Endodermal sinus tumor (EST) is a member of the germ cell tumor group of cancers. It is the most common testicular tumor in children under three, and is also known as infantile embryonal carcinoma. This age group has a very good prognosis. In contrast to the pure form typical of infants, adult endodermal sinus tumors are often found in combination with other kinds of germ cell tumor, particularly teratoma and embryonal carcinoma. While pure teratoma is usually benign, endodermal sinus tumor is malignant.

Cause
Causes for this cancer are poorly understood.

Diagnosis
The histology of EST is variable, but usually includes malignant endodermal cells. These cells secrete alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), which can be detected in tumor tissue, serum, cerebrospinal fluid, urine and, in the rare case of fetal EST, in amniotic fluid. When there is incongruence between biopsy and AFP test results for EST, the result indicating presence of EST dictates treatment. This is because EST often occurs as small "malignant foci" within a larger tumor, usually teratoma, and biopsy is a sampling method; biopsy of the tumor may reveal only teratoma, whereas elevated AFP reveals that EST is also present. GATA-4, a transcription factor, also may be useful in the diagnosis of EST.

Diagnosis of EST in pregnant women and in infants is complicated by the extremely high levels of AFP in those two groups. Tumor surveillance by monitoring AFP requires accurate correction for gestational age in pregnant women, and age in infants. In pregnant women, this can be achieved simply by testing maternal serum AFP rather than tumor marker AFP. In infants, the tumor marker test is used, but must be interpreted using a reference table or graph of normal AFP in infants.

Pathology
EST can have a multitude of morphologic patterns including: reticular, endodermal sinus-like, microcystic, papillary, solid, glandular, alveolar, polyvesicular vitelline, enteric and hepatoid.

Schiller–Duval bodies on histology are pathognomonic and seen in the context of the endodermal sinus-like pattern. Rarely, it can be found in the vagina.

Treatment
Most treatments involve some combination of surgery and chemotherapy. Treatment with cisplatin, etoposide, and bleomycin has been described. Before modern chemotherapy, this type of neoplasm was highly lethal, but the prognosis has significantly improved since then. When endodermal sinus tumors are treated promptly with surgery and chemotherapy, fatal outcomes are exceedingly rare.

See also
 Germ cell tumor
 Testicular cancer

References

External links

Male genital neoplasia
Pediatric cancers
Gynaecological cancer
Colorectal surgery
Rare cancers
Germ cell neoplasia
Endoderm

Endodermal sinus tumor


The Kind Movement (sometimes stylized as KIND Movement) is a cause-marketing campaign launched by Kind LLC, a New-York-based snack-food manufacturer.

History
Introduced in 2008, the Kind Movement was announced by Kind LLC's marketing director with the purpose of "[furthering] our mission to make the world a little kinder by inspiring kind acts." The Kind Movement is said to have "inspired thousands of unexpected acts of kindness around the world".

Kinded
The Kinded involved created and distributed uniquely coded cards that were to serve as 'licenses' to do kind acts. The hope was that this would start a chain of kind acts that could be publicly tracked by their unique code on an interactive online platform.

Do the KIND Thing
In March 2010, the company furthered its efforts to inspire unexpected acts of kindness with Do the KIND Thing, a platform that empowered people to turn kind acts into support for causes. During the platform's three-month duration, Do The KIND Thing inspired more than 40,000 acts of kindness in support of nearly 150 causes. At the culmination, KIND awarded funds to the three causes that inspired the greatest number of KIND acts: Operation Gratitude Good Girls Give and Suffolk County JCC

In March 2011, KIND unveiled a new iteration of Do the KIND Thing where people could transform their small acts of kindness into big KIND Acts that give back to the world.

On the first Tuesday of each month, KIND challenges its community to carry out a specific KINDING Mission (KIND Tuesday). If enough people sign up to complete that month's KINDING Mission, KIND carries out a BIG KIND Act for a group of people that really needs it.

#Kindawesome Card
The #kindawesome card is a method noted on the Kind bar website. When someone does something nice, a #kindawesome card can be sent to them that can be redeemed for a free kind bar. The recipient gets another card to pass on to someone else and continue the kind gesture.

Kind Food Truck
In April 2011, Kind introduced the Kind Food Truck to recruit people for the movement and to distribute samples of Kind products.

Kind Charitable Support
In 2010, Kind granted more than $100,000 in product and monetary donations to causes that inspired kindness—including organizations such as Surfrider Foundation, Common Threads, Autism Speaks, Extreme Makeover Home Edition and the Great Kindness Challenges.

Reception
The Kinded campaign received mixed press coverage, with NBC Connecticut asking, "Clever and optimistic or jaded marketing ploy?" It was recognized by Time as a "new way to make a difference" and by  Ladies' Home Journalas a way to "snack and give back."

See also
 List of food trucks

References

External links

Promotion and marketing communications
Kindness
Food trucks

Kind Movement


Emile Gerardus Maria Roemer (born August 24, 1962 in Boxmeer) is a Dutch politician of the Socialist Party (SP). He was political and parliamentary leader from March 5, 2010 until December 13, 2017. His successor is Lilian Marijnissen.

He was a member of the Second Chamber from 2006 to 2018. Previously he was an alderman of Boxmeer, and a member of the party board.

He was acting mayor of Heerlen from 2018 until 2020, and acting mayor of Alkmaar from 2020 until 2021. He has been King's Commissioner of Limburg since December 1, 2021.

Roemer is a former school teacher.

References

 Bio at Parlement.com

1962 births
Living people
Aldermen of the Netherlands
Dutch councillors
Dutch mayors
Dutch provincial politicians
Dutch Roman Catholics
Dutch teachers
Leaders of political parties in the Netherlands
Members of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands
Politicians from North Brabant
Socialist Party (Netherlands) politicians

Emile Roemer


John Joseph Cameron (28 May 1882 in Kingston, Jamaica – 12 December 1954 in Kingston, Jamaica) was a West Indian cricketer who toured with the second West Indian touring side to England in 1906. A Doctor, he was a right-handed batsman and a slow right arm bowler.

He hadn't played a single first class cricket match before being selected for the 1906 tour to England although he had played for Canada against the U.S.A. in Toronto in 1905. Before the tour started he was described as "a useful all-round cricketer" and "a student at the University of Edinburgh and a fine field at cover point; a useful change bowled and sound bat". He was a complete disappointment on the tour. In his 5 first class matches he scored just 33 runs and bowled only 3 overs. His only innings of any size was 28 against South Wales in a minor match.

In England in 1907 and 1908 he played a single first class match each season, taking 5-83 for the Gentlemen of England against Surrey in the 1908 match. He played against the Philadelphian team that played in Jamaica in 1908-09 with a little success.

After a long gap he played in three further first class matches for Jamaica, two against Barbados in 1924-25 and finally one against LH Tennyson's team in 1927-28, scoring 52, the only half century of his first class career.

His brother-in-law Edward Hull played for Jamaica, while his sons John Cameron and Jimmy Cameron played for Jamaica and in Test Cricket for the West Indies.

References

External links
CricketArchive stats
Cricinfo player profile

1882 births
1954 deaths
Pre-1928 West Indies cricketers
Jamaican cricketers
Gentlemen of England cricketers
Jamaica cricketers
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
W. G. Grace's XI cricketers

John Joseph Cameron


Eileen Mabel Elizabeth Way (2 September 1911 – 16 June 1994) was a British actress who appeared in film and television roles in a career dating back to the 1930s.  She trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art from the age of 16.

She was in some of the first productions of Tennessee Williams' plays in Great Britain, including playing the role of the Mexican Woman in A Streetcar Named Desire, and appeared at the Bristol Old Vic and Nottingham Playhouse.

She appeared in the TV series Doctor Who, in the serials An Unearthly Child (as Old Mother, the programme's first on-screen death) and The Creature from the Pit (as Karela), as well as in the 1966 film Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. (as Old Woman), based on the serial The Dalek Invasion of Earth (1964). She also appeared in the second series of Poldark (1977) as Aunt Agatha; Century Falls; Upstairs, Downstairs; By the Sword Divided; Inspector Morse; Bergerac; and ''Ripping Yarns.

She was married to the psychiatrist Felix Warden Brown.

Filmography

Film

Television

References

External links

1911 births
1994 deaths
20th-century English actresses
Actresses from Surrey
English film actresses
English television actresses
Alumni of RADA
People from New Malden

Eileen Way


Relative can refer to:
 Kinship, If two people are connected by birth, they are said to be relatives

Physics
 Relativity, an idea in physics (for example Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity)
 Relative angular momentum, astronomy
 Relative density
 Relativity drive, propulsion
 Relative humidity, meteorology/physics
 Relative decibel, acoustics
 Relative effectiveness factor, demolitions
 Relative intensity noise, optics
 Relative motion, kinematics
 Relative permeability, fluid dynamics
 Relative pressure
 Relative thermal resistance
 Relative velocity
 Relative viscosity
 Relative wind, aeronautics

Math
 Relatively complemented lattice, lattice theory
 Relative risk, statistics and epidemiology
 Relative standard deviation, statistics
 Grothendieck's relative point of view, category/scheme theory

Topology
 Relatively compact subspace
 Relative homology
 Relative interior

Philosophy
 Knowledge relativity, relativity as a philosophical concept, opposed to absolute
 Relativism

Economics/Finance
 Relative deprivation, socioeconomics
 Relative investment performance
 Relative price
 Relative strength index
 Relative valuation
 Relative value

Music
 Relative key
 Relative pitch

Popular culture
Film and television
 Relatively Speaking (play), 1965 British play
 Relatively Speaking, late 1980s television game show
 Everything's Relative, 2000 Japanese anime Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters episode
 Relative Values, 2000 film
 It's All Relative, 2003-4 comedy television series

Literature
 The Relativity of Wrong, 1988 Isaac Asimov essay
 Relative Heroes, 2000 DC comic book series
 Time and Relative, 2001 Doctor Who book
 Relative Dementias, 2002 Doctor Who book series

Music
 Relative Degree, late 1990s rock band of Linkin Park members
 Friends & Relatives, 1999 compilation album
 Dead Relatives, 2000 music album by Canadian Emm Gryner
 Relative Ways, 2001 music album by ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead
 Relative Theory Records, 2003 record store in Norfolk, Virginia, USA

Other
 Positive relative accommodation, ophthamalogy
 Relative bearing indicator, aviation
 Relative addressing, computer science
 Relative dating, archaeology, geology
 Relative direction, orientation
 Relative gain (international relations)
 Relative location, geography
 Luminance (relative)
 Relative survival, epidemiology

Related pages
 Relativity

Relative


Battle rap (or rap battling) is a type of rapping that includes boasting and bragging. Rap battles are often performed as live contests in front of an audience. Two or more rappers compete to see who has the better verses. The raps can be rehearsed or freestyled. A freestyle battle is where the rappers use improvised lyrics. Battling can also occur on recorded songs.

