The oldest fossil  proto-wines without grapes were found in China, in 7000 BC, and evidence of ancient wine production has been found in Georgia from  BC (the earliest known traces of grape wine),
Iran from  BC, Greece from  BC, Armenia from  BC (large-scale production), and Sicily from  BC.
The earliest evidence of a grape and rice mixed based fermented drink sometimes compared to wine was found in ancient China ( BC).

The altered consciousness produced by wine has been considered religious since its origin. The ancient Greeks worshiped Dionysus or Bacchus and the Ancient Romans carried on his cult. Consumption of ritual wine, probably a certain type of sweet wine originally, was part of Jewish practice since Biblical times and, as part of the eucharist commemorating Jesus's Last Supper, became even more essential to the Christian Church. Although Islam nominally forbade the production or consumption of wine, during its Golden Age, alchemists such as Geber pioneered wine's distillation for medicinal and industrial purposes such as the production of perfume.

Wine production and consumption increased, burgeoning from the 15th century onwards as part of European expansion. Despite the devastating 1887 phylloxera louse infestation, modern science and technology adapted and industrial wine production and wine consumption now occur throughout the world.

Prehistory

Vine domestication
The origins of wine predate written records, and modern archaeology is still uncertain about the details of the first cultivation of wild grapevines. It has been hypothesized that early humans climbed trees to pick berries, liked their sugary flavor, and then began collecting them. After a few days with fermentation setting in, juice at the bottom of any container would begin producing low-alcohol wine. According to this theory, things changed around 10,000–8000 BC with the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary style of living, which led to agriculture and wine domestication.

Wild grapes grow in the Caucasus region (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), the northern Levant, coastal and southeastern Turkey, and northern Iran. The fermenting of strains of this wild Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris (the ancestor of the modern wine grape, V. vinifera) would have become easier following the development of pottery during the later Neolithic,  BC. The earliest discovered evidence, however, dates from several millennia later.

Following the voyages of Columbus, grape culture and wine making were transported from the Old World to the New. Spanish missionaries took viticulture to Chile and Argentina in the mid-16th century and to Baja California in the 18th. With the flood of European immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries, modern industries based on imported V. vinifera grapes were developed. The prime wine-growing regions of South America were established in the foothills of the Andes Mountains. In California the centre of viticulture shifted from the southern missions to the Central Valley and the northern counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino.

Wine fermentation
The earliest archaeological evidence of wine fermentation found has been at sites in Georgia ( BC), Hajj Firuz, West Azerbaijan province of Iran ( BC), Greece ( BC), and Sicily ( BC). The earliest evidence of steady production of wine has been found in Armenia ( BC) while the earliest evidence of a grape and rice mixed based fermented drink was found in ancient China ( BC),. The Iranian jars contained a form of retsina, using turpentine pine resin to more effectively seal and preserve the wine and is the earliest firm evidence of wine production to date. Production spread to other sites in Greater Iran and Greek Macedonia by  BC. The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site of the remnants of crushed grapes.

The oldest-known winery was discovered in the "Areni-1" cave in Vayots Dzor, Armenia. Dated to  BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines. Commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier."

The seeds were from Vitis vinifera, a grape still used to make wine. The cave remains date to about 4000 BC. This is 900 years before the earliest comparable wine remains, found in Egyptian tombs.

The fame of Persian wine has been well known in ancient times. The carvings on the Audience Hall, known as Apadana Palace, in Persepolis, demonstrate soldiers of subjected nations by the Persian Empire bringing gifts to the Persian king.

Domesticated grapes were abundant in the Near East from the beginning of the early Bronze Age, starting in 3200 BC. There is also increasingly abundant evidence for winemaking in Sumer and Egypt in the 3rd millennium BC.

Legends of discovery

There are many etiological myths told about the first cultivation of the grapevine and fermentation of wine.

The Biblical Book of Genesis first mentions the production of wine by Noah following the Great Flood.

Greek mythology placed the childhood of Dionysus and his discovery of viticulture at Mount Nysa but had him teach the practice to the peoples of central Anatolia. Because of this, he was rewarded to become a god of wine.

In Persian legend, King Jamshid banished a lady of his harem, causing her to become despondent and contemplate suicide. Going to the king's warehouse, the woman sought out a jar marked "poison" containing the remnants of the grapes that had spoiled and were now deemed undrinkable. After drinking the fermented wine, she found her spirits lifted. She took her discovery to the king, who became so enamored of his new drink that he not only accepted the woman back but also decreed that all grapes grown in Persepolis would be devoted to winemaking.

Antiquity

Ancient China

According to the latest research scholars stated: "Following the definition of the CNCCEF, China has been viewed as "New New World" in the world wine map, despite the fact that grape growing and wine making in China date back to between 7000BC and 9000BC. Winemaking technology and wine culture are rooted in Chinese history and the definition of "New New World" is a misnomer that imparts a Euro centric bias onto wine history and ignores fact." Furthermore, the history of Chinese grape wine has been confirmed and proven to date back 9000 years (7000 BC), including "the earliest attested use" of wild grapes in wine as well as "earliest chemically confirmed alcoholic beverage in the world", according to adjunct professor of Anthropology Patrick McGovern, the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia. Professor McGovern continued: "The Jiahu discovery illustrates how you should never give up hope in finding chemical evidence for a fermented beverage from the Palaeolithic period. Research very often has big surprises in store. You might think, as I did too, that the grape wines of Hajji Firuz, the Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia would prove to be the earliest alcoholic beverages in the world, coming from the so-called "Cradle of Civilization" in the Near East as they do. But then I was invited to go to China on the other side of Asia, and came back with samples that proved to be even earlier–from around 7000 BC." Furthermore, other scholarly research has stated that: "There is also evidence for various types of alcoholic beverage production, including rice and grape wine, beer, and various liquors including baijiu in China, ca. 7000 B.C." Additionally, Professor Hames' research stated: "The earliest wine, or fermented liquor, came from China, predating Middle Eastern alcohol by a few thousand years. Archeologists have found pottery shards showing remnants of rice and grape wine dating back to 7000 BC in Jiahu village in Henan province."

Archaeologists have discovered production from native "mountain grapes" like V. thunbergii and V. filifolia during the 1st millennium BC. Production of beer had largely disappeared by the time of the Han dynasty, in favor of stronger drinks fermented from millet, rice, and other grains. Although these huangjiu have frequently been translated as "wine", they are typically 20% ABV and considered quite distinct from grape wine () within China.

During the 2nd century BC, Zhang Qian's exploration of the Western Regions (modern Xinjiang) reached the Hellenistic successor states of Alexander's empire: Dayuan, Bactria, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. These had brought viticulture into Central Asia and trade permitted the first wine produced from V. vinifera grapes to be introduced to China.

Wine was imported again when trade with the west was restored under the Tang dynasty, but it remained mostly imperial fare and it was not until the Song that its consumption spread among the gentry. Marco Polo's 14th-century account noted the continuing preference for rice wines continuing in Yuan China.

Ancient Egypt

Wine played an important role in ancient Egyptian ceremonial life. A thriving royal winemaking industry was established in the Nile Delta following the introduction of grape cultivation from the Levant to Egypt  BC. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and Canaan during the early Bronze Age, commencing from at least the 27th-century BC Third Dynasty, the beginning of the Old Kingdom period. Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced in the delta vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five distinct wines, probably all produced in the Delta, constituted a canonical set of provisions for the afterlife.

Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly red. Due to its resemblance to blood, much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in Egyptian culture. Shedeh, the most precious drink in ancient Egypt, is now known to have been a red wine and not fermented from pomegranates as previously thought. Plutarch's Moralia relates that, prior to Psammetichus I, the pharaohs did not drink wine nor offer it to the gods "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth, they believed vines to have sprung". This was considered to be the reason why drunkenness "drives men out of their senses and crazes them, inasmuch as they are then filled with the blood of their forebears".

Residue from five clay amphoras in Tutankhamun's tomb, however, have been shown to be that of white wine, so it was at least available to the Egyptians through trade if not produced domestically.

Ancient Levant

In ancient times, the Levant region has played a vital role in the domain of winemaking. Archaeological findings, including charred grape seeds and occasionally intact berries or raisins, have been unearthed in numerous prehistoric and historic sites across Southwest Asia. Having deep historical roots dating back to at least the Bronze Age, winemaking in the Levant retained its importance as a significant regional industry until the decline of Byzantine rule in the 7th century CE. This prolonged history of winemaking significantly enriched the cultural and economic tapestry of ancient societies in the region, giving rise to numerous legends and beliefs intertwined with its consumption in the Mediterranean and Near East.

