelic system. It was, however, the Tudors' increasing encroachment upon the Irish local autonomy by the development of a centralised state that was to bring the English system into direct conflict with the Gaelic one. Henry's religious Reformation – although not as thorough as in England – caused disquiet; his lord deputy, Anthony St Leger, was largely able to buy off opposition by granting lands confiscated from the monasteries to Irish nobles.

Difficulties

After the king's death, successive lords deputy of Ireland found that actually establishing the rule of the central government was far more difficult than merely securing the Irish lords' pledges of allegiance. Successive rebellions broke out, the first in Leinster in the 1550s, when the O'Moore and O'Connor clans were displaced to make way for the Plantation of Queen's County and King's County (named for Mary I of England and Philip II of Spain; modern counties Laois and Offaly). In the 1560s, English attempts to interfere in a succession dispute within the O'Neill sept, or clan, sparked a long war between Thomas Radcliffe (Lord Deputy of Sussex) and Seán Mac Cuinn Ó Néill. Irish lordships continued to fight private wars against each other, ignoring the government in Dublin and its laws. Two examples of this were the Battle of Affane in 1565, fought between the Ormonde and Desmond dynasties, and the Battle of Farsetmore in 1567, fought between the O'Donnells and O'Neills. Elsewhere, clans such as the O'Byrnes and O'Tooles continued raiding the Pale as they had always done. The most serious violence of all occurred in Munster in the 1560s to 1580s, when the Fitzgeralds of Desmond launched the Desmond Rebellions to prevent direct English influence into their territory. After a particularly brutal campaign in which up to a third of the population of the province was reported to have died, the rebellion was finally ended when the Earl of Desmond was killed in 1583.

There were two main reasons for the chronic violence that dogged the central government in Ireland. The first was some of the aggressive acts of the English administrators and soldiers. In many instances, garrisons or "seneschals" disregarded the law and killed local chiefs and lords, and sometimes seized native-owned land. The second cause of violence was the incompatibility of Gaelic Irish society with English law and central government. In Irish law, the chief of a sept or clan was elected from a small noble lineage group called a . This often caused violence between rival candidates. However, under Henry VIII's settlement, succession was, as was the English custom, by inheritance of the first-born son, or primogeniture, which was intended to result in fewer disputes over inheritance but also in an increasing reduction in the distribution of landed wealth. Imposing this law forced the English to take sides in violent disputes within Irish lordships. Finally, important sections of Irish society had a vested interest in opposing the English presence. These included the mercenary class or gallowglass, and Irish poets or  – both of whom faced having their source of income and status abolished in an English-ruled Ireland.

Solutions

Under Mary I and Elizabeth I, the English in Ireland tried a number of solutions to pacify the country. The first such initiative used martial government, whereby violent areas such as the Wicklow Mountains were garrisoned by small numbers of English troops under commanders called seneschalls. The seneschal was given powers of martial law, which allowed execution without trial by jury. Every person within the seneschal's area of authority had to be vouched for by the local lord—"masterless men" were liable to be killed. In this way, it was hoped that the Irish lords would prevent raiding by their own followers. However, in practice, this simply antagonised the native chieftains.

The failure of this policy prompted the English to come up with more long-term solutions to pacify and Anglicise Ireland. One was composition, where private armed forces were abolished, and provinces were occupied by English troops under the command of governors, titled lords president. In return, the pre-eminent septs and lords were exempted from taxation and had their entitlements to rents from subordinate families and their tenants put on a statutory basis. The imposition of this settlement was marked by bitter violence, particularly in Connacht, where the MacWilliam Burkes fought a local war against the English Provincial President, Sir Richard Bingham, and his subordinate, Nicholas Malby. In Munster the interference of the lord president was one of the major causes of the Desmond Rebellions. However, this method was successful in some areas, notably in Thomond, where it was supported by the ruling O'Brien dynasty. Composition merged into the policy of surrender and regrant.

The second long-term solution was Plantations, in which areas of the country were to be settled with people from England, who would bring in English language and culture while remaining loyal to the crown. Plantation had been started in the 1550s in Laois and Offaly, the former being shired by Queen Mary as "Queen's County", and again in the 1570s in Antrim, both times with limited success. In the 1590s, after the Desmond Rebellions, parts of Munster were populated with English in the plantation of that province, but the project was half-hearted and ran into legal difficulties when Irish landowners chose to sue; the largest grant of lands was made to Sir Walter Raleigh, but he never really made a success of it and sold out to Sir Richard Boyle, who later became Earl of Cork and the wealthiest subject of the early Stuart monarchs.

After a neutral period from 1558 to 1570, Pope Pius V declared Elizabeth a heretic in his 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis. This complicated the conquest further, as her authority to rule was denied and her officials were considered by observant Roman Catholics to be acting unlawfully. Most Irish people of all ranks remained Catholic and the bull gave Protestant administrators a new reason to expedite the conquest. The Second Desmond Rebellion, from 1579 to 1583, was assisted by hundreds of papal troops. Religion had become a new marker of loyalty to the administration.

The prospect of land confiscation further alienated the Irish. But the alienation wasn't confined to the Gaelic Irish: those who claimed descent from the original Anglo-Norman conquerors under Henry II were increasingly referred to as the "Old English", to distinguish them from the many administrators, captains, and planters (the New English) who were arriving in Ireland. And it was mostly amongst this Old English community that fervent commitment to Catholicism was gaining ground.

Crisis

The crisis point of the Elizabethan conquest of Ireland came when the English authorities tried to extend their authority over Ulster and Aodh Mór Ó Néill, the most powerful Irish lord in Ireland. Though initially appearing to support the crown, Ó Néill engaged in a proxy war in Fermanagh and northern Connacht, by sending troops to aid Aodh Mag Uidhir lord of Fermanagh. This distracted the crown with military campaigns in the west while Tyrone consolidated his power in Ulster. Ó Néill openly broke with the crown in February 1595 when his forces took and destroyed the Blackwater Fort on the Armagh-Tyrone border. Later named the Nine Years War, Ó Néill focused his action in Ulster and along its borders, until Spanish promises of aid in 1596 led him to spread the conflict to the rest of Ireland. What had started as a war for regional autonomy became a war for the control of Ireland. With the Irish victory at the Battle of the Yellow Ford, the collapse of the Munster Plantation, followed by the dismal vice-royalty of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, the power of the Crown in Ireland came close to collapse.

In wider European terms, it was a part of the Anglo-Spanish war (1585—1604). While Ó Néill enlisted the help of lords throughout Ireland, his most significant support came from the Spanish king. Philip III of Spain sent an invasion force, only to see it surrender after a winter siege at the Battle of Kinsale in 1601. Outside Kinsale, Ó Néill's own army was defeated. The war ended in early 1603; thereafter the authority of the Crown was gradually reestablished throughout country. Ó Néill and his allies were treated relatively generously, considering the cost of the rebellion, and were regranted their titles and most of their lands. Unable to live with more restrictive conditions, they left Ireland in 1607 in the Flight of the Earls. As a result, their lands in Ulster were confiscated. In the ensuing Plantation of Ulster, great numbers of people from all over Britain were encouraged to move to Ulster.

As plantation policy expanded to outlying districts including Sligo, Fermanagh and Monaghan, the English occupation of Ireland grew increasingly militaristic. The Counter-Reformation created an environment of anti-Protestantism within the native population which hindered English influence and led to a massive uprising ending in 1603. It became increasingly clear that the only profitable gain from its recent subjugation of Ireland was the land it yielded. Tens of thousands of Protestants, mainly Scots, emigrated to Antrim and Ulster, supplanting the Irish residents.

Results
The first and most important result of the conquest was the disarmament of the native Irish lordships and the establishment of central government control for the first time over the whole island; Irish culture, law, and language were replaced; and many Irish lords lost their lands and hereditary authority. Thousands of English, Scottish, and Welsh settlers were introduced into the country and the administration of justice was enforced according to English common law and statutes of the Parliament of Ireland.

As the 16th century progressed, the religious question grew in significance. Rebels such as James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald and Aodh Mór Ó Néill sought and received help from Catholic powers in Europe, justifying their actions on religious grounds. However, the Pale community and many Irish lords did not consider them to be genuinely religiously motivated. In the new century, the country would become polarised between Catholics and Protestants, especially after the planting of a large English population into Ireland and Scots Presbyterians in Ulster (See Plantation of Ulster).

Under James I, Catholics were barred from all public office after the gunpowder plot was discovered in 1605; the Gaelic Irish and Old English increasingly defined themselves as Catholic in opposition to the Protestant New English. However the native Irish (both Gaelic and Old English) remained the majority landowners in the country until after the Irish Rebellion of 1641. By the end of the resulting Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in the 1650s, the "New English" Protestants dominated the country, and after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 their descendants went on to form the Protestant Ascendancy.

