Black Bart is a 1948 American Western Technicolor film directed by George Sherman and starring Yvonne De Carlo, and Dan Duryea as the real-life stagecoach bandit Charles E. Boles, known as Black Bart. The movie was produced by Leonard Goldstein with a screenplay written by Luci Ward, Jack Natteford and William Bowers. The film, also known under the alternate title Black Bart, Highwayman, was released by Universal Pictures on March 3, 1948.

Plot
From his jail cell, old-time outlaw Jersey Brady (Percy Kilbride) tells the story of his ex-partner, notorious highwayman Charles E. Boles, also known as Black Bart (Dan Duryea).

Years earlier, Charles, Lance Hardeen (Jeffrey Lynn), and Jersey are working as outlaws when Charles decides to leave the gang, move to California, and pull off one last, big heist, which will allow him to go straight. Although Lance tries to trick Charles out of his share of their hidden loot, Charles secretly double-crosses Lance first and steals all the money.

Months later in Sacramento, Charles meets an ex-partner Clark (John McIntire), who now uses his position as a lawyer to commit big crimes. Together, the two plan to destroy the local Wells Fargo bank, create their own bank in its place, and profit from the growing gold rush business. Over the next two months, Clark tips off Charles about all the Wells Fargo money shipments, and a disguised Charles robs each stage until the townspeople lose confidence in the bank.

One day, when a masked Charles, now known as Black Bart, stops a coach transporting Lance, Jersey, and the celebrated dancer Lola Montez (Yvonne De Carlo), Lance recognizes Charles' voice and helps to save the coach from his thievery. Lance then brings the coach to the bank's relay station, where he further impresses Lola by saving the broken leg of the driver. Soon after, however, Charles, as Black Bart, also intrigues Lola when he sneaks into the station, returns her diamond bracelet, and embraces her before fleeing.

The next day when they reach Sacramento, Wells Fargo manager Mark Lorimer and Sheriff Gordon (Lloyd Gough) hire Lance and Jersey, whom they consider their new heroes, as coach guards. Charles, a respected rancher by day, greets them in the local bar, and although Lance reveals that he knows Charles is Black Bart and tells him that he wants Lola, Charles insists they take out Lola together. One day, Charles gets Lola alone and the two fall in love, but after he admits he is Black Bart, she implores him to give up his criminal life to be with her, and he agrees to do so after just one last job.

Meanwhile, Sheriff Gordon devises a plan for Lance to act as lookout for a posse of deputies who are to guard a coach carrying the payload that will save Wells Fargo. As Lance and Jersey scheme to rob the stage themselves and blame it on Black Bart, Clark tells Charles that if the stage gets through, their plan will be ruined. Black Bart meets the stage, orders Jersey to throw the money box down as the stage rides past, and escapes from Lance. When he opens the box, however, he finds it empty and realizes the money must still be at the relay station.

That night, after Charles tells Lola he has to go back to retrieve the money, she convinces him to not take the risk. Charles then tells Lance that he can steal and keep all the money himself. Lance, however, forces Charles to go with him to the relay station, and as soon as they get there, they are ambushed by a waiting posse. They escape into a barn, but when the posse sets it on fire, they are forced to run out and both of them are shot.

Making a final statement about not knowing what happened to Lola after the incident, Jersey wraps up his story from his current home, a jail cell.

Main cast

 Yvonne De Carlo as Lola Montez
 Dan Duryea as Charles E. Boles AKA Black Bart
 Jeffrey Lynn as Lance Hardeen
 Percy Kilbride as Jersey Brady
 Lloyd Gough as Sheriff Gordon
 Frank Lovejoy as Mark Lorimer
 John McIntire as Clark
 Don Beddoe as J.T. Hall
 Ray Walker as MacFarland
 Soledad Jiménez as Teresa
 Eddy C. Waller as Ed Mason
 Anne O'Neal as Mrs. Harmon
 Chief Many Treaties as Indian
 Eddie Acuff as Elkins
 Earl Audet as Townsman
 William Bailey as Townsman
 Ray Bennett as Henry
 Nina Campana as Mamacita
 Tom Coleman as Wells Fargo Representative
 Russ Conway as Wells Fargo Agent Clayton
 Bert Davidson as Blake
 George Douglas as Alcott
 Franklyn Farnum as Al
 Douglas Fowley as Sheriff Mix
 Ray Harper as Townsman
 Reed Howes as Bartender
 Si Jenks as Tobacco-Chewing Barfly
 Jack Kenny as Townsman
 Milton Kibbee as Townsman
 Kenneth Ross MacKenzie as Townsman
 Paul Maxey as Townsman
 Frank O'Connor as Wells Fargo Executive
 William O'Leary as Wells Fargo Man
 Artie Ortego as Townsman
 Marshall Ruth as Bandleader
 Everett Shields as Keller
 George Sowards as Stage Driver
 Ray Teal as Pete
 Harry Tenbrook as Barfly
 Jack Tornek as Townsman
 Wayne C. Treadway as Townsman
 Henry Wills as Ambush Deputy

Production
The script is a highly fictionalized portrayal of real-life highwayman, Charles E. Boles, also known as Black Bart, who robbed several stagecoaches in Northern California and Southern Oregon between 1875 and 1883. Universal announced the film in June, 1946  and that Charles Korvin might be cast and the film would be titled Black Bart – Highwayman.

When Universal merged with International Pictures, the film was temporarily shelved, but was revived in January, 1947 under the title The Adventures of Black Bart. Luci Ward and Jack Natteford, who had written Badman's Territory, were assigned to write the script. Paul Malvern was initially named producer for the film but Leonard Goldstein eventually got the job, his first as a producer. George Sherma was assigned to direct.

In April, 1947, Universal announced the lead roles were to be played by Yvonne de Carlo, Dan Duryea, and Edmond O'Brien; O'Brien soon dropped out to appear in A Double Life and was replaced by Jeffrey Lynn who had just completed his long career at Warner Bros.

Portions of the movie were filmed in Utah at Kanab Canyon, Strawberry Valley, and Strawberry Point.

Reception
The film was popular at the box office.

Home media
The film is available on DVD in Europe, presented in PAL format where the film is sped-up slightly to fit this different format and has a runtime of 77 minutes. Most DVD-Rs of the movie made for North American purchasers use the same print from the PAL DVDs.

References

External links

1948 films
1948 Western (genre) films
1940s English-language films
Films directed by George Sherman
Films scored by Frank Skinner
Films scored by Leith Stevens
American Western (genre) films
Films shot in Utah
1940s American films

Black Bart (film)


The Entognatha are a class of wingless and ametabolous arthropods, which, together with the insects, makes up the subphylum Hexapoda. Their mouthparts are entognathous, meaning that they are retracted within the head, unlike the insects. Entognatha are apterous, meaning that they lack wings. The class contains three orders: Collembola (springtails, 9000 species), Diplura ("two-tail", 1000 species) and Protura ("first-tail", 800 species). These three groups were historically united with the now-obsolete order Thysanura to form the class Apterygota, but it has since been recognized that the hexapodous condition of these animals has evolved independently from that of insects, and independently within each order. The orders might not be closely related, and Entognatha is now considered to be a paraphyletic group.

Morphology
These minute arthropods are apterous, unlike some orders of insects that have lost their wings secondarily (but are derived from winged ancestors). Their mouthparts are enclosed within a pouch in the head capsule, called the gnathal pouch, so only the tips of the mandibles and maxillae are exposed beyond the cavity. This pouch is created in the embryo by a flap or lateral head sclerite near the mouth on each side of the head which fuses with the labium. Other differences with insects are that each antennal segment is musculated; in insects, only the two basal segments are. Sperm transfer is always indirect, and there is an ovipositor in the females. Of the three orders, only collembolans possess eyes; nevertheless, many collembolans are blind, and even when compound eyes are present, there are no more than eight ommatidia.

