Odia literature is literature written in the Odia language, mostly from the Indian state of Odisha. The modern Odia language is mostly formed from Tadbhava words with significant Sanskrit (Tatsama) influences, along with loanwords from Desaja, English, Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu), Persian, and Arabic. Its earliest written texts date from around 1000 CE. The earliest Odia newspaper was Utkala Deepika, first published on August 4, 1866.

Historians have divided Odia literature into five main stages: Old Odia (800 AD to 1300 AD), Early Medieval Odia (1300 AD to 1500 AD), Medieval Odia (1500 AD to 1700 AD), Late Medieval Odia (1700 AD to 1850 AD) and Modern Odia (1870 AD to present). Further subdivisions, as seen below, more precisely chart the language's development.

4th century BC
The creativity and development of the Odia language and literature can be seen in its spoken forms, such as folk tales, and in written forms, such as rock edicts and manuscripts. Songs sung to memorialize birth, death, work, and festivals helped to preserve the language in its oral form, passing it through the generations. Stories depicted in cave paintings preserved the language in the written form.

Kharavela's Hatigumpha inscription serves as evidence of past Odia cultural, political, ritual, and social status, and is the first poetic stake inscription. Though Ashoka had created rock edicts and inscriptions before Kharavela, his instructions for administration were written in a rude and choked style. However, the Hatigumpha inscription shows the language's flexibility and flow.

The main feature of this inscription is based on principles of Sanskrit poetic structure, such as:

When the Hatigumpha Inscription was created, its principles had been traced before. They were followed by Rudradaman (Girinar inscription 150 AD), Samudragupta (Prayaga inscription 365 AD), Kumargupta (Mandasore inscription 473 AD), who created their own works in a poetic style on many rocks, in Sanskrit. The writing trend was not obstructed after Kharavela. The Asanapata inscription in Keonjhar created by Satru Bhanja, (a warrior of Odisha) was engraved in the temple, Laxminarayana of Simhanchalam by Mukunda Deva. In the beginning, these inscriptions had a dynamic journey from Pali to Sanskrit. Odia language, literature, script and culture are based on the discussions of these inscriptions. The words written in the Hatigumpha Inscription are still used.

Age of Charya literature (7th to 8th centuries CE)
The beginnings of Odia poetry coincide with the development of Charyapada or Caryagiti, literature started by Vajrayana Buddhist poets. This literature was written from the "Sandhya Bhasha" metaphor. Some of its poets such as Luipa and Kanhupa came from present-day Odisha. The language of Charya was considered to be Prakrit. In one of his poems, Kanhupa wrote:

This poet used images and symbols from the social milieu/collective psychology so that deep realization could be grasped by readers. This kind of poetry, full of the mystery of tantra, spread throughout northeastern India from the 10th to the 14th centuries, and its style of expression was revived by the Odia poets of the 16th to the 19th centuries.

Pre-Sarala Age (12th to 14th centuries)
In the pre-Sarala period, Natha and Siddha literature flourished. The main works of this period are Shishu veda (an anthology of 24 dohas), Amara Kosha and Gorakha Samhita. Shishu veda is mentioned in the works of Sarala Das and the later 16th century poets. It is written in Dandi brutta. Raja Balabhadra Bhanja wrote the love story, Bhagabati (ଭାଗବତୀ). Other important works of this period include Kalasha Chautisha(କଳସ ଚଉତିଶା) (By Baccha Das), Somanatha bratakatha(ସୋମନାଥ ବ୍ରତକଥା), Nangala chauthi(ନଙ୍ଗଲା ଚଉଠି), Tapoi(ତପୋଇ), and Saptanga(ସପ୍ତଙ୍ଗ).Rudrasudhanidhi is considered the first work of Odia prose, written by Abhadutta Narayan Swami.

Markanda Das composed the first Koili (an ode to a cuckoo) in Odia just before Sarala Das. His composition Kesava Koili describes the pain of separation of Yasoda from her son Krishna. He is known to have composed the epic Daasagriba badha, Jnaanodaya koili.

Sarala Dasa
In the 15th century, Sanskrit was the language of literature while Odia was often considered the language of the peasants and outcastes, who had no access to education. The first great poet of Odisha with widespread readership was Sarala Das, who translated the Mahabharata into Odia. This was not an exact translation from the Sanskrit original, but rather an imitation. It can be seen as an original work. Sarala Das was given the title Shudramuni(Peasant-sage). He had no formal education and did not know Sanskrit.

This translation provided subsequent poets with the necessary foundation for a national literature, providing a fairly accurate idea of the Odia culture at the time. Dasa, born in 15th century Odisha under Gajapati emperor Kapilendra Deva, was acclaimed as the "Adikabi" or first poet. The reign of the Gajapatis is considered to be the golden period for Odisha art and literature. Kapilendra Deva patronized Odia language and literature along with Sanskrit, unlike his predecessors who used only Sanskrit. A short Odia poem Kebana Munikumara was found in the Sanskrit Drama Parashurama Vijaya, ascribed emperor Kapilendra Deva. Sarala Dasa's poetic gift was believed to come from Sarala (Saraswati), and that Sarala Das wrote the Mahabharata while she dictated it. Though he wrote many poems and epics, he is best remembered for Mahabharata. His other notable works are Chandi Purana and Vilanka Ramayana. He composed Lakshmi-Narayana Bachanika.

Arjuna Dasa, a contemporary of Sarala-Das, wrote Rama-Bibaha(ରାମ ବିବାହ), which is a significant long poem in Odia. He is the author of Kalpalata (କଳ୍ପଲତା).

 Panchasakhas
Five notable Odia poets emerged during the late 15th and early 16th centuries: Balarama Dasa, Atibadi Jagannath Das, Achyutananda Das, Ananta Dasa, and Jasobanta Dasa. Although their works spanned over one hundred years, they are collectively known as the "Panchasakhas", since they adhered to the Utkaliya Vaishnavism school of thought. The word pancha means five, while the word sakha means friend.

The Panchasakhas were Vaishnavas by faith. In 1509, Shri Chaitanya came to Odisha carrying his Vaishnava message of love. Before him, Jaydev had prepared the ground for Vaishnavism through his Gita Govinda. Chaitanya's path of devotion was known as Raganuga Bhakti Marga. He introduced chanting as a way to form a spiritual connection and taught the importance of Hare Krishna mantras. Unlike Chaitanya, the Panchasakhas believed in Gyana Mishra Bhakti Marga, similar to the Buddhist philosophy of Charya literature.

The Panchasakhas were significant because of their poetry and their spiritual legacy. In the holy land of Kalinga (Odisha) saints, mystics, and devotional souls were born, fortifying its culture and spiritualism. The area uniquely includes temples of Shakti, Shiva and Jagannatha Vishnu. Rituals and traditions were sustained by various seers – including Buddhist ceremonies, Devi "Tantra" (tantric rituals for Shakti), Shaiva Marg and Vaishnava Marg.

The origin of the Panchasakhas were described in Achyutananda's Shunya Samhita. As per his narration, towards the end of Mahabharat when Lord Krishna was leaving his mortal body, Nilakantheswara Mahadeva appeared and revealed to him that the Lord's companions Dama, Sudama, Srivatsa, Subala, and Subahu would reincarnate in the Kali Yuga and be known as Ananta, Acyutananda, Jagannatha, Balarama and Yasovanta, respectively. Thus, believers in the Panchasakha consider them to be the most intimate friends of Lord Krishna in Dvapara Yuga, who came again in Kali Yuga to serve him. They are instrumental in performing the crucial and much-awaited Yuga-Karma, where they destroy the sinners and save the saints, according to Sanatana-Hindu beliefs.

Balaram Das's Jagamohana Ramayana provided one pillar, along with Sarala-Das's Mahabharata, upon which subsequent Odia literature was built. His Lakshmi Purana is considered the first manifesto of women's liberation or feminism in Indian literature. His other major works are Gita Abakasa, Bhava samudra, Gupta Gita, Vedanta Sara, Mriguni Stuti, Saptanga Yogasara Tika, Vedanta Sara or Brahma Tika, Baula Gai gita, Kamala Lochana Chotisa, Kanta Koili, Bedha Parikrama, Brahma Gita, Brahmanda Bhugola, Vajra Kavacha, Jnana Chudamani, Virata Gita, Ganesha Vibhuti, and Amarakosha Gita.The most influential work of this period was Atibadi Jagannath Das's Bhagabata, which had a great influence on the Odia people as a day-to-day philosophical guide, as well as a lasting one in Odia culture. His other works include Gupta Bhagavat, Tula vina, Sola Chapadi, Chari Chapadi, Tola Bena, Daru Brahma Gita, Diksa Samyad, Artha Koili, Muguni Stuti, Annamaya Kundali, Goloka Sarodhara, Bhakti Chandrika, Kali Malika, Indra Malika, Niladri Vilasa, Nitya Gupta Chintamani, Sri Krishna Bhakti Kalpa Lata.

Shishu Ananta Das was born in Balipatana near Bhubaneswar in the late 15th century. He wrote Bhakti mukti daya gita, Sisu Deva gita, Artha tarani, Udebhakara, Tirabhakana, a Malika and several bhajan poetries.

Yashobanta Das was the composer of Govinda Chandra (a ballad or Gatha- Sangeeta), Premabhakti, Brahma Gita, Shiva Swarodaya, Sasti mala, Brahma gita, Atma pariche gita, a Malika and several bhajans.

Mahapurusha Achyutananda is the most prolific writer of the Panchasakhas. He is believed to have been born through special divine intervention from Lord Jagannath. The name Achyuta literally means "created from Lord Vishnu". He is also referred to as "Achyuti", i.e. "He who has no fall" in Odia. He was born to Dinabandhu Khuntia & Padma Devi in Tilakona, Nemal around 1485 AD. He established spiritual energetic centers called "gadis" across east India (in the former states of Anga, Banga, Kalinga, Magadha) and Nepal. Gadis such as Nemal, Kakatpur, Garoi, and Jobra Ghat were places for spiritual action, discourse and penance. He was learned in Ayurveda, sciences and social regulations. His works are Harivamsa, Tattva bodhini, Sunya samhita, Jyoti samhita, Gopala Ujjvala, Baranasi Gita, Anakara Brahma Samhita, Abhayada Kavacha, Astagujari, Sarana panjara stotra, Vipra chalaka, Manamahima, Maalika.The Panchasakha's individual characteristics are described as follows (in Odia and English):

During the Panchasakha era another seer, Raghu Arakhsita, who was not part of the Panchasakhas but was a revered saint, composed several padabalis in Odia. The Panchasakha and Arakhshita together are known as the Sada-Goswami (six Lords).