See also
 History of Ireland (1536–1691)
 Plantations of Ireland
 History of Ireland
 Desmond Rebellions
 Nine Years' War
 Miler Magrath

References

 Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors 3 vols. (London, 1885–1890)
 John O'Donovan (ed.) Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (1851).
 Calendar of State Papers: Carew MSS. 6 vols (London, 1867–1873).
 Calendar of State Papers: Ireland (London)
 Nicholas Canny The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland (Dublin, 1976); Kingdom and Colony (2002).
 Nicholas Canny, Making Ireland British
 Steven G. Ellis Tudor Ireland (London, 1985) .
 Hiram Morgan Tyrone's Rebellion (1995).
 Standish O'Grady (ed.) "Pacata Hibernia" 2 vols. (London, 1896).
 James O'Neill The Nine Years War, 1593-1603: O'Neill, Mountjoy and the military revolution (Dublin, 2017) .
 Cyril Falls Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950; reprint London, 1996) .
 Colm Lennon Sixteenth century Ireland

16th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
16th century in Ireland
Flight of the Earls
Invasions of Ireland
Tudor England
England–Ireland relations

Tudor conquest of Ireland


Sudden cardiac death is a condition where a person dies because the heart fails to work. It's very common, about 80% of the people have other heart problems. In general three conditions are present:
A problem with the heart
Irregular heartbeat, known as cardiac arrhythmia
An external cause
In general, people become unconscious within one hour from the onset of symptoms.

Heart disease

Sudden cardiac death


Alder Springs (formerly, Oriental) is a set of springs and an unincorporated community in Glenn County, California.
It is located  west-northwest of Elk Creek, at an elevation of 4455 feet (1358 m).

The Oriental post office opened in 1888, changed its name to Alder Springs in 1917, and closed for good in 1940.

Alder Springs is the location of the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation Valley View Conservation Camp. This fire camp of approximately 115 inmates operates under a joint agreement of the California Department of Correction and Rehabilitation and the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection.

The Berkeley Seismology Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley has strong motion sensor for detecting seismic activity here in addition to a short period sensor operated by the California Department of Water Resources. There is also a nearby National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration weather station.

References

Reference bibliography

Unincorporated communities in California
Unincorporated communities in Glenn County, California

Alder Springs, Glenn County, California


The Straits of Corfu or Corfu Channel is the narrow body of water along the coasts of Albania and Greece to the east, separating these two countries from the Greek island of Corfu on the west.  The channel is a passage from the Adriatic Sea on the north to the Ionian Sea that is used by shipping local to Albania and Greece to the ports of Saranda, Albania, and Igoumenitsa, Greece, and by local and tourist traffic in Albania and from the Greek mainland to Corfu, in addition to some international traffic from the Adriatic.

Corfu Channel Incident

The Corfu Channel Incident refers to three separate incidents involving Royal Navy ships in the Straits of Corfu which took place in 1946, and it is considered an early episode of the Cold War. During the first incident, Royal Navy ships came under fire from Albanian fortifications. The second incident involved Royal Navy ships striking mines and the third incident occurred when the Royal Navy conducted mine-clearing operations in the Corfu Channel, but in Albanian territorial waters, and Albania complained about them to the United Nations. This series of incidents led to the Corfu Channel Case, where the United Kingdom brought a case against the People's Republic of Albania to the International Court of Justice. Because of the incidents, Britain, in 1946, broke off talks with Albania aimed at establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries. Diplomatic relations were only restored in 1991.

References

Corfu
Corfu
Corfu
Corfu
Albania–Greece border
International straits
Landforms of Corfu (regional unit)
Landforms of the Ionian Islands (region)
Albanian Ionian Sea Coast

Straits of Corfu


Robert Rowland Smith is a British author and philosopher. His books include Derrida and Autobiography (Cambridge University Press, 1995), Breakfast with Socrates: The Philosophy of Everyday Life (Profile Books, 2009), and AutoBioPhilosophy: An Intimate Story of What It Means to Be Human (4th Estate, 2018). He is a regular speaker at public and private events, addressing a wide range of topics that includes philosophy, psychology, politics, and art. Alongside his literary career, Smith works as a business adviser and practitioner of Systemic Family Constellations.

Biography

Smith was born on 21 January 1965. From 1975 to 1983 he attended Dulwich College in south London. He read English Language and Literature at Mansfield College, Oxford, where he was a Scholar, graduating in 1988 with a top First. From 1988 to 1990 Smith was a doctoral student at Wolfson College, Oxford, specialising in the work of French philosopher Jacques Derrida. In 1990 he was elected to a Fellowship by Examination ('Prize Fellowship') at All Souls College, Oxford. He was awarded a D.Phil. in 1991. While a Fellow of All Souls, Smith also held lectureships at both Mansfield College, Oxford and Hertford College, Oxford, and was a member of the English Faculty, lecturing on literary theory, modern poetry, and Shakespeare.

Smith left Oxford in 1998 to pursue a career in management consultancy, becoming a partner in a London-based firm in 2004. In 2009, Smith set up a company of his own in order to operate independently. He continues to be a Quondam Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.

Smith has sat on the board of the Tavistock Institute of Medical Psychology and of the Institute of Art and Ideas. He is a founding faculty member of The School of Life, and from 2013 to 2015 was a faculty member of the London Graduate School based at Kingston University. In 2017 he stepped down from the editorial board of Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities, an academic publication that he helped to found in 1993.

Literary career

Books

Robert Rowland Smith is the author of seven books. Three of these are academic. Derrida and Autobiography (Cambridge University Press, 1995) was based on Smith's doctoral thesis, and won a Choice award for 'Outstanding Academic Title'. Death-Drive: Freudian Hauntings in Literature and Art (Edinburgh University Press, 2010) is an examination of Freud's metapsychological works in relation to other theorists of death including Heidegger, Durkheim and Pascal. On Modern Poetry: From Theory to Total Criticism (Continuum, 2012) also won a Choice award for 'Outstanding Academic Title'. The first part of the book examines theories of poetry; the second part is made up of close textual analysis of certain nineteenth and twentieth century poems.

Smith has written two works of popular philosophy: Breakfast with Socrates: The Philosophy of Everyday Life (Profile Books, 2009) and Driving with Plato: The Meaning of Life's Milestones (Profile Books, 2011). The former has been translated into twenty languages.

The Reality Test: Still Relying on Strategy? (Profile Books, 2014) draws on Smith's experience as a business adviser. It poses and seeks to answer forty-eight questions relating to business vision, market strategy, organisational performance, and leadership.

Smith's most recent book is AutoBioPhilosophy: An Intimate Story of What It Means to Be Human (4th Estate, 2018). The book combines the genres of autobiography and philosophy in order to explore themes such as fate, love, spirituality, death, friendship, and creativity.

In addition, Smith wrote the text for an art book by Israeli photographer Ori Gersht, entitled Gersht's Ghosts (Photoworks, 2012). He also contributed a foreword to the 2015 design publication, Patternity: A New Way of Seeing: The Inspirational Power of Pattern (Octopus, 2015).

Journalism
From 2009 to 2012, Robert wrote the To Be Or Not To Be column in the Sunday Times Magazine, that examined moral dilemmas. He recorded a weekly video blog for the online version of the same publication, looking at current affairs through the lens of philosophy. He has written articles for numerous other publications including Intelligent Life, The Independent on Sunday, The Guardian, The Observer, New Scientist, Psychologies and Photoworks. He contributed articles to the first three editions of The Alpine Review, published in Toronto by Louis-Jacques Darveau. He has also been profiled in The Sunday Telegraph and Time Out.

Radio, Television and Film
Smith has broadcast talks across several platforms. These include a verbal essay entitled Beyond the Age of Ideas for Four Thought for BBC Radio 4, a podcast on Derrida and forgiveness for the Philosophy Bites series; several videos for the Institute of Art and Ideas, filmed at the HowTheLightGetsIn Festival; several videos for The School of Life, including 'in conversation' events with Steven Pinker and Jared Diamond; a series of interviews with entrepreneurs in different fields, entitled Innovators on Innovation; and videos for the Royal Society of Arts (Beyond Ideas and Carl Jung - Legacy and Influence). Other BBC Radio and TV programmes on which Smith has appeared include Night Waves, The Human Zoo, The Review Show and Today.

Smith has appeared in two films by the independent production company, Heraclitus Pictures. These are Do Not Read This (directed by Joanna Callaghan, HDV, 29 minutes, 2012), in which he plays the part of a publisher; and Love in the Post (directed by Joanna Callaghan, HDV, 75 minutes, 2014), in which he plays a university professor.

Public speaking
Smith has spoken to audiences in the UK, France, Norway, the United States, Japan, Lithuania, Poland, Switzerland and El Salvador on subjects including love, enlightenment, and innovation. In 1992 he was invited by the British Council to undertake a lecture tour in Romania, and in the 1990s was closely involved with the Oxford Amnesty Lectures that brought leading thinkers to Oxford.

Other fora to which Smith has contributed include: Institute of Contemporary Arts (on Derrida), Hayward Gallery (on concepts of light), the London School of Economics (on the meaning of life), the British Library (on theories of knowledge), the Petrie Museum (on concepts of time), Off Grid (on not knowing) and the Aye Write Festival (on the philosophy of everyday life).