The ancient Phoenicians stood among the early civilizations to acknowledge the significance of cultivating and trading wine. Positioned along the eastern Mediterranean coast, the Phoenicians leveraged their location for far-reaching trade networks across the ancient world. The Israelite prophet Hosea (780–725 BC) is said to have urged his followers to return to Yahweh so that "they will blossom as the vine, [and] their fragrance will be like the wine of Lebanon". The Phoenician use of amphoras for transporting wine was widely adopted and Phoenician-distributed grape varieties were important in the development of the wine industries of Rome and Greece. The Phoenicians also established colonies along the Mediterranean coasts, from modern-day Tunisia to Spain, where they introduced viticulture practices and grape cultivation. One such colony was Carthage, a city that later developed into a maritime empire. The only Carthaginian recipe to survive the Punic Wars was one by Mago for passum, a raisin wine that later became popular in Rome as well.

Wine held a significant and favored role within ancient Israelite cuisine, serving not only as a dietary staple but also as a crucial element of Israelite cultural and religious practices. In ancient Israel, wine found its place in both everyday use and ceremonial rituals such as sacrificial libations. These traditions became an integral part of Jewish customs and celebrations, upholding the enduring importance of wine within Judaism to this very day. The abundancy of archeological remnants of facilities dedicated to the production of wine (at ancient Gibeon, for example), coupled with detailed depictions of vineyard establishment and grape varieties within the Hebrew Bible, underscore the prominence of wine as the primary alcoholic choice for the ancient Israelites. Within the Hebrew language, a multitude of terms emerged relating to vines and the various stages of winemaking. Winemaking also included the incorporation of spices, honey, herbs, and other ingredients. Following the fermentation process, the wine was meticulously stored in amphorae, often lined with protective resin coatings to ensure preservation. Jewish winemaking evolved during the Hellenistic period, with dried grapes producing sweeter, higher alcohol content wine that required dilution with water for consumption.

During Late Antiquity, when the Levant was under Byzantine control, the region established itself as a renowned center for winemaking. Ashkelon and Gaza, two ancient port cities in modern-day Israel and Gaza Strip, rose to prominence as important trade centers, facilitating extensive wine exports throughout the Byzantine Empire. The writings of 4th-century CE priest Jerome vividly depicted the Holy Land's landscape adorned with sprawling vineyards. The wines of this region, as described by the 6th-century CE poet Corippus, stood out for their attributes of being white, light, and sweet.

In the Arabian peninsula, wine was traded by Aramaic merchants, as the climate was not well-suited to the growing of vines. Many other types of fermented drinks, however, were produced in the 5th and 6th centuries, including date and honey wines.

Ancient Greece

Much of modern wine culture derives from the practices of the ancient Greeks. The vine preceded both the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. Many of the grapes grown in modern Greece are grown there exclusively and are similar or identical to the varieties grown in ancient times. Indeed, the most popular modern Greek wine, a strongly aromatic white called retsina, is thought to be a carryover from the ancient practice of lining the wine jugs with tree resin, imparting a distinct flavor to the drink.

The "Feast of the Wine" (Me-tu-wo Ne-wo) was a festival in Mycenaean Greece celebrating the "Month of the New Wine". Several ancient sources, such as the Roman Pliny the Elder, describe the ancient Greek method of using partly dehydrated gypsum before fermentation and some type of lime after, in order to reduce the acidity of the wine. The Greek Theophrastus provides the oldest known description of this aspect of Greek winemaking.

In Homeric mythology, wine is usually served in "mixing bowls" rather than consumed in an undiluted state. Dionysus, the Greek god of revelry and wine—frequently referred to in the works of Homer and Aesop—was sometimes given the epithet Acratophorus, "giver of unmixed wine". Homer frequently refers to the "wine-dark sea" (, oīnōps póntos): in lack of a name for the color blue, the Greeks would simply refer to red wine's color.

The earliest reference to a named wine is from the 7th-century BC lyrical poet Alcman, who praises Dénthis, a wine from the western foothills of Mount Taygetus in Messenia, as anthosmías ("flowery-scented"). Chian was credited as the first red wine, although it was known to the Greeks as "black wine". Coan was mixed with sea water and famously salty; Pramnian or Lesbian wine was a famous export as well. Aristotle mentions Lemnian wine, which was probably the same as the modern-day Lemnió varietal, a red wine with a bouquet of oregano and thyme. If so, this makes Lemnió the oldest known varietal still in cultivation.

For Greece, alcohol such as wine had not fully developed into the rich 'cash crop' that it would eventually become toward the peak of its reign. However, as the emphasis of viticulture increased with economic demand so did the consumption of alcohol during the years to come. The Greeks embraced the production aspect as a way to expand and create economic growth throughout the region. Greek wine was widely known and exported throughout the Mediterranean, as amphoras with Greek styling and art have been found throughout the area. The Greeks may have even been involved in the first appearance of wine in ancient Egypt. They introduced the V. vinifera vine to and made wine in their numerous colonies in modern-day Italy, Sicily, southern France, and Spain.

Ancient Persia
Herodotus, writing about the culture of the ancient Persians (in particular, those of Pontus) writes that they were "very fond" of wine and drank it in large quantities.

Ancient Thrace

The works of Homer, Herodotus and other historians of Ancient Greece refer to the ancient Thracians' love for winemaking and consumption, as early as 6000 years ago. the Thracians are considered the first to worshipp the god of wine called Dionysus in Greek or Zagreus in Thracian. Later this cult reached Ancient Greece. Some consider Thrace (modern day Bulgaria) as the motherland of wine culture.

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire had an immense impact on the development of viticulture and oenology. Wine was an integral part of the Roman diet and winemaking became a precise business. Virtually all of the major wine-producing regions of Western Europe today were established during the Roman Imperial era. During the Roman Empire, social norms began to shift as the production of alcohol increased. Further evidence suggests that widespread drunkenness and true alcoholism among the Romans began in the first century BC and reached its height in the first century AD. Viniculture expanded so much that by AD  the emperor Domitian was forced to pass the first wine laws on record, banning the planting of any new vineyards in Italy and uprooting half of the vineyards in the provinces in order to increase the production of the necessary but less profitable grain. (The measure was widely ignored but remained on the books until its 280 repeal by Probus.)

Winemaking technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire, though technologies from the Bronze Age continued to be used alongside newer innovations. Vitruvius noted how wine storage rooms were specially built facing north, "since that quarter is never subject to change but is always constant and unshifting", and special smokehouses (fumaria) were developed to speed or mimic aging. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were developed. Barrels (invented by the Gauls) and glass bottles (invented by the Syrians) began to compete with terracotta amphoras for storing and shipping wine. The Romans also created a precursor to today's appellation systems, as certain regions gained reputations for their fine wines. The most famous was the white Falernian from the Latian–Campanian border, principally because of its high (~15%) alcohol content. The Romans recognized three appellations: Caucinian Falernian from the highest slopes, Faustian Falernian from the center (named for its one-time owner Faustus Cornelius Sulla, son of the dictator), and generic Falernian from the lower slopes and plain. The esteemed vintages grew in value as they aged, and each region produced different varieties as well: dry, sweet, and light. Other famous wines were the sweet Alban from the Alban Hills and the Caecuban beloved by Horace and extirpated by Nero. Pliny cautioned that such 'first-growth' wines not be smoked in a fumarium like lesser vintages. Pliny and others also named Vinum Hadrianum as one of the most rated wines, along with Praetutian from Ancona on the Adriatic, Mamertine from Messina in Sicily, Rhaetic from Verona, and a few others.

Wine, perhaps mixed with herbs and minerals, was assumed to serve medicinal purposes. During Roman times, the upper classes might dissolve pearls in wine for better health. Cleopatra created her own legend by promising Antony she would "drink the value of a province" in one cup of wine, after which she drank an expensive pearl with a cup of the beverage. Pliny relates that, after the ascension of Augustus, Setinum became the imperial wine because it did not cause him indigestion. When the Western Roman Empire fell during the 5th century, Europe entered a period of invasions and social turmoil, with the Roman Catholic Church as the only stable social structure. Through the Church, grape growing and winemaking technology, essential for the Mass, were preserved.

Over the course of the later Empire, wine production gradually shifted to the east as Roman infrastructure and influence in the western regions gradually diminished. Production in Asia Minor, the Aegean and the Near East flourished through Late Antiquity and the Byzantine era.

The oldest surviving bottle still containing liquid wine, the Speyer wine bottle, belonged to a Roman nobleman and it is dated at 325 or 350 AD.

Medieval period

Medieval Middle East

The advent of Islam and subsequent Muslim conquests in the 7th and 8th centuries brought many territories under Muslim control. Alcoholic drinks were prohibited by law, but the production of alcohol, wine in particular, seems to have thrived. Wine was a subject for many poets, even under Islamic rule, and many khalifas used to drink alcoholic beverages during their social and private meetings. Jews in Egypt leased vineyards from the Fatimid and Mamluk governments, produced wine for sacramental and medicinal use, and traded wine throughout the Eastern Mediterranean.