Madhavi Pattanayak or Madhavi Dasi is considered as the first Odia woman poet who was a contemporary of Prataprudra Deva and wrote several devotional poems for Lord Jagannatha.

 Riti Juga (16th to mid 17th centuries)
Several kaalpanika (imaginative) and pauraanika (Puranic) kavyas were composed during this period that formed the foundation for Riti Juga. The major works of this era (other than those by the Panchasakhas) are Gopakeli and Parimalaa authored by Narasingha Sena, contemporary of Gajapati emperor Prataprudra Deva, Chataa Ichaamati and Rasa by Banamali Das, Premalochana, Bada Shakuntala & Kalaabati by Vishnu Das, Nrushingha purana and Nirguna Mahatmya by Chaitanya Dash (born in Kalahandi), Lilaabati by Raghunatha Harichandan, Usha Bilasa by Shishu shankar Das, Sasisena by Pratap Rai, Rahashya Manjari by Devadurlava Das, Hiraabati by Ramachandra Chottaray, Deulatola by Nilambara Das, Prema Panchamruta by Bhupati Pandit, Rukmini Vivaha by Kartik Das, Goparasa by Danai Das and Kanchi Kaveri by Purushotama Das. In the 16th century three poets translated Jayadeva's Gita Govinda into Odia. They were Dharanidhara Mishra, Brindavan Das (Rasabaridhi) and Trilochan Das (GovindaGita).Orissa Review May 2007 Brundabati Dasi, a woman poet wrote Purnatama Chandrodaya Kavya towards the end of the 17th century.

Several Chautishas (a form of Odia poetry where 34 stanzas from "ka" to "Khsya" are placed at the start of each composition) were composed during this time. The best known are Milana Chautisha, Mandakini Chautisha, Barshabharana Chautisha, Rasakulya Chautisha, and Manobodha Chautisha.

Muslim poet Salabega was a devotional poet who composed several poems dedicated to Lord Jagannath during Jahangir's reign in the 17th century.

 Age of Upendra Bhanja
After the Panchasakhas, prominent works included the Usabhilasa of Sisu Sankara Das, the Rahasya-manjari of Deva-durlabha Dasa and the Rukmini-bibha of Karttika Das. A new form of novels in verse evolved at the beginning of the 17th century when Ramachandra Pattanayaka wrote Haravali. The prominent poets, however, are Dhananjaya Bhanja (born 1611. AD), Dinakrushna Das (born 1650. AD), Kabi Samrat Upendra Bhanja (born 1670. AD) and Abhimanyu Samantasinhara. Their poetry, especially that of Upendra Bhanja, is characterised by verbal tricks, obscenity and eroticism.

Upendra Bhanjas works such as Baidehisha Bilasa, Koti Brahmanda Sundari and Labanyabati are landmarks. He was conferred the title "Kabi Samrat" of Odia literature for his poetic sense and skill with words. He wrote 52 books, of which only 25–26 survive. He contributed more than 35,000 words to Odia literature and is considered the greatest poet of Riti Juga.

Poet Dhananjaya Bhanja (1611–1701), was also king of Ghumusar and grandfather of Upendra Bhanja, wrote several kavyas including Anangarekha, Ichaavati, Raghunatha Bilasa, and Madana Manjari. Besides Tribikrama Bhanja (author of Kanakalata) and Ghana Bhanja (author of Trailokyamohini, Rasanidhi, and Govinda Bilasha) of the Bhanja royal family also enriched Odia Literature. Lokanatha Vidyadhara, a contemporary of Upendra Bhanja, wrote Sarbanga Sundari.Dinakrushna Das's Rasokallola and Abhimanyu Samanta Simhara's Bidagdha Chintamani are prominent kavyas of this time. Bidagdha Chintamani is considered the longest kavya in Odia literature with 96 cantos exceeding Upendra's longest kavya of 52 cantos. Other prominent works of Abhimanyu Samanta Simhara are Sulakhshyana, Prema Chintaamani, Prema Kala, Rasaabati, Prematarangini.

A new form of poetry called Bandha kabita started, where the poem was written within the bandha or frame of a picture. Upendra Bhanja pioneered this pictorial poetry. His Chitrakavya Bandhodaya is the first such creation, containing 84 pictorial poems. Poets in this tradition include Sadananda Kabisurya Bramha (Lalita Lochana and Prema Kalpalata), Tribikrama Bhanja (Kanakalata), Kesabaraja Harichandana (Rasa Sindhu Sulakhshyana).

 Late Riti Juga
Towards the end of Riti Yuga, four major poets emerged. These were Kabi Surya Baladeb Rath, Brajanath Badajena, Gopalakrushna Pattanayaka and Bhima Bhoi. Kabisurya Baladev Rath wrote his poems in champu (mixture of prose and poetry) and chautisha styles. His greatest work is Kishore Chandranana Champu which is extensively used in Odissi Music. Brajanath Badjena started a tradition of prose fiction, though he was not a great talent. His Chatur Binoda (Amusement of Intelligent) seems to be the first work that deals with different kinds of rasas, predominantly the bibhatsa rasa, but often verges on nonsense. The style of Chitra Kavya (mixture of poetry and paintings) was at its best in the 18th century. Several chitra pothis can be traced to this time.Bichitra Ramayana of Biswanaath Khuntia was composed in the early 18th century. Pitambar Das wrote the epic Narasingha Purana in seven parts called Ratnakaras then. Maguni Pattanaik composed Rama Chandra Vihara. Rama Lila was composed by Vaishya Sadashiva and Ananga Narendra. Bhima Bhoi, the blind poet born in a tribal Khondh family is known for his compositions Stuticintamani, Bramha Nirupana Gita, Shrutinishedha Gita. The other major poets at this time were Banamali Dasa, Jadumani Mahapatra, Bhaktacharan Das (author of Manabodha Chautisha and Mathura Mangala), Haribandhu, Gaurahari, Gauracharana, and Krishna Simha.

 Age of Radhanath
The first Odia magazine, Bodha Dayini was published in Balasore in 1861. Its goal was to promote Odia literature and critique government policy. The first Odia newspaper The Utkala Deepika, launched in 1866 under editors Gourishankar Ray and Bichitrananda. Utkal Deepika campaigned to bring all Odia-speaking areas under one administration, to develop Odia language and literature and to protect Odia interests.

In 1869 Bhagavati Charan Das started another newspaper, Utkal Subhakari, to propagate the Brahmo faith. In the last three and a half decades of the 19th century, more Odia newspapers launched. Prominent examples included Utkal Deepika, Utkal Patra, Utkal Hiteisini from Cuttack, Utkal Darpan and Sambada Vahika from Balasore and Sambalpur Hiteisini from Deogarh. These periodicals encouraged modern literature and offered a broad audience for Odia writers.

Radhanath Ray (1849–1908) is the most well-known poet of this period. He wrote with a Western influence, and his kavyas included Chandrabhaga, Nandikeshwari, Usha, Mahajatra, Darbar, and Chilika.

Fakir Mohan Senapati (1843–1918) became the best known Odia fiction writer. He was called the Vyasakabi or founding poet of the Odia language. Senapati was born in the coastal town of Balasore, and worked as a government administrator. Enraged by the attempts of the Bengalis to marginalize or replace the Odia language, he took to creative writing late in life. He did translations from Sanskrit, wrote poetry and attempted many forms of literature, but is now known as the father of modern Odia prose fiction. His Rebati (1898) is widely recognized as the first Odia short story. Rebati is the story of a young girl whose desire for education is placed in the context of a conservative society in a backward Odisha village, which is hit by a cholera epidemic. His other stories are "Patent Medicine", "Dak Munshi", and "Adharma Bitta". Senapati is known for his novel Chha Maana Atha Guntha. This was the first Indian novel to deal with the exploitation of landless peasants by a feudal lord. It was written well before the October revolution in Russia.

Other eminent Odia writers and poets of the time include Gangadhar Meher (1862–1924), Madhusudan Rao, Chintamani Mohanty, Nanda Kishore Bal (1875-1928) Gourishankar Ray (1838-1917) and Reba Ray (1876-1957).

Age of Satyabadi

During the age of Radhanath the literary world was divided between the classicists, led by the magazine The Indradhanu, and the modernists, led by the magazine Bijuli. Gopabandhu Das (1877–1928) was a great balancer and realized that a nation, as well as its literature, lives by its traditions. He believed that a modern national superstructure could only endure if based on solid historical foundations. He wrote a satirical poem in The Indradhanu, which led to punishment by the Inspector of Schools, but he refused to apologise.

Gopabandhu joined Ravenshaw College in Cuttack to pursue graduation after this incident. He started the Kartavya Bodhini Samiti (Duty Awakening Society) in college to encourage his friends to take on social, economic and political problems and become responsible citizens. While leading a team to serve flood victims, Gopabandhu heard that his son was seriously ill. He preferred, however, to save the "sons of the soil" rather than his own son. His mission was to reform society and develop education in the name of a social service vision. He lost his wife at age twenty-eight, after losing all three of his sons. He left his two daughters and his property in the village with his elder brother, rejecting worldly life. For this social service mission he is regarded by Odias as the Utkalmani.

As freedom movements began, a new era in literary thought emerged influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and nationalism. Gopabandhu was a large part of this idealistic movement, founding a school in Satyabadi and influencing many writers. Other famous writers included Godabarisha Mishra, Nilakantha Dash, Harihara Acharya, and Krupasinshu. They are known as 'Panchasakhas' for their similarities with the historical Age of Panchasakhas. Their principle genres were criticism, essays and poetry.

Chintamani Das is particularly renowned. He was born in 1903 in Sriramachandrapur village near Sakhigopal. He was bestowed with the Sahitya Akademi Samman in 1970 for his contributions. Some of his well-known literary works are Manishi Nilakantha, Bhala Manisa Hua, Usha, Barabati, Byasakabi Fakiramohan and Kabi Godabarisha.