Each competitor's goal is to insult their opponent through clever lyrics. They must also convince the audience that they are the better rapper. Judges have been used in formal contests. Without judges, the rapper who receives the best response from the audience is viewed as the winner.

ERB
The YouTube channel Epic Rap Battles of History is based on the idea of famous people from history and well-known fictional characters battle rapping

References

Rap music
Hip hop genres

Battle rap


The Putnam Street Historic District is a residential historic district roughly bounded by Winthrop, Putnam, Temple, and Shaw Streets in Newton, Massachusetts.  It encompasses a residential area located on the hill just south of West Newton which was developed between the 1860s and 1880s.  The 20 properties in the nearly  district are primarily Second Empire, Queen Anne, and Stick style.  The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.

Description and history
Putnam Street is located just south of the village of West Newton, across the Massachusetts Turnpike and the main east-west railroad tracks between Boston and Worcester.  It extends southward from the rotary that carries Massachusetts Route 16 across the highway, and runs for two blocks to Temple Street, another residential street.  Winthrop Street extends west from Putnam Street for two blocks, ending at Perkins Street.  The Putnam Street Historic District includes 18 properties on Putnam and Winthrop Streets, and two on Temple at the end of Putnam Street.

This area was largely undeveloped residentially before the railroad was built through the area in 1834.  Development began with the introduction of commuter rail services into Boston in the 1840s.  Most of the lots in this district were laid out in the early 1860s by the Newton Land Company, although the oldest house (34 Temple Street) dates to 1849, with later Queen Anne alterations.  The houses built between about 1868 and 1885 represent a cohesive collection of Second Empire, Stick style, and Queen Anne Victorian buildings.  Many of the Second Empire buildings appear to have been built by a single builder during the 1870s; for example, the houses at 4, 44, and 52 Winthrop Street all have very similar detailing.  The finest Queen Anne house in the district is 44 Putnam Street, built in 1885.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Newton, Massachusetts

References

National Register of Historic Places in Newton, Massachusetts
Historic districts in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Second Empire architecture in Massachusetts
Queen Anne architecture in Massachusetts
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts

Putnam Street Historic District


A GeneralizedTime is a time format in the ASN.1 notation.
It consists of a string value representing the calendar date, as defined in ISO 8601, a time of day with an optional fractional seconds element and the optional local time differential factor as defined in ISO 8601.

In contrast to the UTCe class of ASN.1 the  uses a four-digit representation of the year to avoid possible ambiguity.
Another difference is the possibility to encode time information of any wanted precision via the fractional seconds element.

Examples from ITU-T X.680:
"19851106210627.3"
local time 6 minutes, 27.3 seconds after 9 pm on 6 November 1985.

"19851106210627.3Z"
coordinated universal time as above.

"19851106210627.3-0500"
local time as in the first example, with local time 5 hours retarded in relation to coordinated universal time.

ASN.1 also defines a  time format widely used in SNMP, that includes separator characters and does not pad the fields (e.g., "1985-11-6,21:6:27.3,-5:0").

See also
 The X.690 encoding standard for ASN.1

ITU-T recommendations
ITU-T G Series Recommendations

GeneralizedTime


The Hubble sequence is a morphological classification scheme for galaxies published by Edwin Hubble in 1926. It is often colloquially known as the Hubble tuning-fork diagram because the shape in which it is traditionally represented resembles a tuning fork.
It was invented by John Henry Reynolds and Sir James Jeans.

The tuning fork scheme divided regular galaxies into three broad classes – ellipticals, lenticulars and spirals – based on their visual appearance (originally on photographic plates). A fourth class contains galaxies with an irregular appearance. The Hubble sequence is the most commonly used system for classifying galaxies, both in professional astronomical research and in amateur astronomy.

Classes of galaxies

Ellipticals

On the left (in the sense that the sequence is usually drawn) lie the ellipticals. Elliptical galaxies have relatively smooth, featureless light distributions and appear as ellipses in photographic images. They are denoted by the letter E, followed by an integer  representing their degree of ellipticity in the sky. By convention,  is ten times the ellipticity of the galaxy, rounded to the nearest integer, where the ellipticity is defined as  for an ellipse with  the semi-major axis length and  the semi-minor axis length. The ellipticity increases from left to right on the Hubble diagram, with near-circular (E0) galaxies situated on the very left of the diagram. It is important to note that the ellipticity of a galaxy on the sky is only indirectly related to the true 3-dimensional shape (for example, a flattened, discus-shaped galaxy can appear almost round if viewed face-on or highly elliptical if viewed edge-on). Observationally, the most flattened "elliptical" galaxies have ellipticities  (denoted E7). However, from studying the light profiles and the ellipticity profiles, rather than just looking at the images, it was realised in the 1960s that the E5–E7 galaxies are probably misclassified lenticular galaxies with large-scale disks seen at various inclinations to our line-of-sight. Observations of the kinematics of early-type galaxies further confirmed this.

Examples of elliptical galaxies: M49, M59, M60, M87, NGC 4125.

Lenticulars

At the centre of the Hubble tuning fork, where the two spiral-galaxy branches and the elliptical branch join, lies an intermediate class of galaxies known as lenticulars and given the symbol S0. These galaxies consist of a bright central bulge, similar in appearance to an elliptical galaxy, surrounded by an extended, disk-like structure. Unlike spiral galaxies, the disks of lenticular galaxies have no visible spiral structure and are not actively forming stars in any significant quantity.

When simply looking at a galaxy's image, lenticular galaxies with relatively face-on disks are difficult to distinguish from ellipticals of type E0–E3, making the classification of many such galaxies uncertain. When viewed edge-on, the disk becomes more apparent and prominent dust-lanes are sometimes visible in absorption at optical wavelengths.

At the time of the initial publication of Hubble's galaxy classification scheme, the existence of lenticular galaxies was purely hypothetical. Hubble believed that they were necessary as an intermediate stage between the highly flattened "ellipticals" and spirals. Later observations (by Hubble himself, among others) showed Hubble's belief to be correct and the S0 class was included in the definitive exposition of the Hubble sequence by Allan Sandage. Missing from the Hubble sequence are the early-type galaxies with intermediate-scale disks, in between the E0 and S0 types, Martha Liller denoted them ES galaxies in 1966.

Lenticular and spiral galaxies, taken together, are often referred to as disk galaxies.  The bulge-to-disk flux ratio in lenticular galaxies can take on a range of values, just as it does for each of the spiral galaxy morphological types (Sa, Sb, etc.).

Examples of lenticular galaxies: M85, M86, NGC 1316, NGC 2787, NGC 5866, Centaurus A.

Spirals

On the right of the Hubble sequence diagram are two parallel branches encompassing the spiral galaxies. A spiral galaxy consists of a flattened disk, with stars forming a (usually two-armed) spiral structure, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. Roughly half of all spirals are also observed to have a bar-like structure, with the bar extending from the central bulge, and the arms begin at the ends of the bar. In the tuning-fork diagram, the regular spirals occupy the upper branch and are denoted by the letter S, while the lower branch contains the barred spirals, given the symbol SB. Both type of spirals are further subdivided according to the detailed appearance of their spiral structures. Membership of one of these subdivisions is indicated by adding a lower-case letter to the morphological type, as follows:
 Sa (SBa) – tightly wound, smooth arms; large, bright central bulge
 Sb (SBb) – less tightly wound spiral arms than Sa (SBa); somewhat fainter bulge
 Sc (SBc) – loosely wound spiral arms, clearly resolved into individual stellar clusters and nebulae; smaller, fainter bulge

Hubble originally described three classes of spiral galaxy. This was extended by Gérard de Vaucouleurs to include a fourth class:
 Sd (SBd) – very loosely wound, fragmentary arms; most of the luminosity is in the arms and not the bulge

Although strictly part of the de Vaucouleurs system of classification, the Sd class is often included in the Hubble sequence. The basic spiral types can be extended to enable finer distinctions of appearance. For example, spiral galaxies whose appearance is intermediate between two of the above classes are often identified by appending two lower-case letters to the main galaxy type (for example, Sbc for a galaxy that is intermediate between an Sb and an Sc).

Our own Milky Way is generally classed as Sc or SBc, making it a barred spiral with well-defined arms.

Examples of regular spiral galaxies: (visually) M31 (Andromeda Galaxy), M74, M81, M104 (Sombrero Galaxy), M51a (Whirlpool Galaxy), NGC 300, NGC 772.

Examples of barred spiral galaxies: M91, M95, NGC 1097, NGC 1300, NGC1672, NGC 2536, NGC 2903.

Irregulars

Galaxies that do not fit into the Hubble sequence, because they have no regular structure (either disk-like or ellipsoidal), are termed irregular galaxies. Hubble defined two classes of irregular galaxy:
 Irr I galaxies have asymmetric profiles and lack a central bulge or obvious spiral structure; instead they contain many individual clusters of young stars
 Irr II galaxies have smoother, asymmetric appearances and are not clearly resolved into individual stars or stellar clusters
In his extension to the Hubble sequence, de Vaucouleurs called the Irr I galaxies 'Magellanic irregulars', after the Magellanic Clouds – two satellites of the Milky Way which Hubble classified as Irr I. The discovery of a faint spiral structure in the Large Magellanic Cloud led de Vaucouleurs to further divide the irregular galaxies into those that, like the LMC, show some evidence for spiral structure (these are given the symbol Sm) and those that have no obvious structure, such as the Small Magellanic Cloud (denoted Im). In the extended Hubble sequence, the Magellanic irregulars are usually placed at the end of the spiral branch of the Hubble tuning fork.

Examples of irregular galaxies: M82, NGC 1427A, Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud.