Collembolans have a ventral tube termed a collophore on the first abdominal segment. The collophore is involved in moisture absorption. On the third abdominal segment is the retinaculum that holds the furcula. The furcula is the "spring" for which the Collembola are given the name springtails.
Proturans, sometimes referred to as "coneheads", do not have eyes or antennae. They possess a telson and abdominal styli thought to be vestigial legs.
Diplurans have a pair of caudal cerci, from which their name, meaning "two-tailed", is derived. They also possess abdominal styli.

References

Arthropod classes
Paraphyletic groups

Entognatha


Ormos Panagias () is a village on the east coast of Sithonia in Chalkidiki, Greece. Located between Kassandra and Mount Athos, Ormos Panagias is considered by some to be the port of the village of Agios Nikolaos, which is only a few kilometres away. Ormos Panagias is a popular vacation spot because it is a very quiet place near the sea and near spectacular beaches like Orange Beach (around  from Ormos Panagias).

Villages in Greece

Ormos Panagias


Charles Thompson (Utselata, or Oochelata also ᎤᏤᎴᏛ in Cherokee) was born to a full-blood Cherokee father and a European-American mother in the Southeastern United States. According to one writer, the mother had been kidnapped at a young age and raised by Cherokees. She never learned the identities of her real parents nor when or where she was born. As a result, she did not speak English and could communicate only in Cherokee. The family migrated west to Indian Territory during the Trail of Tears, and settled near the present-day site of Lake Spavinaw, in what is now Delaware County, Oklahoma.

Education
Utselata, as he was called until later in life, attended the Baptist Mission School, where he was strongly influenced by the Reverend Evan Jones and John B. Jones. He joined the Baptist church during this time. Utselata joined the Keetoowah Society in 1859, when it was founded by John B. Jones. The abolition of slavery was one of the society's principles.

Civil War military service
He enlisted in Drew's 1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles, a Confederate unit commanded by Colonel John Drew. He rescinded his enlistment and joined the Third Indian Home Guards as a corporal on July 11, 1862. This unit, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Lewis Downing, served with the Union Army. Utselata continued to serve through the rest of the war.

Post-war life
At the end of the Civil War, Utselata moved to a place on Spavinaw Creek, near the present-day town of Eucha, Oklahoma, where he established a farm. He occasionally practiced law before the tribal courts.

In 1867 he was elected to the Senate of the Cherokee Nation, where he represented the Delaware District until 1873. and served as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation from 1875 to 1879. During this time, he took the Anglicized name Charles Thompson. The surname honored Dr. Jeter Lynch Thompson, his predecessor in the Senate. He used that name from then until his death.

He was a Baptist deacon, preaching each Sunday at the church in Eucha in the Cherokee language. The church denied him ordination as a minister because of a policy that prevented lawyers from becoming ordained ministers. This alleged disqualification was waived when he became principal chief.

Death and burials
Charles Thompson died June 22, 1891, and was buried in the Indian cemetery at Eucha. The town of Eucha, including the cemetery, was relocated before Lake Eucha was completed in 1952. He was reburied just inside the new cemetery. A military stone at the grave honors his service to the Union during the Civil War.

Sources
McLoughlin, William G. After the Trail of Tears: The Cherokees' Struggle for Sovereignty 1839-1880. 1993. University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill.

References

Year of birth missing
1891 deaths
Baptists from Oklahoma
Cherokee Nation Confederate States military personnel
People of Indian Territory
Pre-statehood history of Oklahoma
Principal Chiefs of the Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)
Cherokee Nation Union Army military personnel

Charles Thompson (Cherokee chief)


Ardele Lister is an artist working in time-based media.

From 1991 to the present, Lister has taught media production and critical studies at  Rutgers University, where she is currently Graduate Director of Visual Arts.  She has also taught at Montclair State University in New Jersey, School of the Visual Arts, and Center for Media Arts, both in New York City.

Lister's works have been shown internationally in festivals, galleries, museums, and on television, and are in the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art (New York), Centre Georges Pompidou (Paris), the Stedelijk Museum (Amsterdam), Academie der Kunst (Berlin), and the National Gallery of Canada (Ottawa). She also has written for and edited art and media publications and founded the magazines Criteria and The Independent.

She is the mother of actress Zoe Lister-Jones and the former wife of the American photographer and media artist Bill Jones.

Art
Lister began making films in the early 1970s. Her films include So Where's My Prince Already? (1976), Spilt (1980), Hello (1984), Behold the Promised Land, and Conditional Love (See Under: Nationalism–Canada) (1997). She also worked on avant-garde television projects such as Pee-wee's Playhouse (CBS) for which she produced the 'Connect the Dots' segments.

Publishing work
Lister founded and edited the journal CRITERIA, a Quarterly Review of the Arts, in 1974 in Vancouver. It was initially published under the auspices of the Vancouver Art Gallery, where she produced a weekly television show on the gallery's events and exhibitions, but by 1977 had dis-affiliated. Volumes 1-4 were published until Fall 1978, Volume 4, Number 2.  CRITERIA published art projects and writings by Lawrence Weiner, John Baldessari, Robin Blaser, and Ardele Lister; and interviews with Judy Chicago, Martha Wilson, and Dennis Wheeler.

In 1977, while working for the Associated of Independent Video and Film Makers, facilitating an innovative project funded by the National Endowment for the Arts entitled "Short Film Showcase," Ardele Lister created and edited "The Independent," the first magazine devoted to the needs of independent video and film makers. The magazine is still published by the Foundation for Independent Video and Film, in New York, today as a blog.

Additionally, Lister has written articles for AfterImage, Felix, Collapse, and Heresies.

Personal life
Lister is the daughter of Rose (Bercovice) and Jack Lister. She is Jewish, and her husband converted to Judaism upon their marriage.

See also
Time-Based Art Festival

Notes

References

 Tonkonow, Leslie, "Leslie Tonkonow Interviews Ardele Lister," Collapse, Vol. 3, December 1997. pp. 154–169.
 McCoy, Pat, "A Brief Conversation Between Ardele Lister and Pat McCoy," Felix, vol. 1, no. 3. 1997. pp. 79–83.

External links
 Official Website

Living people
Rutgers University faculty
American artists
Jewish American artists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ardele Lister


玻色弦理論()是最早的弦論版本,約在1960年代晚期發展。其名稱由來是因為粒子譜中僅含有玻色子。

1980年代,在弦論的範疇下發現了超對稱;一個稱作超弦理論(超對稱弦理論)的新版本弦論成為了研究主題。儘管如此,玻色弦理論仍然是了解微擾弦理論的有用工具,並且超弦理論中的一些理論困難之處在玻色弦理論中已然現身。

疑難
雖然玻色弦理論有許多吸引人的特質,其在成為物理模型理論有兩大缺陷:
 其只預測玻色子的存在,然而許多物理粒子為費米子。
 其預測了一種具有虛數質量的弦模式,暗示了此理論在迅子凝聚過程會有不穩定性。

類型

有四種可能的玻色子弦理論,取決於是否允許開弦以及弦是否具有指定的可定向性。四種可能理論的光譜示意圖如下:

請注意,所有四種理論都有一個負能量快子 () 和一個無質量引力子。

數學表示

路徑積分表述

玻色子弦理論可以由路徑積分定義:

 is the field on the worldsheet describing the embedding of the string in 25+1 spacetime; in the Polyakov formulation,  is not to be understood as the induced metric from the embedding, but as an independent dynamical field.  is the metric on the target spacetime, which is usually taken to be the Minkowski metric in the perturbative theory. Under a Wick rotation, this is brought to a Euclidean metric . M is the worldsheet as a topological manifold parametrized by the  coordinates.  is the string tension and related to the Regge slope as .

 has diffeomorphism and Weyl invariance. Weyl symmetry is broken upon quantization (Conformal anomaly) and therefore this action has to be supplemented with a counterterm, along with a hypothetical purely topological term, proportional to the Euler characteristic:

The explicit breaking of Weyl invariance by the counterterm can be cancelled away in the critical dimension 26.