With the philosopher Mark Vernon, Smith performs a 'Philosophy Slam', an improvised ideas format. The pair appear regularly at the Wilderness Festival and other venues, and have featured twice at the Camden Comedy Club at the Camden Head in London in support of comedian Pippa Evans.

Appearance in works by others
Robert Rowland Smith is the subject of an abstract sculpture by Dutch-Monegasque artist, Adeline de Monseignat, entitled Robert.

Smith is one of the walking companions featured in A London Safari by Rose Rouse. He appears in Monique Roffey's memoir, With the Kisses of His Mouth and in the novel by Nicholas Royle entitled An English Guide to Birdwatching.

Bibliography

Critical acclaim

Breakfast with Socrates
'Philosophy made accessible and applied to the quotidian...manages to be funny without underestimating the reader.' - Review by Emmanuelle Smith for The Financial Times, 26 October 2009'I am often asked to recommend a good introduction to philosophy - now I've discovered one. There are plenty of books but mostly they're either the 'wrong kind' of philosophy or they are terribly written. Smith's work is witty, inventive and intelligent - Carl Schmitt on arguing with your partner, Jacques Derrida on booking a holiday - and brilliantly shows how grounded High Theory really is.' - Times Higher Education Supplement'...a very thoughtful and continuously entertaining picture of human behavior. Smith adequately and expertly matches the right classical mind or system of thought with each chapter subject without making it seem like a stretch. Rooted deeply in philosophy and psychology, the book is never too complex or confusing that anyone with a normal level of reading comprehension would have a problem with.' - Review by Curtis Silver for wired.com, 3 December 2010

Driving with Plato
'A friendly guide to "the meaning of life's milestones" from birth, to learning to walk, starting school and on to passing your driving test, marrying and having a mid-life crisis, retiring and dying.' - Review by Lindesay Irvine for The Guardian, 19 February 2011

On Modern Poetry
'On Modern Poetry dazzles and illuminates, as does poetry itself. The book is an exciting intervention in poetic criticism, and the zest with which the book apprehends as well as comprehends its material will ensure that all kinds of readers interested in poetry will be enthused to think more carefully about its idioms, strange logics, and its genres. In bringing together intuitive and intellectual attention without simply pre-empting the distinction or its affects, the book achieves what it sets out to do.' - Dr Anthony Mellors, Reader in Poetry and Poetics, Birmingham City University, UK'Smith's writing moves with an ease and elegance that can belie the, sometimes breath-taking, flair, reach and focus of his readings…it has much to recommend it to a wide audience, from general readers, to students, to specialists.' - Dr Clare Connors, University of East Anglia, UK

Death-Drive
'This is a rich and fascinating work. Smith provides a lucid, probing and astute overview of the death drive in Freud, but also leads the reader into strange and compelling new terrain, exploring the notion that works of art have 'an unconscious of their own'. This is an important new contribution to a topic that remains controversial in psychoanalysis and culture more generally.' - Nicholas Royle, University of Sussex 'The death-drive has haunted psychoanalytic theory since its first appearance in Freud's Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Rowland Smith brings new life to this grim hypothesis, tracing the rhetorical adventures of the death-drive through Freud's works and those of his defenders and adversaries. Sinuously argued and vividly expressed, Death-Drive will appeal both to beginners and to seasoned readers of psychoanalysis and literature. Rarely has death been discussed with such vitality.' - Maud Ellmann, Donald and Marilyn Keough Professor of Irish Studies, University of Notre Dame

The Reality Test
'By approaching the perennial problems of business through a highly original set of emotionally-charged questions, Smith brings an extraordinary array of insights to the challenges of management and leadership. Brilliant - a tour de force.' - Jules Goddard, author of Uncommon Sense, Common Nonsense'Practical, wise and very much based in reality, this book will make anyone running a business a more shrewd, and probably a more successful, leader.' - Andrew Cahn, former CEO of UK Trade and Investment'I regard Robert Rowland Smith as simply the most intelligent person I know. After reading this book you will understand why.' - Guy Fraser-Sampson, Senior Fellow, Cass Business School'The Reality Test' cuts through turgid corporate "leadership speak" to get the heart of the matter - it should be required reading for any aspiring leader. If 'Fred the Shred' of HBOS had taken the Reality Test, perhaps we wouldn't be living through the biggest recession since the 1930s.' - Lord Victor O. Adebowale CBE, CEO of Turning Point'Robert Rowland Smith asks the practical questions that really matter to business leaders - this book will do more than make you think, it will make you do something.' - Matt Kingdon, co-founder of ?What If! and author of The Science of Serendipity'Intriguing…thought-provoking.' - Review by Frank Dillon for Irish Times, 12 August 2013

References

External links
Robert Rowland Smith
Backdoor Broadcasting Company
Ink Well Management

British philosophers
Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford
Continental philosophers
Contemporary philosophers
Living people
1965 births
The School of Life people

Robert Rowland Smith


The Rhysling Awards are a prize given each year for the best poem from science fiction, fantasy, or horror.  Most awards for writing are named for the creator of the award, the subject of the award, or an important person. The Rhyslings are named for a character in a science fiction story: the blind poet Rhysling, in Robert A. Heinlein's short story The Green Hills of Earth. Two awards are given: "Best Long Poem", for poetry of 50 or more lines, and "Best Short Poem", for works of 49 or fewer lines.

The members of the Science Fiction Poetry Association (SFPA) choose several possible winners (nominees) for each year's Rhysling Awards.  Each member may name one work that should win in each category.  All of the nominees are published in a book called The Rhysling Anthology. Members of the Association then vote on the final winners. Since 2005, the Awards have been presented in July at a ceremony at Readercon. The "Best Short Poem" category allows very short poems to be entered. However, the SFPA also has the Dwarf Stars Award for poems from one to ten lines.

Best Long Poem winners
 1978 Gene Wolfe The Computer Iterates the Greater Trumps
 1979 Michael Bishop For the Lady of a Physicist
 1980 Andrew Joron The Sonic Flowerfall of Primes
 1981 Thomas M. Disch On Science Fiction
 1982 Ursula K. Le Guin The Well of Baln
 1983 Adam Cornford Your Time and You: A Neoprole's Dating Guide
 1984 Joe Haldeman Saul's Death: Two Sestinas
 1985 Siv Cedering A Letter from Caroline Herschel (1750-1848)
 1986 Andrew Joron Shipwrecked on Destiny Five
 1987 W. Gregory Stewart Daedalus
 1988 Lucius Shepard White Trains
 1989 (tie): Bruce Boston In the Darkened Hours ; John M. Ford Winter Solstice, Camelot Station
 1990 Patrick McKinnon dear spacemen
 1991 David Memmott The Aging Cryonicist in the Arms of His Mistress Contemplates the Survival of the Species While the Phoenix Is Consumed by Fire
 1992 W. Gregory Stewart the button and what you know
 1993 William J. Daciuk To Be from Earth
 1994 W. Gregory Stewart and Robert Frazier Basement Flats: Redefining the Burgess Shale
 1995 David Lunde Pilot, Pilot
 1996 Margaret B. Simon Variants of the Obsolete
 1997 Terry A. Garey Spotting UFOs While Canning Tomatoes
 1998 Laurel Winter why goldfish shouldn't use power tools
 1999 Bruce Boston Confessions of a Body Thief
 2000 Geoffrey A. Landis Christmas (after we all get time machines)
 2001 Joe Haldeman January Fires
 2002 Lawrence Schimel How to Make a Human
 2003 (tie): Charles Saplak and Mike Allen Epochs in Exile: A Fantasy Trilogy ; Sonya Taaffe Matlacihuatl's Gift
 2004 Theodora Goss Octavia Is Lost in the Hall of Masks
 2005 Tim Pratt Soul Searching
 2006 Kendall Evans and David C. Kopaska-Merkel The Tin Men
 2007 Mike Allen The Journey to Kailash
 2008 Catherynne M. Valente The Seven Devils of Central California
 2009 Geoffrey A. Landis Search
 2010 Kendall Evans and Samantha Henderson In the Astronaut Asylum
 2011 C.S.E. Cooney The Sea King's Second Bride
 2012 Megan Arkenberg The Curator Speaks in the Department of Dead Languages
 2013 Andrew Robert Sutton Into Flight
 2014 Mary Soon Lee Interregnum
 2015 F.J. Bergmann 100 Reasons to Have Sex with an Alien
 2016 (tie): Krysada Panusith Phounsiri It Begins With A Haunting; Ann K. Schwader Keziah
 2017 Theodora Goss Rose Child