Age of Romanticism or Sabuja Yuga

During the 1930s Odia literature was Influenced by the romantic thoughts of Rabindranath Tagore and progressive Marxist movements. Kalindi Charan Panigrahi (the brother of Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi who founded Marxism in Odisha) formed a group called "Sabuja Samiti" with two of his writer friends Annada Shankar Ray and Baikuntha Patnaik. This was a short period in Odia literature, later folded into Gandhian and Marxist work. Kalindi Charan Panigrahi later wrote his famous novel Matira Manisha, which was influenced by Gandhism, and Annada Shankar Ray left for Bengali literature. Mayadhar Mansingh was a renowned poet of that time, but though he was considered a Romantic poet he kept his distance from the influence of Rabindranath.

 Pragati Yuga
Nabajuga Sahitya Sansad, formed in 1935, was one of India's first progressive literary organizations, contemporaneous to other progressive writers' movements. The founders of the Progressive Movement in Odisha were Nabakrushna Choudhury, Bhagabati Panigrahi and Ananta Patnaik. At the inaugural session of Nabajuga Sahitya Sansad, freedom fighter Malati Choudhury sang "Nabeena Jugara Taruna Jagare" written by Ananta Patnaik. Nabajuga Sahity Sansad published Adhunika, the first progressive literary magazine in Odia. Adhuinka was conceived, initiated, edited, published and nurtured by Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi and Ananta Patnaik. Many writers of that time wrote in Adhunika.

Modern age
Purnachandra Odia Bhashakosha
The Purnachandra Odia Bhashakosha is a 7-volume Odia dictionary/encyclopedia of about 9,500 pages published between 1930 and 1940. It was compiled by Gopal Chandra Praharaj (1874–1945) over nearly three decades. Praharaj conceived of and compiled the work and also raised the money to print it through public donations, grants and subscriptions and supervised the printing and the sales of the published work.

It lists some 185,000 words and their meanings in four languages – Odia, English, Hindi and Bengali. It includes quotations from classical works illustrating the usage of various words. It includes information such as botanical names of local plants, information on astronomy and long articles on various topics of local interest. It also includes biographies of personalities connected with Odisha's history and culture.Purnachandra Odia Bhashakosha touches on many aspects of Odia and Odisha, as well as many topics of general interest. Its author was a lawyer by profession and was ridiculed and reviled during production. Many printed copies were destroyed unbound and unsold. Many copies sat in libraries of princes who had patronised the work. Most of these copies were sold cheaply when the princes met financial straits. Few copies survive, and those that exist are fragile and worm-damaged.

Poetry

As the successors of Sachi Routray, the father of modern Odia poetry, Guruprasad Mohanty and Bhanuji Rao were influenced by T.S. Eliot and published a co-authored poetry book Nutan Kabita. Ramakanta Rath later modified Eliot's ideas in his own work. According to Rath: "After the publication of Kalapurusha Guru Prasad's poetry collection influenced by T.S. Eliot's The Waste Land we realized that a sense of alienation is the main ingredient of modern poetry." Before independence Odia poetry was mostly written with Sanskritic or "literary" idiom, but after independence poets freely used of Western concepts, idioms, images and adaptation of Western myths. Ramakanta Rath, Sitakant Mahapatra, Soubhagya Kumar Mishra, Rajendra Kishore Panda, Pratibha Satpathy, Mamata Dash, Haraprasad Das are the best known.

The early 1980s introduced poets with new thoughts and styles. They mixed Odia heritage and culture with the feelings of common people. They were somehow nearer to the readers as they avoided ambiguity in their expression.

Fiction
Before the 1970s
In the post-independence era Odia fiction took a new direction. The trend that Fakir Mohan started grew after independence, led by Gopinath Mohanty (1914–1991), Surendra Mohanty and Manoj Das (1934–2021 ). These authors pioneered the trend of developing or projecting the "individual as protagonist" in Odia fiction. Eminent feminist writer and critic Sarojini Sahoo believes that Surendra Mohanty's "Ruti O Chandra" should be considered the first story of the individualistic approach, rather than Gopinath's story "Dan". The major difference between the two is that Gopinath is more optimistic while Surendra is nihilistic. This nihilism prepared the ground for an existentialist movement in Odia literature.

Surendra Mohanty's short story collections and novels include Krushna Chuda, Mahanagarira Rati, Ruti O Chandra, Maralara Mrutyu, Shesha Kabita, Dura Simanta, Oh Calcutta, Kabi-O- Nartaki, Sabuja Patra-O-Dhusara Golap, Nila Shaila and Andha Diganta.

In his fiction Gopinath Mohanty explores all aspects of Odishan life, including the plains and the hills. He uses a lyrical prose style, adopting the day-to-day speech of ordinary men and women. Gopinath's first novel, Mana Gahtra Chasa, was published in 1940, followed by Dadi Budha (1944), Paraja (1945) and Amrutara Santan (1947). He published 24 novels, 10 collections of short stories, three plays, two biographies, two volumes of critical essays and five books on the languages of Kandh, Gadaba and Saora tribes. He translated Tolstoy's War and Peace (Yuddh O Shanti) in three volumes (tr. 1985–86) and Tagore's Jogajog (tr. 1965) into Odia.

Kalpanakumari Devi's sequence of novels, in particular, her Srushti o pralaya (1959), documented social change in the country.

Starting his literary career as a communist and later becoming an Aurobindian philosopher, Manoj Das wrote in Odia and English. His major Odia works are: Shesha Basantara Chithi (1966), Manoj Dasanka Katha O Kahani (1971), Dhumabha Diganta (1971), Manojpancabimsati (1977) and Tuma Gam O Anyanya Kabita (1992). Notable English works include The crocodile's lady : a collection of stories (1975), The submerged valley and other stories, Farewell to a ghost : short stories and a novelette (1994), Cyclones (1987) and A tiger at twilight (1991).

Ananta Charan Sukla's short story collection, Sulataku Sesa Chitthi (Last Letter to Sulata) was published in 1965. The ten stories included in this book are "Sulataku Sesa Chitthi", "Kapilas", "Janeika Kulapati-nka Mrutyu", "Tandril Ru Tornoto", "Mystic Realistic", "Prasanta Samudra: Asanta Lahari", "Nalakula Matha, Nepala Babu O Narana", "Daudana Bada Khara", "Duragata" and "Sandipani-ra Symphony".

Other significant pre-1970s fiction writers are Bama Charan Mitra, Chandrasekhar Rath, Shantanu Kumar Acharya, Mohapatra Nilamani Sahoo, Akhil Mohan Patnaik, Gobind Das, Rabi Patnaik and Jagannath Prasad Das. Chandra Sekhar Rath's novel Jantrarudha is a classic of this period. Shantanu Acharya's novel Nara-Kinnara was also influential.

After the 1970s

In the 1960s a small magazine Uan Neo Lu in Cuttack, challenged these authors' approaches. The title of the magazine was made up of three unused Odia alphabets. Writers associated with the magazine included Annada Prasad Ray, Guru Mohanty, Kailash Lenka, and Akshyay Mohanty. These writers began a revolution in Odia fiction. They introduced sexuality in their work and created a new prose style. In the late 1960s many "groups" of writers emerged from different parts of Odisha. Anamas from Puri, Abadhutas from Balugaon, Panchamukhi from Balangir, Abujha from Berhampur and Akshara group from Sambalpur created a sensation.

Changes that started in the 1960s were confirmed in the next decade by authors such as Jagadish Mohanty, Kanheilal Das, Satya Mishra, Ramchandra Behera, Tarun Kanti Mishra, Padmaja Pal, Yashodhara Mishra and Sarojini Sahoo. Kanheilal Das and Jagadish Mohanty began creating a style popular among a general audience as well as intellectuals. Jagadish Mohanty introduced existentialism to Odia literature. His works include Ekaki Ashwarohi, Dakshina Duari Ghara, Album, Dipahara Dekhinathiba Lokotie, Nian O Anyanya Galpo, Mephestophelesera Pruthibi, Nija Nija Panipatha, Kanishka Kanishka, Uttaradhikar, and Adrushya Sakal.

Ramchandra Behera is known for short story collections Dwitiya Shmashana, Abashishta Ayusha, Omkara Dhwani, Bhagnangshara Swapna and Achinha Pruthibi. Padmaj Pal is known for short story collections, including Eaglera Nakha Danta, Sabuthu Sundar Pakshi, Jibanamaya and Uttara Purusha. Tarun Kanti Mishra emerged during 1970s as a powerful storyteller with an elegant style, full of poise and vigor. His outstanding works include Sharadah Shatam ( A Thousand Autumns), – a novel dealing with resettlement and rehabilitation of displaced persons from East Pakistan, now Bangladesh—and anthologies of short stories such as Komal Gandhar, Bitansa, Bhaswati and Akash Setu.

Sarojini Sahoo, who became known as a feminist writer, contributed to Odia fiction. Her novel Gambhiri Ghara is a landmark, that gained international recognition for its feminist and liberal ideas. Her other works include Amrutara Pratikshare, Chowkatha, Upanibesh, Pratibandi, Paksibasa, Tarlijauthiba Durga, Dukha Apramita, Gambhiri Ghara and Mahajatra. Kanaklata Hati, another women fiction writer whose writing featured psychoanalysis of the female mind. To date she published two-story collections, Nirbak Pahada and Kuhudi Ghara. Her story collections Galpa Galpantara and Praibeshi Galpa were translated.

Popular fiction
A popular Odia literature emerged in the 1970s, particularly read by rural women. The best selling writers are Bhagirathi Das, Kanduri Das, Bhagwana Das, Bibhuti Patnaik and Pratibha Ray. Some of their works were made into Odia films. In recent times Rabi Kaunungo, Tarun Kanti Mishra, Ajay Swain, Mrinal Chatterjee, Radhu Mishra, Dr Laxmikant Tripathy, Nisith Bose, Suniti Mund, Anjan Chand and Dr. Kulangara contributed to popular writing.

Women writers
Women's magazine Sucharita was founded in 1975 by Sakuntala Panda. It had a significant impact in helping female writers find an audience. Its writers include Giribala Mohanty, Jayanti Rath, Susmita Bagchi. Paramita Satpathy, Hiranmayee Mishra, Chirashree Indra Singh, Sairindhree Sahoo, Supriya Panda, Gayatri Saraf, Suniti Mund and Mamatamay. Chowdhry. Giribala Mohanty (1947–) is noted for her deep sensitiveness for women's issues. Her poems depict the binary of women's social apathy and self-confidence. Her collections of poems include Streeloka (Women), Kalijhia (The Dark complexion Girl), Ma Habara Dukha (The sorrow of being a mother) and Kati Katia Katyayani. Sahoo had a significant influence on these women. Sahoo claims that women are an "Other" from the masculine perspective, but that they are entitled to equal human rights according to Plato. Suniti Mund's story book Anustupa, poetry book Jhia and novels Abhisapta, Agarbatira Ghara, Matrimony dot com and Gigolo also present a feminist voice.