Christian monasteries in the Levant and Iraq often cultivated grapevines; they then distributed their vintages in taverns located on monastery grounds. Zoroastrians in Persia and Central Asia also engaged in the production of wine. Though not much is known about their wine trade, they did become known for their taverns. Wine in general found an industrial use in the medieval Middle East as feedstock after advances in distillation by Muslim alchemists allowed for the production of relatively pure ethanol, which was used in the perfume industry. Wine was also for the first time distilled into brandy during this period.

In the Levant, the Muslim conquest of the Levant suppressed winemaking after centuries of regional prominence, and the 13th-century Mamluk conquest resulted in its complete prohibition.

Medieval Europe

In the Middle Ages, wine was the common drink of all social classes in the south, where grapes were cultivated. In the north and east, where few if any grapes were grown, beer and ale were the usual beverages of both commoners and nobility. Wine was exported to the northern regions, but because of its relatively high expense was seldom consumed by the lower classes. Since wine was necessary, however, for the celebration of the Catholic Mass, assuring a supply was crucial. The Benedictine monks became one of the largest producers of wine in France and Germany, followed closely by the Cistercians. Other orders, such as the Carthusians, the Templars, and the Carmelites, are also notable both historically and in modern times as wine producers. The Benedictines owned vineyards in Champagne (Dom Perignon was a Benedictine monk), Burgundy, and Bordeaux in France, and in the Rheingau and Franconia in Germany. In 1435 Count John IV of Katzenelnbogen, a wealthy member of the Holy Roman high nobility near Frankfurt, was the first to plant Riesling, the most important German grape. The nearby winemaking monks made it into an industry, producing enough wine to ship all over Europe for secular use. In Portugal, a country with one of the oldest wine traditions, the first appellation system in the world was created.

A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes for meads from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for spicing and masking flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of honey. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively aged, and thus drunk quite young. To offset the effects of heavy alcohol consumption, wine was frequently watered down at a ratio of four or five parts water to one of wine.

One medieval application of wine was the use of snake-stones (banded agate resembling the figural rings on a snake) dissolved in wine as a remedy for snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in such situations.

Jofroi of Waterford, a 13th-century Dominican, wrote a catalogue of all the known wines and ales of Europe, describing them with great relish and recommending them to academics and counsellors. Rashi, a medieval French rabbi called the "father" of all subsequent commentaries on the Talmud and the Tanakh, earned his living as a vintner.

Modern era

Spread and development in the Americas

European grape varieties were first brought to what is now Mexico by the first Spanish conquistadors to provide the necessities of the Catholic Holy Eucharist. Planted at Spanish missions, one variety came to be known as the Mission grape and is still planted today in small amounts. Succeeding waves of immigrants imported French, Italian and German grapes, although wine from those native to the Americas (whose flavors can be distinctly different) is also produced. Mexico became the most important wine producer starting in the 16th century, to the extent that its output began to affect Spanish commercial production. In this competitive climate, the Spanish king sent an executive order to halt Mexico's production of wines and the planting of vineyards.

During the devastating phylloxera blight in late 19th-century Europe, it was found that Native American vines were immune to the pest. French-American hybrid grapes were developed and saw some use in Europe, but more important was the practice of grafting European grapevines to American rootstocks to protect vineyards from the insect. The practice continues to this day wherever phylloxera is present.

Today, wine in the Americas is often associated with Argentina, California and Chile all of which produce a wide variety of wines, from inexpensive jug wines to high-quality varietals and proprietary blends. Most of the wine production in the Americas is based on Old World grape varieties, and wine-growing regions there have often "adopted" grapes that have become particularly closely identified with them. California's Zinfandel (from Croatia and Southern Italy), Argentina's Malbec, and Chile's Carmenère (both from France) are well-known examples.

Until the latter half of the 20th century, American wine was generally viewed as inferior to that of Europe. However, with the surprisingly favorable American showing at the Paris Wine tasting of 1976, New World wine began to garner respect in the land of wine's origins.

Developments in Europe

In the late 19th century, the phylloxera louse brought widespread destruction to grapevines, wine production, and those whose livelihoods depended on them; far-reaching repercussions included the loss of many indigenous varieties. Lessons learned from the infestation led to the positive transformation of Europe's wine industry. Bad vineyards were uprooted and their land turned to better uses. Some of France's best butter and cheese, for example, is now made from cows that graze on Charentais soil, which was previously covered with vines. Cuvées were also standardized, important in creating certain wines as they are known today; Champagne and Bordeaux finally achieved the grape mixes that now define them. In the Balkans, where phylloxera had had little impact, the local varieties survived. However, the uneven transition from Ottoman rule has meant only gradual transformation in many vineyards. It is only in recent times that local varieties have gained recognition beyond "mass-market" wines like retsina.

Australia, New Zealand and South Africa

In the context of wine, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and other countries without a wine tradition are considered New World producers. Wine production began in the Cape Province of what is now South Africa in the 1680s as a business for supplying ships. Australia's First Fleet (1788) brought cuttings of vines from South Africa, although initial plantings failed and the first successful vineyards were established in the early 19th century. Until quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not well known outside their small export markets. For example, Australia exported mainly to the United Kingdom; New Zealand retained most of its wine for domestic consumption, and South Africa exported to the Kings of Europe. However, with the increase in mechanization and scientific advances in winemaking, these countries became known for high-quality wine. A notable exception to the foregoing is that the Cape Province was the largest exporter of wine to Europe in the 18th century.

East Asia
In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was Japanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe. The earliest wine brewing companies in Japan include Suntory and Mercian.

See also

 History of Champagne
 History of Chianti
 History of French wine
 History of Portuguese wine
 History of South African wine
 History of Sherry
 History of Rioja wine
 History of the wine press
 Phoenicians and wine
 Lebanese wine
 Wine in China
 Indian wine
Speyer wine bottle

References

Further reading

 Emlyn K. Dodd (2020). Roman and Late Antique wine production in the eastern Mediterranean. Archaeopress.
Muraresku, Brian C. (2020). The Immortality Key: The Secret History of the Religion with No Name. Macmillan USA.
 Magris, G., Jurman, I., Fornasiero, A. et al. The genomes of 204 Vitis vinifera accessions reveal the origin of European wine grapes. Nat Commun 12, 7240 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27487-y

Ancient wine

History of wine


National Review is an American conservative-right-libertarian editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by the author William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955. Its editor-in-chief is Rich Lowry, and its editor is Ramesh Ponnuru.

Since its founding, the magazine has played a significant role in the development of conservatism in the United States, helping to define its boundaries and promoting fusionism while establishing itself as a leading voice on the American right.

History

Background

Before National Reviews founding in 1955, the American right was a largely unorganized collection of people who shared intertwining philosophies but had little opportunity for a united public voice. They wanted to marginalize the antiwar, noninterventionistic views of the Old Right.

In 1953, moderate Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower was president, and many major magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post, Time, and Reader's Digest were strongly conservative and anticommunist, as were many newspapers including the Chicago Tribune and St. Louis Globe-Democrat. A few small-circulation conservative magazines, such as Human Events and The Freeman, preceded National Review in developing Cold War Conservatism in the 1950s.

In 1953, Russell Kirk published The Conservative Mind, which traced an intellectual bloodline from Edmund Burke to the Old Right in the early 1950s. This challenged the notion among intellectuals that no coherent conservative tradition existed in the United States.

A young William F. Buckley Jr. was greatly influenced by Kirk's concepts. Buckley had money; his father grew rich from oil fields in Mexico. He first tried to purchase Human Events, but was turned down. He then met Willi Schlamm, the experienced editor of The Freeman; they would spend the next two years raising the $300,000 necessary to start their own weekly magazine, originally to be called National Weekly. (A magazine holding the trademark to the name prompted the change to National Review.) The statement of intentions read:

Middle-of-the-Road, qua Middle of the Road, is politically, intellectually, and morally repugnant. We shall recommend policies for the simple reason that we consider them right (rather than "non-controversial"); and we consider them right because they are based on principles we deem right (rather than on popularity polls)... The New Deal revolution, for instance, could hardly have happened save for the cumulative impact of The Nation and The New Republic, and a few other publications, on several American college generations during the twenties and thirties.