Best Short Poem winners
 1978 (tie): Duane Ackerson The Starman ; Andrew Joron Asleep in the Arms of Mother Night ; Sonya Dorman Corruption of Metals
 1979 (tie): Duane Ackerson Fatalities ; Steve Eng Storybooks and Treasure Maps
 1980 (tie): Robert Frazier Encased in the Amber of Eternity ; Peter Payack The Migration of Darkness
 1981 Ken Duffin Meeting Place
 1982 Raymond DiZazzo On the Speed of Sight
 1983 Alan P. Lightman In Computers
 1984 Helen Ehrlich Two Sonnets
 1985 Bruce Boston For Spacers Snarled in the Hair of Comets
 1986 Susan Palwick The Neighbor's Wife
 1987 (tie): Jonathan V. Post Before the Big Bang: News from the Hubble Large Space Telescope ; John Calvin Rezmerski A Dream of Heredity
 1988 (tie): Bruce Boston The Nightmare Collector ; Suzette Haden Elgin Rocky Road to Hoe
 1989 Robert Frazier Salinity
 1990 G. Sutton Breiding Epitaph for Dreams
 1991 Joe Haldeman Eighteen Years Old, October Eleventh
 1992 David Lunde Song of the Martian Cricket
 1993 Jane Yolen Will
 1994 (tie): Bruce Boston Spacer's Compass ; Jeff VanderMeer Flight Is for Those Who Have Not Yet Crossed Over
 1995 Dan Raphael Skin of Glass
 1996 Bruce Boston Future Present: A Lesson in Expectation
 1997 W. Gregory Stewart Day Omega
 1998 John Grey Explaining Frankenstein to His Mother
 1999 Laurel Winter egg horror poem
 2000 Rebecca Marjesdatter Grimoire
 2001 Bruce Boston My Wife Returns as She Would Have It
 2002 William John Watkins We Die as Angels
 2003 Ruth Berman Potherb Gardening
 2004 Roger Dutcher Just Distance
 2005 Greg Beatty No Ruined Lunar City
 2006 Mike Allen The Strip Search
 2007 Rich Ristow The Graven Idol's Godheart
 2008 F.J. Bergmann Eating Light
 2009 Amal El-Mohtar Song for an Ancient City
 2010 Ann K. Schwader To Theia
 2011 Amal El-Mohtar Peach-Creamed Honey
 2012  Shira Lipkin The Library, After
 2013 Terry A. Garey The Cat Star
 2014 Amal El-Mohtar Turning the Leaves
 2015 Marge Simon Shutdown
 2016 Ruth Berman Time Travel Vocabulary Problems
 2017 Marge Simon George Tecumseh Sherman's Ghosts

Other websites
SFPA Rhysling Anthology

References

Science fiction awards
Fantasy
Poetry
Literary awards
Horror

Rhysling Award


Village School (commonly VS) is the oldest public alternative high school in New York State. It was judged very good by the Center for the Study of Educational Alternatives at Hofstra University. The American School Board Journal gave the Magna Award to the School for its excellent, unique, high school program. As a member of the Coalition of Essential Schools, the Village School and its staff work closely with other member schools and with the education faculty of Brown University. The Village School is officially recognized by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools and certified by the New York State Education Department. There are about 50 students enrolled in the Village School each academic year.

Village School is one of three high schools in the Great Neck School District, which includes Great Neck North High School and William A. Shine Great Neck South High School. VS offers its 46 students an individualized system where students earn credits as they meet curriculum goals that have been established by their teachers. Original, performance, and published documents are assessments of these goals have long been part of a Village School student's academic history. About 99 percent of the students continue their education at four-year schools.

The alternative school provides education for grades 9-12. Many types of students attend the Village School. The Village School's catalogue describes the students saying,
All have at least average ability, some have exceptional learning abilities and artistic talents, while others have special educational needs. Students who may have felt lost and isolated in a large school often thrive in the smaller and more personalized setting of the Village School.

The school describes itself as a "college preparatory public high school dedicated to encouraging academic success through a non-traditional, innovative curriculum". Co-founder Arnie Langberg has been called "one of the most important pioneers in the field of public alternative education." The admissions process at Village School is comprehensive. Each student takes part in an on-campus interview and is accompanied by a parent. The children are hand picked and visit the school twice before being considered a candidate for this program.

References

Schools in New York (state)
1970 establishments in New York (state)

Great Neck Village High School


Cronartium ribicola  is a species of rust fungus in the family Cronartiaceae that causes the disease white pine blister rust. Other names include:  (French),  (German),  (Spanish).

Origin
Cronartium ribicola is native to China, and was introduced to North America. The rust was first discovered on currants in Geneva, New York in 1906. It was first seen on White pine specifically on imported seedlings from European nurseries in 1909. Some European and Asian white pines (e.g. Macedonian pine, Swiss pine and blue pine) are mostly resistant to the disease, having co-evolved with the pathogen.

Invasive species
It was accidentally introduced into North America in approximately 1900, where it is an invasive species causing serious damage to the American white pines, which have little genetic resistance. Mortality is particularly heavy in western white pine, sugar pine, limber pine and whitebark pine. Efforts are under way to select and breed the rare resistant individuals of these species; resistance breeding is concentrated at the United States Forest Service Dorena Genetic Resource Center in Oregon and the Moscow Forestry Services Laboratory in Idaho.

Silviculture
Some limited silvicultural control of the disease is possible.

Pruning
If bark blisters are found on branches over 10–15 cm from the trunk, those branches may be pruned off, which will stop the spread of the disease to the rest of that tree. If the main trunk is affected then no control is possible, and the tree will die once the infection encircles the tree.

Flagging
Infected trees are often identified by "flagging", when all the needles on a branch turn brown and die. Infections often occur on low branches close to the ground on young trees, so pruning of white pine can also be effective in multiple ways, as it improves the quality of timber by creating more knot-free timber, and reduces the likelihood of infection from the blister rust to a small extent.

Banning of black currants
Another form of control practiced in some areas is to diligently remove Ribes plants from any area near white pines, including the blackcurrant. Because the infection moves from currant plants, to pines, and back again, it cannot continue to exist without its secondary (telial) host. Although effective in theory, removal of currants is rarely successful in practice, as they readily re-grow from small pieces of root left in the soil, and the seeds are very widely spread in birds' droppings. According to the Southwest Oregon Forest Insect and Disease Service Center, white pine blister rust attacks all five-needle pines. "Damage [to plants] includes mortality, top kill, branch dieback, and predisposition to attack by other agents, including bark beetles."

Disease cycle
Cronartium ribicola has two obligate hosts: Pinus spp and Ribes spp. Five-needle pines (Pinus spp.) are infected in the fall by basidiospores that have spread under cool, moist conditions from the alternate host, currants and gooseberries (Ribes spp.), and germinated on needles to enter with germ tubes through open stomata. Young pines are most susceptible and will die at faster rates following infection. A mycelial network then spreads through the needle and into intercellular space in the inner bark, resulting in the formation of a blister rust canker. Spermagonia are produced at the margins on the canker and give rise to spermatia in the following spring. Once spermatia have fertilized receptive hyphae in the Pinus spp. host, aecia are formed within a year, appearing as white blisters before rupture reveals the orange or yellow aeciospores within. The wind-blown aeciospores infect Ribes spp. and the fungus quickly develops uredia in less than a few weeks. Uredospores produced in this stage spread to infect other parts of the same host or other Ribes spp. hosts in the area. Next, telia are developed on the abaxial (lower) surface of leaves, where teliospores germinate to give rise to basidiospores that will complete the disease cycle by infecting Pinus spp. hosts.

Hosts and symptoms

As is common among rusts, the life cycle of Cronartium ribicola includes two host species and goes through five spore stages.  This life cycle is termed heteroecious. In the specific case of Cronartium ribicola, the aecial host of this pathogen is the white pine (Pinus subgenus Strobus, family Pinaceae) and the telial hosts are those of the genus Ribes, specifically currants and gooseberries. Species of both telial and aecial hosts have varying levels of resistance or immunity to infection.

On the aecial host, the first signs of C. ribicola are yellow or red spots on the Pinus needles, but these are small and can be difficult to see; more visible symptoms on the aecial host includes perennial cankers which appear on the branches within two years of infection. Looking at the infected plant as a whole, the Pinus will appear chlorotic, and stunted with dead branches or tops that turn a bright red color.

On the other hand, the telial host, Ribes, can contract yellowish chlorotic leaf spots, but is otherwise not significantly impacted. The signs of C. ribicola on Ribes, come in the form of the pathogen itself as orange pustules on the underside of the leaf.

Environment

Environmentally, Cronartium ribicola prefers cooler temperatures coupled with moist conditions in low-lying areas, especially during the late summer and early fall. The low temperatures and humidity are an essential part of the pathogen's spore germination and dispersal requirements. The combination of cooler temperatures and a high humidity create an environment at which dew can easily form. The free water helps loosen spores adhered to a leaf's surface and promotes spore germination.

At a microclimate scale, lower trees hidden below the canopy exist in a lower temperature and moister environment, and as a result, these young trees are more susceptible to C. ribicola than the older, taller trees that create the canopy, which consequently have more access to the warm, dry sun. This collection of environmental characteristics are common in the Northern Hemisphere, causing many areas in the United States to be labeled at hazard zones for the genus Pinus.