Physical quantities are then constructed from the (Euclidean) partition function and N-point function:

The discrete sum is a sum over possible topologies, which for euclidean bosonic orientable closed strings are compact orientable Riemannian surfaces and are thus identified by a genus . A normalization factor  is introduced to compensate overcounting from symmetries. While the computation of the partition function corresponds to the cosmological constant, the N-point function, including  vertex operators, describes the scattering amplitude of strings.

The symmetry group of the action actually reduces drastically the integration space to a finite dimensional manifold. The  path-integral in the partition function is a priori a sum over possible Riemannian structures; however, quotienting with respect to Weyl transformations allows us to only consider conformal structures, that is, equivalence classes of metrics under the identifications of metrics related by

Since the world-sheet is two dimensional, there is a 1-1 correspondence between conformal structures and complex structures. One still has to quotient away diffeomorphisms. This leaves us with an integration over the space of all possible complex structures modulo diffeomorphisms, which is simply the moduli space of the given topological surface, and is in fact a finite-dimensional complex manifold. The fundamental problem of perturbative bosonic strings therefore becomes the parametrization of Moduli space, which is non-trivial for genus .

h = 0

At tree-level, corresponding to genus 0, the cosmological constant vanishes: .

The four-point function for the scattering of four tachyons is the Shapiro-Virasoro amplitude:

Where  is the total momentum and , ,  are the Mandelstam variables.

h = 1

Genus 1 is the torus, and corresponds to the one-loop level. The partition function amounts to:

 is a complex number with positive imaginary part ; , holomorphic to the moduli space of the torus, is any fundamental domain for the modular group  acting on the upper half-plane, for example .  is the Dedekind eta function. The integrand is of course invariant under the modular group: the measure  is simply the Poincaré metric which has PSL(2,R) as isometry group; the rest of the integrand is also invariant by virtue of  and the fact that  is a modular form of weight 1/2.

This integral diverges. This is due to the presence of the tachyon and is related to the instability of the perturbative vacuum.

相關條目
弦理論
快子

參考

參考文獻

外部鏈接
 How many string theories are there?
 PIRSA:C09001 - Introduction to the Bosonic String

弦理論

玻色弦理論


The Gowing–Sheldon Historic District is a historic district containing two formerly rural properties, at 642 and 643 Woburn Street in Wilmington, Massachusetts.  The district's houses are reminders of a period when the area was rural farmland along one of the oldest roads in town.  The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.

Gowing–Sheldon House
The Gowing–Sheldon House at 642 Woburn Street is a Federal style wood frame house built c. 1809.  Like many period houses, it faces south and rests on a granite foundation; however, it is only four bays wide and one bay deep.  There is a rear ell perpendicular to the main house that was added sometime before the turn of the 20th century, and has been modified since, based on photographic evidence.  This ell connects the house to a 19th-century barn.

This house was built by Joel Tweed, a cordwainer who bought the property in 1809 and sold it, with house, in 1819.  It was acquired in 1920 by John Gowing, who is reported in local histories to have raised a large family there.  He sold the property in 1864 to Horace Sheldon, whose family owned the property until 1898.

Lucy and Henry Sheldon House
In 1892, Lucy Sheldon purchased land across the street from the Sheldon house from her father-in-law, Henry, who was Horace's brother.  The house that Lucy and Henry, Jr. had constructed in 1893 is one of the most elaborate Queen Anne houses in Wilmington.  The house has cross gables expanding the third floor, its gables decorated with cut shingles and heavy brackets.  A single story porch is decorated with turned posts and jigsaw brackets.  The entry is highlighted by a gable end decorated with a starburst.  In the back of the property is a carriage house, which carries on the Queen Anne styling.

See also
Buck's Corner Historic District, a little further north along Woburn Street
National Register of Historic Places listings in Middlesex County, Massachusetts

References

Buildings and structures in Wilmington, Massachusetts
Historic districts in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts

Gowing–Sheldon Historic District


Juan Ponce de León (1460-1521) was a Spanish nobleman, explorer and colonial governor. Looking for gold and a rumored "Fountain of Youth, he landed on the southeast coast of North America near present-day St. Augustine, Florida. He claimed the lands for Spain and named it La Florida (place of flowers). In 1521, on his second trip to Florida, he was wounded in an attack. The expedition returned to Cuba where he died in July 1521 from his wound.

Early life
Ponce de León was born in 1460 in Santervás de Campos, Spain. He was born into a poor but noble family. His parents may have died while he was still young. He was sent to the estate of Pedro Núñez de Guzmán, Lord of Toral, to serve as a page. He became a soldier and fought against the Moors in Granada. He was probably with Christopher Columbus on his second voyage.

He eventually became a soldier and fought against the Moors in Granada. Like other conquistadores, Ponce de León soon sought fame and fortune through exploration, and it is believed he began his quest as part of Christopher Columbus's second expedition in 1493.

Hispaniola
Some ten years later he was a Captain under Nicolás de Ovando, the governor of the island of Hispaniola. Ponce de León put down a mutiny and was made governor of the eastern province of Hispaniola. Ponce de León received a substantial land grant which authorized sufficient Taino slave labor to farm his new estate.

Ponce de León prospered in this new role. He found a ready market for his farm produce and livestock at nearby Boca de Yuma. This was where Spanish ships stocked supplies before the long voyage back to Spain. In 1505 Ovando authorized Ponce de León to establish a new town in Higüey, which he named Salvaleón. In 1508 King Ferdinand authorized Ponce de León to conquer the remaining Tainos and exploit them in gold mining.

Around this time, Ponce de León married Leonora, an innkeeper's daughter. They had three daughters (Juana, Isabel and Maria) and one son (Luis). The large stone house Ponce de León ordered built for his growing family still stands today near the city of Salvaleón de Higüey.

Puerto Rico and Bimini
In 1508 Ponce de León led an expedition to what is now Puerto Rico. They searched for and found gold. After founding a colony there he was appointed governor.

Florida

First expedition
In 1513, with three ships, Ponce de León led an expedition to discover what is now the east coast of Florida. According to tradition, he landed at or near St. Augustine, Florida. He named the place La Florida. This is most probably because he landed during the Spanish Easter celebration called Pascua Florida. After exploring the coast further, they returned to Puerto Rico.

Second expedition
Ponce de León returned in 1521 with 200 settlers. They brought cattle, horses, and what they needed to farm the land. As they were building the settlement they were attacked by local Indians. In the fighting Ponce de León received a mortal wound, possibly by a poisoned arrow. The party returned to Cuba where Ponce de León died. He was buried in what is now San Juan before the alter of the Dominican church. His remains were later moved to San Juan cathedral.

Fountain of youth
The story of a fountain of youth goes back many centuries. Herodotus (425 – 484 BC) talked about a group he called the Macrobians who lived somewhere in modern day Ethiopia. He said they remained youthful, were physically strong and lived a long time. Calling it a fountain of youth came much later. The stories of Ponce de León and his search for a fountain of youth developed after his death. There is no mention of such a goal in any of his orders. In 1535 the Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés first stated Ponce de León was searching for a fountain of youth.  The legend was repeated by later writers and embellished.

References

Spanish explorers
History of Florida

Juan Ponce de León


Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to engage in goal-directed behavior. It is often understood as a force that explains why people or animals initiate, continue, or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. It is a complex phenomenon and its precise definition is disputed. It contrasts with amotivation, which is a state of apathy or listlessness. Motivation is studied in fields like psychology, motivation science, and philosophy.

Motivational states are characterized by their direction, intensity, and persistence. The direction of a motivational state is shaped by the goal it aims to achieve. Intensity is the strength of the state and affects whether the state is translated into action and how much effort is employed. Persistence refers to how long an individual is willing to engage in an activity. Motivation is often divided into two phases: in the first phase, the individual establishes a goal, while in the second phase, they attempt to reach their desired goal or outcome.