Founding

On November 19, 1955, Buckley's magazine began to take shape. Buckley assembled an eclectic group of writers: traditionalists, Catholic intellectuals, libertarians and ex-Communists. The group included: Revilo P. Oliver, Russell Kirk, James Burnham, Frank Meyer, and Willmoore Kendall, Catholics L. Brent Bozell and Garry Wills. The former Time editor Whittaker Chambers, who had been a Communist spy in the 1930s, then turned intensely anti-Communist, became a senior editor. In the magazine's founding statement Buckley wrote:

The launching of a conservative weekly journal of opinion in a country widely assumed to be a bastion of conservatism at first glance looks like a work of supererogation, rather like publishing a royalist weekly within the walls of Buckingham Palace. It is not that of course; if National Review is superfluous, it is so for very different reasons: It stands athwart history, yelling Stop, at a time when no other is inclined to do so, or to have much patience with those who so urge it.

As editors and contributors, Buckley sought out intellectuals who were ex-Communists or had once worked on the far left, including Whittaker Chambers, William Schlamm, John Dos Passos, Frank Meyer and James Burnham. When James Burnham became one of the original senior editors, he urged the adoption of a more pragmatic editorial position that would extend the influence of the magazine toward the political center. Smant (1991) finds that Burnham overcame sometimes heated opposition from other members of the editorial board (including Meyer, Schlamm, William Rickenbacker, and the magazine's publisher William A. Rusher), and had a significant effect on both the editorial policy of the magazine and on the thinking of Buckley himself.

National Review aimed to make conservative ideas respectable, in an age when the dominant view of conservative thought was, as expressed by Columbia professor Lionel Trilling:

[L]iberalism is not only the dominant but even the sole intellectual tradition. For it is the plain fact that nowadays there are no conservative or reactionary ideas in general circulation... the conservative impulse and the reactionary impulse do not... express themselves in ideas but only... in irritable mental gestures which seek to resemble ideas.

William Buckley Jr. said that National Review "is out of place because, in its maturity, literate America rejected conservatism in favor of radical social experimentation... since ideas rule the world, the ideologues, having won over the intellectual class, simply walked in and started to... run just about everything. There never was an age of conformity quite like this one, or a camaraderie quite like the Liberals'.

Goldwater era
National Review promoted Barry Goldwater heavily during the early 1960s. Buckley and others involved with the magazine took a major role in the "Draft Goldwater" movement in 1960 and the 1964 presidential campaign. National Review spread his vision of conservatism throughout the country.

The early National Review faced occasional defections from both left and right. Garry Wills broke with National Review and became a liberal commentator. Buckley's brother-in-law, L. Brent Bozell Jr. left and started the short-lived traditionalist Catholic magazine, Triumph in 1966.

Buckley and Meyer promoted the idea of enlarging the boundaries of conservatism through fusionism, whereby different schools of conservatives, including libertarians, would work together to combat what were seen as their common opponents.

Buckley and his editors used his magazine to define the boundaries of conservatism—and to exclude people or ideas or groups they considered unworthy of the conservative title. Therefore, they attacked the John Birch Society, George Wallace, and anti-Semites.

Buckley's goal was to increase the respectability of the conservative movement; as current editor Rich Lowry said in 2004, "Mr. Buckley's first great achievement was to purge the American right of its kooks. He marginalized the anti-Semites, the John Birchers, the nativists and their sort."

In 1957, National Review editorialized in favor of white leadership in the South, arguing that "the central question that emerges... is whether the White community in the South is entitled to take such measures as are necessary to prevail, politically and culturally, in areas where it does not predominate numerically? The sobering answer is Yes – the White community is so entitled because, for the time being, it is the advanced race." By the 1970s National Review advocated colorblind policies and the end of affirmative action.

In the late 1960s, the magazine denounced segregationist George Wallace, who ran in Democratic primaries in 1964 and 1972 and made an independent run for president in 1968. During the 1950s, Buckley had worked to remove anti-Semitism from the conservative movement and barred holders of those views from working for National Review. In 1962 Buckley denounced Robert W. Welch Jr. and the John Birch Society as "far removed from common sense" and urged the Republican Party to purge itself of Welch's influence.

Supporting Reagan
After Goldwater was defeated by Lyndon Johnson in 1964, Buckley and National Review continued to champion the idea of a conservative movement, which was increasingly embodied in Ronald Reagan. Reagan, a longtime subscriber to National Review, became politically prominent during Goldwater's campaign. National Review supported his challenge to President Gerald Ford in 1976 and his successful 1980 campaign.

During the 1980s, National Review called for tax cuts, supply-side economics, the Strategic Defense Initiative, and support for President Ronald Reagan's foreign policy against the Soviet Union. The magazine criticized the Welfare state and would support the Welfare reform proposals of the 1990s. The magazine also regularly criticized President Bill Clinton. It first embraced, then rejected, Pat Buchanan in his political campaigns. A lengthy 1996 National Review editorial called for a "movement toward" drug legalization.

In 1985, National Review and Buckley were represented by attorney J. Daniel Mahoney during the magazine's $16 million libel suit against The Spotlight.

Political views and content
Victor Davis Hanson, a regular contributor since 2001, sees a broad spectrum of conservative and anti-liberal contributors:

The magazine has been described as "the bible of American conservatism".

Trump era
In 2015, the magazine published an editorial entitled "Against Trump," calling him a "philosophically unmoored political opportunist" and announcing its adamant and uniform opposition to his presidential candidacy for the Republican nomination for president. Since Trump's election to the presidency, National Review editorial board has continued to criticize him.

However, following Trump's 2016 electoral victory over Hillary Clinton, some National Review and National Review Online contributors have taken more varied positions on Trump.  Hanson, for instance, supports him, while National Review contributors such as editor Ramesh Ponnuru and contributor Jonah Goldberg have remained uniformly critical of Trump. In a Washington Post feature on conservative magazines, T.A. Frank noted: "From the perspective of a reader, these tensions make National Review as lively as it has been in a long time."

Biden era
In 2023, National Review has editorialized regularly against Trump's 2024 presidential candidacy.

National Review Online
A popular web version of the magazine, National Review Online ("N.R.O."), includes a digital version of the magazine, with articles updated daily by National Review writers, and conservative blogs. The on-line version is called N.R.O. to distinguish it from the printed magazine. It also features free articles, though these deviate in content from its print magazine. The site's editor is Phillip Klein, who replaced Charles C. W. Cooke.

Each day, the site posts new content consisting of conservative, libertarian, and neoconservative opinion articles, including some syndicated columns, and news features.

It also features two blogs:
 The Corner – postings from a select group of the site's editors and affiliated writers discussing the issues of the day
 Bench Memos – legal and judicial news and commentary

Markos Moulitsas, who runs the liberal Daily Kos web-site, told reporters in August 2007 that he does not read conservative blogs, with the exception of those on N.R.O.: "I do like the blogs at the National Review—I do think their writers are the best in the [conservative] blogosphere," he said.

National Review Institute
The N.R.I. works in policy development and helping establish new advocates in the conservative movement. National Review Institute was founded by William F. Buckley Jr. in 1991 to engage in policy development, public education, and advocacy that would advance the conservative principles he championed.

In 2019, the Whittaker Chambers family prevailed on NRI to cease an award in Chambers' name, after an award to people whom the family found objectionable.

Finances
As with most political opinion magazines in the United States, National Review carries little corporate advertising. The magazine stays afloat from subscription fees, donations, and black-tie fundraisers around the country. The magazine also sponsors cruises featuring National Review editors and contributors as lecturers.

Buckley said in 2005 that the magazine had lost about $25,000,000 over 50 years.

Presidential primary endorsements
National Review sometimes endorses a candidate during the primary election season. Editors at National Review have said, "Our guiding principle has always been to select the most conservative viable candidate." This statement echoes what has come to be called "The Buckley Rule". In a 1967 interview, in which he was asked about the choice of presidential candidate, Buckley said, "The wisest choice would be the one who would win... I'd be for the most right, viable candidate who could win."

These candidates were endorsed by National Review:

 1956: Dwight Eisenhower
 1960: No endorsement
 1964: Barry Goldwater
 1968: Richard Nixon
 1972: John M. Ashbrook
 1976: Ronald Reagan
 1980: Ronald Reagan
 1984: Ronald Reagan
 1988: George H. W. Bush
 1992: No endorsement
 1996: No endorsement
 2000: George W. Bush
 2004: No endorsement
 2008: Mitt Romney
 2012: No endorsement
 2016: Ted Cruz
 2020: No endorsement

Editors and contributors

The magazine's editor-in-chief is Rich Lowry. Many of the magazine's commentators are affiliated with think-tanks such as The Heritage Foundation and American Enterprise Institute. Prominent guest authors have included Newt Gingrich, Mitt Romney, Peter Thiel, and Ted Cruz in the on-line and print edition.