Physical significance

Elliptical and lenticular galaxies are commonly referred to together as "early-type" galaxies, while spirals and irregular galaxies are referred to as "late types". This nomenclature is the source of the common, but erroneous, belief that the Hubble sequence was intended to reflect a supposed evolutionary sequence, from elliptical galaxies through lenticulars to either barred or regular spirals. In fact, Hubble was clear from the beginning that no such interpretation was implied:
The nomenclature, it is emphasized, refers to position in the sequence, and temporal connotations are made at one's peril. The entire classification is purely empirical and without prejudice to theories of evolution...
The evolutionary picture appears to be lent weight by the fact that the disks of spiral galaxies are observed to be home to many young stars and regions of active star formation, while elliptical galaxies are composed of predominantly old stellar populations. In fact, current evidence suggests the opposite: the early Universe appears to be dominated by spiral and irregular galaxies. In the currently favored picture of galaxy formation, present-day ellipticals formed as a result of mergers between these earlier building blocks; while some lenticular galaxies may have formed this way, others may have accreted their disks around pre-existing spheroids. Some lenticular galaxies may also be evolved spiral galaxies, whose gas has been stripped away leaving no fuel for continued star formation, although the galaxy LEDA 2108986 opens the debate on this.

Shortcomings

A common criticism of the Hubble scheme is that the criteria for assigning galaxies to classes are subjective, leading to different observers assigning galaxies to different classes (although experienced observers usually agree to within less than a single Hubble type). Although not really a shortcoming, since the 1961 Hubble Atlas of Galaxies, the primary criteria used to assign the morphological type (a, b, c, etc.) has been the nature of the spiral arms, rather than the bulge-to-disk flux ratio, and thus a range of flux ratios exist for each morphological type, as with the lenticular galaxies.

Another criticism of the Hubble classification scheme is that, being based on the appearance of a galaxy in a two-dimensional image, the classes are only indirectly related to the true physical properties of galaxies. In particular, problems arise because of orientation effects. The same galaxy would look very different, if viewed edge-on, as opposed to a face-on or 'broadside' viewpoint. As such, the early-type sequence is poorly represented: The ES galaxies are missing from the Hubble sequence, and the E5–E7 galaxies are actually S0 galaxies. Furthermore, the barred ES and barred S0 galaxies are also absent.
Visual classifications are also less reliable for faint or distant galaxies, and the appearance of galaxies can change depending on the wavelength of light in which they are observed.

Nonetheless, the Hubble sequence is still commonly used in the field of extragalactic astronomy and Hubble types are known to correlate with many physically relevant properties of galaxies, such as luminosities, colours, masses (of stars and gas) and star formation rates.

In June 2019, citizen scientists in the Galaxy Zoo project argued that the usual Hubble classification, particularly concerning spiral galaxies, may not be supported by evidence. Consequently, the scheme may need revision.

See also

 Galaxy color–magnitude diagram
 Galaxy morphological classification

References

External links

Sequence
Astronomical classification systems
Extragalactic astronomy

Hubble sequence


The Plymouth Backpack was a front wheel drive concept car, Unveiled at the 1995 Chicago Auto show at the same time as other concepts, the Chrysler Thunderbolt and the Eagle Jazz, the Plymouth Back pack was a small pickup truck concept vehicle. A front wheel drive vehicle, the quirky Back pack could carry two passengers with ease, and even left enough room for a laptop on a small table inside the cabin. A bike rack on the back was also built into the vehicle.

Tom Gale, Chrysler's design chief that had visions of the future vehicles of the company; 'not what Plymouth is today, but what it will be', designed the sporty Backpack. The Back Pack was such a vehicle, and it was based on Neon underpinnings. Producing 135 horsepower, the Back Pack featured a MoPar 2-liter OHC 4-cylinder engine.

References

Backpack
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Pickup trucks

Plymouth Backpack


The Republic of Genoa was a medieval and early modern maritime republic from the 11th century to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast. During the Late Middle Ages, it was a major commercial power in both the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, it was one of the major financial centers in Europe.

Throughout its history, the Genoese Republic established numerous colonies throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, including Corsica from 1347 to 1768, Monaco, Southern Crimea from 1266 to 1475, and the islands of Lesbos and Chios from the 14th century to 1462 and 1566, respectively. With the arrival of the early modern period, the Republic had lost many of its colonies, and had to shift its interests and focus on banking. This decision would prove successful for Genoa, which remained as one of the hubs of capitalism, with highly developed banks and trading companies.

Genoa was known as "la Superba" ("the Superb one"), "la Dominante" ("The Dominant one"), "la Dominante dei mari" ("the Dominant of the Seas"), and "la Repubblica dei magnifici" ("the Republic of the Magnificents"). From the 11th century to 1528 it was officially known as the "Compagna Communis Ianuensis" and from 1580 as the "Serenìscima Repùbrica de Zêna" (Most Serene Republic of Genoa).

From 1339 until the state's extinction in 1797, the ruler of the republic was the Doge, originally elected for life, after 1528 was elected for terms of two years. However, in actuality, the Republic was an oligarchy ruled by a small group of merchant families, from whom the doges were selected.

The Genoese navy played a fundamental role in the wealth and power of the Republic over the centuries and its importance was recognized throughout Europe. To this day, its legacy, as a key factor in the triumph of the Genoese Republic, is still recognized and its coat of arms is depicted in the flag of the Italian Navy. In 1284, Genoa fought victoriously against the Republic of Pisa in the Battle of Meloria for the dominance over the Tyrrhenian Sea, and it was an eternal rival of Venice for dominance in the Mediterranean Sea.

The republic began when Genoa became a self-governing commune in the 11th century and ended when it was conquered by the French First Republic under Napoleon and replaced with the Ligurian Republic. The Ligurian Republic was annexed by the First French Empire in 1805; its restoration was briefly proclaimed in 1814 following the defeat of Napoleon, but it was ultimately annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1815.

Name
From the 11th century to 1528 it was officially known as the "Compagna Communis Ianuensis" and from 1580 as the "Serenìscima Repùbrica de Zêna" (the Most Serene Republic of Genoa) or also Repubblica di Genova (, ). It was nicknamed by Petrarch as La Superba, in reference to its glory and impressive landmarks. For over eight centuries the republic was also known as la Dominante (English: 'The Dominant one'), la Dominante dei mari (English: 'the Dominant of the Seas'), and la Repubblica dei magnifici (English: 'the Republic of the Magnificents').

History

Background
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city of Genoa was invaded by Germanic tribes, and, in about 643, Genoa and other Ligurian cities were captured by the Lombard Kingdom under the King Rothari. In 773 the Kingdom was annexed by the Frankish Empire; the first Carolingian count of Genoa was Ademarus, who was given the title praefectus civitatis Genuensis. During this time and in the following century Genoa was little more than a small centre, slowly building its merchant fleet, which was to become the leading commercial carrier of the Western Mediterranean. In 934–35 the town was thoroughly sacked and burned by a Fatimid fleet under Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi. This has led to discussion about whether early tenth-century Genoa was "hardly more than a fishing village" or a vibrant trading town worth attacking.

In the year 958, a diploma granted by Berengar II of Italy gave full legal freedom to the city of Genoa, guaranteeing the possession of its lands in the form of landed lordships. At the end of the 11th century the municipality adopted a constitution, at a meeting consisting of the city's trade associations (compagnie) and of the lords of the surrounding valleys and coasts. The new city-state was termed a Compagna Communis. The local organization remained politically and socially significant for centuries.  As late as 1382, the members of the Grand Council were classified by both the companion to which they belonged as well as by their political faction ("noble" versus "popular").

Rise

Before 1100, Genoa emerged as an independent city-state, one of a number of Italian city-states during this period. Nominally, the Holy Roman Emperor was overlord and the Bishop of Genoa was president of the city; however, actual power was wielded by a number of "consuls" annually elected by popular assembly. At that time Muslim raiders were attacking coastal cities on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Muslims raided Pisa in 1000, and in 1015 they escalated their attacks, raiding Luni. Mujahid al-Siqlabi, Emir of the Taifa of Denia attacked Sardinia with a fleet of 125 ships. In 1016, the allied troops of Genoa and Pisa defended Sardinia. In 1066, war erupted between Genoa and Pisa – possibly over control of Sardinia.

The republic was one of the so-called "Maritime Republics" (Repubbliche Marinare), along with Venice, Pisa, Amalfi, Gaeta, Ancona, and Ragusa.

In 1087, Genoese and Pisan fleets, led by Hugh of Pisa, and accompanied by troops from Pantaleone of Amalfi, Salerno, and Gaeta, attacked the North African city of Mahdia, the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate. The attack, supported by Pope Victor III, became known as the Mahdia campaign. The attackers captured the city, but could not hold it against Arab forces. After the burning of the Arab fleet in the city's harbor, the Genoese and Pisan troops retreated. The destruction of the Arab fleet gave control of the Western Mediterranean to Genoa, Venice, and Pisa. This enabled Western Europe to supply the troops of the First Crusade of 1096–1099 by sea.

In 1092, Genoa and Pisa, in collaboration with Alfonso VI of León and Castile attacked the Muslim Taifa of Valencia. They also unsuccessfully besieged Tortosa with support from troops of Sancho Ramírez, King of Aragon.

Genoa started expanding during the First Crusade. In 1097 Hugh of Châteauneuf, Bishop of Grenoble and William, Bishop of Orange, went to Genoa and preached in the church of San Siro in order to gather troops for the First Crusade. Twelve galleys, one ship, and 1,200 soldiers from Genoa joined the crusade. The Genoese troops, led by noblemen de Insula and Avvocato, set sail in July 1097. The Genoese fleet transported and provided naval support to the crusaders, mainly during the siege of Antioch in 1098, when the Genoese fleet blockaded the city while the troops provided support during the siege. In the siege of Jerusalem in 1099, Genoese crossbowmen led by Guglielmo Embriaco acted as support units against the defenders of the city.

After the capture of Antioch on May 3, 1098, Genoa forged an alliance with Bohemond of Taranto, who became the ruler of the Principality of Antioch. As a result, he granted them a headquarters, the church of San Giovanni, and 30 houses in Antioch. On May 6, 1098 a part of the Genoese army returned to Genoa with the relics of Saint John the Baptist, granted to the Republic of Genoa as part of their reward for providing military support to the First Crusade. Many settlements in the Middle East were given to Genoa as well as favorable commercial treaties.