Many types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal factors like enjoyment and curiosity. It contrasts with extrinsic motivation, which is driven by external factors like obtaining rewards and avoiding punishment. For conscious motivation, the individual is aware of the motive driving the behavior, which is not the case for unconscious motivation. Other types include rational and irrational motivation, biological and cognitive motivation, short-term and long-term motivation, and egoistic and altruistic motivation.

Theories of motivation are conceptual frameworks that seek to explain motivational phenomena. Content theories aim to describe which internal factors motivate people and which goals they commonly follow. Examples are the hierarchy of needs, the two-factor theory, and the learned needs theory. They contrast with process theories, which discuss the cognitive, emotional, and decision-making processes that underlie human motivation, like expectancy theory, equity theory, goal-setting theory, self-determination theory, and reinforcement theory. Motivation is relevant to many fields. It affects educational success, work performance, athletic success, and economic behavior. It is further pertinent in the fields of personal development, health, and criminal law.

Definition, measurement, and semantic field
Motivation is often understood as an internal state or force that propels individuals to engage and persist in goal-directed behavior. Motivational states explain why people or animals initiate, continue, or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states are characterized by the goal they intend to achieve as well as the intensity and duration invested in realizing their goal. Different motivational states have different degrees of strength and strong states are more likely to influence behavior. Motivation contrasts with amotivation, which is a lack of interest in a certain activity or a resistance to it. In a slightly different sense, the word "motivation" can also refer to the act of motivating someone and to a reason or goal for doing something. It comes from the Latin term  (to move).

The traditional discipline studying motivation is psychology. It investigates how motivation arises, which factors influence it, and what effects it has. Motivation science is a more recent field of inquiry focused on an integrative approach that tries to link insights from different subdisciplines. Neurology is interested in the underlying neurological mechanisms, such as the involved brain areas and neurotransmitters. Philosophy aims to clarify the nature of motivation and understand its relation to other concepts.

Motivation is not directly observable but has to be inferred from other characteristics. There are different ways to do so and measure it. The most common approach is to rely on self-reports and use questionnaires. They can include direct questions like "how motivated are you?" but may also inquire about additional factors in relation to the goals, feelings, and effort invested in a particular activity. Another approach is based on external observation of the individual. This can concern studying behavioral changes but may also include additional methods like measuring brain activity and skin conductance.

Academic definitions
Many academic definitions of motivation have been proposed but there is little consensus on its precise characterization. This is partly because motivation is a complex phenomenon with many aspects and different definitions often focus on different aspects. Some definitions emphasize internal factors. This can involve psychological aspects in relation to desires and volitions or physiological aspects regarding physical needs. For example, John Dewey and Abraham Maslow use a psychological perspective to understand motivation as a form of desire while Jackson Beatty and Charles Ransom Gallistel see it as a physical process akin to hunger and thirst.

Some definitions stress the continuity between human and animal motivation, but others draw a clear distinction between the two. This is often emphasized by the idea that human agents act for reasons and are not mechanistically driven to follow their strongest impulse.  A closely related disagreement concerns the role of awareness and rationality. Definitions emphasizing this aspect understand motivation as a mostly conscious process of rationally considering the most appropriate behavior. Another perspective emphasizes the multitude of unconscious and subconscious factors responsible.

Other definitions characterize motivation as a form of arousal that provides energy to direct and maintain behavior. For instance, K. B. Madsen sees motivation as "the 'driving force' behind behavior" while Elliott S. Vatenstein and Roderick Wong emphasize that motivation leads to goal-oriented behavior that is interested in consequences. The role of goals in motivation is sometimes paired with the claim that it leads to flexible behavior in contrast to blind reflexes or fixed stimulus-response patterns. This is based on the idea that individuals use means to bring about the goal and are flexible in regard to what means they employ. According to this view, the feeding behavior of rats is based on motivation since they can learn to traverse through complicated mazes to satisfy their hunger, which is not the case for the stimulus-bound feeding behavior of flies.

Some psychologists define motivation as a temporary and reversible process. For example, Robert A. Hinde and John Alcock see it as a transitory state that affects responsiveness to stimuli. This approach makes it possible to contrast motivation with phenomena like learning which bring about permanent behavioral changes.

Another approach is to provide a very broad characterization to cover many different aspects of motivation. This often results in very long definitions by including many of the factors listed above. The multitude of definitions and the lack of consensus have prompted some theorists, like psychologists B. N. Bunnell and Donald A. Dewsbury, to doubt that the concept of motivation is theoretically useful and to see it instead as a mere hypothetical construct.

Semantic field
The term "motivation" is closely related to the term "motive" and the two terms are often used as synonyms. However, some theorists distinguish their precise meanings as technical terms. For example, psychologist Andrea Fuchs understands motivation as the "sum of separate motives". According to psychologist Ruth Kanfer, motives are stable dispositional tendencies that contrast with the dynamic nature of motivation as a fluctuating internal state.

Motivation is closely related to ability, effort, and action. An ability is a power to perform an action, like the ability to walk or to write. Individuals can have abilities without exercising them. They are more likely to be motivated to do something if they have the ability to do it. But having an ability is not a requirement and it is possible to be motivated while lacking the corresponding ability. Effort is the physical and mental energy invested when exercising an ability. It depends on motivation and high motivation is associated with high effort. The quality of the resulting performance depends on the ability, effort, and motivation. Motivation to perform an action can be present even if the action is not executed. This is the case, for instance, if there is a stronger motivation to engage in a different action at the same time.

Components and stages
Motivation is a complex phenomenon that is often analyzed in terms of different components and stages. Components are aspects that different motivational states have in common. Often-discussed components are direction, intensity, and persistence. Stages or phases are temporal parts of how motivation unfolds over time, like the initial goal-setting stage in contrast to the following goal-striving stage.

A closely related issue concerns the different types of mental phenomena that are responsible for motivation, like desires, beliefs, and rational deliberation. Some theorists hold that a desire to do something is an essential part of all motivational states. This view is based on the idea that the desire to do something justifies the effort to engage in this activity. However, this view is not generally accepted and it has been suggested that at least in some cases, actions are motivated by other mental phenomena, like beliefs or rational deliberation. For example, a person may be motivated to undergo a painful root canal treatment because they conclude that it is a necessary thing to do even though they do not actively desire it.

Components
Motivation is sometimes discussed in terms of three main components: direction, intensity, and persistence. Direction refers to the goal people choose. It is the objective in which they decide to invest their energy. For example, if one roommate decides to go to the movies while the other visits a party, they both have motivation but their motivational states differ in regard to the direction they pursue. The pursued objective often forms part of a hierarchy of means-end relationships. This implies that several steps or lower-level goals may have to be fulfilled to reach a higher-level goal. For example, to achieve the higher-level goal of writing a complete article, one needs to realize different lower-level goals, like writing different sections of the article.

The goal belongs to the individual's motivational reason and explains why they favor an action and engage in it. Motivational reasons contrast with normative reasons, which are facts that determine what should be done or why a course of action is objectively good. Motivational reasons can be in tune with normative reasons but this is not always the case. For example, if a cake is poisoned then this is a normative reason for the host not to offer it to their guests. But if they are not aware of the poison then politeness may be their motivating reason to offer it.

The intensity of motivation corresponds to how much energy someone is willing to invest into a particular task. For instance, two athletes engaging in the same drill have the same direction but differ concerning the motivational intensity if one gives their best while the other only puts in minimal effort.
 Some theorists use the term "effort" rather than "intensity" for this component.

The strength of a motivational state also affects whether it is translated into action. One theory states that different motivational states compete with each other and that only the behavior with the highest net force of motivation is put into action. However, it is controversial whether this is always true. For example, it has been suggested that in cases of rational deliberation, it may be possible to act against one's strongest motive. Another problem is that this view may lead to a form of determinism that denies the existence of free will.

Persistence is the long-term component of motivation and refers to how long an individual engages in an activity. A high level of motivational persistence manifests itself in a sustained dedication over time. The motivational persistence in relation to the chosen goal contrasts with flexibility on the level of the means: individuals may adjust their approach and try different strategies on the level of the means to reach a pursued end. This way, individuals can adapt to changes in the physical and social environment that affect the effectiveness of previously chosen means.