Disease management
Historically, tactics such as alternate host removal and planting restrictions in hazard zones, as well as quarantines made legal by the 1912 Plant Quarantine Act. Removal of Ribes used to be practiced in full force, which heavily affected blackcurrant production in the United States, however through a combination of the pathogen's hardiness and ability to travel airborne for nine hundred feet, as well as the Ribes ability to regrow from an extremely small root portion, researchers have focused their efforts on creating new cultural practices to lower the abundance of C. ribicola. Since then researchers have come up with multiple new methods to curb the spread of the infection. In some European countries and Canada, the fruits from currants and gooseberry were more valuable than White pine trees, which did not allow them to do the eradication programs of Ribes.

For example, careful topological selection of plot sites for the white pine would greatly reduce the germination of spores. These plots would include land with characteristics such as well-drained soil such as that on a high-sloped area, spots that are well aerated, and face the south for dryness and warmth. This would remove the wet, damp environment that is crucial for the germination of the spores on the Pinus.

Once plantation spots have been chosen, pruning and inspection practices have been adapted as a monitored cultural practice. Inspections for blister rusts begin in May about six years after the trees are planted. This time period is when obvious symptoms of C. ribicola begin to appear, such as red needles. Infected branches will be pruned to a certain height that is dependent on a rate of infection determined by researchers; generally pruning is required for Pinus trees up to anywhere between nine and eighteen feet. Pathological pruning, in which all lower branches are pruned regardless of signs or symptoms of infection, may reduce disease instance in white pine tree stands.

Furthermore, genetic hybridization testing has been conducted for more than half a century in order to find resistance among strains of the species, and have since successfully introduced resistance into the eastern white pine

Importance

White pine blister rust is the only rust of white pine. Of the five needle pines, sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), and western white pine (Pinus monticola) are the most economically important for timber harvest and nursery stock. In fact, forests of these species represent some of the most valuable land for timber harvest in the US, as they fetch a premium price over related species. While species such as whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) are of less economic importance, they too are affected by Cronartium ribicola, as well as other five-needle pine species across the US. In the early 1900s, large outbreaks of C. ribicola infestation in stands of sugar pines, eastern white pines, and western white pines resulted in the observation of apparently resistant trees, asymptomatic in heavily infected areas. By 1950, breeding programs were in place to use these remaining trees as parents to cross and backcross with progeny to develop rust-resistant varieties. There are now resistant western white pine trees available.

The notion that eradication of the alternate host Ribes spp. would be an effective means of controlling the causal agent was largely responsible for the federal ban restricting cultivation of Ribes in the 1920s. Until 1966, when the ban was lifted, US breeding efforts in Ribes were essentially halted. Today, although some state and local bans remain in place, Ribes cultivars are slowly gaining popularity and many resistant varieties are commercially available.

Pathogenesis

Cronartium ribicola is a heteroecious, macrocyclic pathogen on Pinus spp and Ribes spp. Because young pines are smaller and less developed than mature trees, they are most susceptible to the pathogen. In addition, young trees will often die at faster rates following infection because more needles are likely to be located closer to the main stem (trunk) of the tree, where infection results in canker formation that kills vital cambial tissue responsible for water and nutrient transport for large parts of the tree.

Most of the breeding efforts for five-needle pine resistance are currently focused in North America, on P. strobus, P. monticola and P. lambertiana. The means of resistance in rust-resistant five-needle pine varieties involve various mechanisms, such as abortion of infected leaves and slow development of canker symptoms. It is likely that varieties exhibiting the latter mechanism act against the pathogen's ability to modify cell walls and avoid plant recognition. In some species of North American pine, hypersensitive responses to C. ribicola have been observed, which suggests a gene-for-gene interaction that may indicate that C. ribicola is not so ecologically foreign to North American pines as previously assumed.

References

External links

 Don't Move Firewood - Gallery of Pests: White Pine Blister Rust
 forestpathology.org
 Dorena Genetic Resource Center, United States Forest Service
 The Sugar Pine Foundation
 The Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation
 Species Profile - White Pine Blister Rust (Cronartium ribicola), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for White Pine Blister Rust.

Pucciniales
Fungal conifer pathogens and diseases
Fungi described in 1872

Cronartium ribicola


Aunou-le-Faucon is a Commune of the Orne department in north-western France. There are 273 people living there.
There is a church called Eglise St-Cyr-et-Ste-Julitte. The steeple dates from the 17th century.
There is a fortified house dated from the 15th century, this is the "Tour aux Anglais".
There are many horse farms around.

Communes in Orne

Aunou-le-Faucon


Friends in Bellwoods is a compilation album, released in 2007. It was the first release on Out of This Spark, through a distribution deal with Sonic Unyon Records. The album is named for a house on Bellwoods Avenue in Toronto, shared by two members of the band Ohbijou, which NOW has written "might just be the new epicentre of T.O.'s indie rock community". All of the featured artists are members or friends and collaborators of Ohbijou, and many of the tracks on the album were recorded in the house itself.

The album is a benefit for Toronto's Daily Bread Food Bank.

The album was officially released across Canada on February 12, 2007, although it was available for sale in some venues in Toronto in mid-January.

A second edition, Friends in Bellwoods II, was released in August 2009.

Track listing

Disc One

 The Bellwoods Crew, "Carry On"
 Snailhouse, "Salvation Army (In Four)"
 Friday Morning's Regret, "Wooden Sky"
 Bry Webb and Casey Mecija, "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'"
 We're Marching On, "Shithead Kids"
 The D'Urbervilles, "We Are the Hunters"
 Forest City Lovers, "Don't Go, Please"
 Jonas Bonnetta, "French Toast"
 Bahai Cassette, "SNIT...yada"
 Germans, "Nature's Mouth"
 Telefauna, "turbulence!"
 The Nuts, "vb for jb"
 Kids on TV, "Breakdance Hunx (PSBEUYS PNP Mix)"
 Katie Stelmanis, "You'll Fall"
 Jeremy Gara, "Thieves"
 Alight, "cardinal + moon"
 Nina Nielsen, "Cloudberry Mountain"
 Tim Ford, "The Brantford Song"

Disc Two

 Sebastien Grainger, "Young Mothers"
 Barzin, "Queen Jane"
 The Rural Alberta Advantage, "The Air"
 Tusks, "Mothers vs. Sons"
 Water Colour, "Hidden Sound"
 Gentleman Reg, "Over My Head (4 track)"
 Ohbijou, "The Otherside (Remix)"
 The Acorn, "Brokered Heart"
 Mantler, "Searching for a Song"
 The Dinghies, "Barkskin"
 Grand Mouse House, "Archways, Tunnels, Dotted Lines"
 Allan Graham, "Waking Up in the Trees"
 Oak Oak, "Now and Then"
 Violence, "Self Defense"
 The Meligrove Band, "Feversleep"
 Nich Worby, "All Blind Mice"
 Purple Hill, "Death Rides This Winters Wind"
 Scott Remila, "On Their Own"

References

External links
 Friends in Bellwoods

Compilation albums by Canadian artists
Charity albums
2007 compilation albums

Friends in Bellwoods


The Postal Reorganization Act is an American law signed by President Richard Nixon in 1970. The law takes the Post Office Department out of the Cabinet of the President and makes it an independent agency. This agency is the United States Postal Service.

Background
The Post Office had been struggling due to Congress. Because the department was a part of the government, Congress had to approve most things that happened to it. This made change to the Postal Office Department very slow, and this did not sit well with the Postal Unions. They wanted more change to improve the conditions of the Postal Workers, but Congress was too slow to bring in rapid change. The unions worked with Congress and the president to create a better system. The Postal Reorganization Act was the final product of this work.

Details
One of the changes was the business goal of the Postal Service. Now that they were an independent agency, they did not receive money from Congress, so they had to work to make money through the selling of stamps and shipping.

Another was their new way of choosing the Postmaster General. A Board of Governors is elected by the president, and these people are able to choose the Postmaster General.

The Post Office Department also changed their name to the United States Postal Service, and this is the same Postal Service that is delivering mail today.

References

 The United States Postal Service: An American history. (2020). Washington D.C.: U.S. Postal Service.

Other websites
 The Postal Reorganization Act (Original Statute)

1970 in the United States
Postal history
United States Postal Service

Postal Reorganization Act


Gabriel Mouton (1618 – 28 September 1694) was a French abbot and scientist. He was a doctor of theology from Lyon, but was also interested in mathematics and astronomy. His 1670 book, the , proposed a natural standard of length based on the circumference of the Earth, divided decimally. It was influential in the adoption of the metric system in 1799. pp

1618 births
1694 deaths
French scientists

Gabriel Mouton


The Kalbelia are a snake charming tribe from the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, India. The dance is an integral part of their culture and performed by men and women.

Kalbelia Tribes

Kalbelias are followers of Sage Kanifnath, who drank a bowl of poison and was blessed with control over venomous snakes and animals.