Genoa later allied with King Baldwin I of Jerusalem (reigned 1100–1118). To secure the alliance, Baldwin gave Genoa one-third of the Lordship of Arsuf, one-third of Caesarea, and one-third of Acre and its port's income.  Additionally the Republic of Genoa would receive 300 bezants every year, and one-third of Baldwin's conquest every time 50 or more Genoese soldiers joined his troops.

The Republic's role as a maritime power in the region secured many favorable commercial treaties for Genoese merchants. They came to control a large portion of the trade of the Byzantine Empire, Tripoli (Libya), the Principality of Antioch, Cilician Armenia, and Egypt. Although Genoa maintained free-trading rights in Egypt and Syria, it lost some of its territorial possessions after Saladin's campaigns in those areas in the late 12th century.

In 1147, Genoa took part in the Siege of Almería, helping Alfonso VII of León and Castile reconquer that city from the Muslims. After the conquest the republic leased out its third of the city to one of its own citizens, Otto de Bonvillano, who swore fealty to the republic and promised to guard the city with three hundred men at all times. This demonstrates how Genoa's early efforts at expanding her influence involved enfeoffing private citizens to the commune and controlling overseas territories indirectly, rather than through the republican administration. In 1148, it joined the Siege of Tortosa and helped Count Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona take that city, for which it also received a third.

Over the course of the 11th and particularly the 12th centuries, Genoa became the dominant naval force in the Western Mediterranean, as its erstwhile rivals Pisa and Amalfi declined in importance. Genoa (along with Venice) succeeded in gaining a central position in the Mediterranean slave trade at this time. This left the Republic with only one major rival in the Mediterranean: Venice.

Genoese Crusaders brought home a green glass goblet from the Levant, which Genoese long regarded as the Holy Grail. Not all of Genoa's merchandise was so innocuous, however, as medieval Genoa became a major player in the slave trade.

13th and 14th centuries

The commercial and cultural rivalry of Genoa and Venice was played out through the thirteenth century. The Republic of Venice played a significant role in the Fourth Crusade, diverting "Latin" energies to the ruin of its former patron and present trading rival, Constantinople. As a result, Venetian support of the newly established Latin Empire meant that Venetian trading rights were enforced, and Venice gained control of a large portion of the commerce of the eastern Mediterranean.

In order to regain control of the commerce, the Republic of Genoa allied with Michael VIII Palaiologos, emperor of Nicaea, who wanted to restore the Byzantine Empire by recapturing Constantinople. In March 1261 the treaty of the alliance was signed in Nymphaeum. On July 25, 1261, Nicaean troops under Alexios Strategopoulos recaptured Constantinople.

As a result, the balance of favour tipped toward Genoa, which was granted free trade rights in the Nicene Empire. Besides the control of commerce in the hands of Genoese merchants, Genoa received ports and way stations in many islands and settlements in the Aegean Sea. The islands of Chios and Lesbos became commercial stations of Genoa as well as the city of Smyrna (Izmir).

Genoa and Pisa became the only states with trading rights in the Black Sea. In the same century the Republic conquered many settlements in Crimea, where the Genoese colony of Caffa was established. The alliance with the restored Byzantine Empire increased the wealth and power of Genoa, and simultaneously decreased Venetian and Pisan commerce. The Byzantine Empire had granted the majority of free trading rights to Genoa. In 1282 Pisa tried to gain control of the commerce and administration of Corsica, after being called for support by the judge Sinucello who revolted against Genoa. In August 1282, part of the Genoese fleet blockaded Pisan commerce near the river Arno. During 1283 both Genoa and Pisa made war preparations. Genoa built 120 galleys, 60 of which belonged to the Republic, while the other 60 galleys were rented to individuals. More than 15,000 mercenaries were hired as rowmen and soldiers. The Pisan fleet avoided combat, and tried to wear out the Genoese fleet during 1283. On August 5, 1284, in the naval Battle of Meloria the Genoese fleet, consisting of 93 ships led by Oberto Doria and Benedetto I Zaccaria, defeated the Pisan fleet, which consisted of 72 ships and was led by Albertino Morosini and Ugolino della Gherardesca. Genoa captured 30 Pisan ships, and sank seven. About 8,000 Pisans were killed during the battle, more than half of the Pisan troops, which were about 14,000. The defeat of Pisa, which never fully recovered as a maritime competitor, resulted in gain of control of the commerce of Corsica by Genoa. The Sardinian town of Sassari, which was under Pisan control, became a commune or self-styled "free municipality" which was controlled by Genoa. Control of Sardinia, however, did not pass permanently to Genoa: the Aragonese kings of Naples disputed control and did not secure it until the fifteenth century.

Genoese merchants pressed south, to the island of Sicily, and into Muslim North Africas, where Genoese established trading posts, pursuing the gold that traveled up through the Sahara and establishing Atlantic depots as far afield as Salé and Safi. In 1283 the population of the Kingdom of Sicily revolted against the Angevin rule. The revolt became known as the Sicilian Vespers. As a result, the Aragonese rule was established on the Kingdom. Genoa, which had supported the Aragonese, was granted free trading and export rights in the Kingdom of Sicily. Genoese bankers also profited from loans to the new nobility of Sicily. Corsica was formally annexed in 1347.

Genoa was far more than a depot of drugs and spices from the East: an essential engine of its economy was the weaving of silk textiles, from imported thread, following the symmetrical styles of Byzantine and Sassanian silks.

As a result of the economic retrenchment in Europe in the late fourteenth century, as well as its long war with Venice, which culminated in its defeat at Chioggia (1380), Genoa went into decline.  This pivotal war with Venice has come to be called the War of Chioggia because of this decisive battle which resulted in the defeat of Genoa at the hands of Venice. Prior to the War of Chioggia, which lasted from 1379 until 1381, the Genoese had enjoyed a naval ascendency that was the source of their power and position within northern Italy.  The Genoan defeat deprived Genoa of this naval supremacy,  pushed it out of eastern Mediterranean markets and began the decline of the city-state. Rising Ottoman power also cut into the Genoese emporia in the Aegean, and the Black Sea trade was reduced.

In 1396, in order to protect the republic from internal unrest and the provocations of the Duke of Orléans and the former Duke of Milan, the Doge of Genoa Antoniotto Adorno made Charles VI of France the difensor del comune ("defender of the municipality") of Genoa. Though the republic had previously been under partial foreign control, this marked the first time Genoa was dominated by a foreign power.

Golden age of Genoese bankers
Though not well-studied, Genoa in the 15th century seems to have been tumultuous. The city had a strong tradition of trading goods from the Levant and its financial expertise was recognised all over Europe. After a brief period of French domination from 1394 to 1409, Genoa came under the rule of the Visconti of Milan. Genoa lost Sardinia to Aragon, Corsica to internal revolt, and its colonies in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor to the Ottoman Empire.

In the 15th century, two of the earliest banks in the world were founded in Genoa: the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, which was the oldest state deposit bank in the world at its closure in 1805, and the Banca Carige, founded in 1483 as a mount of piety, which existed until 2022

Threatened by Alfonso V of Aragon, the Doge of Genoa in 1458 handed the Republic over to the French, making it the Duchy of Genoa under the control of John of Anjou, a French royal governor. However, with support from Milan, Genoa revolted and the Republic was restored in 1461. The Milanese then changed sides, conquering Genoa in 1464 and holding it as a fief of the French crown. Between 1463–78 and 1488–99, Genoa was held by the Milanese House of Sforza. From 1499 to 1528, the Republic reached its nadir, being under nearly continual French occupation. The Spanish, with their intramural allies, the "old nobility" entrenched in the mountain fastnesses behind Genoa, captured the city on May 30, 1522, and subjected the city to a pillage. When the admiral Andrea Doria of the powerful Doria family allied with the Emperor Charles V to oust the French and restore Genoa's independence, a renewed prospect opened: 1528 marks the first loan from Genoese banks to Charles.

Under the ensuing economic recovery, many aristocratic Genoese families, such as the Balbi, Doria, Grimaldi, Pallavicini, and Serra, amassed tremendous fortunes. According to Felipe Fernandez-Armesto and others, the practices Genoa developed in the Mediterranean (such as chattel slavery) were crucial in the exploration and exploitation of the New World.

At the time of Genoa's peak in the 16th century, the city attracted many artists, including Rubens, Caravaggio, and van Dyck. The architect Galeazzo Alessi (1512–1572) designed many of the city's splendid palazzi. In the next 50 years, other palazzi were designed by Bartolomeo Bianco (1590–1657), designer of centrepieces of the University of Genoa. A number of Genoese Baroque and Rococo artists settled elsewhere and a number of local artists became prominent.

Thereafter, Genoa underwent something of a revival as a junior associate of the Spanish Empire, with Genoese bankers, in particular, financing many of the Spanish crown's foreign endeavors from their counting houses in Seville. Fernand Braudel has even called the period 1557 to 1627 the "age of the Genoese", "of a rule that was so discreet and sophisticated that historians for a long time failed to notice it". However, the modern visitor passing brilliant Mannerist and Baroque palazzo facades along Genoa's Strada Nova (now Via Garibaldi) or via Balbi cannot fail to notice that there was conspicuous wealth, which in fact was not Genoese but concentrated in the hands of a tightly knit circle of banker-financiers, true "venture capitalists". Genoa's trade, however, remained closely dependent on control of Mediterranean sealanes, and the loss of Chios to the Ottoman Empire (1566), struck a severe blow.

The opening for the Genoese banking consortium was the state bankruptcy of Philip II in 1557, which threw the German banking houses into chaos and ended the reign of the Fuggers as Spanish financiers. The Genoese bankers provided the unwieldy Habsburg system with fluid credit and a dependably regular income. In return the less dependable shipments of American silver were rapidly transferred from Seville to Genoa, to provide capital for further ventures.

From about 1520 the Genoese controlled the port of Panama, the first port on the Pacific, founded by the conquest of the Americas. The Genoese obtained a concession to exploit the port mainly for the slave trade of the new world on the Pacific, until the destruction of the primeval city in 1671.