Contributors
Contributors to National Review (N.R.) magazine, National Review Online (N.R.O.), or both:

 Elliott Abrams
 Michael D. Aeschliman
 Richard Brookhiser, senior editor
 Charles C. W. Cooke, editor of N.R.O..
 Frederick H. Fleitz
 John Fund, N.R.O. national-affairs columnist
 Jim Geraghty
 Paul Johnson
 Roger Kimball
 Larry Kudlow
 Stanley Kurtz
 Yuval Levin
 James Lileks
 Rob Long, N.R. contributing editor
 Kathryn Jean Lopez
 Rich Lowry, N.R. editor
 Andrew C. McCarthy
 John McCormack, N.R. Washington, D.C. correspondent
 John J. Miller, N.R. national political reporter
 Stephen Moore, financial columnist
 Deroy Murdock
 Jay Nordlinger
 John O'Sullivan, N.R. editor-at-large
 Ramesh Ponnuru
 David Pryce-Jones
 Tom Rogan
 Noah Rothman
 Reihan Salam
 Armond White

Past contributors

 Jonah Goldberg
 David French
 Renata Adler
 Steve Allen
 Wick Allison
 W. H. Auden
 Edward C. Banfield
 Jacques Barzun
 Peter L. Berger
 Tom Bethell
 Allan Bloom
 George Borjas
 Robert Bork
 L. Brent Bozell Jr.
 Peter Brimelow
 Pat Buchanan
 Jed Babbin
 Myrna Blyth
 Christopher Buckley
 William F. Buckley Jr., founder
 James Burnham
 John R. Chamberlain
 Whittaker Chambers
 Mona Charen
 Shannen W. Coffin
 Robert Conquest
 Richard Corliss
 Robert Costa
 Ann Coulter
 Arlene Croce
 Ted Cruz
 Guy Davenport
 John Derbyshire
 Joan Didion
 John Dos Passos
 Rod Dreher
 Dinesh D'Souza
 John Gregory Dunne
 Max Eastman
 Eric Ehrmann
 Thomas Fleming
 Samuel T. Francis
 Milton Friedman
 David Frum
 Francis Fukuyama
 Eugene Genovese
 Paul Gigot
 Nathan Glazer
 Stuart Goldman
 Paul Gottfried
 Mark M. Goldblatt
 Michael Graham
 Ethan Gutmann
 Ernest van den Haag
 Victor Davis Hanson
 Jeffrey Hart
 Henry Hazlitt
 Will Herberg
 Christopher Hitchens
 Harry V. Jaffa
 Arthur Jensen
 John Keegan
 Willmoore Kendall
 Hugh Kenner
 Florence King
 Phil Kerpen
 Russell Kirk
 Charles Krauthammer
 Irving Kristol
 Dave Kopel
 Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn
 Michael Ledeen
 Fritz Leiber
 John Leonard
 Mark Levin
 John Lukacs
 Arnold Lunn
 Richard Lynn
 Alasdair MacIntyre
 Harvey C. Mansfield
 Malachi Martin
 Frank Meyer
 Scott McConnell
 Forrest McDonald
 Ludwig von Mises
 Alice-Leone Moats
 Raymond Moley
 Thomas Molnar
 Charles Murray
 Richard Neuhaus
 Robert Nisbet
 Michael Novak
 Robert Novak
 Michael Oakeshott
 Kate O'Beirne
 Conor Cruise O'Brien
 Revilo P. Oliver
 Thomas Pangle
 Isabel Paterson
 Ezra Pound
 Paul Craig Roberts
 Murray Rothbard
 William A. Rusher, publisher, 1957–88
 J. Philippe Rushton
 Steve Sailer
 Pat Sajak
 Catherine Seipp
 Daniel Seligman
 Ben Shapiro
 John Simon
 Joseph Sobran
 Thomas Sowell
 Mark Steyn
 Whit Stillman
 Theodore Sturgeon
 Mark Steyn
 Thomas Szasz
 Allen Tate
 Jared Taylor
 Terry Teachout
 Taki Theodoracopulos
 Katherine Timpf
 Ralph de Toledano
 Auberon Waugh
 Evelyn Waugh
 Richard M. Weaver
 Robert Weissberg
 Frederick Wilhelmsen
 George F. Will
 Kevin D. Williamson
 Garry Wills
 James Q. Wilson
 Tom Wolfe
 Byron York
 R. V. Young

Washington editors
 L. Brent Bozell Jr.
 Neal B. Freeman
 George Will, 1973–76
 Neal B. Freeman, 1978–81
 John McLaughlin, 1981–89
 William McGurn, 1989–1992
 Kate O'Beirne
 Robert Costa, 2012–13
 Eliana Johnson, 2014–16

Controversies

Barack Obama

In June 2008, six days after Hillary Clinton conceded to Barack Obama in the Democratic primary, National Review correspondent Jim Geraghty published an article encouraging the Obama campaign to release the candidate's birth certificate in order "to squash all the conspiracy theories once and for all." Geraghty's column notes that it was unlikely that Obama was born in Kenya. Attorney Loren Collins, who has tracked the origins of birther movement for years, says that Geraghty may have "unwittingly shined a national spotlight on a fringe internet theory." Geraghty's article "became fodder for cable television." In a 2009 editorial, the National Review editorial board called conspiracies about Obama's citizenship "untrue," writing: "Like Bruce Springsteen, he has a lot of bad political ideas; but he was born in the U.S.A."

One National Review article said that Obama's parents could be communists because "for a white woman to marry a black man in 1958, or '60, there was almost inevitably a connection to explicit Communist politics".

Climate change
According to Philip Bump of The Washington Post, National Review "has regularly criticized and rejected the scientific consensus on climate change". In 2015, the magazine published an intentionally deceptive graph that suggested that there was no climate change. The graph set the lower and upper bounds of the chart at -10 and 110 degree Fahrenheit and zoomed out so as to obscure warming trends.

In 2017, National Review published an article alleging that a top NOAA scientist claimed that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration engaged in data manipulation and rushed a study based on faulty data in order to influence the Paris climate negotiations. The article largely repeated allegations made in the Daily Mail without independent verification. The scientist in question later rejected the claims made by National Review, noting that he did not accuse NOAA of data manipulation but instead raised concerns about "the way data was handled, documented and stored, raising issues of transparency and availability".

In 2014, climate scientist Michael E. Mann sued National Review after columnist Mark Steyn accused Mann of fraud and referenced a quote from Competitive Enterprise Institute writer Rand Simberg that called Mann "the Jerry Sandusky of climate science, except that instead of molesting children, he has molested and tortured data." Civil liberties organizations such as the ACLU and the Electronic Frontier Foundation and several publications such as The Washington Post expressed support for National Review in the lawsuit, filing amicus briefs in their defense.

Ann Coulter 9/11 column
Two days after the 9/11 attacks, National Review published a column by Ann Coulter in which she wrote of Muslims, "This is no time to be precious about locating the exact individuals directly involved in this particular terrorist attack. We should invade their countries, kill their leaders and convert them to Christianity. We weren't punctilious about locating and punishing only Hitler and his top officers. We carpet-bombed German cities; we killed civilians. That's war. And this is war." National Review later called the column a "mistake" and fired Coulter as a contributing editor.

Jeffrey Epstein
In 2019, The New York Times reported that National Review was one of three news outlets (along with Forbes and HuffPost) that had published stories written by Jeffrey Epstein's publicists. The National Review article was written by Christina Galbraith, Epstein's publicist at the time the article was published in 2013. The National Review bio for Galbraith described her as a science writer. National Review retracted the article in July 2019 with apologies and spoke of new methods being used to better filter freelance content.

References

Bibliography
 Allitt, Patrick. The Conservatives: Ideas and Personalities Throughout American History (2010) excerpt and text search
 Bayley, Edwin R. Joe McCarthy and the Press (University of Wisconsin Press, 1981).
 Birzer, Bradley J. Russell Kirk: American Conservative (University Press of Kentucky, 2015).
 Bogus, Carl T. Buckley: William F. Buckley Jr. and the Rise of American Conservatism (2011)
 Bridges, Linda and Coyne, John R. Jr. Strictly Right: William F. Buckley Jr. and the American Conservative Movement (John Wiley and Sons, 2007).
 Critchlow, Donald T. The Conservative Ascendancy: How the Right Made Political History (2007)
 Del Visco, Stephen. "Yellow peril, red scare: race and communism in National Review." Ethnic and Racial Studies 42.4 (2019): 626–644.
 Frisk, David B. If Not Us, Who?: William Rusher, National Review, and the Conservative Movement (2011)
 Frohnen, Bruce et al. eds. American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia (2006)
 Hart, Jeffrey. The Making of the American Conservative Mind: The National Review and Its Times (2005), a view from the inside
 Hemmer, Nicole. Messengers of the Right: Conservative Media and the Transformation of American Politics (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
 Johnston, Savannah Eccles. "The Rise of Illiberal Conservatism: Immigration and Nationhood at National Review." American Political Thought 10.2 (2021): 190–216.
 Judis, John B. William F. Buckley, Jr.: Patron Saint of the Conservatives (2001)
 Nash, George. The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 (2006; 1st ed. 1978)
 Nemeth, Julian. "The Passion of William F. Buckley: Academic Freedom, Conspiratorial Conservatism, and the Rise of the Postwar Right." Journal of American Studies 54.2 (2020): 323–350.
 Owen, Christopher H. Heaven Can Indeed Fall: The Life of Willmoore Kendall (Rowman & Littlefield, 2021).
 Schneider, Gregory. The Conservative Century: From Reaction to Revolution (2009)
 Smant, Kevin J. Principles and Heresies: Frank S. Meyer and the Shaping of the American Conservative Movement (2002) ()
 Walsh, David Austin. "The Right-Wing Popular Front: The Far Right and American Conservatism in the 1950s." Journal of American History 107.2 (2020): 411–432.