Kalbelias are divided in two main groups, the Daliwal and Mewara. The Kalbelias moved frequently from one place to another in ancient times. Their traditional occupation is catching snakes and trading snake venom. They rear snakes, dogs, hens, horses, donkeys, pigs and goats. Hence, the dance movements and the costumes of their community bear a resemblance to those of the serpents. They are also called Sapera and Jogira, Gattiwala and Poogiwara. The largest cluster of the Kalbelias is in Pali district, followed by significant other groups in Ajmer, Chittorgarh and Udaipur district. They live a nomadic life and belong to the scheduled tribes.

Traditionally, Kalbelia men carried cobras in cane baskets from door to door in villages while their women sang, danced and begged for alms. They revere the cobra and advocate the non-killing of such reptiles. In the villages, if a snake inadvertently happened to enter a home, a Kalbelia would be summoned to catch the serpent and to take it away without killing it. Kalbelias have traditionally been a fringe group in the society, living in spaces outside the village where they reside. They live in  makeshift camps called deras. The Kalbelias move their deras from one place to another in a circuitous route repeated over time. Over the generations, the Kalbelias acquired a unique understanding of the local flora and fauna, and are aware of herbal remedies for various diseases which, in turn, is an alternative source of income for them.

Since the enactment of the Wildlife Act of 1972, the Kalbelias have been pushed out of their traditional profession of snake handling. Now performing arts are a major source of income for them and these have received widespread recognition within and outside India. Opportunities for performance are sporadic, and also depend on tourism, which is season specific, so members of the community work in the fields, or graze cattle to sustain themselves.

The Kalbelias are Cultural Hindus and practise snake worship; they worship the Nāga and Manasa, and their holy day is Naga Panchami. The Kalbelias have different traditions from the majority of Hindus. The Kalbelia men wear a Apadravya. Kalbelias bury their dead, instead of cremating them (as is common with Hindus in the rest of the country). The groom has to pay the bride's father a price for the bride and the groom's father has to pay for the wedding.

Kalbelia dance

The Kalbelia dance, folk dance of rajasthan performed as a celebration, is an integral part of Kalbelia culture. Their dances and songs are a matter of pride and a marker of identity for the Kalbelias, as they represent the creative adaptation of this community of snake charmers to changing socio-economic conditions and their own role in rural Rajasthani society.

The dancers are women in flowing black skirts who dance and twirl, replicating the movements of a serpent. They wear an upper body cloth called an angrakhi and a headcloth known as the odhani; the lower body cloth is called a lehenga. All these clothes are of mixed red and black hues and embroidered.

The male participants play musical instruments, such as the pungi, a woodwind instrument traditionally played to capture snakes, the dufli, been, the khanjari - a percussion instrument, morchang, khuralio and the dholak to create the rhythm on which the dancers perform. The dancers are tattooed in traditional designs and wear jewelry and garments richly embroidered with small mirrors and silver threads. As the performance progresses, the rhythm becomes faster and faster and so does the dance.

Kalbelia songs are based on stories taken from folklore and mythology and special dances are performed during Holi. The Kalbelias have a reputation for composing lyrics spontaneously and improvising songs during performances. These songs and dances are part of an oral tradition that is handed down generations and for which there are neither texts nor any training manuals. In 2010, the Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan were declared a part of its Intangible Heritage List by the UNESCO.

See also
 Gulabo Sapera
 Ghoomar: Ghoomar is a traditional women's folk dance of Rajasthan, India.
 Rajasthani people
 Romani people
 Dom people
 Lom people

References

External links
 Kalbelia: Kamla Sallu nath sapera & Party
 Jaisalmer Ayo:Gateway of the Gypsies
 About culture of Kalbelia by Suramnath Kalbelia Sapera
 Photo essay on the Kalbelias
 Kalbelia costume
 Kalbelia: Rajki-Puran Nath Sapera & Party
 "Kalbelia", World Music Central
 Kalbelia: Cobra Gypsies - full documentary
 KALBELIA FOLK MUSIC AND DANCE FROM RAJASTHAN
 Kalbelia in USA - Katrina Ji

Rajasthani culture
Folk dances of Rajasthan
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
Cultural heritage of India

Kalbelia


Swarm robotics is an approach to the coordination of multiple robots as a system which consist of large numbers of mostly simple physical robots. ″In a robot swarm, the collective behavior of the robots results from local interactions between the robots and between the robots and the environment in which they act.″ It is supposed that a desired collective behavior emerges from the interactions between the robots and interactions of robots with the environment. This approach emerged on the field of artificial swarm intelligence, as well as the biological studies of insects, ants and other fields in nature, where swarm behaviour occurs.

Definition
The research of swarm robotics is to study the design of robots, their physical body and their controlling behaviours. It is inspired but not limited by the emergent behaviour observed in social insects, called swarm intelligence. Relatively simple individual rules can produce a large set of complex swarm behaviours. A key component is the communication between the members of the group that build a system of constant feedback. The swarm behaviour involves constant change of individuals in cooperation with others, as well as the behaviour of the whole group.

Unlike distributed robotic systems in general, swarm robotics emphasizes a large number of robots, and promotes scalability, for instance by using only local communication. That local communication for example can be achieved by wireless transmission systems, like radio frequency or infrared.

Goals and applications
Miniaturization and cost are key factors in swarm robotics.  These are the constraints in building large groups of robots; therefore the simplicity of the individual team member should be emphasized.  This should motivate a swarm-intelligent approach to achieve meaningful behavior at swarm-level, instead of the individual level. Much research has been directed at this goal of simplicity at the individual robot level. Being able to use actual hardware in research of Swarm Robotics rather than simulations allows researchers to encounter and resolve many more issues and broaden the scope of Swarm Research.  Thus, development of simple robots for Swarm intelligence research is a very important aspect of the field.  The goals include keeping the cost of individual robots low to allow scalability, making each member of the swarm less demanding of resources and more power/energy efficient.

Compared with individual robots, a swarm can commonly decompose its given missions to their subtasks; a swarm is more robust to partial swarm failure and is more flexible with regard to different missions.

One such swarm system is the LIBOT Robotic System that involves a low cost robot built for outdoor swarm robotics. The robots are also made with provisions for indoor use via Wi-Fi, since the GPS sensors provide poor communication inside buildings.  Another such attempt is the micro robot (Colias), built in the Computer Intelligence Lab at the University of Lincoln, UK. This micro robot is built on a 4 cm circular chassis and is low-cost and open platform for use in a variety of Swarm Robotics applications.

Applications

Potential applications for swarm robotics are many.  They include tasks that demand miniaturization (nanorobotics, microbotics), like distributed sensing tasks in micromachinery or the human body. One of the most promising uses of swarm robotics is in search and rescue missions.  Swarms of robots of different sizes could be sent to places that rescue-workers cannot reach safely, to explore the unknown environment and solve complex mazes via onboard sensors. On the other hand, swarm robotics can be suited to tasks that demand cheap designs, for instance mining or agricultural shepherding tasks.

More controversially, swarms of military robots can form an autonomous army.   U.S. Naval forces have tested a swarm of autonomous boats that can steer and take offensive actions by themselves. The boats are unmanned and can be fitted with any kind of kit to deter and destroy enemy vessels.

During the Syrian Civil War, Russian forces in the region reported attacks on their main air force base in the country by swarms of fixed-wing drones loaded with explosives.

Most efforts have focused on relatively small groups of machines. However, a swarm consisting of 1,024 individual robots was demonstrated by Harvard in 2014, the largest to date.

Another large set of applications may be solved using swarms of micro air vehicles, which are also broadly investigated nowadays.  In comparison with the pioneering studies of swarms of flying robots using precise motion capture systems in laboratory conditions, current systems such as Shooting Star can control teams of hundreds of micro aerial vehicles in outdoor environment using GNSS systems (such as GPS) or even  stabilize them using onboard localization systems where GPS is unavailable.  Swarms of micro aerial vehicles have been already tested in tasks of autonomous surveillance, plume tracking, and reconnaissance in a compact phalanx.  Numerous works on cooperative swarms of unmanned ground and aerial vehicles have been conducted with target applications of cooperative environment monitoring, simultaneous localization and mapping, convoy protection, and moving target localization and tracking.

Additionally, progress has been made in the application of autonomous swarms in the field of manufacturing, known as swarm 3D printing. This is particularly useful for the production of large structures and components, where traditional 3D printing is not able to be utilized due to hardware size constraints. Miniaturization and mass mobilization allows the manufacturing system to achieve scale invariance, not limited in effective build volume. While in its early stage of development, swarm 3D printing is currently being commercialized by startup companies. Using the Rapid Induction Printing metal additive manufacturing process, Rosotics was the first company to demonstrate swarm 3D printing using a metallic payload, and the only to achieve metallic 3D printing from an airborne platform.

Drone swarming
Drone swarms are used in target search, drone displays, and delivery. A drone display commonly uses multiple, lighted drones at night for an artistic display or advertising. A drone swarm in delivery can carry multiple packages to a single destination at a time and overcome single drone's payload and battery limitations. A drone swarm may undertake different flight formations to reduce overall energy consumption due to drag forces.