The Genoese banker Ambrogio Spinola, Marquess of Los Balbases, for instance, raised and led an army that fought in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands in the early 17th century. The decline of Spain in the 17th century brought also the renewed decline of Genoa, and the Spanish crown's frequent bankruptcies, in particular, ruined many of Genoa's merchant houses. In 1684 the city was heavily bombarded by a French fleet as punishment for its alliance with Spain.

Decline
In May 1625, a French-Savoian army briefly laid siege to Genoa. Though it was eventually lifted with the aid of the Spanish, the French would later bombard the city in May 1684 for its support of Spain during the War of the Reunions. In-between, a plague killed as many as half of the inhabitants of Genoa in 1656–57. Genoa continued its slow decline well into the 18th century, losing its last Mediterranean colony, the island fortress of Tabarka, to the Bey of Tunis in 1742.

In a climate of constant economic and power decline, in 1729 the Republic had to face another revolt in Corsica. It is considered the first moment of real rupture between the island and the Genoese Republic: perhaps the most important, because the representatives of the Church in full harmony with the Roman Curia, "justified" the war. This time the Genoese government requested the help of Charles VI, who sent 10,000 German infantry of the Imperial Army, after the payment by Genoa of 60,000 florins and 100 scudi for each dead soldier, joining the Republic's soldiers commanded by Camillo Doria. Genoa managed to contain the rebellion, however this did not prove lasting. Another revolt broke out in 1733, causing the Genoese to again appeal to the Emperor, but the Imperial Army was tied up against the French in the ongoing War of the Polish Succession, and thus declined to intervene. Even before the rebellions, Genoa's control of the island had been loose; the Republic had effectively demilitarized itself, with only 2,000 soldiers (all spread throughout fortifications in Liguria) for a mainland population of about half a million, and law and order on Corsica were very weak, with nearly 900 homicides per 100,000 people there annually from 1701 to 1733. The Genoese government tried to ban private firearm ownership on Corsica without success. A guerilla war would continue on the island until it was sold to France in 1768.

The Convention of Turin of 1742, in which Austria allied with the Kingdom of Sardinia, caused some consternation in the Republic. However, when this provisional relationship was given a more durable and reliable character in the signing of the Treaty of Worms, in 1743, the fear of diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its neutrality and to ally with the House of Bourbon in the War of the Austrian Succession. Consequently, the Republic of Genoa signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies of Kingdom of France, Spanish Empire and Kingdom of Naples. On 26 June 1745, the Republic of Genoa declared war on the Kingdom of Sardinia. This decision would prove disastrous for Genoa, which later surrendered to the Austrians in September 1746 and was briefly occupied before a revolt liberated the city two months later. The Austrians returned in 1747 and, along with a contingent of Sardinian forces, laid siege to Genoa before being driven off by the approach of a Franco-Spanish army.

Though Genoa retained its lands in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, it was unable to keep its hold on Corsica in its weakened state. After driving out the Genoese, the Corsican Republic was declared in 1755.  Eventually relying on French intervention to quash the rebellion, Genoa was forced to cede Corsica to the French in the 1768 Treaty of Versailles.

The end of the Republic and its brief revival of 1814
Already in 1794 and 1795 the revolutionary echoes from France reached Genoa, thanks to Genoese propagandists and refugees sheltered in the nearby state of the Alps, and in 1794 a conspiracy against the aristocratic and oligarchic ruling class that. However, it was in May 1797 that the intent of the Genoese jacobins and French citizens to overthrow the government of the Doge Giacomo Maria Brignole took shape, giving rise to a fratricidal war in the streets between opponents and popular supporters of the current customs system.

The direct intervention of Napoleon (during the Campaigns of 1796) and his representatives in Genoa was the final act that led to the fall of the Republic in early June, who overthrew the old elites which had ruled the state for all of its history, giving birth to the Ligurian Republic on June 14, 1797, under the watchful care of Napoleonic France. After Bonaparte's seizure of power in France, a more conservative constitution was enacted, but the Ligurian Republic's life was short—in 1805 it was annexed by France, becoming the départements of Apennins, Gênes, and Montenotte.

With the fall of Napoleon, and the subsequent Congress of Vienna, Genoa regained an ephemeral independence, with the name of the Repubblica genovese, which lasted less than a year. However, the congress established the annexation of the territories, and therefore of the whole of Liguria with the Oltregiogo area and the island of Capraia to the Kingdom of Sardinia, governed by the House of Savoy, contravening the principle of restoring the legitimate governments and monarchies of the old Republic.

Government

The history of Genoa, of the Genoese and of the republic that held its fate for a long time, but also of the governments that gradually took turns leading the city, to reach the time of the Doges, is traceable through the work of historians who have continued the storytelling work begun at the end of the 11th century by Caffaro Di Caschifellone (historian and himself municipal consul) with the "Annales ianuenses".

The Republic of Genoa's governance history is divided into five stages:

 Consul: 11th century–1191
 Podestà: 1191–1256
 Capitano del popolo: 1257–1339
 Doge (elected for life): 1339–1528
 Doge (elected for terms of two years): 1528–1797

The republic was substantially democratic in shape, while those of the Podestàs and the Captains of the people strongly restored the often conflicting relationship between the authority and the freedom. The perpetual doges, on the other hand, proclaimed themselves popular, even though sometimes crossing the oligarchy; finally the fifth republic was institutionally aristocratic. By custom, prelates in Genoa were unable to take on public office.

Aristocratic families

In the first two centuries from the institution of the Dogate for life in Genoa, it was above all the Adorno (seven doges elected) and Fregoso (ten doges elected) families who fought the position.

After the reform of 1528, among the seventy-nine "biennial Doges" who came to power, many were elected from a small number of noble houses in the city organized into 28 "Alberghi", in particular:

 Grimaldi: eleven doges.
 Spinola: eleven doges.
 Durazzo: eight doges.
 De Franchi, Giustiniani and Lomellini families: seven doges each.
 Centurione: six doges.
 Doria: six doges.
 Cattaneo: five doges.
 Gentile: five doges.
 Brignole: four doges.
 Imperiali: four doges.
 De Mari, Invrea and Negrone families: four doges each.
 Pallavicini: three doges.
 Sauli: three doges.
 Balbi, Cambiaso, Chiavari, Lercari, Pinelli, Promontorio, Veneroso, Viale and Zoagli families: two doges each.
 Della Torre: two doges.
 Assereto, Ayroli, Canevaro, Chiavica Cibo, Clavarezza, Da Passano, De Ferrari, De Fornari, De Marini, Di Negro, Ferreti, Franzoni, Frugoni, Garbarino, Giudice Calvi, Odone, Saluzzo, Senarega, Vacca and Vivaldi: one doge each
 Della Rovere: one doge.

Other influential families of the Republic of Genoa were:

 Fieschi: counts of Lavagna, and produced two Popes: Pope Innocent IV and Pope Adrian V
 Gattilusi: lords of numerous lands in the Aegean Sea, such as Lemnos, Lesbos, Enez and Samothrace.
 Embriaco: Lords of Gibelet for almost 200 years, and important players in the history of the Crusader states.

Genoese possessions

At the time of its founding in the early 11th century the Republic of Genoa consisted of the city of Genoa and the surrounding areas. As the commerce of the city increased, so did the territory of the Republic. By the end of the 12 century all of Liguria fell under the Republic of Genoa. After the First Crusade in 1098 Genoa gained settlements in Syria. (It lost the majority of them during the campaigns of Saladin in the 12th century.) In 1261 the city of Smyrna in Asia Minor became Genoese territory.

In 1255, Genoa established the colony of Caffa in Crimea. In the following years the Genoese established further colonies in Crimea: Soldaia, Cherco and Cembalo. Genoa and its colonies fought against several Mongol states in the Genoese–Mongol Wars to control the Crimean peninsula. In 1275 the Byzantine Empire granted the islands of Chios and Samos to Genoa.

Between 1316 and 1332, Genoa established the Black Sea colonies of La Tana (present-day Azov) and Samsun in Anatolia. In 1355, the Byzantine Emperor John V Palaiologos granted Lesbos to a Genoese lord. At the end of the 14th century the colony of Samastri was established in the Black Sea and Cyprus was granted to the Republic. At that period the Republic of Genoa also controlled one quarter of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, and Trebizond, capital of the Empire of Trebizond. The Ottoman Empire conquered most of the Genoese overseas territories during the 15th century.

Other territories outside mainland Italy
 Giudicato of Logudoro (island of Sardinia) 1259–1325
 North Aegean sea possessions, centered at Chios 1261–1566
 Southern Crimea possessions of Gazaria 1266–1475 (lost to Ottoman Empire, Kefe Eyalet)
 Island of Corsica 1284–1768
 The cities of Gibelet (1100–late 13th century) and Tyre (present-day Lebanon)
 City of Tabarka north west of Tunisia 1540–1742
 The cities of Calafat, Giurgiu, Licostomo, Vicina and Galați, all cities in present-day Romania (from the 13th century to the 15th century)

Economy
Genoese traders bought salt – from Hyères near Toulon in French Provence, from Cagliari in Sardinia, Tortosa in Iberia, and from other areas in the Black Sea, North Africa, Cyprus, Crete, and Ibiza – and made salami. They then sold salami in southern Italy for raw silk, which was sold in Lucca for fabrics, which were then sold to Lyon. Mule caravans from Genoa carried salt directly to Piacenza, where it was transferred to river barges and transported down the Po to Parma, and other Po Valley cities such as Reggio and Bologna. Along these trade routes, Genoa competed with Venice for salt and for other cargoes, such as salami, prosciutto, cheese, textiles and spices.

Notable people

 Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer who worked for the Spanish and discovered the Americas in 1492
 Ingo della Volta, late 11th century or early 12th century Genoese politician

See also
 Doge of Genoa
 Genoese colonies
 Genoese crossbowmen
 Gazaria (Genoese colonies)
 Great Council and Minor Council of Genoa

References

Notes

Citations

Republic of Genoa
11th-century establishments in Italy
2nd millennium in Italy
States and territories established in 1005
States and territories disestablished in 1797
States and territories established in 1814
States and territories disestablished in 1815
Genoa
History of the Mediterranean
History of the Black Sea
Italian Renaissance
Former republics
States and territories established in the 11th century
1797 disestablishments in Italy
Genoa
Italian city-states
Medieval Crimea
Italian states
Former countries

Republic of Genoa


Charlie's Group Limited is a New Zealand-based producer of beverage drinks.  It is owned by the Japanese beverage company Asahi.