External links

 NRI , National Review Institute

1955 establishments in New York (state)
Biweekly magazines published in the United States
Climate change denial
Conservative magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1955
Magazines published in New York City
New Right organizations (United States)
News magazines published in the United States
Political magazines published in the United States
William F. Buckley Jr.

National Review


Barbara Ninde Byfield (née Barbara Ninde; 28 March 1930 – 8 November 1988) was an American author and illustrator.

Bibliography

She was born in Abilene, Texas. Marrying Hugh W. Byfield in 1956, she had her first book published in 1962 The Eating in Bed Cook Book that she also illustrated.  In 1967 she wrote and illustrated The Glass Harmonica: A Lexicon of the Fantastical. It was reprinted in 1973 as The Book of Weird as there was only a brief mention of the glass harmonica in the original work.

In 1969 she began writing and illustrating a series of books for young readers beginning with The Haunted Spy  about a retired spy named Hannibel Stern who with his dog Zero retires to live in a castle on an island, making friends with a 400-year-old ghost Sir Roger de Rudisell (Byfield's mother's maiden name) who advises him.  The series continued with The Haunted Churchbell (1971), The Haunted Ghost (1973), and The Haunted Tower in 1976.

Collaborating with Frank Tedeschi, Byfield co-authored four adventures of a clerical detective Rev. Dr. Simon Bede and photographer Helen Bullock with their investigations recounted in Solemn High Murder (1975), Forever Wilt Thou Die (1976), A Harder Thing Than Triumph (1977), and A Parcel of Their Fortunes (1978).

Byfield also illustrated works for other authors such as Donald Hutter's Upright Hilda (1968), Harvey Swados' The Mystery of the Haunted Mine (1971), William H. Armstrong's Hadassah: Esther the Orphan Queen (1972) and Herb Caen's  The Cable Car and the Dragon (1972).

She died in Leland, Michigan.

Quotes
There is a secret, wholesome indulgence to eating in bed which perhaps explains why it has not received the uniformily good press of other things which go on in bed... - from The Eating in Bed Cook Book

Notes

20th-century American novelists
American mystery writers
American children's writers
American women novelists
American women illustrators
American illustrators
Novelists from Texas
1930 births
1988 deaths
American women children's writers
Women mystery writers
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American women artists

Barbara Ninde Byfield


David Lee Camp (born July 9, 1953) is a former American politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1991 to 2015. Camp represented  since 1993, and previously served one term representing . A member of the Republican Party, Camp was chairman of the House Committee on Ways and Means, serving from 2011–2015. In March 2014, he announced that he would not run for re-election.

Early life, education, and law career
Camp was born in Midland, Michigan, the son of Norma L. (Nehil) and Robert D. Camp. He graduated from H.H. Dow High School in 1971. He attended the University of Sussex, Brighton, England, 1973–1974 and earned his Bachelor of Arts, magna cum laude, in 1975 from Albion College in Albion, Michigan. He earned a Juris Doctor from the University of San Diego School of Law in 1978. From 1979-91, he was a partner with the law firm Riecker, Van Dam & Barker in Midland, Michigan.

Camp was diagnosed with early-stage non-Hodgkin's large B-cell lymphoma in 2012. After several months of chemotherapy, Camp announced he was cancer-free in December 2012.

Early political career
Camp worked as a member of the Midland County, Michigan board of canvassers and a member of the Midland County Republican executive committee. For 4 years he was special assistant to the Michigan attorney general from 1980 to 1984. He served another 4 years on the staff of his boyhood friend U.S. Representative Bill Schuette (R-MI) from 1984 to 1987, before running and winning the 102nd District of the Michigan House of Representatives in 1988 and serving one term.

U.S. House of Representatives

Elections

When U.S. Congressman Schuette of Michigan's 10th congressional district decided in 1990 to run for the U.S. Senate against incumbent U.S. Senator Carl Levin, Camp ran to replace him and won the endorsement of his former boss. In the Republican primary he faced former U.S. Congressman James Dunn and former State Senator Alan Cropsey. Despite trailing Dunn in early polls, Camp won the Republican primary with a plurality of 33%. He defeated Cropsey (30%), Allen (19%), Dunn (18%), and Simcox (1%). He won the general election with 65% of the vote.

After redistricting, he decided to run in Michigan's 4th congressional district. He won the general election with 62% of the vote. He never won re-election with less than 61% of the vote and never had a primary challenge.

Tenure

102nd Congress

Camp served on the House Committee on Agriculture.  For his work on behalf of Michigan agriculture, Camp received the Golden Plow Award in 1998, the American Farm Bureau Federation's highest honor given to only one Member of the House in each Congress.

108th Congress

In the 108th Congress, he served as a deputy majority whip and served on the House Ways and Means Committee. Speaker Denny Hastert chose Camp to serve on the Select United States House Committee on Homeland Security, which had been created by the House of Representatives on January 7, 2003. While on the committee Camp was the Chairman of the Subcommittee on Infrastructure and Border Security, where he helped develop policies to secure U.S. land and maritime borders in the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.

109th and 110th Congresses

Camp was the Ranking Member of the Subcommittee on Health, and Chairman of the Subcommittee on Select Revenue Measures, respectively.  He served seven terms as a Member of the Subcommittee on Human Resources, and six terms as a Member of the Subcommittee on Trade. As a junior Member of the committee in 1996, Camp played a role in the passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act.

111th Congress

Camp served as Ranking Member of the full committee on Ways and Means. Camp was one of three House Republicans appointed by then-Minority Leader John Boehner (R-OH) to serve on the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform,  known as the Bowles-Simpson Commission, formed in February 2010. It was charged with identifying policies to improve the U.S. fiscal situation in the medium term, and to achieve fiscal sustainability over the long term. While on the Commission, which failed to achieve its aims and did not see enactment of any of its proposals, Camp co-led the Tax Reform Working Group and was a member of the Mandatory Spending Working Group.

112th Congress

Camp was involved in the House Republicans' January 2011 attempt to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.

113th Congress

Camp introduced the Promoting Adoption and Legal Guardianship for Children in Foster Care Act into the House on September 27, 2013.  The bill reauthorized the Adoption Incentives Program that focuses on helping states to find adoptive parents for foster children and passed the House on October 22, 2013. Camp later introduced the Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act (H.R. 4980; 113th Congress) which passed the House on July 23, 2014.

On June 26, 2014, Camp introduced the Improving Medicare Post-Acute Care Transformation Act of 2014 (H.R. 4994; 113th Congress), a bill intended to change and improve Medicare's post-acute care (PAC) services and how they are reported on.

Committee assignments

 Committee on Ways and Means (Chairman)
 Joint Committee on Taxation (Chairman)
 Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction

Caucus memberships
 Building a Better America Caucus
 International Conservation Caucus
 Life Insurance Caucus
 Sportsmen's Caucus
 Zero Capital Gains Tax Caucus
 Congressional Cement Caucus

Positions and policies
"I'm a conservative on fiscal policy, but I'm a moderate on some other issues," he told Congressional Quarterly in 2006. He told National Review in 2007 that he feels "more at home" with the conservative Republican Steering Committee. Camp is part of the moderate bloc through his participation in the Main Street Partnership. He generally voted along party lines in the House, siding with Republicans 93.7 percent of the time during the 111th Congress. The American Conservative Union gave him a lifetime rating of 89 percent, his score with the Club for Growth is considerably lower. Camp voted for both the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Central American Free Trade Agreement. Camp opposes abortion and same-sex marriage. He voted twice for President George W. Bush's tax cuts, and supports their full extension. He pushed for private accounts for Social Security and he supports drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Camp supported the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and he backed President Bush's decision to send more troops to Iraq in 2007 with some reservations. In August 2013 Camp announced his support for cutting benefits to the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program.