Drone swarming can also come with additional control issues connected to human factors and the swarm operator. Examples of this include high cognitive demand and complexity when interacting with multiple drones due to changing attention between different individual drones. Communication between operator and swarm is also a central aspect.

Acoustic swarms
In 2023, University of Washington and Microsoft researchers demonstrated acoustic swarms of tiny robots that create shape-changing smart speakers. These can be used for manipulating acoustic scenes to focus on or mute sounds from a specific region in a room.  Here, tiny robots cooperate with each other using sound signals, without any cameras, to navigate cooperatively with centimeter-level accuracy. These swarm devices  spread out across a surface to create a distributed and reconfigurable wireless microphone array. They also navigate back to the charging station where they can be automatically recharged.

See also

References

External links
 Fully decentralized robotic swarm performing collective search and exploration – Applied Complexity Group and Motion, Energy Control Lab at SUTD
 Swarm-bots: Swarms of self-assembling artifacts – EU IST-FET project (2001–2005)
 Award-winning swarm-bot video at AAAI 2007

Emerging technologies

Swarm robotics


Edward Charles Krzyzowski (January 16, 1914 – September 3, 1951) was a soldier in the United States Army during the Korean War. He posthumously received the Medal of Honor for his actions from August 31 to September 3, 1951 during the Battle of Bloody Ridge.

Medal of Honor citation

Rank and organization: Captain, U.S. Army, Company B, 9th Infantry Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division

Place and date: Near Tondul, Korea, from August 31, to September 3, 1951

Entered service at: Cicero, Ill. Born: January 16, 1914, Chicago, Ill.

G.O. No.: 56, June 12, 1952.

Citation:

Capt. Krzyzowski, distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and indomitable courage above and beyond the call of duty in action against the enemy as commanding officer of Company B. Spearheading an assault against strongly defended Hill 700, his company came under vicious crossfire and grenade attack from enemy bunkers. Creeping up the fire-swept hill, he personally eliminated 1 bunker with his grenades and wiped out a second with carbine fire. Forced to retire to more tenable positions for the night, the company, led by Capt. Krzyzowski, resumed the attack the following day, gaining several hundred yards and inflicting numerous casualties. Overwhelmed by the numerically superior hostile force, he ordered his men to evacuate the wounded and move back. Providing protective fire for their safe withdrawal, he was wounded again by grenade fragments, but refused evacuation and continued to direct the defense. On September 3, he led his valiant unit in another assault which overran several hostile positions, but again the company was pinned down by murderous fire. Courageously advancing alone to an open knoll to plot mortar concentrations against the hill, he was killed instantly by an enemy sniper's fire. Capt. Krzyzowski's consummate fortitude, heroic leadership, and gallant self-sacrifice, so clearly demonstrated throughout 3 days of bitter combat, reflect the highest credit and lasting glory on himself, the infantry, and the U.S. Army.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients

Notes

References

1914 births
1951 deaths
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
American military personnel killed in the Korean War
Korean War recipients of the Medal of Honor
American people of Polish descent
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
United States Army officers

Edward C. Krzyzowski


Guéniébé  is a village and rural commune in the Cercle of Nara in the Koulikoro Region of south-western Mali. The village is 25 km northeast of Nara, the administrative centre of the cercle.

The commune has an area of 2,925 km2 and contains 18 villages. In the 2009 census it had a population of 7,668. It is bordered to the north by the frontier with the Republic of Mauritania, to the southeast by the commune of Guiré and to the west by the commune of Nara.

The commune has a sahelian climate with an annual rainfall of around 400 mm.

References

External links
.

Communes of Koulikoro Region

Guéniébé


The Constitution of 1962 was the fundamental law of Islamic Republic of Pakistan from 8 June 1962 until martial law was declared in 25th March 1969. It was abrogated on 25th March 1969 by President Yahya Khan.

Origins

Pakistan became an independent state in 1947. The first document that served as a constitution for Pakistan was the Government of India Act, 1935. The first Pakistani Constituent Assembly was elected in 1947 and after nine years adopted the first indigenous constitution, the short-lived Constitution of 1956. In October 1958, President Iskander Mirza abrogated the constitution. Shortly afterwards General Ayub Khan deposed Iskandar and declared himself president.

On 17 February 1960, Ayub Khan appointed a commission to report on the future constitutional framework for the country. The commission was headed by the former Chief Justice of Pakistan, Muhammad Shahabuddin, and had ten other members, five each from East Pakistan and West Pakistan, composed of retired judges, lawyers, industrialists and landlords. The report of the Constitution Commission was presented to President Ayub on 6 May 1961 (according to some writers report was presented on 29 April 1961) and thoroughly examined by the president and his Cabinet. In January 1962, the Cabinet finally approved the text of the new constitution. It was promulgated by President Ayub on 1 March 1962 and finally came into effect on 8 June 1962. The Constitution contained 250 articles divided into twelve parts and three schedules. With the enforcement of this Constitution after 44 months, martial law came to an end.

Provisions

Pakistan was named the Republic of Pakistan. The constitution provided for a federal system with the principle of parity between East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Both provinces would run their separate provincial governments. The responsibilities and authority of the centre and the provinces were listed in the constitution. The central legislature had one house known as the National Assembly. There were 157 members of the National Assembly. The equality between the two wings was maintained in it.

The constitution provided for a presidential form of government, as opposed to the parliamentary form of government under the 1956 Constitution. The president, who had to be a Muslim not less than 35 years of age and qualified for election as a member of the National Assembly, was to be elected indirectly by an electoral college following the provisions outlined in the Constitution. The Electoral College was formed by not less than 80,000 Basic Democrats, equally distributed between the two provinces. Under the Constitution of 1962, if the number of candidates for election to the office of President exceeded three, the Speaker of the National Assembly was to convene a joint session of the members of the National and Provincial Assemblies to select only three candidates for election, the remaining candidates then would not be eligible. This screening did not apply to a person who was holding the office of the president, so if the sitting president was also a candidate the number of candidates would be four.

The term of the president was five years to act as head of state as well as chief executive, solely responsible for the country's administration. Governors and ministers were appointed and removed by him. He was eligible to promulgate ordinances and veto against legislated laws only overridable by two-thirds of the National Assembly. However, the president was not empowered to dissolve the Assembly except at the cost of his office also. On a charge of violating the Constitution or gross misconduct, the president might be impeached by the National Assembly for which one-third of the total members of the National Assembly must give written notice to the speaker for the removal of the president. The president was to be removed from office if the resolution for impeachment was passed by votes of not less than three-fourths of the total members of the Assembly. A significant feature of the impeachment procedure was that if the resolution for the removal of the president failed to obtain one-half of the total number of members of the National Assembly, the movers of the resolution would cease to be members of the Assembly.

There was no restriction on religion for a person holding the office of the speaker of the National Assembly. Also, if the president resigned from his office or vote of no-confidence passes against him, according to the Constitution, the speaker would act as the president of the state till the election of the new president. Under these special circumstances, a non-Muslim might get the chance to be an acting president of Pakistan.

The Constitution of 1962 provided for elections of the central and provincial legislatures for a term of five years. The members of the assemblies were elected by the Basic Democrats. The National Assembly was exclusively empowered to legislate for the central subjects. However, it could legislate on matters falling under provincial jurisdiction. The power to impose taxes was laid with the central legislature. The Assembly had to serve as a court in cases of impeachment or conviction or declare the president incapacitated. It could amend the Constitution with a two-thirds majority. However, if the president's veto was overridden, he had the right to ask for the assent of the Electoral College. The provincial assemblies' procedure was identical to that of the National Assembly.

Urdu and Bengali were recognised as national languages.

Salient features of 1962 Constitution

1. Federal System:
Under the constitution of 1962 federal system was adopted. The powers of the central government were enumerated in the Federal List while all the residuary powers were given to the provinces to meet the demand of provincial autonomy. However, within this federal structure, the central government was made domineering even at the cost of provincial autonomy. Besides administrative matters, centralism was reflected. The provincial governors were the appointees of the President and were accountable to him: Hence the provincial executive was under the control of the centre. This centralism bore more disastrous results in respect of provincial autonomy. Consequently, the federal structure practically seemed unitary due to which the demand of provincial autonomy became more popular and widespread which threatened our solidarity in the later stage.

2. A Written and Detailed Document:
The 1962 constitution was written in nature and character. It consisted of 250 Articles and 3 Schedules. Thus, it was a comparatively detailed document. Keeping in view the lack of democratic values and established norms it was thought expedient to give a detailed code of constitutional law as could regulate the conduct of different political institutions.

3. Islamic Provisions:
Like the previous constitution of 1956, the Objective Resolution was included in the Constitution's Preamble. The teachings of the Quran and Islamiyat were to be made compulsory. The President was to be Muslim. Pakistan was declared an Islamic republic through the first amendment. No un-Islamic law would be enacted, and all the existing laws would be Islamized etc.