Charlie's was founded in 1999 by Marc Ellis, Stefan Lepionka and Simon Neal.  Originally the company produced fresh orange juice; in 2001, Charlie's added other natural fruit juices.  They also sell loose fruit, fruit smoothies and sports water flavored with fruit juices.

In May 2008, Charlie's launched a line of fruit-based soft drinks. It marketed its products as "Honest", referring to the fact that the products are not from concentrate with no sugar added.

Charlie's listed on the NZX in 2006. In 2008, Charlie's opened a new plant in Renmark, South Australia.

In 2007, a Charlie's television commercial that featured children playing with fireworks was banned in New Zealand after the Television Commercials Approval Bureau received letters of complaint.  The commercial showed cartoon children allowing fireworks to explode between their teeth and shooting rockets at each other.  The Acting Fire Service National Commander Paul McGill said :"It's really disappointing that an advertiser will use this occasion to produce a commercial that glorifies behaviour that was unacceptable 20 years ago and is unacceptable today."  Ron Curteis, Charlie's Marketing Manager indicated that the commercial was not intended to condone such behavior and that they hadn't realized this sort of behavior was still a big issue.  Marc Ellis, director of Charlie's, later called for an overhaul of the advertising rules noting that the same panel who banned the commercial had initially certified that the commercial met all advertising standards.  The ban eventually became part of a larger discussion about the difference between content allowed in programming versus advertisement.

In July 2011, Japanese beverage company Asahi acquired Charlie's.

References

External links
 Charlies Group
 NZX overview

Beverage companies of New Zealand
Food and drink companies based in Auckland
Manufacturing companies based in Auckland
Asahi Breweries
Food and drink companies established in 1999
New Zealand drinks
New Zealand companies established in 1999

Charlie's


Gerard Hugh "Leo" Sayer  is an English-born pop singer. He was born in Shoreham-by-Sea near the city of Brighton and Hove, England, on May 21st, 1948. He was most successful during the 1970s and early 1980s. He had hits such as "When I Need You", "The Show Must Go On", "Moonlighting" and "You Make Me Feel Like Dancing". He became an Australian citizen in January, 2009.

Early life
Sayer was born in Shoreham-by-Sea to an English father and Irish mother on May 21st, 1948. He attended St. Peter's Catholic Primary School in Shoreham and later attended Blessed Robert Southwell, renamed Chatsmore in Goring-by-Sea. Leo also attended West Sussex College of Art and Design in Worthing to study commercial art and graphic design.

Career
Leo first found fame in his home country in 1973 when his single "The Show Must Go On" reached no 2 in the UK single charts. He performed this song dressed as a pierrot clown. He co-wrote a number of his songs, including this song. His singing career went from strength to strength and by the late 1970s he was well known internationally having had hit singles and albums in the USA, Ireland, Sweden, Australia and other countries. A number of hit singles followed in the early 1980s, including "Orchard Road" and "More Than I Can Say" . He returned to the top of the UK singles chart in 2006 with a remix hit of his 1977 single, "Thunder in my Heart ".

Sayer appeared in The Muppet Show in 1978 where he sang "The Show Must Go On", "You Make Me Feel Like Dancing" and his best selling single, "When I Need You". He also was a participant in the UK's Celebrity Big Brother 2007.

British singer-songwriters

Leo Sayer


Structural dynamics is a type of structural analysis which covers the behavior of a structure subjected to dynamic (actions having high acceleration) loading. Dynamic loads include people, wind, waves, traffic, earthquakes, and blasts. Any structure can be subjected to dynamic loading. Dynamic analysis can be used to find dynamic displacements, time history, and modal analysis.

Structural analysis is mainly concerned with finding out the behavior of a physical structure when subjected to force. This action can be in the form of load due to the weight of things such as people, furniture, wind, snow, etc. or some other kind of excitation such as an earthquake, shaking of the ground due to a blast nearby, etc. In essence all these loads are dynamic, including the self-weight of the structure because at some point in time these loads were not there. The distinction is made between the dynamic and the static analysis on the basis of whether the applied action has enough acceleration in comparison to the structure's natural frequency. If a load is applied sufficiently slowly, the inertia forces (Newton's first law of motion) can be ignored and the analysis can be simplified as static analysis.

A static load is one which varies very slowly.  A dynamic load is one which changes with time fairly quickly in comparison to the structure's natural frequency. If it changes slowly, the structure's response may be determined with static analysis, but if it varies quickly (relative to the structure's ability to respond), the response must be determined with a dynamic analysis.

Dynamic analysis for simple structures can be carried out manually, but for complex structures finite element analysis can be used to calculate the mode shapes and frequencies.

Displacements

A dynamic load can have a significantly larger effect than a static load of the same magnitude due to the structure's inability to respond quickly to the loading (by deflecting). The increase in the effect of a dynamic load is given by the dynamic amplification factor (DAF) or dynamic load factor (DLF):

where u is the deflection of the structure due to the applied load.

Graphs of dynamic amplification factors vs non-dimensional rise time (tr/T) exist for standard loading functions (for an explanation of rise time, see time history analysis below). Hence the DAF for a given loading can be read from the graph, the static deflection can be easily calculated for simple structures and the dynamic deflection found.

Time history analysis

A  history will give the response of a structure over time during and after the application of a load. To find the  history of a structure's response, you must solve the structure's equation of motion.

Example

A simple single degree of freedom system (a mass, M, on a spring of stiffness k, for example) has the following equation of motion:

where  is the acceleration (the double derivative of the displacement) and x is the displacement.

If the loading F(t) is  a Heaviside step function (the sudden application of a constant load), the solution to the equation of motion is:

where  and the fundamental natural frequency, .

The static deflection of a single degree of freedom system is:

so we can write, by combining the above formulae:

This gives the (theoretical) time history of the structure due to a load F(t), where the false assumption is made that there is no damping.

Although this is too simplistic to apply to a real structure, the Heaviside step function is a reasonable model for the application of many real loads, such as the sudden addition of a piece of furniture, or the removal of a prop to a newly cast concrete floor.  However, in reality loads are never applied instantaneously – they build up over a period of time (this may be very short indeed).  This time is called the rise time.

As the number of degrees of freedom of a structure increases it very quickly becomes too difficult to calculate the time history manually – real structures are analysed using non-linear finite element analysis software.

Damping

Any real structure will dissipate energy (mainly through friction). This can be modelled by modifying the DAF

where  and is typically 2–10% depending on the type of construction:

 Bolted steel ~6%
 Reinforced concrete ~5%
 Welded steel ~2%
 Brick masonry ~10%

Methods to increase damping

One of the widely used methods to increase damping is to attach a layer of material with a high Damping Coefficient, for example rubber, to a vibrating structure.

Modal analysis

A modal analysis calculates the frequency modes or natural frequencies of a given system, but not necessarily its full-time history response to a given input.  The natural frequency of a system is dependent only on the stiffness of the structure and the mass which participates with the structure (including self-weight). It is not dependent on the load function.

It is useful to know the modal frequencies of a structure as it allows you to ensure that the frequency of any applied periodic loading will not coincide with a modal frequency and hence cause resonance, which leads to large oscillations.

The method is:

 Find the natural modes (the shape adopted by a structure) and natural frequencies
 Calculate the response of each mode
 Optionally superpose the response of each mode to find the full modal response to a given loading

Energy method

It is possible to calculate the frequency of different mode shape of system manually by the energy method. For a given mode shape of a multiple degree of freedom system you can find an "equivalent" mass, stiffness and applied force for a single degree of freedom system. For simple structures the basic mode shapes can be found by inspection, but it is not a conservative method. Rayleigh's principle states:

"The frequency ω of an arbitrary mode of vibration, calculated by the energy method, is always greater than – or equal to – the fundamental frequency ωn."

For an assumed mode shape , of a structural system with mass M; bending stiffness, EI (Young's modulus, E, multiplied by the second moment of area, I); and applied force, F(x):

then, as above:

Modal response

The complete modal response to a given load F(x,t) is . The summation can be carried out by one of three common methods:

 Superpose complete time histories of each mode (time consuming, but exact)
 Superpose the maximum amplitudes of each mode (quick but conservative)
 Superpose the square root of the sum of squares (good estimate for well-separated frequencies, but unsafe for closely spaced frequencies)

To superpose the individual modal responses manually, having calculated them by the energy method:

Assuming that the rise time tr is known (T = 2/ω), it is possible to read the DAF from a standard graph. The static displacement can be calculated with . The dynamic displacement for the chosen mode and applied force can then be found from:

Modal participation factor

For real systems there is often mass participating in the forcing function (such as the mass of ground in an earthquake) and mass participating in inertia effects (the mass of the structure itself, Meq).  The modal participation factor Γ is a comparison of these two masses.  For a single degree of freedom system Γ = 1.

External links
 Structural Dynamics and Vibration Laboratory of McGill University
 Frequency response function from modal parameters
 Structural Dynamics Tutorials & Matlab scripts
 AIAA Exploring Structural Dynamics  (http://www.exploringstructuraldynamics.org/ ) – Structural Dynamics in Aerospace Engineering: Interactive Demos, Videos & Interviews with Practicing Engineers

Structural analysis
Dynamics (mechanics)

Structural dynamics


The Southern Black Forest Nature Park () is located in Baden-Württemberg in Germany and covers an area of 394,000 hectares. As of 2018, it is Germany's largest nature park.

History
The Southern Black Forest Nature Park was established on February 1, 1999. The original area of 333,000 hectares was expanded to 370,000 hectares in 2005, and finally to its present size of 394,000 hectares in 2014. It is one of seven nature parks in Baden-Württemberg.

Location
It is located in the Southern Black Forest in the south-west of Baden-Württemberg, extending from Herbolzheim and Triberg in the north to Waldshut-Tiengen and Lörrach in the south and from the Black Forest foothills near Freiburg and Emmendingen in the west to Donaueschingen and Bad Dürrheim on the high plateau of the Baar in the east.