Camp introduced the Tax Reform Act of 2014 on February 26, 2014. The congressional nonpartisan Joint Committee on Taxation calculated the bill would allow 95 percent of filers to get the lowest tax rate possible by claiming the standard deduction, would create up to 1.8 million jobs and increase gross domestic product by up to 1.4% in 2023.

When the Chicago office of the Environmental Protection Agency took action against Dow Chemical regarding dioxin pollution of waterways leading into the Saginaw River, he had regional EPA director Mary Gade fired in 2008.  The resulting reluctance of that EPA regional office to take action regarding major environmental issues led to their inaction in the Flint Water Crisis.  Camp's wife was Dow's attorney.

Post-political career
Approximately one year after announcing his decision not to run for re-election to Congress, it was announced that Camp would be joining prominent accounting firm PricewaterhouseCoopers as a senior policy advisor.

References

External links

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1953 births
Albion College alumni
Alumni of the University of Sussex
Living people
Republican Party members of the Michigan House of Representatives
People from Midland, Michigan
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
University of San Diego School of Law alumni
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Midland Dow High School alumni

Dave Camp


Seamus McGarvey, ASC, BSC (born 29 June 1967) is a cinematographer from Armagh, Northern Ireland.
He lives in Tuscany, Italy.

He has received two Academy Award nominations for his cinematography, on Joe Wright's 2007 drama Atonement and his 2012 adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina.

In addition to the Oscar nominations, McGarvey won the British Society of Cinematographers (B.S.C.) award for Anna Karenina and for Nocturnal Animals, as well as a nomination for Atonement, and earned BAFTA noms for Atonement, Anna Karenina and Nocturnal Animals. He received A.S.C. nods for Atonement and Anna Karenina. Atonement earned him nominations for the British Independent Film Award, the Chicago Film Critics Association and the Online Film Critics Society, and he received the top honor from the Phoenix Film Critics Society.

McGarvey has won three Evening Standard British Film Awards for Atonement, Anna Karenina and Stephen Daldry's The Hours and six Irish Film & Television Awards for Atonement, Anna Karenina, Sahara and We Need to Talk About Kevin, Nocturnal Animals and The Greatest Showman. In 2004, he was awarded the Royal Photographic Society's prestigious Lumiere Medal, with Jack Cardiff, Freddie Francis, Roger Deakins and Ridley Scott, for contributions to the art of cinematography.

Early life
McGarvey was born in Armagh, Northern Ireland. He began his career as a still photographer, before attending film school at the University of Westminster in London.

Career
Upon graduating in 1988, he began shooting short films and documentaries, including Skin, which was nominated for a Royal Television Society Cinematography Award, and Atlantic, directed by Sam Taylor-Wood. The latter project, an experimental, three-screen projected film created in 1997, earned Taylor-Wood a nomination for the 1998 Turner Prize and led to an ongoing collaboration between McGarvey and the director.

His four dozen credits as director of photography include Joss Whedon's superhero film The Avengers; Lynne Ramsay's We Need to Talk About Kevin; Oliver Stone's World Trade Center; Gary Winick's Charlotte's Web; John Hamburg's Along Came Polly; Stephen Frears' High Fidelity; Mike Nichols' Wit; Michael Apted's Enigma; Michael Winterbottom's Butterfly Kiss; and two projects marking actors' directorial debuts: Tim Roth's The War Zone and Alan Rickman's The Winter Guest. He served as cinematographer on the pilot for the TV series The No. 1 Ladies Detective Agency, directed by Anthony Minghella.

He reunited with director Wright for his 2009 drama The Soloist, and filmmaker Sam Taylor-Wood (now Sam Taylor-Johnson) on her acclaimed 2008 drama Nowhere Boy, her 2011 short, James Bond Supports International Women's Dayand the Death Valley segment of the 2006 erotic drama Destricted. Following his work on Godzilla, he teamed with Taylor-Johnson on her big screen adaptation, and Hollywood directorial debut, of the bestselling novel Fifty Shades of Grey. He has photographed Pan, The Accountant, Nocturnal Animals, Life, The Greatest Showman, Greta, and Bad Times at the El Royale, and The Nevers.

His documentary work includes Lost Angels: Skid Row Is My Home, which followed his work on Wright's The Soloist, and filmed in the same locales; Harry Dean Stanton: Partly Fiction; Rolling Stones: Tip of the Tongue; and The Name of This Film Is Dogme95.

Supplementing his work on features and telefilms, McGarvey has photographed and directed over 100 music videos for various artists, including Coldplay, Paul McCartney, Dusty Springfield, The Rolling Stones, U2, and Robbie Williams.

In 2015, he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws from Dundee University and an Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts from the University of Ulster. He is an Honorary Fellow of Edinburgh College of Art. He is featured in the book In Conversation with Cinematographers by David A. Ellis and in the book Ballinger, Alexander; New Cinematographers (2004) .

McGarvey was meant to serve as cinematographer on Spider-Man: No Way Home, but exited after contracting COVID-19 and was replaced with Mauro Fiore.

Filmography

Short film

Feature film

Television

Awards and nominations
Academy Awards

BAFTA Awards

American Society of Cinematographers

Other awards

Further reading
 Ballinger, Alexander; New Cinematographers (2004)

References

External links

 American Cinematographer Article
 Moving Image Arts website: Detailed interview with Seamus McGarvey

1967 births
Cinematographers from Northern Ireland
Film directors from Northern Ireland
Living people
People educated at St Patrick's Grammar School, Armagh
People from Armagh (city)

Seamus McGarvey


Khuda Aur Muhabbat is a 2016 Pakistani spiritual romantic drama television series and second installment in Khuda Aur Mohabbat series, produced by Babar Javed. It features Imran Abbas, Sadia Khan and Kubra Khan in lead roles. The season premiered on 26 December 2016.

Plot
Khuda Aur Muhabbat is a classic love story of two star-struck lovers as they struggle to fight for their love. Hammad belongs to an elite family and has recently completed his Bachelor's in Commerce. Hammad's strange encounter with Imaan, the daughter of Molvi Aleemuddin, brings an immense change in his life. Hammad's love at first sight with Imaan eventually leads him to leave his family and his lavish lifestyle as he struggles to be accepted by Imaan's family. After leaving his house, Hammad takes a job at a porter which requires hard labour. In the quest to be suitable for Imaan, Hammad finds spirituality and the true meaning of religion along the way. Despite Hammad's efforts, Moulvi Aleem refuses to understand the idea of love marriage and is unable to forgive Hammad for being in love with Imaan. Due to family pressure, Imaan is forced to marry her cousin Abdullah and begs Hammad to return to his own family. Hammad unable to subside his affection for Imaan is adamant on marrying her. Under nerve-wrecking circumstances and constant tribulations, Imaan falls ill and Hammad is left to fight alone for their love but the nature had already decided something else for Hammad.

Cast and characters

Soundtrack

Awards and nominations

References

External links
 Khuda Aur Mohabbat (season 02)

Khuda Aur Muhabbat
2016 Pakistani television seasons

Khuda Aur Muhabbat (season 2)


Benign neonatal seizures are somewhat rare syndromes (medical problems) which cause seizures in newborn infants. A seizure is caused by problems in the electrical activity in the brain.

One syndrome is Benign idiopathic neonatal seizures (BINS) and the other is Benign familial neonatal seizures (BFNS). Both syndromes usually happen in infants in the neonatal period, which is the first 28 days after birth. In most cases, the first seizure happens within the first few days after birth. However, some infants may have their first seizure later in the neonatal period, or even months after the neonatal period. The last seizure usually happens while the infant is still in the neonatal period, but seizures may continue after this time.

A third syndrome called benign familial neonatal-infantile syndrome (BFNIS). It may cause the first seizure between the second day upwards to 6 months after birth, and usually stops within the first 12 months.

These syndromes are called "benign" because they usually cause no long-term harm to the infant, but there is a greater chance of getting seizures later in life.

In Benign idiopathic neonatal seizures the cause is not known (this is what the word "idiopathic" means). In Benign familial neonatal seizures and Benign familial neonatal-infantile seizures, there is a genetic mutation, which means a change in the genes that an infant gets from their parents. These disorders are inherited (they "run in the family"). This is what the word "familial" means.

References

Syndromes
Diseases and disorders of the brain
Babies

Benign neonatal seizures


Tamale () is the capital city of the Northern Region of Ghana. It is Ghana's third largest city, with a population of 730,000. The city has been ranked as the fastest-growing city in West Africa. The Ghana Tourism Board has voted the city thrice, as Ghana's cleanest city. It is located  north of Accra.