The components of motivation can be understood in analogy to the allocation of limited resources: direction, intensity, and persistence determine where to allocate energy, how much of it, and for how long. For effective action, it is usually relevant to have the right form of motivation on all three levels: to pursue an appropriate goal with the required intensity and persistence.

Stages
The process of motivation is commonly divided into two stages: goal-setting and goal-striving. Goal-setting is the phase in which the direction of motivation is determined. It involves considering the reasons for and against different courses of action and then committing oneself to a goal one aims to achieve.  The goal-setting process by itself does not ensure that the plan is carried out. This happens in the goal-striving stage, in which the individual tries to implement the plan. It starts with the initiation of the action and includes putting in effort and trying different strategies to succeed. Various difficulties can arise in this phase. The individual has to muster the initiative to get started with the goal-directed behavior and stay committed even when faced with obstacles without giving in to distractions. They also need to ensure that the chosen means are effective and that they do not overexert themselves.

Goal-setting and goal-striving are usually understood as distinct stages but they can be intertwined in various ways. Depending on the performance during the striving phase, the individual may adjust their goal. For example, if the performance is worse than expected, they may lower their goals. This can go hand in hand with adjusting the effort invested in the activity.

Some theorists have suggested further phases. For example, psychologist Barry J. Zimmerman includes an additional self-reflection phase after the performance. A further approach is to distinguish two parts of the planning: the first part consists in choosing a goal while the second part is about planning how to realize this goal.

Types
Many different types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. They differ from each other based on the underlying mechanisms responsible for their manifestation, what goals are pursued, what temporal horizon they encompass, and who is intended to benefit.

Intrinsic and extrinsic

The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is based on the source or origin of the motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual and is driven by internal factors, like enjoyment, curiosity, or a sense of fulfillment. It occurs when people pursue an activity for its own sake. It can be due to affective factors, when the person engages in the behavior because it feels good, or cognitive factors, when they see it as something good or meaningful. An example of intrinsic motivation is a person who plays basketball during lunch break only because they enjoy it.

Extrinsic motivation arises from external factors, such as rewards, punishments, or recognition from others. This occurs when people engage in an activity because they are interested in the effects or the outcome of the activity rather than in the activity itself. For instance, if a student does their homework because they are afraid of being punished by their parents then extrinsic motivation is responsible.

Intrinsic motivation is often more highly regarded than extrinsic motivation. It is associated with genuine passion, creativity, a sense of purpose, and personal autonomy. It also tends to come with stronger commitment and persistence. Intrinsic motivation is a key factor in cognitive, social, and physical development. In the field of education, intrinsic motivation tends to result in high-quality learning. However, there are also certain advantages to extrinsic motivation: it can provide people with motivation to engage in useful or necessary tasks which they do not naturally find interesting or enjoyable. Some theorists understand the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as a spectrum rather than a clear dichotomy. This is linked to the idea that the more autonomous an activity is, the more it is associated with intrinsic motivation.

A behavior can be motivated only by intrinsic motives, only by extrinsic motives, or by a combination of both. In the latter case, there are both internal and external reasons why the person engages in the behavior. If both are present, they may work against each other. For example, the presence of a strong extrinsic motivation, like a high monetary reward, can decrease intrinsic motivation. Because of this, the individual may be less likely to further engage in the activity if it does not result in an external reward anymore. However, this is not always the case and under the right circumstances, the combined effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation leads to higher performance.

Conscious and unconscious
Conscious motivation involves motives of which the person is aware. It includes the explicit recognition of goals and underlying values. Conscious motivation is associated with the formulation of a goal and a plan to realize it as well as its controlled step-by-step execution. Some theorists emphasize the role of the self in this process as the entity that plans, initiates, regulates, and evaluates behavior. An example of conscious motivation is a person in a clothing store who states that they want to buy a shirt and then goes on to buy one.

Unconscious motivation involves motives of which the person is not aware. It can be guided by deep-rooted beliefs, desires, and feelings operating beneath the level of consciousness. Examples include the unacknowledged influences of past experiences, unresolved conflicts, hidden fears, and defense mechanisms. These influences can affect decisions, impact behavior, and shape habits. An example of unconscious motivation is a scientist who believes that their research effort is a pure expression of their altruistic desire to benefit science while their true motive is an unacknowledged need for fame. External circumstances can also impact the motivation underlying unconscious behavior. An example is the effect of priming, in which an earlier stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus without the person's awareness of this influence. Unconscious motivation is a central topic in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.

Early theories of motivation often assumed that conscious motivation is the primary form of motivation. However, this view has been challenged in the subsequent literature and there is no academic consensus on the relative extent of their influence.

Rational and irrational
Closely related to the contrast between conscious and unconscious motivation is the distinction between rational and irrational motivation. A motivational state is rational if it is based on a good reason. This implies that the motive of the behavior explains why the person should engage in the behavior. In this case, the person has an insight into why the behavior is considered valuable. For example, if a person saves a drowning child because they value the child's life then their motivation is rational.

Rational motivation contrasts with irrational motivation, in which the person has no good reason that explains the behavior. In this case, the person lacks a clear understanding of the deeper source of motivation and in what sense the behavior is in tune with their values. This can be the case for impulsive behavior, for example, when a person spontaneously acts out of anger without reflecting on the consequences of their actions.

Rational and irrational motivation play a key role in the field of economics. In order to predict the behavior of economic actors, it is often assumed that they act rationally. In this field, rational behavior is understood as behavior that is in tune with self-interest while irrational behavior goes against self-interest. For example, based on the assumption that it is in the self-interest of firms to maximize profit, actions that lead to that outcome are considered rational while actions that impede profit maximization are considered irrational. However, when understood in a wider sense, rational motivation is a broader term that also includes behavior motivated by a desire to benefit others as a form of rational altruism.

Biological and cognitive

Biological motivation concerns motives that arise due to physiological needs. Examples are hunger, thirst, sex, and the need for sleep. They are also referred to as primary, physiological, or organic motives. Biological motivation is associated with states of arousal and emotional changes. Its source lies in innate mechanisms that govern stimulus-response patterns.

Cognitive motivation concerns motives that arise from the psychological level. They include affiliation, competition, personal interests, and self-actualization as well as desires for perfection, justice, beauty, and truth. They are also called secondary, psychological, social, or personal motives. They are often seen as a higher or more refined form of motivation. The processing and interpretation of information play a key role in cognitive motivation. Cognitively motivated behavior is not an innate reflex but a flexible response to the available information that is based on past experiences and expected outcomes. It is associated with the explicit formulation of desired outcomes and engagement in goal-directed behavior to realize these outcomes.

Some theories of human motivation see biological causes as the source of all motivation. They tend to conceptualize human behavior in analogy to animal behavior. Other theories allow for both biological and cognitive motivation and some put their main emphasis on cognitive motivation.

Short-term and long-term
Short-term and long-term motivation differ in regard to the temporal horizon and the duration of the underlying motivational mechanism. Short-term motivation is focused on achieving rewards immediately or in the near future. It is associated with impulsive behavior. It is a transient and fluctuating phenomenon that may arise and subside spontaneously.

Long-term motivation involves a sustained commitment to goals in a more distant future. It encompasses a willingness to invest time and effort over an extended period before the intended goal is reached. It is often a more deliberative process that requires goal-setting and planning.

Both short-term and long-term motivation are relevant to achieving one's goals. For example, short-term motivation is central when responding to urgent problems while long-term motivation is a key factor in pursuing far-reaching objectives. However, they sometimes conflict with each other by supporting opposing courses of action. An example is a married person who is tempted to have a one-night stand. In this case, there may be a clash between the short-term motivation to seek immediate physical gratification and the long-term motivation to preserve and nurture a successful marriage built on trust and commitment. Another example is the long-term motivation to stay healthy in contrast to the short-term motivation to smoke a cigarette.