Drama
The traditional Odia theater is the folk opera, or jatra, which flourishes in rural Odisha. Modern theater is not commercially viable, although in the 1960s experimental theatre made a mark through the works of Manoranjan Das, who pioneered an experimental theater movement. Bijay Mishra, Biswajit Das, Kartik Rath, Ramesh Prasad Panigrahi, Ratnakar Chaini, Prasanna Das, Pramod Kumar Tripathy, Sankar Tripathy, Ranjit Patnaik, Dr. Pradip Bhowmic, Hemendra Mahapatra, and Purna Chandra Mallick continued the tradition. Tripathy's contribution to the growth and development of  is recognised. Ananta Charan Sukla translated four classic Greek dramas. His 1974 book, Greek Drama has translations (with commentary) of Prometheus Bound (by Aeschylus), Oedipus the King (by Sophocles), Medea (by Euripides) and The Frogs (by Aristophanes). Sukla's translations were staged in various colleges and universities. He wrote two historical plays on Odia freedom fighters Chakhi Khuntia and Jayee Rajguru that were widely staged. Amateur theater groups and drama competitions operate there. Opera is commercially viable.

Science fiction
Popular science fiction writers include Prana Krushna Parija, Padmashree Binod Kanungo, Prof Gokulananda Mohapatra, Prof Gadadhar Mishra, Prof Kulamani Samal, Sarat Kumar Mohanty, Prof Amulya Kumar Panda, Dr. Nikhilanand Panigrahy, Dr. Debakanta Mishra, Dr.Ramesh Chandra Parida, Sashibhusan Rath, Dr. Chitta Ranjan Mishra, Dr. Nityananada Swain, Dr. Choudhury Satybrata Nanda, Er. Mayadhar Swain, Kamalakanta Jena, Himansu Sekhar Fatesingh and Bibhuprasad Mohapatra.

Nikhilanand Panigrahy's Sampratikatara Anuchintare Bigyan O Baigyanik became popular. Sashibhusan Rath's Vigyan Chinta and Kamalakanta Jena's Gapare Gapare Bigyan (Awarded by Odisha Bigyan Academy 2011) are written for children and adults.

Odia and world literature
Odia translation of classics
The first foreign book to be translated into Odia was the Bible's New Testament in 1809. It was followed by translation of Hebrew poems by J. Carey in 1814 and John Bunyan's classic The Pilgrim's Progress by A. Sutton in 1820. Madhusudan Rao translated William Cowper's Solitude of Alexander Selkirk as Nirbasitara Vilaapa. Other notable translations include Arnold's and Tennyson's classics translated by Godabarish Mishra and Nilakantha Das, besides translation of Sohrab and Rustum by Radha Mohan Gadanayak and Don Quixote by Govinda Tripathy etc. Prof. Ananta Charan Sukla's translation (with commentary) of Aristotle's Poetics (ଆରିଷ୍ଟୋଟଲଙ୍କ କାବ୍ୟ ତତ୍ତ୍ୱ) published in the late 1960s was only the second translation of this classic in any Indian language. Classics including children's literature were translated by Grantha Mandir Publishers under their "Vishwa Sahitya Granthamala" (World Literature Series) initiative, including Alice in Wonderland translated by Subhendu Mohan Srichandan Singh as Vichitra Deshare Alice (ବିଚିତ୍ର ଦେଶରେ ଆଲିସ୍ ).

Translation of Odia works into world languages
Translation of Odia literature into other world languages is mostly into English. The most well known translations are Fakir Mohan's novels Six Acres and Half by Rabi Shankar Mishra, Lachhama by Chandan Das and The Penance by Snehaprava Das. Madhusudan Pati has translated Gangadhar Meher's Tapaswini and Pranaya Ballari into English. Other notable translations include Basanti and Greatest Odia Stories by Paul St. Pierre, Gopinath Mohanty's Paraja by Bikram Das, Spark of Light by Valerie Henitiuk, and Kalahandi by Tapan Kumar Pradhan.

Odia in United States of America
An initiative, Pratishruti, was started to connect literary minded people in North America with their Indian peers. The goal is to expose Indian-Americans to the best writings of Odia writers as well as to cultivate new Odia writers in America.

Black Eagle Books, a non-profit publishing initiative was started in April 2019 to propagate Odia literature globally through publication and translation projects. To encourage new writers, Black Eagle Books started "Black Eagle Books First Book Award". The award for 2019 was given to Niharika Mallick for her translation anthology of contemporary Hindi short stories in Odia, Adhunika Hindi Galpamala.

 See also

References

 Bibliography
 Neukom, Lukas and Manideepa Patnaik. 2003. A grammar of Oriya. (Arbeiten des Seminars für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft; 17). Zürich: Seminar für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Zürich.
 Mansingha, Mayadhar (1962) History of Oriya literature Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi
 Sahoo, Krushna Charan (2004) Oriya Lekhaka Paricaya Orissa Sahitya Academy, Bhubaneswar, ,
 Myers, Carol Fairbanks (1976) Women in Literature: Criticism of the Seventies Scarecrow Press, Inc. Metuchen,
 "The History of Orissa: An Introduction"Pages from the history of India and the sub-continent:SOUTH ASIAN HISTORY
 Sahoo, Dr. Basanta Kishore Sahoo (1995) Who's who in Oriya Children's – Literature, Vol. I&II Mayur Publication and RIOCL,

Further reading
 Ghosh, A. (2003). An ethnolinguistic profile of Eastern India: a case of South Orissa. Burdwan: Dept. of Bengali (D.S.A.), University of Burdwan.
 Masica, Colin (1991). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mohanty, Prasanna Kumar (2007). The History of: History of Oriya Literature'' (Oriya Sahityara Adya Aitihasika Gana).

External links
 Romanised to Unicode Oriya transliterator
 Unicode Entity Codes for the Oriya Script
 Free/Open Source Oriya Computing Rebati project

Odia language
Odia-language culture
Literature by language
Indian literature
Indian literature by language

Odia literature


Nick Gevers (born 1965) is a South African science fiction editor and critic, whose work has appeared in The Washington Post Book World, Interzone, Scifi.com, SF Site, The New York Review of Science Fiction and Nova Express. He wrote two regular review columns for Locus magazine from 2001 to 2008, and is editor at the British independent press, PS Publishing; he also edits the quarterly genre fiction magazine, Postscripts.

Gevers was co-editor, with Keith Brooke, of the science fiction anthologies Infinity Plus One (2001) and Infinity Plus Two (2003) and in August 2007 released the combined Infinity Plus through Solaris Books. His first original anthology, Extraordinary Engines, was  published by Solaris Books in October 2008, and a second, Other Earths (co-edited with Jay Lake), by DAW Books in Spring 2009. Subsequent original anthologies are This is the Summer of Love, Enemy of the Good, and Edison's Frankenstein (all 2009, from PS Publishing, co-edited with Peter Crowther), as well as The Book of Dreams (Subterranean Press, 2010); forthcoming are Is Anybody Out There? (DAW, June 2010, co-edited with Marty Halpern), The Company He Keeps (PS Publishing, 2010, co-edited with Peter Crowther), and Ghosts by Gaslight (Harper Colline Eos, 2011, co-edited with Jack Dann).

Gevers served as a judge for the Sidewise Award for Alternate History from 2004 through 2008.

Awards
 Shirley Jackson Award Edited Anthology: Ghosts by Gaslight, edited by Jack Dann and Nick Gevers (Harper Voyager)

References

External links

Living people
Writers from Oxford
Alumni of Rondebosch Boys' High School
South African speculative fiction editors
South African speculative fiction critics
Science fiction editors
Science fiction critics
South African literary critics
1965 births

Nick Gevers


Philiosophers use arguments to talk about the concepts and ideas they have. In order to connect these arguments and ideas, and to be able to convince people, they need logic. This kind of logic is known as philosophical logic. The logic can be what is called classical logic, but it can also be more complex, such as modal logic. What is commonly used is propositional logic, which extends the classical logic and introduces quantifiiers.

There is also a philiosophy of logic, which is slightly different.

The term philosphical logic is often used to contrast it with mathematical logic, which is used in the natural sciences.

Logic

Philosophical logic


Surus was believed to be the last war elephant of Carthaginian general Hannibal's army in Italy.

History

Several Roman writers give accounts of Surus, a large elephant with a tusk broken. According to Plautus, Surus wore a red cloth, and may also have carried a red shield and a howdah (a construction on the animal's back), which served as a platform for Hannibal, who had difficulties overlooking the battlefield after losing one eye from an infection. According to some accounts, the animal was the last of the 37 war elephants Hannibal took with him on his 218 BC crossing of the Alps, during the Second Punic War.

Although a Carthaginian coin struck in the time of Hannibal depicts a North African elephant, historians believe Surus was a Western Asiatic or Syrian elephant descended from those seized by the Ptolemies of Egypt in the Syrian Wars, as its name, "Surus", would translate as "The Syrian". However, others have proposed it was a North African elephant like the rest of animals used by Carthage, interpreting the name as a nickname Romans would have given it for its broken tusk (surus or sudus being the name for a stake used in fortifications).

See also

 List of individual elephants

References

Further reading

Individual elephants
Second Punic War
War elephants

Surus


Roger Arthur Graef OBE (18 April 1936 – 2 March 2022) was an American-born British documentary filmmaker and theatre director. Born in New York City, he moved to Britain in 1962, where he began a career producing documentary films investigating previously closed institutions, including Government ministries and court buildings.

Early life
Graef was born in New York City, and started directing plays at Harvard University, staging the New England premiere of Virgil Thomson and Gertrude Stein's opera The Mother of Us All in 1956, and the premiere of Robert Penn Warren's Brother to Dragons in 1957.

He directed 24 plays in theatres along the East Coast, and was chosen by CBS for its new TV drama directors' program. He directed two network dramas for CBS, including The Seven who were Hanged, a one-hour special adapted and produced by Robert Herridge from the Leonid Andreyev novel of the same name.

Career in Britain
Graef moved to Britain in 1962 and directed Tennessee Williams' Period of Adjustment at the Royal Court and Wyndham's Theatre in the West End of London.