Mountains
Three of the highest mountains of the Black Forest are located within the Southern Black Forest Nature Park:
 Feldberg (1493 m)
 Herzogenhorn (1415 fm)
 Belchen (1414 m)
Other mountains within the park are, e.g.:
 Schauinsland (1248 m)
 Kandel (1241 m)

Valleys and ravines
Whereas the valleys offer generally a warmer and more balanced climate than the surrounding mountains, it is cooler in the ravines. As a consequence thereof, in the valleys of the Upper and High Rhine species from the Mediterranean region further south may already be found, while in the narrow ravines of the High Black Forest there may still be relics from the last ice age.

Well-known valleys and ravines in the Southern Black Forest are, e.g.: Wutach ravine (German: Wutachschlucht), Haslach flume (Haslachklamm), Rötenbach flume (Rötenbachklamm), Alb valley (Albtal), Ravenna Gorge (Ravennaschlucht), Simonswald valley (Simonswälder Tal), Münster valley (Münstertal), Schleifenbach ravine (Schleifenbachschlucht), Windberg ravine (Windbergschlucht), Great and Small Wiese valley (Wiesental), High Wehra ravine (Hohwehraschlucht) and Wehra valley (Wehratal) as well as Gauchach ravine (Gauchachschlucht) and Enge ravine (Engeschlucht).

Landscape

Bodies of water
Right through the Southern Black Forest Nature Park runs the watershed between Rhine and Danube which is the main watershed between North Sea and Black Sea. Whereas the tributaries of the Rhine flow down with rapid force steeply sloped mountainsides, the declivity towards the Danube is by far gentler. Rivers and streams include the Alb, Breg, Dreisam, Elz, and Wiese.

In the Southern Black Forest, there are many waterfalls of different sizes and heights. The Triberg Waterfalls and the Todtnau Waterfalls are two of the highest waterfalls in Germany.

Lake Schluchsee is the largest lake in the Southern Black Forest Nature Park. Other lakes are, e.g., Titisee, Windgfällweiher, Nonnenmattweiher, Schlüchtsee, Feldsee, and Albsee.

Most clouds come from the west where they pass the broad lowlands of the Upper Rhine Plain and then have to rise when they reach the Black Forest mountains. Therefore, it rains frequently in the west and in the High Black Forest. Consequently, this is also the area where many bogs could be found in depressions. However, due to age-long drainage and peat extraction, their number has been reduced.

Forests
There are no untouched virgin forests in the Black Forest. The largest contiguous areas of pristine forest were settled in the Middle Ages.

Originally, the Black Forest was populated above all by firs and beeches. Under the influence of man, these shade-tolerant species were more and more replaced with pines and spruces. An objective of the nature park is to increase again the number of firs and beeches and to cultivate structurally rich and diversified forests where also different broadleaf trees grow.

The wood of the trees is an important economic factor. Timber is used for house-building and mining. In the past, rafters transported it on the Black Forest rivers and then the Rhine, mainly to shipyards in the Netherlands. Sawyers and carpenters settled along the rivers and streams to use their water power. Wood was used for farmhouses, barns, wood shingles, brushes, carnival masks, Black Forest clocks. Wood charcoal was needed for glassblowing.

The forests are not only an important because of the renewable raw material wood, but constitute alson an important environmental compensation factor and have a high recreational value.

Many species of mushrooms grow in the Southern Black Forest, among them edible species such as agaricus, boletus edulis, chanterelle, or truffle. Several species of mushrooms form mycorrhizal associations with trees and bushes.

Fields and meadows

The Southern Black Forest is a rural area where the countryside has been shaped by agriculture and animal husbandry. Pasture beeches, a particular form of the copper beech tree, can still be found on the old pastures of the Southern Black Forest.

Architecture
The Black Forest house is typical for the farms in the rural areas. It is adapted to the peculiarities of the Southern Black Forest: built on a slope, isolated location, large amounts of snow and strong winds.

See also

 Central/North Black Forest Nature Park
 Bannwald

References

External links

 Website of the Southern Black Forest Nature Park

Black Forest
Baden-Württemberg
Nature parks in Baden-Württemberg
Protected areas established in 1999
Hiking trails in Baden-Württemberg

Southern Black Forest Nature Park


Event management is the application of project management to the creation and development of small and/or large-scale personal or corporate events such as festivals, conferences, ceremonies, weddings, formal parties, concerts, or conventions. It involves studying the brand, identifying its target audience, devising the event concept, and coordinating the technical aspects before actually launching the event.

The events industry now includes events of all sizes from the Olympics down to business breakfast meetings. Many industries, celebrities, charitable organizations, and interest groups hold events in order to market their label, build business relationships, raise money, or celebrate achievement.

The process of planning and coordinating the event is usually referred to as  event planning and which can include budgeting, scheduling, site selection, acquiring necessary permits, coordinating transportation and parking, arranging for speakers or entertainers, arranging decor, event security, catering, coordinating with third-party vendors, and emergency plans. Each event is different in its nature so process of planning and execution of each event differs on basis of the type of event.

The event manager is the person who plans and executes the event, taking responsibility for the creative, technical, and logistical elements.  This includes overall event design, brand building, marketing and communication strategy, audio-visual production, script writing, logistics, budgeting, negotiation, and client service.

Due to the complexities involved, the extensive body of knowledge required, and the rapidly changing environment, event management is frequently cited as one of the most stressful career paths, in line next to surgeons.

Strategic marketing and communication

Event management might be a tool for strategic marketing and communication, used by companies of every size. Companies can benefit from promotional events as a way to communicate with current and potential customers.  For instance, these advertising-focused events can occur as press conferences, promotional events, or product launches.

Event managers may also use traditional news media in order to target their audience, hoping to generate media coverage which will reach thousands or millions of people. They can also invite their audience to their events and reach them at the actual event.

Event venue
An event venue may be an onsite or offsite location. The event manager is responsible for operations at a rented event or entertainment venue as they are coordinating directly with the property owner. An event manager will monitor all aspects of the event on-site. Some of the tasks listed in the introduction may pass to the venue, but usually at a cost.

Events present substantial liability risk to organizers and venues. Consequently, most venues require the organizers to obtain blanket or event-specific general liability insurance of an amount not less than $1,000,000 per occurrence and $2,000,000 aggregate, which is the industry standard.

Corporate event managers book event venues to host corporate meetings, conferences, networking events, trade shows, product launches, team-building retreats or training sessions in a more tailored environment.

Sustainability
Sustainable event management (also known as event greening) is the process used to produce an event with particular concern for environmental, economic, and social issues. Sustainability in event management incorporates socially and environmentally responsible decision making into the planning, organization and implementation of, and participation in, an event. It involves including sustainable development principles and practices in all levels of event organization, and aims to ensure that an event is hosted responsibly. It represents the total package of interventions at an event, and needs to be done in an integrated manner. Event greening should start at the inception of the project, and should involve all the key role players, such as clients, organizers, venues, sub-contractors, and suppliers. A recent study shows that the trend of moving events from in-person to virtual and hybrid modes can reduce the carbon footprint by 94% (virtual) and by 67% (hybrid mode with over 50% in-person participation rate due to trade-offs between the per capita carbon footprint and in-person participation level).

Technology

Event management software companies provide event planning with software tools to handle many common activities such as delegate registration, hotel booking, travel booking, or allocation of exhibition floor space.

A recent trend in event technology is the use of mobile apps for events. This technology is advancing and allowing event professionals to simplify and manage intricate and simple events more effectively. Mobile apps have a range of uses. They can be used to hold relatively static information such as the agenda, speaker biographies, and general FAQs. They can also encourage audience participation and engagement through interactive tools such as live voting/polling, submitting questions to speakers during Q&A, or building live interactive "word clouds". Mobile event apps can also be used by event organizers as a means of communication. The mobile apps help to make a better overall outcome of events and also help to remove a lot of a tedious work from event organizers. Organizers can communicate with participants through the use of alerts, notifications, and push messages. They can also be used to collect feedback from the participants through the use of surveys in app. Some mobile event apps can help participants to engage with each other, with sponsors, and with the organizers with built-in networking functionality.

Education
There are an increasing number of universities which offer training in event management in the form of both certificates and undergraduate or graduate degrees.

The University of Central Florida's Rosen College of Hospitality Management offered the first ever Bachelor of Science degree in Event Management beginning in 2006. The program leverages core training in both hospitality, covering lodging operations, tourism, guest services, accounting, and marketing as well as event management, including sales, promotion, technology, design, risk management, and catering with electives available for specific interests, such as cruises, clubbing, wine, or trade shows. Other degree programs that do not offer a full degree usually offer concentrations, such as New York University, which offers a Bachelor of Science degree in Hotel and Tourism Management with a concentration in event management. The University of Florida offers a similar program as well.

Because of the limited number of undergraduate degree programs available, it is not uncommon for event managers to earn their degrees in business administration, marketing, or public relations. To supplement their candidacy, persons interested in event management typically earn one or more certifications which offer specialization into particular fields. Certifications available include:

Certified Meeting Professional (CMP)
Certified in Exhibition Management (CEM)
Certified Trade Show Marketer (CTSM)
Certificate in Meeting Management (CMM)
Certified Professional in Catering and Events (CPCE)
Certified Event Designer (CED)
Certified Special Event Professional (CSEP)

See also
 Event scheduling
 Media event
 Meeting and convention planner
 Sustainable event management
 To do list

References

 Bowdin, Glenn; Johnny Allen, William O'Toole, Rob Harris, Ian McDonnell. Events Management (Events Management S.)
 Goldblatt, Joe. Twenty-First Century Global Event Management (The Wiley Event Management Series)

Project management by type
Logistics

Event management


The momna, sometimes referred to as Mumna or Momina, is a Muslim community found in the state of Gujarat in India.

History and origin
Momnas or Momans (from ) were originally followers of the Satpanthi Ismaili tradition of the fifteenth-century Ismaili Shi'i dignitary Imam al-Din, or Imamshah. However, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurengzeb, the Ismaili Momnas were heavily persecuted and were forced to practice pious circumspection (taqiyyah), outwardly adhering to other traditions within Islam. Over time, many Momnas lost contact with their original faith. Presently, the Momnas who adhere to Ismailism are known as "the Momnas of the old faith" (junā dharma nā moman), while those who were converted to Sunni Islam are known as "the Momnas of the new faith" (navā dharma nā moman).