Egoistic and altruistic
The difference between egoistic and altruistic motivation concerns who is intended to benefit from the anticipated course of action. Egoistic motivation is driven by self-interest: the person is acting for their own benefit or to fulfill their own needs and desires. This self-interest can take various forms, including immediate pleasure, career advancement, financial rewards, and gaining respect from others.

Altruistic motivation is marked by selfless intentions and involves a genuine concern for the well-being of others. It is associated with the desire to assist and help others in a non-transactional manner without the goal of obtaining personal gain or rewards in return.

According to the controversial thesis of psychological egoism, there is no altruistic motivation: all motivation is egoistic. Proponents of this view hold that even apparently altruistic behavior is caused by egoistic motives. For example, they may claim that people feel good about helping other people and that their egoistic desire to feel good is the true internal motivation behind the externally altruistic behavior.

Many religions emphasize the importance of altruistic motivation as a component of religious practice. For example, Christianity sees selfless love and compassion as a way of realizing God's will and bringing about a better world. Buddhists emphasize the practice of loving-kindness toward all sentient beings as a means to eliminate suffering.

Others
Many other types of motivation are discussed in the academic literature. Moral motivation is closely related to altruistic motivation. Its motive is to act in tune with moral judgments and it can be characterized as the willingness to "do the right thing". The desire to visit a sick friend to keep a promise is an example of moral motivation. It can conflict with other forms of motivation, like the desire to go to the movies instead. An influential debate in moral philosophy centers around the question of whether moral judgments can directly provide moral motivation, as internalists claim. Externalists provide an alternative explanation by holding that additional mental states, like desires or emotions, are needed. Externalists hold that these additional states do not always accompany moral judgments, meaning that it would be possible to have moral judgments without a moral motivation to follow them. Certain forms of psychopathy and brain damage can inhibit moral motivation.

Self-determination theorists, such as Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, distinguish between autonomous and controlled motivation. Autonomous motivation is associated with acting according to one's free will or doing something because one wants to do it. In the case of controlled motivation, the person feels pressured into doing something by external forces.

A related contrast is between push and pull motivation. Push motivation arises from unfulfilled internal needs and aims at satisfying them. For example, hunger may push an individual to find something to eat. Pull motivation arises from an external goal and aims at achieving this goal, like the motivation to get a university degree.

Achievement motivation is the desire to overcome obstacles and strive for excellence. Its goal is to do things well and become better even in the absence of tangible external rewards. It is closely related to the fear of failure. An example of achievement motivation in sports is a person who challenges stronger opponents in an attempt to get better.

Human motivation is sometimes contrasted with animal motivation. The field of animal motivation examines the reasons and mechanisms underlying animal behavior. It belongs to psychology and zoology. It gives specific emphasis to the interplay of external stimulation and internal states. It further considers how an animal benefits from a certain behavior as an individual and in terms of evolution. There are important overlaps between the fields of animal and human motivation. Studies on animal motivation tend to focus more on the role of external stimuli and instinctive responses while the role of free decisions and delayed gratification has a more prominent place when discussing human motivation.

Amotivation and akrasia

Motivation contrasts with amotivation, which is an absence of interest. Individuals in the state of amotivation feel apathy or lack the willingness to engage in a particular behavior. For instance, amotivated children at school remain passive in class, do not engage in classroom activities, and fail to follow teacher instructions. Amotivation can be a significant barrier to productivity, goal attainment, and overall well-being. It can be caused by factors like unrealistic expectations, helplessness, feelings of incompetence, and the inability to see how one's actions affect outcomes. In the field of Christian spirituality, the term accidie is often used to describe a form of amotivation or listlessness associated with a failure to engage in spiritual practices. Amotivation is usually a temporary state. The term "amotivational syndrome" refers to a more permanent and wide-reaching condition. It involves apathy and lack of activity in relation to a broad range of activities and is associated with incoherence, inability to concentrate, and memory disturbance.

Amotivation is closely related to akrasia. A person in the state of akrasia believes that they should perform a certain action but cannot motivate themselves to do it. This means that there is an internal conflict between what a person believes they should do and what they actually do. The cause of akrasia is sometimes that a person gives in to temptations and is not able to resist them. For this reason, akrasia is also referred to as weakness of the will. An addict who compulsively consumes drugs even though they know that it is not in their best self-interest is an example of akrasia. Akrasia contrasts with enkrasia, which is a state where a person's motivation aligns with their beliefs.

Theories
Theories of motivation are frameworks or sets of principles that aim to explain motivational phenomena. They seek to understand how motivation arises and what causes and effects it has as well as the goals that commonly motivate people. This way, they provide explanations of why an individual engages in one behavior rather than another, how much effort they invest, and how long they continue to strive toward a given goal.

Important debates in the academic literature concern to what extent motivation is innate or based on genetically determined instincts rather than learned through previous experience. A closely related issue is whether motivational processes are mechanistic and run automatically or have a more complex nature involving cognitive processes and active decision-making. Another discussion revolves around the topic of whether the primary sources of motivation are internal needs rather than external goals.

A common distinction among theories of motivation is between content theories and process theories. Content theories attempt to identify and describe the internal factors that motivate people, such as different types of needs, drives, and desires. They examine which goals motivate people. Influential content theories are Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, and David McClelland's learned needs theory. Process theories discuss the cognitive, emotional, and decision-making processes that underlie human motivation. They examine how people select goals and the means to achieve them. Major process theories are expectancy theory, equity theory, goal-setting theory, self-determination theory, and reinforcement theory. Another way to classify theories of motivation focuses on the role of inborn physiological processes in contrast to cognitive processes and distinguishes between biological, psychological, and biopsychosocial theories.

Major content theories

Maslow holds that humans have different kinds of needs and that those needs are responsible for motivation. According to him, they form a hierarchy of needs that is composed of lower and higher needs. Lower needs belong to the physiological level and are characterized as deficiency needs since they indicate some form of lack. Examples are the desire for food, water, and shelter. Higher needs belong to the psychological level and are associated with the potential to grow as a person. Examples are self-esteem in the form of a positive self-image and personal development by actualizing one's unique talents and abilities. Two key principles of Maslow's theory are the progression principle and the deficit principle. They state that lower needs have to be fulfilled before higher needs become activated. This means that higher needs, like esteem and self-actualization, are unable to provide full motivation while lower needs, like food and shelter, remain unfulfilled. An influential extension of Maslow's hierarchy of needs was proposed by Clayton Alderfer in the form of his ERG theory.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory also analyzes motivation in terms of lower and higher needs. Herzberg applies it specifically to the workplace and distinguishes between lower-lever hygiene factors and higher-level motivators. Hygiene factors are associated with the work environment and conditions. Examples include company policies, supervision, salary, and job security. They are essential to prevent job dissatisfaction and associated negative behavior, such as frequent absence or decreased effort. Motivators are more directly related to work itself. They include the nature of the work and the associated responsibility as well as recognition and personal and professional growth opportunities. They are responsible for job satisfaction as well as increased commitment and creativity. This theory implies, for example, that increasing salary and job security may not be sufficient to fully motivate workers if their higher needs are not met.

McClelland's learned needs theory states that individuals have three primary needs: affiliation, power, and achievement. The need for affiliation is a desire to form social connections with others. The need for power is a longing to exert control over one's surroundings and wield influence over others. The need for achievement relates to a yearning to establish ambitious objectives and to receive positive feedback on one's performance. McClelland holds that these needs are present in everyone but that their exact form, strength, and expression is shaped by cultural influences and the individual's experiences. For example, affiliation-oriented individuals are primarily motivated by establishing and maintaining social relations while achievement-oriented individuals are inclined to set challenging goals and strive for personal excellence.