His first film was One of Them is Brett for the Society of Thalidomide Children, to demonstrate to headteachers of primary schools that the physical handicaps of the children did not stop them from being active mentally. It won the Silver Dragon Prize in Kraków, Poland, and was broadcast by the BBC, CBC, and ABC Scope in the U.S., as well as being added to medical school curricula. Graef commented in a BBC interview in 2014 that "nobody had ever seen them as people, they had only seen them as cases and it entered medical school curricula immediately because doctors had never seen them at home".

Graef's film The Life and Times of John Huston, Esq for the BBC, CBC, and NET in the US, was one of the first documentary co-productions for television. He subsequently produced the 13-part series Who Is on artists, architects, writers, and composers for BBC, CBC, NET, and Bayerischer Rundfunk, also directing the episodes on Jacques Lipchitz, Pierre Boulez, Walter Gropius, and Maurice Béjart.

In 1968, he made a film called Why Save Florence? (BBC/BR/NET), about the poor state of the city's defences against flooding. His 1970 film In the Name of Allah: the life cycle of a Muslim community (filmed in Fez, Morocco) for BBC/BR/NET was the first long documentary on Islam shown in the West. Working with his collaborator cameraman Charles Stewart, Graef made the first "fly-on-the wall" purely observational series The Space between Words in 1972 for the BBC and PBS, including Politics, the first documentary filmed inside the U.S. Senate, and Diplomacy, the first unstaged film inside the United Nations.

Graef then made a series of films for Granada Television with unprecedented access to various institutions. Working with Norma Percy and Brian Lapping, he made the first film inside the UK Government: State of the Nation: A Law in the Making, and in 1976 the first film inside the European Union: Inside the Brussels HQ. His three-part series Decision followed top-level decision-making inside Occidental Petroleum, Hammersmith Council, and British Steel. The steel film was adapted as a short course by Harvard and London Business Schools.

His 1978 series Decision; British Communism followed the evolution of a manifesto over several years. It won the Royal Television Society Award for Best Current Affairs Documentary.

In 1973, Graef became a member of the board of the Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA) in London, and founded and chaired its Architectural Forum. He also became a part-time tutor at the Architectural Association. In 1975, he was appointed to the Development Control Review of Planning Law, chaired by George Dobry, and he chaired the Sub-Group on Public Involvement in Planning. He promoted the early publication of planning officers' recommendations for approval or refusal of applications before the meeting, which is now standard practice. He was also on the three-man Inquiry into Control of Demolition. In 1976, he was made a member of the board of London Transport. He subsequently co-designed the London Bus Map with Andrew Holmes. His BBC film, Is this the Way to Save a City? co-directed by Mike Dibb for Omnibus, delayed the redevelopment of Cardiff. Together with Simon Jenkins, he made a film for Arena which revealed that a Grade II listed building was demolished every day during Save Britain's Heritage Year. In 2015 he was part of the four-person Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) Commission on the Future of Housing, chaired by John Banham. In the subsequent RIBA report Building the Homes and Communities Britain Needs he wrote the chapter on design. In 2016 he was made an Honorary Fellow of RIBA.

In 1982, Graef made an observational documentary titled Police about the Thames Valley Police. The reaction to the programme's portrayal of insensitive police handling of a rape victim changed the way in which the UK police handled rape cases. In a BBC interview in 2014, Graef said, "we showed [the film] to [the police] but they regarded themselves as being nice to her. First of all Thatcher talked about it in parliament, it was on CBS news in America and also in Sweden and other places. Our film came after three very controversial rape cases the week before and the police quietly changed the way they handled rape". He directed the films/TV specials of the first three Amnesty International comedy galas in 1976, 1977, and 1979 – the last of which was the first Secret Policeman's Ball film. In 1984 he co-produced the first Comic Relief with Richard Curtis, and Look at the State We're In (BBC), a series of short satirical films on constitutional reform, with John Cleese, Hugh Laurie, Dawn French, and Anthony Sher. In 2005 he produced Remember the Secret Policeman's Ball for BBC Arena, directed by Margy Kinmonth. In 2015 he and James Rogan made Monty Python: the Meaning of Live, for uktv following the final stage performances at The O2 Arena with archive of their earlier stage work. In 2016 It was shown at the Tribeca and Toronto Documentary Festivals.

Graef became a UK citizen in 1995. He was a trustee and then a patron of the Koestler Trust for art in prisons, the Rehabilitation for Addicted Prisoners Trust, the Irene Taylor Trust for Music in Prisons, the Voice of the Child in Care, Who Cares? Trust and Prisoners Abroad, a charity which supports Britons imprisoned outside the UK. He was a patron of the Mulberry Bush School in Oxfordshire, the subject of Kim Longinotto's Hold Me Tight, Let Me Go for Films of Record. He was a patron of the charity Compassion In Care, which campaigns on abuse of the elderly.

As a criminologist, he made more than 30 films on police and criminal justice issues, including Police, Operation Carter, In Search of Law and Order UK (Channel 4) and In Search of Law and Order – USA (PBS and Channel 4) on positive ways to address youth offending, which influenced the National Youth Justice Board. Police 2001 (BBC) looked at how policing had changed since his 1982 series, and Panorama: Rape on Trial looked at how much had changed in the handling of rape since his 1982 film. His 1987 fiction film Closing Ranks (ITV/Zenith) about domestic violence in the police was used in training for many years. Since 1995 he has been a Visiting Fellow and then Visiting Professor at the Mannheim Centre for Criminology at the London School of Economics. Since 2001, he has been a member of the Independent Advisory Group in Race for the Metropolitan Police. He has made many films on race and policing, including Murder Blues, three films following Operation Trident on black-on-black gun crime for the BBC. For Channel Four he made Race Against Crime, and The Siege of Scotland Yard around the run-up and publication of the Macpherson Report into the murder of Stephen Lawrence (2000). For Channel Four Dispatches, he made Not Black and White on black v Asian conflicts. And Ready for A Riot on Met training for public order disturbances following the riots around the G20 summit in London. He also made Searching for Madeleine (2007) on the mistakes of the original investigation into the disappearance of Madeleine McCann in Portugal.

He has written Talking Blues: Police In Their Own Words (Harper Collins), Living Dangerously: young offenders in their own words (Harvill) and Why Restorative Justice? (Gulbenkian).

He broadcast regularly on Radio 4 and 5 and wrote for The Sunday Times, Daily Telegraph, Sunday Telegraph, Daily Mail, Mail on Sunday, The Observer and The Guardian. In 2017, he was a guest on John Lloyd's radio comedy show The Museum of Curiosity alongside Phill Jupitus and Prue Leith.

Graef was a founding board member of Channel Four, News International Visiting Professor of Media and Communications at Oxford University, and was on the Board of Trustees of the Media Standards Trust. He was a patron of Prisoners Abroad, a charity that supports the welfare of Britons imprisoned overseas and their families, as well as the Irene Taylor Trust for Music in Prisons.

He joined the charity board of Complicité theatre company in 1997. He became the chair of the board and remained a trustee of the organisation until his death in 2022.

Films of Record
In 1979, Roger Graef founded Films of Record, a documentary production company that specialises in tackling difficult subjects, and securing access to previously closed institutions. Films of Record worked in association with Hatchling Productions on Cathy Henkel's feature-length documentary film The Burning Season (2008), which followed a young Australian entrepreneur to Indonesia on a mission to help stop deforestation and make money in the process. In the first months of 2010, Films of Record produced Julien Temple's Requiem for Detroit? (BBC), Ricardo Pollack's three-part series on medical ethics Great Ormond Street (TV series) (BBC), and a series on family discord, Who Needs Fathers? (BBC). Other productions include Murder Blues, following Operation Trident on black-on-black gun crime, the BAFTA-nominated Kids in Care, a Panorama Special, The Trouble with Pirates on the impact of Somali piracy; and Amnesty! When They Are All Free. Graef was Executive Producer on all these films.

The company's later output includes The Truth About Adoption, which was BAFTA and BAFTA Craft nominated in 2012, and the second series of Great Ormond Street. Also the award winning series.   Films of Record is now part of factual media group Zinc Media. Graef left the company in February 2016 and founded Roger Graef Productions. He was working as Executive Producer with Rogan Productions and 72films on a number of projects in development and production.

Personal life
Graef died from cancer on 2 March 2022, at the age of 85.

Awards and honours
In 2004 Graef was awarded a BAFTA Fellowship for lifetime achievement, the first documentary maker to receive this status. He was appointed an OBE in the 2006 New Year Honours list for services to film-making and broadcasting. In 2013 BAFTA held a tribute evening to celebrate Graef's 50th year as a filmmaker. He was awarded the 2014 Lifetime Achievement Award at Sheffield Doc/Fest. In 2015 he was given a Lifetime Achievement Award by the Aldeburgh Documentary Festival.

Requiem for Detroit? directed by Julien Temple for Films of Record won the Grierson Award for Best Historical Documentary in 2010.
Feltham Sings, directed by Brian Hill and produced by Graef, won a BAFTA Award for Best Documentary in 2004.
Hold Me Tight Let Me Go, directed by Kim Longinotto and produced by Roger Graef and Richard Klein, won Best Documentary at BRITDOC, Grand Jury Prize at IDFA, Amsterdam, Best Documentary Bird's Eye Festival, Best Documentary Britspotting, Berlin
Malaria: Fever Road – One World Awards: Best Documentary
Race for the Beach – CBA-Amnesty International Award for Human Rights Programme
Kids in Care was nominated for Best Current Affairs at the 2011 BAFTA Awards; and won a Royal Television Society Award
The Truth About Adoption was nominated for Best Current Affairs at the 2012 BAFTA Awards. The director, Clare Johns, was also nominated for Best Newcomer at the 2012 BAFTA Craft Awards
A Lifetime Achievement Award at Sheffield Doc/Fest in June 2014.

References

Further reading
Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film, ed. Ian Aitken. London: Routledge (2005)

External links

 filmed interview on British Entertainment History Project

1936 births
2022 deaths
American documentary film directors
BAFTA fellows
Film directors from New York City
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
American emigrants to England
British documentary film directors

Roger Graef


Drug addiction, also called substance dependence or dependence syndrome, is a condition where a person feels a strong need to take a drug. Addiction also involves other behaviours. These include finding it difficult to control the need to use the drug and feeling the use of the drug to be more important than more normal things such as family or work. When the person does not use the drug for an amount of time, they may suffer from withdrawal.