4. Position of the President:
Under the Constitution of 1962 US-type presidential system was enforced to overcome political instability and establish a firm socio-economic and political order. All the executive authority was vested in the President who was unanimously responsible for the business of the central government. All the ministers were appointed by him, and they were accountable to him alone. They could participate in the deliberations of the legislature, but they were not responsible for it. Along with the provincial governors, all the top-ranking officials were appointed by him. The president also enjoyed certain legislative, military and judicial powers. The provincial setup also followed the central structure. In short, it was the President who was all in all.

5. Unicameral Legislature:
The 1962 Constitution like the previous constitution provided for a unicameral legislature called National Assembly. Its total strength was 156 (later 218 and then 313, who were elected by the electoral college of Basic Democrats. Besides, certain seats were also reserved for women. Its term was 5 years, which was fixed. The members were elected based on parity of representation between the East and West wings. The proceedings of the Assembly might not be challenged in any court of law. Unlike the previous practices, the members of the cabinet were not members of the legislature. The ministers could attend its meetings but like the US system, neither the president nor his cabinet colleagues were responsible.

6. Indirect Election:
It was an innovation in the 1962 Constitution. It was a general impression that one of the causes of the failure of the constitutional machinery was the direct and adult suffrage and without proper and necessary political education and training. Hence this constitution provided an indirect method of election for President and the legislative assemblies was envisaged. Accordingly, the primary voters would elect the Basic Democrats who had then to elect the representatives to higher positions.

7. Independence of Judiciary:
Proper safeguards were introduced in the 1962 Constitution to ensure the independence of the judiciary. Judges of the superior courts were appointed by the President and were ensured the security of service. They could be removed from the inquiry report submitted by the Supreme Judicial Council on the ground of misbehaviour or physical or mental inability to perform their duties. By induction of the first amendment, the judiciary had full, power to pass judgment over the views of the legislature. Moreover, the court also enjoyed the power of judicial review of executive actions.

8. Fundamental Rights add Principles of Policy:
In the original constitution, there was no list of fundamental rights. It was due to the first amendment in the constitution in 1963 that these were included and made their part, before that these were laid down in the directive principles of policy. The list of fundamental rights contained almost all the rights secured to its citizens by a modern state. The Principles of Policy were also incorporated into the Constitution. Most of the Islamic provisions were made a part thereof. These principles of policy dealt with such matters as the Islamic way of life, national integration and solidarity, social welfare, protection of the rights of minorities, development of backward areas etc.

9. Provincial Governments:
Each province had a provincial assembly organized on the lines of the National Assembly. The relationship of the provincial governors with their assemblies was the same as that of the President with the National Assembly. The East and West Pakistan assemblies used to meet at Dacca and Lahore respectively. Each had 155 members, at least of who were women. The governors appointed by the President, had a Council of Ministers in the same manner, as the President, who belonged to their respective provinces.

Although the 1962 constitution of Pakistan had transferred several responsibilities to the provincial governments but in actual practice the central government or its representatives used to exercise these powers.

Islamic provisions
 The preamble of the Constitution of 1962 was based on the Objectives Resolution.
 The Constitution laid down simply that the state of Pakistan shall be an Islamic republic under the name of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
 According to the principles of policy, steps were to be taken to enable the Muslims of Pakistan individually and collectively, to order their lives following the fundamental principles and basic concepts of Islam, and should be provided with facilities whereby they may be enabled to understand the meaning of life according to those principles and concepts.
 No law shall be enacted which is repugnant to the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Qur'an and Sunnah and all existing laws shall be brought in conformity with the Qur'an and Sunnah.
 Only a Muslim could be qualified for the election as president.
 Teaching of the Quran and Islamiyah to the Muslims of Pakistan was made compulsory.
 Proper organization of Zakat, waqf, and mosques was ensured.
 Practical steps were to be taken to eradicate what was seen as social evils by Islam, such as the use of alcohol, gambling, etc.
 A novel Islamic provision in the 1962 Constitution had introduced an Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology to be appointed by the president. The functions of the council were to make recommendations to the government as to means which would enable and encourage the Muslims of Pakistan to order their lives by the principles and concepts of Islam and to examine all laws in force to bring them into conformity with the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Qur'an and Sunnah.
 There shall be an organization to be known as Islamic Research Institute, which shall be established by the president. The institute's function was to undertake Islamic research and Instruction in Islam to assist in the reconstruction of Muslim society on a truly Islamic basis.
 The state should endeavour to strengthen the bonds of unity among Muslim countries.

Demise
The second martial law was imposed on 25 March 1969 by General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan, after General Ayub Khan handed over power to the army commander-in-chief, and not the speaker of National Assembly as laid down by the constitution. On assuming the presidency, General Yahya Khan acceded to popular demands by abolishing the one-unit system in West Pakistan on 1 July 1970 and ordered general elections on the principle of one man one vote. The first-ever general elections were held in December 1970, however, the government was not transferred to the Awami League Elections. This resulted in the destruction of national unity and eventually, the separation of East Pakistan was fought.

Chronology of the Constitution
1959: The Basic Democracy (BD) was introduced through the Basic Democracy Order.

1960 February 17: General Ayub Khan appointed a constitution commission under the supervision of Shahabuddin.

1961 May 6 (some claim April 29): Constitutional Commission submitted its report to the President.

1962 June 8: Ayub Khan enforced the constitution.

1969 March 25: Constitution of 1962 was abrogated by General Yahya Khan.

External links

See also
History of Pakistan
Politics of Pakistan
Constitution of Pakistan of 1956
Constitution of Pakistan

References

1962 in law

Pakistani philosophical literature
1962 documents

Constitution of Pakistan of 1962


Caerphilly Castle Ladies are a football team based in Caerphilly in South Wales. They are one of the biggest Ladies and Girls Football Clubs in South Wales, and run teams from age 8 to adult.

History
The club was founded in 1999 and competed in the South Wales Women's League. 2009 saw them reach the Women's Welsh Cup Final, losing 3–0 to eight-time winners Cardiff City Ladies.

2010 saw the club lift the South Wales Women's League Cup after a penalty shoot-out win over UWIC and in the same year they were awarded a place in the Women's Welsh Premier League. Caerphilly went on to fourth in their debut season.

Top-flight record
Caerphilly joined the Women's Welsh Premier League in 2010. They won and lost exactly 50% of their matches, picking up wins over Newcastle Emlyn Ladies and Trefelin Ladies, while losing to Swansea Ladies and UWIC Women. As a result, they finished third out of five in their debut season.

Club honours
Women's Welsh Cup Runners Up: 2008/09
South Wales Women's League Cup Winners: 2009/10
South Wales Women's League Ladies 2nd place: Division 2 (Qualified to division one)

External links
Official website

Women's football clubs in Wales
Sport in Caerphilly County Borough
Association football clubs established in 1999
1999 establishments in Wales

Caerphilly Castle Ladies F.C.


James Dargan (28 August 1906 – May 1985) was an English footballer who played as an inside forward. Born in Manchester, he started his career with Cheshire League side Northwich Victoria in 1925 before moving to Football League Third Division North club Nelson in January 1928. Dargan made his debut for Nelson in the 3–4 defeat away at Rotherham United on 21 January 1928. He almost scored in the game, but his header was saved by the Rotherham goalkeeper, Tom Atter.

Dargan then spent three months out of the team, but returned to make his second and last Football League appearance in the 3–3 home draw with Crewe Alexandra on 21 April 1928. He was one of several players released by Nelson in the summer of 1928 and he subsequently returned to Northwich, where he stayed for two seasons. Dargan ended his career in non-league football, having short spells with Clitheroe and Barnoldswick Town in 1930, before playing out the 1930–31 campaign at Morecambe.

References

1906 births
1985 deaths
Footballers from Manchester
English men's footballers
Men's association football inside forwards
Northwich Victoria F.C. players
Nelson F.C. players
Clitheroe F.C. players
Barnoldswick Town F.C. players
Morecambe F.C. players
English Football League players

James Dargan


Mating is the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphrodite organisms. It is usually for sexual reproduction. Some definitions limit the term to pairing between animals. Other definitions extend the term to crossing in plants and fungi. It is usual for mating in plants or fungi to be called cross-fertilization, or "crossing" if the offspring have DNA from both genetic sources.

Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for internal fertilization. Fertilization is the actual fusion of gametes.

Mating may also lead to external fertilization. This is done by amphibians, most fish, many lower animals, and plants. Many aquatic species just spread their eggs and sperm in the water at one specific time of year. That time varies between species.

For some hermaphroditic species, copulation is not needed because the parent organism can self-fertilize (autogamy). In some flowering plants self-pollination can happen within the same flower, and some hermaphrodite animals self-fertilize. Many gastropods are hermaphrodite, and do simultaneous copulation in pairs. So do earthworms.

In some birds, mating includes behaviors such as nest-building and feeding offspring. The human practice of artificial insemination of domesticated animals is part of animal husbandry.

References

Ethology
Sexuality

Mating