Major process theories
Expectancy theory states that whether a person is motivated to perform a certain behavior depends on the expected results of this behavior: the more positive the expected results are, the higher the motivation to engage in that behavior. Expectancy theorists understand the expected results in terms of three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy concerns the relation between effort and performance. If the expectancy of a behavior is high then the person believes that their efforts will likely result in successful performance. Instrumentality concerns the relation between performance and outcomes. If the instrumentality of a performance is high then the person believes that it will likely result in the intended outcomes. Valence is the degree to which the outcomes are attractive to the person. These three components affect each other in a multiplicative way, meaning that high motivation is only present if all of them are high. In this case, the person believes it likely that they perform well, that the performance leads to the expected result, and that the result as a high value.

Equity theory sees fairness as a key aspect of motivation. According to it, people are interested in the proportion between effort and reward: they judge how much energy one has to invest and how good the outcome is. Equity theory states that individuals assess fairness by comparing their own ratio of effort and reward to the ratio of others. A key idea of equity theory is that people are motivated to reduce perceived inequity. This is especially the case if they feel that they receive less rewards than others. For example, if an employee has the impression that they work longer than their co-workers while receiving the same salary, this may motivate them to ask for a raise.

Goal-setting theory holds that having clearly defined goals is one of the key factors of motivation. It states that effective goals are specific and challenging. A goal is specific if it involves a clear objective, such as a quantifiable target one intends to reach rather than just trying to do one's best. A goal is challenging if it is achievable but hard to reach. Two additional factors identified by goal-setting theorists are goal commitment and self-efficacy. The former expresses the idea that a goal can provide more motivation if a person is strongly dedicated to achieving it. The latter is based on the notion that people are more motivated if they believe that they have the skills to achieve the goal.

According to self-determination theory, the main factors influencing motivation are autonomy, competence, and connection. It states that autonomy increases motivation since humans usually prefer to act in accordance with their wishes, values, and goals without being coerced by external forces. The factor of competence implies that motivation is usually higher for tasks in which the person feels skilled and competent. Self-determination theorists further claim that people are more likely to engage in an activity if this activity is associated with positive social connections to others.

Reinforcement theory is based on behaviorism and explains motivation in relation to positive and negative outcomes of previous behavior. It uses the principle of operant conditioning, which states that behavior followed by positive consequences is more likely to be repeated, while behavior followed by negative consequences is less likely to be repeated. This theory predicts, for example, that if an aggressive behavior of a child is rewarded then this will reinforce the child's motivation for aggressive behavior in the future.

In various fields

Education

Motivation plays a key role in education since it affects the students' engagement with the studied topic and shapes their learning experience and academic success. Motivated students are more likely to participate in classroom activities and persevere through challenges. One of the responsibilities of educators and educational institutions is to establish a learning environment that fosters and sustains students' motivation to ensure effective learning.

Educational research is particularly interested in understanding the different effects that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have on the learning process. In the case of intrinsic motivation, students are interested in the subject and the learning experience itself. Students driven by extrinsic motivation seek external rewards, like good grades or peer recognition. Intrinsic motivation is often seen as the preferred type of motivation since it is associated with more in-depth learning, better memory retention, and long-term commitment. Extrinsic motivation in the form of rewards and recognition also plays a key role in the learning process. However, it can conflict with intrinsic motivation in some cases and may then hinder creativity.

Various factors influence student motivation. It is usually beneficial to have an organized classroom with few distractions. The learning material should be neither too easy, which threatens to bore students, nor too difficult, which can lead to frustration. The behavior of the teacher also has a significant impact on student motivation, for example, in regard to how the material is presented, the feedback they provide on assignments, and the interpersonal relation they build with the students. Teachers who are patient and supportive can encourage interaction by interpreting mistakes as learning opportunities.

Work
Work motivation is an often-studied topic in the fields of organization studies and organizational behavior. They aim to understand human motivation in the context of organizations and investigate its role in work and work-related activities including human resource management, employee selection, training, and managerial practices. Motivation plays a key role in the workplace on various levels. It impacts how employees feel about their work, their level of determination, commitment, and overall job satisfaction. It also affects employee performance and overall business success. Lack of motivation can lead to decreased productivity due to complacency, disinterest, and absenteeism. It can also manifest in the form of occupational burnout.

Various factors influence work motivation. They include the personal needs and expectations of the employees, the characteristics of the tasks they perform, and whether the work conditions are perceived as fair and just. Another key aspect is how managers communicate and provide feedback.  Understanding and managing employee motivation is essential for managers to ensure effective leadership, employee performance, and business success.

There are different approaches to increasing employee motivation. Some focus on material benefits, like high salary, health care, stock ownership plans, profit-sharing, and company cars. Others aim to make changes to the design of the job itself. For example, overly simplified and segmented jobs tend to result in decreased productivity and lower employee morale. The dynamics of motivation differ between paid work and volunteer work. Intrinsic motivation plays a larger role for volunteers with key motivators being self-esteem, the desire to help others, career advancement, and self-improvement.

Sport
Motivation is a fundamental aspect of sports. It affects how consistently athletes train, how much effort they are willing to invest, and how well they persevere through challenges. Proper motivation is an influential factor for athletic success. It concerns both the long-term motivation needed to sustain progress and commitment over an extended period as well as the short-term motivation required to mobilize as much energy as possible for a high performance on the same day.

It is the responsibility of coaches not just to advise and instruct athletes on training plans and strategies but also to motivate them to put in the required effort and give their best. There a different coaching styles and the right approach may depend on the personalities of the coach, the athlete, and the group as well as the general athletic situation. Some styles focus on realizing a particular goal while others concentrate on teaching, following certain principles, or building a positive interpersonal relationship.

Criminal law
The motive of a crime is a key aspect in criminal law. It refers to reasons that the accused had for committing a crime. Motives are often used as evidence to demonstrate why the accused might have committed the crime and how they would benefit from it. The absence of a motive can be used as evidence to put the accused's involvement in the crime into doubt. For example, financial gain is a motive to commit a crime from which the perpetrator would financially benefit, like embezzlement.

As a technical term, motive is distinguished from intent. Intent is the mental state of the defendant and belongs to mens rea. A motive is a reason that tempts a person to form an intent. Unlike intent, motive is usually not an essential element of a crime: it plays various roles in investigative considerations but is normally not required to establish the defendant's guilt.

In a different sense, motivation also plays a role in justifying why convicted offenders should be punished. According to the deterrence theory of law, one key aspect of punishment for law violation is to motivate both the convicted individual and potential future wrongdoers to not engage in similar criminal behavior.

Others
Motivation is a central factor in implementing and maintaining lifestyle changes in the fields of personal development and health. Personal development is a process of self-improvement aimed at enhancing one's skills, knowledge, talents, and overall well-being. It is realized through practices that promote growth and improve different areas in one's life. Motivation is pivotal in engaging in these practices. It is especially relevant to ensure long-term commitment and to follow through with one's plans. For example, health-related lifestyle changes may at times require high willpower and self-control to implement meaningful adjustments while resisting impulses and bad habits. This is the case when trying to resist urges to smoke, consume alcohol, and eat fattening food.

Motivation plays a key role in economics since it is what drives individuals and organizations to make economic decisions and engage in economic activities. It affects diverse processes involving consumer behavior, labor supply, and investment decisions. For example, rational choice theory, a fundamental theory in economics, postulates that individuals are motivated by self-interest and aim to maximize their utility, which guides economic behavior like consumption choices.

In video games, player motivation is what drives people to play a game and engage with its contents. Player motivation often revolves around completing certain objectives, like solving a puzzle, beating an enemy, or exploring the game world. It concerns both smaller objectives within a part of the game as well as finishing the game as a whole. Understanding different types of player motivation helps game designers make their games immersive and appealing to a wide audience.

Motivation is also relevant in the field of politics. This is true specifically for democracies to ensure active engagement, participation, and voting.