When a person is addicted, they are usually addicted to a class (a specific kind) of drug. For example: Heroin is a drug that is in the Opiate class. Which means that a person addicted to Heroin may also be seen to have an addiction to other opiates such as Morphine.

A person who may easily become addicted to drugs is said to have an addictive personality. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders defines drug addiction as a mental disorder. Drug addiction is often linked with other mental disorders.

Symptoms

 Neglecting responsibilities at school, work, or home in favor of drug.
 Wanting to quit using drugs, but being unable to stop.
 Experiencing significant cravings or irritability when not using drugs.
 Using drugs despite the impact on relationships, jobs, finances, and physical and mental health it may cause.
 Using more of a substance than intended, or needing to use more of a substance in order to achieve the same result/feeling as when you first began using, which is referred to as tolerance.
 Experiencing mental and/or physical withdrawal symptoms when you stop using drugs, which is referred to as dependence. drugs also make people lash out

The health effects of drug abuse are not just a concern for the individual using drugs. In the case of a woman who is abusing drugs while pregnant, the long-term health of the child can be adversely affected as well. A study from Pediatrics reports that babies born to women who abuse drugs during pregnancy may have physical, emotional, and mental health issues during childhood and even throughout their lives, including:

 Slowed or impeded physical growth.
 Delayed development of language abilities.
 Long-term neurological impairments such as chemical imbalances, slowed cognitive development, learning disabilities, and decreased intellectual capabilities.
 Increased risk of behavioral issues, including hyperactivity, attention deficit, and delinquency.
 Increased risk of mental health disorders later in life, including substance abuse.

Related pages
 Alcoholism - addiction to ethanol

References

Social issues
Drugs
Addiction
Diseases of despair

Drug addiction


Blue Sky Solar Racing is a student-run team at the University of Toronto that designs and constructs solar powered vehicles to race in international competitions.

The team was founded in 1997 and has produced eight vehicles that have competed in a total of nine international solar car racing competitions. Their most recent vehicle, Horizon, was ranked 12th at World Solar Challenge 2015, and 1st in Canada. In 2016, Horizon raced in the American Solar Challenge and finished 3rd place overall, and 1st in Canada.

In addition to racing, the Blue Sky team also actively participates in community events to promote environmental awareness and innovation in technology.

The team is composed of undergraduate, graduate students and alumni volunteers from the Faculty of Applied Science & Engineering, the Faculty of Arts & Science, and the Joseph L. Rotman School of Management at the University of Toronto.

History

The first vehicle
In 1997, the Blue Sky Solar Racing Team produced its first solar powered vehicle named Blue Sky Project. Being the very first car, Blue Sky Project served as a test bed to work out the organizational and operational relationships required to build a car that was capable of qualifying and participating in competition.

The team used this vehicle to compete in the Florida SunDay Challenge 1997 and ranked 3rd overall in the competition.

SunRayce '99
Blue Sky Solar Racing Team's Blue II competed in SunRayce '99 in Orlando, Florida and finished 9th in the qualifying rounds. The race was however struck with poor weather conditions throughout the competition and recharging the solar vehicle became a great challenge for the team. The team was forced to adjust their racing strategy and optimize their power usage under the new weather constraints so they did not exhaust the battery. Despite such poor weather conditions, Blue II traveled over 2250 km over a span of 9 days and ranked 20th overall in the competition. The team was also awarded "Best Rookie Team" in recognition of their achievements in the race.

World Solar Challenge 2001
With the team's third generation solar vehicle, Faust, the team competed at the World Solar Challenge. Faust ran a perfect race without a single mishap and not once was there an emergency during the racing that required Faust to be pulled over. For 5 days straight, the team drove for 8 hours through the Australian continent covering 3010 km in total. The team ranked 14th overall in the competition.

American Solar Challenge 2001
The team also competed in the American Solar Challenge in 2001. This competition was very difficult for the vehicle's handling and stability due to long stretches of rough terrain over seven states. The rough road conditions of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains created damage to the suspension system in the vehicle and caused a cascade effect throughout other systems. Temporary fixes were implemented when breakdowns occurred during official race hours, and long nights of repair would ensue at the end of each race day.  The team completed the 3595 km race in 79 hours 8 minutes and 57 seconds, which included 10 hours of penalties. The team ranked 12th in the competition and was one of the few teams that were able to fully complete the race.

American Solar Challenge 2003
The team returned to the American Solar Challenge in 2003 with Faust II, the successor to Blue Sky's vehicle in the 2001 American Solar Challenge. Traveling over across 8 states from Chicago, Illinois, to Los Angeles, California, Faust II proved to be an extremely capable race car. In contrast to American Solar Challenge 2001, Faust II was able to traverse the grueling terrain with no major on-road difficulties due to the improvements made to the vehicle. Logging 79 hours, 51 minutes, and 39 seconds of race time, Blue Sky captured 11th place overall and placed first out of all teams of equivalent solar array technology. The team was also presented with the American Solar Challenge Safety Award for outstanding safety practices during the competition.

World Solar Challenge 2007
Blue Sky Solar Racing Team's fifth generation solar vehicle, Cerulean, participated in the Panasonic World Solar Challenge 2007. Traveling 3000 km across the Australian outback, Cerulean completed the race in 46 hours and 19 minutes with a top speed of 118 km/h. The team ranked 5th in the Adventure class which was the highest placing amongst all Canadian teams in the competition.

World Solar Challenge 2011
In 2011, Blue Sky Solar entered the World Solar Challenge for the first time in four years. Their sixth generation vehicle, Azure, placed 24th in the Challenger class of the race.

World Solar Challenge 2013

B-7, the team's seventh generation vehicle, placed eighth in the World Solar Challenge 2013, 2nd among North American teams, and first among Canadian teams, in the Challenger class.

World Solar Challenge 2015
Horizon, the eighth generation vehicle competed in the World Solar Challenge 2015 and finished 12th.

American Solar Challenge 2016
For the first time in 13 years, Blue Sky Solar Racing took part in the American Solar Challenge. Racing with their eight generation car, Horizon, Blue Sky Solar Racing completed the race with a 3rd-place finish.

Car models

Blue Sky Project

As Blue Sky Solar Racing's first project, Blue Sky Project served as an experimental effort for the team to learn more about the production of solar vehicles. The vehicle was designed as a single-seated four-wheeler with a weight of 850 lbs. The project was completed in 1997 and was immediately put to test at the Florida SunDay Challenge 1997. The vehicle achieved extremely encouraging results for the rookie team and created a solid foundation and strong motivation for the team to continue developing solar vehicles.

Weight:     850 lbsPower:      650 watts, 14% silicon solar cellsBatteries:  Lead-acidCompetitions: Florida SunDay Challenge 1997 – 3rd Place

Blue II

Upon the success of the Blue Sky Project, Blue Sky Solar Racing decided to immediately begin production of an improved solar vehicle – Blue II.  With a much greater power output than the Blue Sky Project, Blue II was capable of achieving a top speed of 110 km/h and it was as a key milestone in the technical development of the team. Blue II was completed in 1999 and competed in SunRayce '99. After the vehicle was decommissioned, it served for several years as the main display in the team's community education events in recognition of its milestone achievements.

Weight:     968 lbs
Power:      750 watts, 15% silicon solar cells
Batteries:  Lead-acid
Competitions: SunRayce '99 – 20th Place + Top Rookie Award

Faust

After learning from the experiences of their previous experimental vehicles, Blue Sky Solar Racing was prepared to make a splash on the international stage. In the design of their third generation vehicle – Faust – the team focused on several key concepts to produce a solar vehicle that was competitive in international competitions; mainly, to minimize drag and weight. This led to several drastic departures in their design traditions. First of all, in contrast to Blue II, Faust was designed as a three-wheeler to minimize rolling resistance and decrease the overall weight of the vehicle. Secondly, the chassis for Faust was made of an extremely lightweight hollow tube aluminum space frame which decreased the overall weight of the vehicle to only 440 lbs, nearly half of the weight of Blue II.  These departures in design lead to vast performance improvements which made it possible for the vehicle to achieve a top speed of 140 km/h. Construction Faust was completed in 2001 and it participated in two competitions in the same year.

Weight:     620 lbs
Power:      950 watts, 16.2% silicon solar cells
Batteries:  Lithium ion-polymer
Competitions: World Solar Challenge 2001 – 12th place, American Solar Challenge 2001 – 14th place

Faust II

Looking to improve upon the success of Faust, its successor – Faust II – aimed primarily to strengthen the build of the body and reduce weight, thus allowing it to achieve faster speeds. Learning from the damage that the grueling road conditions in the American Solar Challenge 2001 brought to Faust, the team fitted Faust II with a composite fiber cloth body which made it extremely durable while also reducing the vehicle's body weight by 40 lbs. Several other improvements were also made to the battery and motor of the vehicle. Production of Faust II was completed in 2003 and it participated in the American Solar Challenge 2003.

The Faust II vehicle was involved in a fatal collision during a promotional tour in August 2004 which resulted in the death of its driver, a 3rd-year engineering student at the University of Toronto. The accident occurred on the outskirts of Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario when the prototype vehicle lost control and swerved into oncoming traffic. The car was participating in a multi-university tour through Ontario and Quebec to promote sustainable energy, but this tour was cancelled following the crash. The incident prompted the University of Toronto to conduct a review the team's safety culture and operations.

Weight:     600 lbs
Power:      1050 watts, 16.8% silicon solar cells
Batteries:  Lithium ion-polymer
Competitions: American Solar Challenge 2003 – 11th Place + Safety Award

Cerulean

While in the production phase of Faust II, Blue Sky Solar Racing began design on their fifth generation vehicle – Cerulean. Unlike its predecessors, Cerulean was designed as a double-seater vehicle; this allowed the team challenge themselves by attempting a new solar vehicle design with entirely different specifications and constraints.

As a double-seater vehicle, the team was allowed to double the solar array output to 2300W and the motor power output to 13.4 hp. The team was also capable of keeping the vehicle lightweight by constructing a chassis from carbon board rails, thus minimizing the weight at 500 lbs. Despite being their first attempt at constructing a double-seater solar vehicle, Cerulean proved to be their most successful vehicle to date. With construction complete in 2007, Cerulean participated in the World Solar Challenge 2007 and placed 5th in its class, ranking it the highest amongst all Canadian teams.