References

Muslim communities of India

Momna


A courthouse is a building that holds a court. Some courthouses also have offices for the prosecutor and prosecutor's assistants. In small cities, some courthouses have other offices for local government officials. The term is common in North America while in most other English-speaking countries, they are simply called "courts" or "court buildings". In most of continental Europe and former non-English-speaking European colonies, the equivalent term is a palace of justice

Government buildings
Courts (law)

Courthouse


Charles Kirkby Robinson (1826 – 1909) was a British clergyman and academic, whose election to the Mastership of St Catharine's College, Cambridge in 1861 caused great controversy.

Charles Robinson was born in 1826 in Acomb, West Riding of Yorkshire, and educated at St Peter's School, York and matriculated at St Catharine's College, Cambridge in 1845. He was elected scholar in 1846, and graduated as 22nd Wrangler in 1849. He was appointed Fellow and Tutor in 1850, and was Junior Proctor in the University of Cambridge from 1858 to 1859.

He was ordained as a priest in the Church of England in 1850. He was perpetual curate of St Andrew-the-Less, Cambridge, 1859–62.

The circumstances of his election to Master in 1861 have been outlined by W. H. S. Jones. At the time, there were just five Fellows of the college who were the electorate. Of these, two were candidates - Robinson, and Francis Jameson. In the election, Jameson received two votes, but Robinson received three: his own, Jameson's, and just one other. Since Jameson may have cast his vote under the impression that the candidates were to vote for each other while Robinson did not, this caused something of a stir at the time. Jameson left the Fellowship of St Catharine's shortly after, in 1862.
W. H. S. Jones records that 'this was probably the greatest disaster that ever happened to any college'; whether this was the case or not, the circumstances of the election were not forgotten during Robinson's long tenure as Master, from 1861 to 1909. Robinson was eventually succeeded as Master by Claude Johns.

References

People educated at St Peter's School, York
1826 births
1909 deaths
Masters of St Catharine's College, Cambridge

Charles Robinson (priest)


Låsby is a small town in the province of Jutland in Denmark with a population of 2,034 (1 January 2023). It is situated on the main road between Silkeborg and Aarhus.

The town is the location of the flagship property of  Det Blå Marked (trans. "The Blue Market"), a chain of Danish antique markets, and which is a major tourist attraction, bringing in over half a million visitors to the town every year.

In April 2005 it had its 15 minutes of fame as it became the first place in Denmark to experience the exploding toad phenomenon.

References

Laasby
Skanderborg Municipality

Låsby


is a Japanese politician of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), a member of the House of Representatives in the Diet (national legislature). A native of Onga, Fukuoka, he attended Hitotsubashi University and Dag Hammarskjöld College in the United States, and received a master's degree from Carleton University in Canada. He was elected to the House of Representatives for the first time in 1986. He participated in the formation of the New Party Sakigake in 1993 but later returned to the LDP. He was defeated in the 2009 election by DPJ candidate Rintaro Ogata.

Representative Mihara was re-elected in 2012 to the Fukuoka Prefectural 9th district.  He is a member of the Party Ethics and Fundamental National Policies Committees as well as the Director of the Special Committee on Promotion of Science and Technology, and Innovation.

In 2004, Mihara received political donations of ¥ 300,000 from organizations related to the Unification Church.

Mihara is a member of the Diet groups of Nippon Kaigi, an openly revisionist lobby, and Shintō Seiji Renmei, a fundamentalist Shintō lobby.

References

External links
 Official website  (in Japanese)

1947 births
Living people
Politicians from Fukuoka Prefecture
Hitotsubashi University alumni
Carleton University alumni
Members of Nippon Kaigi
Members of the House of Representatives (Japan)
New Party Sakigake politicians
Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) politicians
21st-century Japanese politicians

Asahiko Mihara


Ivory Quinby (July 14, 1817 – October 23, 1869) was an American businessman who was notably one of the earliest benefactors of Monmouth College, and also helped establish Monmouth, Illinois as a transportation center.

Early life
Ivory Quinby I was born on July 14, 1817, in Buxton, Maine. He was named after his mother's former husband, Ivory Fenderson, who had died four years earlier. His parents were Asa and Mehitable (née Milliken) Quinby. He had a brother and sister, named Rodney and Elizabeth. He came from an old New England family, who settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1638. At fifteen, he was enrolled at Waterville College. After graduating on August 3, 1836 with honors, Quinby moved to Parsonsfield, Maine, to live with his uncle Hosea Quinby, where he was employed by Parsonsfield Seminary, a Free Will Baptist academy, as an assistant teacher. Quinby left to study law in Saco under Judge Shepley. By the time he was twenty, he had decided to travel to Illinois, with all of his money, which was about $125.00. He arrived in Quincy, Illinois, in 1837, and met two men named John Mitchell and O.H. Browning, who advised that he move to Monmouth, Illinois, for the purpose of buying up land patents. The U.S. Government at the time granted land patents to veterans of the War of 1812, who rarely kept them. Instead, they sold the property to people like Quinby and a colleague of his, Elijah Winslow, who then resold the land to settlers. Quinby and Mitchell walked fifteen miles from Oquawka, Illinois to Monmouth, and established a law firm.
With his remaining savings, Quinby bought 8,000 acres in Warren County.

Civil service career
In 1839, Mehitable, Rodney and Elizabeth Quinby moved to Monmouth, where Rodney studied law under both his brother and Abner Clark Harding, who was a partner in the firm Harding & Quinby. In 1849, Quinby was elected to a probate court as a judge, where he served a single term from 1849 to 1853. During this time, Quinby was elected to the board of trustees of Monmouth, which governed the town before the more common single mayoral system was instated. On May 14, 1851, an election was held at the Monmouth courthouse. Charles Armsby, Hiram Baldwin, Chancy Hardin, James Thompson and Ivory Quinby were all elected to the Board. On March 28 of that year, Quinby was elected president of the board. Board of trustees meetings were held in the offices of Harding & Quinby at the time. While serving as president, Quinby and the board strengthened ordinances against drinking and disorderly conduct. When his term came to a close, Quinby was paid $5.00 for his time as president. In 1857, Quinby was elected mayor for a second time, running on the Democratic ticket. He won over his opponents, G.W. Savage and Samuel Wood, by 120 votes. As mayor, Quinby worked with Chancy Hardin, who had become an alderman, serving with James Neil, Theodore Cornell and Horatio Henry. On June 2, 1863, Quinby was elected to the board of health, again with Hardin and a health officer, Dr. J.R. Webster. Quinby also was one of the founders of the Monmouth Public Library, which he began in 1867 as a reading room, which could be utilized without charge. This eventually became the permanent library. Since he owned acres of land around Monmouth, Quinby donated a section to the city, for the purpose of expansion, which he gifted in 1865. In 1867, after being elected mayor again, Quinby oversaw the placement of sidewalks in Monmouth. One parcel was set aside, and turned into a park, which takes up an entire block. It has remained a park, into the present day.

Business
Ivory Quinby was not only a respected politician, but a very successful businessman as well. He founded the Harding & Quinby law firm (as previously mentioned), and operated a mercantile in nearby Berwick from 1847–1851. He frequently bought and sold property in Monmouth, which generated a financially successful business. On February 27, 1851, prominent Monmouth citizens Abner Harding, Wyatt B. Stapp (after whom Wyatt Earp was named), Colonel J.W. Davidson, and James G. Madden held a public meeting to discuss a proposed measure, which would allow the Peoria and Oquawka Railroad Company to lay track through town. This was an idea that Quinby fervently supported. The public response was generally positive, so the project moved ahead. Quinby purchased land for the railroad to pass through, and he along with Chancy Hardin and Abner Harding formed a construction company, C. Hardin & Co., and began the task of laying track. Unfortunately, the citizens of Oquawka were not as enthusiastic, and refused to aid in the construction or funding. They did not see the railroad as a serious competitor of river traffic. The Peoria & Oquawka was forced to divert their planned route to Burlington, where the bankrupted Peoria & Warsaw Railroad had already begun work. Quinby's business sense greatly helped the Railroad, and made it very profitable. The railroad was eventually sold to the Central Military Tract Railroad in 1852, which eventually became the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. This route is still used to this day, mostly traveled by coal trains and Amtrak. Through Quinby's foresight, Monmouth is today a transportation center.
In 1856, Quinby decided to shift from practicing law to banking, and partnered with T.L. McCoy, founding the Warren County Bank, which was the first in town. The bank's success, coupled with his other business ventures, made Quinby a wealthy man.

Monmouth College
Quinby highly valued education, and so when Monmouth College was founded in 1853, he became a member of their Board of Trustees, where he served as treasurer. Quinby was one of the college's earliest benefactors, and donated a large amount of money, a sum which amounts to about $10,000. A metal plaque in Wallace Hall at Monmouth College describes Quinby as "One whose loyalty and benevolence helped make Monmouth College."

Personal life
Quinby married Jane Allen, who had moved from Oneida County, New York, with her father Benjamin Allen, in 1839. They had three children, Arthur, Henry and Willis, all of whom died before their father. Allen died of tuberculosis in 1847. Quinby moved to Berwick shortly after Allen's death to begin his mercantile business, and met Mary Pearce, whom he married in 1848. He had five more children, bringing the total to eight.
In 1866, Quinby decided to build a larger home than the others he had owned in Monmouth. Quinby set aside a plot of land on the corner of East Euclid and North 6th Street, which he had surveyed as early as 1862. He contacted noted Chicago architect John C. Cochrane, who designed a large two-story Italianate-Greek Revival mansion, now known as the Ivory Quinby House. The Quinby family deeded the estate to Monmouth College in 1965, under the condition that it be returned if the college no longer sees use for it. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. It is currently the residence of the college President.

References

 Genealogical History of the Quinby (Quimby) Family in England and America  – Henry Cole Quinby, Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vermont, 1915
 Railroads and Warren County – Thomas Best, Warren County Historical Society, Page 15

External links
Department.monm.edu

1817 births
1869 deaths
People from Buxton, Maine
Colby College alumni
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Monmouth College
People from Monmouth, Illinois
Businesspeople from Illinois
Mayors of places in Illinois
Illinois city council members
Illinois state court judges
Tuberculosis deaths in Illinois
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American businesspeople
19th-century American judges

Ivory Quinby