See also

 3C-model
 Effects of hormones on sexual motivation
 Employee engagement
 Enthusiasm
 Frustration
 Happiness at work
 Health action process approach
 Hedonic motivation
 Humanistic psychology
 I-Change Model
 Incentives
 Learned industriousness
 Motivation crowding theory
 Motivational intensity
 Positive education
 Positive psychology in the workplace
 Regulatory focus theory
 Rubicon model (psychology)
 Work engagement

References

Citations

Sources

Behavior
Cognition
Psychology

Motivation


Jean-Louis Verdier (; 2 February 1935 – 25 August 1989) was a French mathematician who worked, under the guidance of his doctoral advisor Alexander Grothendieck, on derived categories and Verdier duality. He was a close collaborator of Grothendieck, notably contributing to SGA 4 his theory of hypercovers and anticipating the later development of étale homotopy by Michael Artin and Barry Mazur, following a suggestion he attributed to Pierre Cartier. Saul Lubkin's related theory of rigid hypercovers was later taken up by Eric Friedlander in his definition of the étale topological type.

Verdier was a student at the elite École Normale Supérieure in Paris, and later became director of studies there, as well as a Professor at the University of Paris VII. For many years he directed a joint seminar at the École Normale Supérieure with Adrien Douady. Verdier was a member of Bourbaki. In 1984 he was the president of the Société Mathématique de France.

In 1976 Verdier developed a useful regularity condition on stratified sets that the Chinese-Australian mathematician Tzee-Char Kuo had previously shown implied the Whitney conditions for subanalytic sets (such as real or complex analytic varieties). Verdier called the condition (w) for Whitney, as at the time he thought (w) might be equivalent to Whitney's condition (b). Real algebraic examples for which the Whitney conditions (b) hold but Verdier's condition (w) fails, were constructed by David Trotman who has obtained many geometric properties of (w)-regular stratifications. Work of Bernard Teissier, aided by Jean-Pierre Henry and Michel Merle at the École Polytechnique, led to the 1982 result that Verdier's condition (w) is equivalent to the Whitney conditions for complex analytic stratifications.

Verdier later worked on the theory of integrable systems.

Bibliography
 Verdier's 1967 thesis, published belatedly in:

Part of it also appears in SGA 4½ as the last chapter, "Catégories dérivées (état 0)".

 Integrable Systems, The Verdier Memorial Conference (Actes du Colloque International de Luminy, 1991), Progress in Mathematics 115, edited by O. Babelon, P. Cartier, Y. Kosmann-Schwarzbach, Birkhäuser, 1993.

See also
Artin–Verdier duality

References

External links

1935 births
1989 deaths
École Normale Supérieure alumni
20th-century French mathematicians
University of Paris alumni
Academic staff of the University of Paris
Nicolas Bourbaki

Jean-Louis Verdier


Brian Sutton Smith (July 15, 1924 – March 7, 2015), better known as Brian Sutton-Smith, was a play theorist who spent his lifetime attempting to discover the cultural significance of play in human life, arguing that any useful definition of play must apply to both adults and children. He demonstrated that children are not innocent in their play and that adults are indeed guilty in theirs. In both cases play pretends to assist them in surmounting their Darwinian struggles for survival. His book Play As Emotional Survival is a response to his own deconstruction of play theories in his work, The Ambiguity of Play (1997, Harvard University Press).

Sutton-Smith's interdisciplinary approach included research into play history and cross cultural studies of play, as well as research in psychology, education, and folklore. He maintained that the interpretation of play must involve all of its forms, from child's play to gambling, sports, festivals, imagination, and nonsense.

Biography
Brian Sutton-Smith was born in Wellington, New Zealand in 1924. He trained as a teacher, completed a BA and MA, and was then awarded the first education PhD in New Zealand in 1954. Following the completion of his PhD, Sutton-Smith travelled to the USA on grant from the Fulbright Program, where he began an academic career with a focus on children's games, adult games, children's play, children's drama, films and narratives, as well as children's gender issues and sibling position.

Sutton-Smith was the author of some 50 books, the most recent of which is The Ambiguity of Play, and some 350 scholarly articles. He served as president of The Anthropological Association for the Study of Play and of The American Psychological Association, Division g10 (Psychology and the Arts). As a founder of the Children's Folklore Society he received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Folklore Society. For his research in toys he received awards from the BRIO and Lego toy companies of Sweden and Denmark. He participated in making television programs on toys and play in Great Britain, Canada, and the U.S., and was a consultant for Captain Kangaroo, Nickelodeon, Murdoch Children's Television, and the Please Touch Museum in Philadelphia.

His academic life consisted of 10 years at Bowling Green State University, Ohio, 10 years at Teachers College, Columbia University in New York, and 17 years at the University of Pennsylvania. He then retired to Sarasota, Florida. He died of Alzheimer's disease on March 7, 2015 in White River Junction, Vermont.

Sutton-Smith had recently been engaged as resident scholar at The Strong in Rochester, New York, home to the Brian Sutton-Smith Library and Archives of Play.

In addition, the New Zealand Association for Research in Education has created the Sutton-Smith Doctoral Award, which will be awarded annually for an excellent Doctoral thesis by an NZARE member.

The Ambiguity of Play
In The Ambiguity of Play, Sutton-Smith details seven "rhetorics" of play, or ideologies that have been used to explain, justify, and privilege certain forms of play. These seven rhetorics are progress, fate, power, (community) identity, imaginary, self, and frivolity. Three of these—fate, power, and identity—Sutton-Smith identifies as ancient but still active and associates with a more collective focus. Another three are more recent, associated with a modern focus on the individual: progress, imaginary, and self. Sutton-Smith argues that the seventh rhetoric, frivolity, serves as a responsive rhetoric, in the sense that nonhegemonic forms of play are often deemed frivolous. In the conclusion, Sutton-Smith notes that variation is one of play's key features, with important resemblance to biological variation. While acknowledging that he is advancing a version of the progress narrative of play, Sutton-Smith posits that play may serve an important role in evolutionary adaptation.

Key works
The Sibling (1970)
The Study of Games (1971)
Child's Play (1971)
The Folkgames of Children (1972)
How to Play with Your Children (1974) co-author Shirley Sutton-Smith
Play and Learning (1979)
The Folkstories of Children (1981)
A History of Children's Play (1981)
Toys as Culture (1986)
Play and Intervention (1994)
Children's Folklore Source Book (1995)
The Ambiguity of Play (1997)

Works of fiction
Sutton-Smith is also the author of a series of novels about boys growing up in New Zealand in the 1930s, entitled Our Street, Smitty Does a Bunk, and The Cobbers. Initially published in serial form in 1949 in the New Zealand School Journal, the stories created a national furor as Brian Sutton-Smith allegedly endorsed morally unacceptable behavior in them.

See also
 Strong National Museum of Play in Rochester, New York

References

External links
 Harvard University Press

1924 births
2015 deaths
New Zealand emigrants to the United States
New Zealand educators
People from Wellington City
Bowling Green State University faculty
Columbia University faculty
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Play (activity)
University of New Zealand alumni

Brian Sutton-Smith


Douglas-Hamilton is the family surname o the Dukes o Hamilton an Earls o Selkirk. The name oreeginates frae the marriage o Anne Hamilton, 3rd Duchess o Hamilton tae William Douglas, 1st Earl o Selkirk in 1656. Anne wis Duchess in her awn richt an heid o the "Hoose o Hamilton". William wis a yunger son o the Marquess o Douglas.

Upon the daith o a cousin, the Duke o Douglas, in 1761 athoot heir, his subsidiary titles an the nominal seniority o the "Hoose o Douglas", wur devolved ontae the 7t Duke o Hamilton.

These titles are:
Marquess o Douglas
Yerl o Angus
Laird Abernethy an Jedburgh Forest

The Airms o the Heid o the Hoose are:
Quarterly; 1st an 4t grandquarters, coonterquartered (i) an (iv) Gules, three cinquefoils Ermine (for Hamilton), (ii) an (iii) Argent, a lymphad Sable, sails furled proper, flagged-Gules (for The Isles (Arran)); 2nt an 3rd grandquarters, Argent, a man's hert Gules ensigned wi an imperial croun proper, on a chief Azure three stars o the First (for Douglas).

Noble faimilies
Scots faimilies

Douglas-Hamilton