Weight:     230 kg (without driver)
Power:      2000 W 27% GaAs solar cells
Batteries:  Lithium polymer
Competitions: World Solar Challenge 2007 – 5th Place in Adventure Class

Azure
Blue Sky Solar Racing's sixth generation vehicle, Azure, placed 24th in the World Solar Challenge 2011, in the Challenger Class. The design of the vehicle was guided by three requirements: The vehicle must be able to achieve high speeds yet have low power consumption, exhibit great stability at high speeds yet have a low drag value, and have a great safety margin in critical components yet remain lightweight.
The vehicle was officially unveiled on August 6, 2011.

Weight:     250 kg (without driver)
Power:      22% silicon solar cells
Batteries:  Lithium ion-polymer
Competitions: World Solar Challenge 2011 - 24th Place in Challenger Class

B-7
On July 28, 2013, Blue Sky Solar unveiled its seventh generation vehicle, B-7. The car features a five-fairing design.  B-7 placed eighth in the World Solar Challenge 2013, 2nd among North American teams, and first among Canadian teams, in the Challenger class.

Weight:     230 kg (without driver)
Power:      1.3 kW, 22.5% silicon monocrystalline solar cells
Batteries:  Lithium ion-polymer
Competitions: World Solar Challenge 2013 - 8th Place in Challenger Class

Horizon
Blue Sky Solar Racing eighth generation solar powered vehicle - Horizon has an asymmetrical design and a catamaran-shaped aerobody. Horizon placed 12th in the Challenger class in the World Solar Challenge 2015. 3rd in North America and 1st in Canada. In the American Solar Challenge 2016, Horizon placed 3rd overall and 1st in Canada.

Weight:     239 kg (without driver)
Power:      1.4 kW, 23.9% silicon monocrystalline solar cells
Batteries:  Lithium ion-polymer
Competitions: World Solar Challenge 2015 - 12th Place in Challenger Class, American Solar Challenge 2016 - 3rd Place

Polaris
Similar to Horizon, the ninth generation solar powered vehicle - Polaris has an asymmetrical design and a catamaran-shaped aerobody. Polaris participated at the 2017 Bridgestone World Solar Challenge, placing 11th out of over 30 teams.

Weight: 300 kg (without driver)
Power: 390 24.3% Efficiency Silicon solar cells
Batteries: Lithium ion
Competitions: World Solar Challenge 2017 - 11th Place in Challenger Class

Viridian
Viridian is the team's 10th generation solar car design, built for the 2019 Bridgestone World Solar Challenge.

Borealis
Borealis is the team's 11th generation solar car design, built for the 2023 Bridgestone World Solar Challenge.

Race results

See also

 List of solar car teams
 North American Solar Challenge
 Solar car racing
 World Solar Challenge

Notes

External links
 Blue Sky Solar Racing website
 University of Toronto website

Solar car racing
University of Toronto
Photovoltaics

Blue Sky Solar Racing


Cwenburh of Wimborne was an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon saint, a sister of King Ine of Wessex and of Saint Cuthburh. Her sister Cuthburh was married to King Aldfrith of Northumbria and then became the first abbess of Wimborne monastery.

Very little information survives about Cwenburh.  She is known primarily from a mention in a single annal of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:

718. In this year Ingild Ine's brother died, and their sisters were Cwenburh and Cuthburh.  And Cuthburh raised the monastery at Wimborne; and she was given to Aldfrith, king of the Northumbrians; but they separated during his life.

She is also included in the genealogical preface to the Chronicle in one copy, as part of a pedigree for the 9th-century King Æthelwulf of Wessex, the father of King Alfred the Great of Wessex.

... Eoppa [the son] of Ingild, and Ingild of Cenred, and Ine of Cenred, and Cuthburh of Cenred, and Cwenburh of Cenred, and Cenred of Ceolwald ...
It is possible that Cwenburh succeeded Cuthburh as abbess there after her sister's death.
Cuthburh is later mentioned again in a list entitled On the Resting-Places of the Saints, found in two 11th century manuscripts

resteth Saint Cuthburh at Wimborne Minster, that first established the life and customs that are still kept in the monastery.

In one version of the list the words "and Cwenburh" appear after Cuthburh.  According to Felix Liebermann who made an edition of the text in the 19th century this appears to be a later addition, and the subsequent clause remains grammatically singular, referring only to Saint Cuthburh.

The Abbess Tetta is sometimes viewed as a familiar name for Cwenburh, or alternatively as a third sister.

References

External links

7th-century births
710s deaths
8th-century Christian saints
7th-century English people
8th-century English nuns
West Saxon saints
Mercian saints
Anglo-Saxon abbesses
Anglo-Saxon nuns
Burials at Wimborne Minster (church)
Christian female saints of the Middle Ages

Cwenburh


Detective Lieutenant Mark Hoffman is a fictional character and the secondary antagonist of the Saw franchise. He is portrayed by Australian actor Costas Mandylor. While the character was first shown as a police officer in Saw III, later films in the series have expanded his role and revealed him to be an apprentice, and subsequently the successor of the Jigsaw Killer, as the new Jigsaw. He serves as the secondary antagonist in Saw IV, and the main antagonist in Saw V, Saw VI and Saw 3D. He appears in the mid-credits scene of Saw X, setting up a new trap alongside Jigsaw.

Like his mentor and partner, Hoffman designs death traps that, for survivors, give them reason to appreciate their lives. Unlike his mentor, however, he has no emotion towards his victims and generally displays a very monotone personality. He also enjoys making his victims suffer, and frequently places his victims in traps where at least one must be killed for the other(s) to escape, and on occasion has placed them in inescapable traps.

His surname is a tribute to producer Gregg Hoffman, who died on December 4, 2005, just five weeks after the release of Saw II.

Fictional character biography

Saw III
Saw III briefly shows Hoffman during the investigation of Troy's chain trap. Hoffman is shown to be listening in on Officer Daniel Rigg's conversation with Detective Allison Kerry about Jigsaw's ability to continue his work. Unnoticed by the others, Hoffman pockets a chain fragment from the trap's aftermath and Kerry comments as to why the door had to be cut open by the police to secure the crime scene. He is very apathetic and glib while speaking to Rigg and Kerry. Rigg shows that this bothered him. As depicted in Saw IV, Amanda and Hoffman then place Kerry in a trap which kills her even though she did as she was instructed, revealing that the trap was rigged to be inescapable.

During flashbacks revealed in Saw VI, as they begin to put John's final tests into action, Hoffman and Amanda begin fighting over John's affections and legacy. Hoffman tries to win John's favor by warning him against Amanda's now murderous take on his legacy. John instead chooses to allow the game to progress. Hoffman, knowing the test was actually meant for Amanda, proceeds to sabotage the test by switching John's letter for Amanda with one of his own: a letter informing her that if she does not kill Lynn Denlon, he will tell John what she had done (she was the person that sent Cecil to steal drugs, which ultimately resulted in Jill Tuck's miscarriage when Cecil slammed a door on her). Amanda does so, but is killed by Lynn's husband, Jeff Denlon, who then proceeds to kill John as well.

Saw IV

In the opening scene of Saw IV, Hoffman is called to the police morgue to hear a cassette tape that is found in Jigsaw's stomach during his autopsy. It is later revealed that the events of Saw III and Saw IV occurred at the same time, so this scene actually happened after the events of those two films.

Prior, Hoffman knocks out Rigg and makes it seem that Detective Eric Matthews and himself have been captured by Jigsaw, and that Rigg must save them both. Rigg completes a series of tests, leading him to Jigsaw's lair and the location of Hoffman and Eric's trap. Despite previous warnings to not go through unsecured doors, Rigg enters the room of their trap before the timer expires, causing Eric's death and apparently killing Hoffman as well. However, Hoffman releases himself from his bonds, having never been in any danger, and reveals himself as Jigsaw's accomplice. Hoffman leaves Rigg to die and walks out of the room. The morgue scene replays with a more detailed message to Hoffman stating that Jigsaw's work is not over and that Hoffman will not go untested.

Saw V
Hoffman has a more significant role in Saw V. After FBI agent Peter Strahm enters Jigsaw's sickroom following the events of Saw III and Saw IV, Hoffman comes in from the scene of Rigg's final test and locks Strahm in. Strahm finds a hidden back door leading into a passage, where a microcassette warns not to proceed any further. Ignoring this message, Strahm moves down the passage, where Hoffman captures him and places him into a trap intended to kill him by drowning. Much to Hoffman's bewilderment, Strahm escapes his trap and is carried away on a gurney, while Hoffman makes himself out to be a hero, taking credit for the rescue of Corbett Denlon and ending the Jigsaw murders.

It is revealed that Hoffman was the one who set up Seth Baxter's inescapable trap, in which Seth was bisected by a swinging pendulum blade, in retaliation for the murder of Hoffman's sister; Hoffman made it look like a Jigsaw trap. Jigsaw subsequently kidnapped Hoffman, accusing him of blaming Jigsaw for something he had done, and blackmailed Hoffman into becoming his apprentice; he subsequently helped John find victims and set up several of the games seen in the first three films.

Strahm begins to pursue Hoffman as a five-person trap set up by the latter plays out. Hoffman plants evidence to frame Strahm as the last Jigsaw apprentice. This deception eventually leads Strahm's superior, FBI agent Dan Erickson, to put out an all-points bulletin for Strahm's immediate arrest for the Jigsaw murders.

Meanwhile, Strahm trails Hoffman to a dark basement with the hopes of finding him there. Strahm instead finds a glass box with a cassette tape from Hoffman. The tape states that Strahm will need to trust him and get into the box (filled with broken glass) if he wants to live. Strahm chooses not to heed the warning and instead throws Hoffman into the box, which safely lowers Hoffman down into the floor while the walls slide together, crushing Strahm to death. Hoffman is left as the hero from the Jigsaw murders, and Strahm (still believed to be alive by the world at large) is considered a suspect as Jigsaw's second apprentice.

Saw VI
In Saw VI, Hoffman traps a health insurer, William Easton, who denied a man's claim for medical help, leading to his death. It is later revealed that William had rejected Jigsaw's insurance claim in relation to his cancer treatment, and that this is part of a wider game in which Jigsaw wants Hoffman to collaborate with Jill. Displeased, Hoffman visits Jill and tells her he will do it alone, demanding the information she was given about the targets for the trap. Jill gives Hoffman five envelopes that Jigsaw had given her for the next game.

FBI agent Lindsey Perez, thought to have died in Saw IV, is revealed to be alive. She figures out that Hoffman is Jigsaw's real apprentice, not Strahm. The key evidence is an audio lab analysis (with Hoffman present) of the tape from Seth Baxter's trap, which proves to contain Hoffman's disguised voice. Hoffman attacks Erickson and Perez, uses the technician as a shield against Perez's gunshots, and demands who else knows about him. Perez says, "Everyone," before Hoffman finally kills her. He then sets the audio lab on fire to destroy the evidence and finish off the three victims, planting Strahm's fingerprints around the room to keep suspicion from himself.

The contents of Amanda's letter (as seen in Saw III and Saw IV) are shown in a flashback, which explains that Hoffman had discovered that when Cecil robbed Jill's clinic for drugs, he was not acting alone. Amanda, visibly going through withdrawals and desperate for another high, pressured Cecil into doing so, she inadvertently caused Jill to miscarry her and John's unborn child, Gideon. In the letter, Hoffman blackmailed Amanda into killing Lynn, telling her that if she failed to do so, he would reveal her involvement in Jill's miscarriage to John.

One of John's last requests to Jill is to test Hoffman, from one of the envelopes containing Hoffman's photograph. Jill stuns him, straps him into a chair, and puts him in an updated version of the reverse bear trap but does not leave a key for him to free himself. To escape, Hoffman slams his head down onto his left hand, breaking it so that he can slip it out of the strap. He tries unsuccessfully to open the lock with a screw driver, then throws his head through a barred window on the door; when the timer runs out, the device becomes jammed in the bars failing to open fully. He then pulls his head free, sustaining a major wound to his right cheek as a result, and survives.

Saw 3D
In Saw 3D, after escaping the updated reverse bear trap, Hoffman leaves, taking medical supplies, and returns to his hideout where he stitches his cheek and bandages his hand. Jill meets with Matt Gibson, an Internal Affairs detective at Hoffman's precinct, and tells him that Hoffman has been involved as an accomplice in nearly every Jigsaw murder. The police attempt to raid the area where Hoffman is, but he hides himself in a body bag and is rolled into the coroner's office. After escaping from there, he goes on a killing spree at the police station. He then finds Jill and puts her in the original reverse bear trap while she is strapped to a chair. With no means for Jill to escape, the trap springs open and kills her. While a news broadcast is heard reporting that Jill has been found dead and that Hoffman is now wanted by the authorities, Hoffman destroys his hideout and prepares to flee the city, but is attacked by three people wearing pig masks. One of the men is revealed to be Dr. Lawrence Gordon, who survived the amputation of his own foot by cauterizing his stump using a hot steam pipe; he was later nursed back to health by John, who subsequently recruited him as an apprentice. Lawrence takes Hoffman into the bathroom from the first film, chains him by the ankle to the pipes, and throws away the hacksaw he used to cut off his own foot before he can do the same. Lawrence then shuts off the lights and leaves, closing the door and leaving Hoffman to die.

Saw X
After John is conned into a fake cancer treatment sometime between the events of Saw and Saw II, he tasks Hoffman with obtaining information about those who deceived him. In a post-credits scene, Hoffman stands alongside Jigsaw in the bathroom from the first film, assisting him in the test for Henry Kessler, who lured John into the scheme in the first place.

Characterization
Prior to the release of Saw VI, actor Costas Mandylor stated of his character, "Hoffman is sort of torn of becoming a mad man or becoming a guy that's more composed, coming from a pure place like Jigsaw. That's my character's dilemma; does he go fucking crazy or follow the rules of the boss?" Costas also mentioned that, when compared to Jigsaw and his morals, the rough edges of Hoffman are really shown.

References

Saw (franchise) characters
Male horror film villains
Fictional American police detectives
Fictional inventors
Fictional vigilantes
Fictional serial killers
Fictional kidnappers
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional police officers in films
Film characters introduced in 2006
Police misconduct in fiction
Fictional torturers
Male film villains

Mark Hoffman


Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the ages of rock strata in relation to time.

The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of the Earth.

The standard stratigraphic nomenclature is a chronostratigraphic system based on palaeontological intervals of time defined by recognised fossil assemblages (biostratigraphy). The aim of chronostratigraphy is to give a meaningful age date to these fossil assemblage intervals and interfaces.

Methodology
Chronostratigraphy relies heavily upon isotope geology and geochronology to derive hard dating of known and well defined rock units which contain the specific fossil assemblages defined by the stratigraphic system. In practice, as it is very difficult to isotopically date most fossils and sedimentary rocks directly, inferences must be made in order to arrive at an age date which reflects the beginning of the interval.

The methodology used is derived from the law of superposition and the principles of cross-cutting relationships.

Because igneous rocks occur at specific intervals in time and are essentially instantaneous on a geologic time scale, and because they contain mineral assemblages which may be dated more accurately and precisely by isotopic methods, the construction of a chronostratigraphic column relies heavily upon intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.

Metamorphism, often associated with faulting, may also be used to bracket depositional intervals in a chronostratigraphic column. Metamorphic rocks can occasionally be dated, and this may give some limits to the age at which a bed could have been laid down. For example, if a bed containing graptolites overlies crystalline basement at some point, dating the crystalline basement will give a maximum age of that fossil assemblage.

This process requires a considerable degree of effort and checking of field relationships and age dates. For instance, there may be many millions of years between a bed being laid down and an intrusive rock cutting it; the estimate of age must necessarily be between the oldest cross-cutting intrusive rock in the fossil assemblage and the youngest rock upon which the fossil assemblage rests.

Units
Chronostratigraphic units, with examples:
eonothem – Phanerozoic
erathem – Paleozoic
system – Ordovician
series – Upper Ordovician
stage – Ashgill

Differences from geochronology

It is important not to confuse geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units.  Chronostratigraphic units are geological material, so it is correct to say that fossils of the species Tyrannosaurus rex have been found in the Upper Cretaceous Series. Geochronological units are periods of time and take the same name as standard stratigraphic units but replacing the terms upper/lower with late/early. Thus it is also correct to say that Tyrannosaurus rex lived during the Late Cretaceous Epoch.

Chronostratigraphy is an important branch of stratigraphy because the age correlations derived are crucial in drawing accurate cross sections of the spatial organization of rocks and in preparing accurate paleogeographic reconstructions.

See also
 Biostratigraphy
 Chronozone
 Geochronology
 Geologic record
 Geologic time scale
 List of geochronologic names
 Tectonostratigraphy

References

Geochronological dating methods
Stratigraphy
Geologic time scales of Earth
Geology terminology
Subfields of paleontology

Chronostratigraphy


The office of Royal Librarian, in the Royal Collection Department of the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom, is responsible for the care and maintenance of the books and manuscripts in the Royal Library, a collection spread across all the palaces, occupied and unoccupied. In addition to their role overseeing the librarians in the Royal Library, the Librarian is also Deputy Keeper of the Royal Archives and is responsible for the management of the Royal Archives and its collections.

The role of the Royal Librarian
Today the Royal Library collections comprise the documentary and intellectual heritage of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom and its predecessors, span nearly two-and-half millennia and comprise millions of pages, many unique, many encapsulating some of the most extraordinary moments in British history, and many items important in their own right. As well as books and manuscripts, The Librarian is also responsible for the collections of insignia, coins and medals, seals, banknotes, and other material. As Assistant Keeper of the Royal Archives, The Librarian has oversight of the Royal Archives, based at Windsor Castle since 1911. The Royal Library and Royal Archives supports the work of the Royal Household in the Royal Collection Trust Department through exhibitions, events, and publications, and the work of the Lord Chamberlain's and Private Secretary's Offices through the creation of displays and manufacture of gifts for State Visits, for selected garden parties, and other types of official and public engagement. The Royal Library and Royal Archives teams work very closely with the information assurance work of Royal Household to meet the challenges of dealing with library and archive material in the digital age.  The Royal Library includes responsibility for the Royal Library bindery.

History
Although a Librarian was always required for any sizeable royal collection of books, the present office dates from 1836, when the then existing collections of books at Windsor Castle were consolidated. This followed two donations of the bulk of the historic collections to the British Museum (now held in the split-off British Library).  The so-called Old Royal Library was given under George II in 1757, and included the relatively small, but high quality, holdings of medieval manuscripts, many acquired or re-acquired long after their creation, and a collection essentially beginning with Edward IV that had been retained since new in the royal library.  The King's Library was some 65,000 volumes essentially assembled by George III and given by George IV. The offer was made in 1823, but the physical transfer delayed until 1827, when a new gallery had been built.

The office was only admitted to the Royal Household in the 19th century. John Glover was appointed in 1837 and since his time there have been 8 subsequent Librarians. They are:
 John Glover 1837-1860
 Bernard Woodward 1860-1869
 Richard (later Sir Richard) Holmes 1870-1905
 The Hon. (later Sir John) Fortescue 1905-1926
 Owen (later Sir Owen) Morshead 1926-1958
 Robin (later Sir Robin) Mackworth-Young 1958-1985
 Oliver Everett 1985-2002
 The Hon. Jane (later Lady) Roberts 2002-2013
 Oliver Urquhart Irvine 2014-2018
 Stella Panayotova 2019-

Up to and including the tenure of Oliver Everett, the Librarians were responsible for all the collections within the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, including the prints and drawings collections, and since the establishment of the Royal Archives in the Round Tower at Windsor Castle in 1911, the Librarian has also been responsible for the day-to-day management of the Royal Archives answering to the Keeper of the Royal Archives, a post held by the Sovereign's Private Secretary. From 2002-2013 the then Librarian, The Hon. Lady Jane Roberts's responsibilities included the Library and prints and drawings only, with the Assistant Keepership of the Royal Archives coming under the responsibility of Director of Records (currently David Ryan LVO first as Assistant Keeper and now as Deputy Keeper of the Royal Archives). Since 2014, The Librarian has once again responsibility as Assistant Keeper of the Royal Archives, while the prints and drawings collections held in the Print Room became the responsibility of a newly created post of Head of Prints and Drawings (currently Martin Clayton MVO).

The current Librarian and Deputy Keeper is Stella Panayotova, formerly of the Fitzwilliam Museum.

References

External links
 The Monarchy website
 The Royal Archives
 Queen Victoria's Journals online
 The Royal Collection Trust website
 The British Library

British monarchy
Positions within the British Royal Household
Royal Librarian
Windsor Castle

Royal Librarian (United Kingdom)