Tamale is located in the Kingdom of Dagbon, Ghana's oldest Kingdom. Traditional authority are subservient to the King of Dagbon, the Ndan Yaa Naa, who is resident at Yendi  (Yani). Yendi is the traditional capital and seat of Governance of the king. The language of the people in Tamale is Dagbani.

Tamale sits at a strategic location due to its greater proximity European,  West African, and North African markets compared to Ghana's southern cities . It serves as a political, economic and financial center of the Northern Ghana.The city connects the coastal and forest area of Ghana to West and North Africa. The city's central business district hosts regional branches of financial institutions and a considerable number of international and local non governmental organisations.

The hospitality industry has grown significantly, with increasing investment in infrastracture. Tamale grew from a conglomeration of towns with an architectural blend of traditional mud houses and modern buildings. Tamale's new and modern facilities include the newly constructed Tamale Stadium (now Aliu Mahama sports Stadium named after late Ghana's vice-president, Alhaji Aliu Mahama), replacing the town's former principal football pitch, Kaladan Park. Improvements to Tamale's infrastructure occurred in the period leading up to the 2008 African Cup of Nations. The Tamale sports stadium was renamed after the late Vice president, Alhaji Aliu Mahama in the year 2018.
Motorcycles are a common form of transportation.

More than 80% of residents are  Dagombas, and 90.5% are Muslims. This is reflected by the multitude of mosques in Tamale, most notably the Tamale Central Mosque, Afa Ajura Mosque (Anbariya Mosque), Afa Basha mosque (Nuuria mosque) and The Ahmadiyyah Muslim mission Mosque.

History

Tamale is located on the crossing of three ancient trade routes; it started to grow as a commercial centre for the Northern region centuries ago. The north–south road from Paga and Bolgatanga to Salaga had raiders passing, whilst other merchants brought their goods into Tamale. Salt came from Daboya, to the north-west of Tamale, and followed a road that continued to Yendi. A third road linked Gushegu to the capital and continued to the Gonja kingdom, Damongo. The present locations of the central market and the palace of the Gulkpe naa, opposite Barclays Bank and near the library, mark the junctions of the ancient roads.

Around this palace, a residential neighbourhood began to grow. It is now known as Dagbangdabi-Fong (the name means "Traditional men area"). This was followed by Changli, Belipiela, and BuglanaFong ("Fetish Priest's area") further to the south. Each neighbourhood got its own local chief. As the distances to the market place grew, people started to settle elsewhere around the crossing, so the quarters of Tishigu and Abu-Abu came up. An influx of northerners from present-day Burkina Faso led to the building of Moshi Zongo. In the same time, the remote village of Vitteng came into existence.

Garden cities were brought to Tamale and at the back of Sakasaka grew Kalpohin Estates, even now a pleasant neighbourhood with plenty trees, big gardens, and small houses. In the 1970s, urban extensions such as Zogbeli, Lamakara, and Lamashegu were built, neighbourhoods characterised by checkboard planning of square house plots and orthogonal streets and alleys. Since 2000, Tamale seems to have grown more rapidly, so the whole district of Tamale is now urban agglomeration.

Climate
Tamale features a tropical wet and dry climate under the Köppen's climate classification. The metropolis experiences one rainy season from April to September or October, with a peak in September and August. The mean annual rainfall is 1100 mm within 95 days of rainfall in the form of tropical showers. Consequently, staple crop farming is highly restricted by the short rainy season.

The dry season is usually from November to early April. It is influenced by the dry north-easterly (Harmattan) winds, while the rainy season is influenced by the moist south-westerly winds. The mean daytime temperatures range from 28 (December and mid-April) to 43 (March, early April) degrees Celsius, while mean nighttime temperatures range from 18 (December) to 25 (February, March) degrees Celsius. The mean annual daily sunshine is about 7.5 hours.

Government

Tamale has a mayor–council government system in which the mayor is vested with extensive executive powers. The mayor is appointed by the Ghana president and approved by the town council, the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly, although suggestions have been made by the residents of Tamale to increase accountability of the office by having the mayor elected. The current mayor of Tamale is Hon. Sule Salifu. The name Tamale Metropolitan Assembly serves both for the local parliament and for the local executive. Local policies are always executed in this name, so for example, illegal constructions often show the command "remove by TMA" (meaning that the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly or its executive has ordered to remove the building as it is contrary to current urban land-use planning). As the local executive, Tamale Metropolitan Assembly is the strong arm of the mayor, his or her civil service. If mention is made of assembly women or men, however, the reference is to the elected representatives of the inhabitants of Tamale. They form the assembly properly speaking, and must decide about local by-laws before they can come into force.
The name "Tamale Metropolitan District" is used in the geographical sense, to refer to the area within its borders.

Education

Tamale is the principal centre of education in Northern Ghana. Currently, a total of 742 basic schools are within the metropolis. This comprises 94 kindergartens, 304 primary, 112 junior high, and 14 senior high schools. The rest are technical/vocational institutions, two colleges of education, a technical university and two other universities – one public and the other private.

In the Education Ridge neighbourhood in the north-western part of the town and covering an area around 3 km2, 20 schools ranging from kindergartens through junior high and senior high schools, teachers' training colleges, the Tamale Technical University, and a university are located. The numerous trees lining the streets in this part of the town give it a tropical rainforest outlook. The University for Development Studies (UDS) has two campuses located in Tamale and one in nearby Nyankpala. The headquarters of the UDS is also located in Tamale.

Primary schools
 Munawara Ahmadiya E/A Primary School
 OLA Primary School
 Koblimahigu Sobriya E/A Primary School
 Kukuo AME Zion Primary School, Wurishe Kukuo
 Ansuari-Deen Islamic Primary School
 Anbariya Ibnitaimiya English/Arabic Primary School
 Amriya Islamic Primary School, Kakpagyili
 Aminiyat Islamic Primary School, Sawaba
 Amania Islamic Primary/Kg School
 Al-Markazia Islamic Junior High School, Zogbeli
 Al -Mal Islamic Basic Schools, Tamale
 Al-Egasa Islamic Primary School, Kasaligu
 Adubliyili Preby Primary School
 Adabiya Garibiy Islamic Kg/Primary School, Tamale
 Abubakar Sadoq Islamic Primary School, Vittin
 Aalu Ibrahim Islamic Primary School

Junior high schools
 Munawara Ahmadiya E/A Junior High School
 Wurishe Kukuo Junior High School
 Koblimahigu Sobriya E/A
 Nahada Islamic Junior High School
 Badariya Islamic Junior High School

Senior high schools
 Tamale Senior High School
 Ghana Senior High School
 Northern School of Business
 Business Senior High School
 Tamale Girls Senior High School
 Viting Senior High School
 Kalpohin Senior High School
 Tamale Islamic Science Senior High School
 St Charles Minor Seminar Senior High School
 Adventist Senior High School
 Presbyterian Senior High School
 Business College International
 Tamale Girls International School
 Ambariya Senior High School
 Dabokpa Technical and Vocational School
 T- Poly Senior High School
 Abubakar Al-sadiq Senior High School
 Ideal College
 Kasuliyili Senior High school

Colleges and Universities
Bagabaga College of Education
 Tamale College of Education
 Jackson College of Education
 University for Development Studies
 Tamale Technical University
 Technical University College of Tamale

Driving Schools
 Johnson Driving School
 Abele Driving School

Transportation
Tamale is served by Tamale Airport. Located about  from downtown Tamale, the airport is mainly used by commercial airlines such as Africa World Airlines and Passion Air  which are the only operational companies currently. They run regular flights between Tamale and Accra's Kotoka International Airport, along with other regional capitals.

There are Public Transports from Tamale to major citie such as Kumasi; Accra, Mim, Ahafo ; Cape Coast, Sunyani; Takoradi; Tema; Ho; Wa; Bolgatanga; Elubo; Aflao, Techiman;
Public transportation
in the form of taxis used to be the most convenient means of getting around Tamale for visitors to the town until the arrival of the Tri-cycles, popularly called "Mahama-Cambuu" or yellow-yellow. Mahama Cambuu is a coined name by the local people from the expression "Mahama can do". This is because these Tri-cycles (mostly yellow in color) came in the era of the former president, H.E John Dramani Mahama. It is comparatively cheaper than the Taxis and usually on the move unlike the Taxis that are regularized and stationed at a points. It is however, not very safe compared to the Taxis. The popular means of travel for the locals, however, is by motorbike. This phenomenon is helped by the existence of bike paths in the town, making it one of the most bike-friendly settlements in the Northern region. Transportation out of town is facilitated by the Tamale's bus rapid transit system, tro-tro private mini-bus system, MetroMass Bus-Based Mass Transit system, and STC Bus Lines, along with a host of charter bus companies, all of which provide transport to connect Tamale with the many other surrounding towns and cities.

Gallery

Sister cities
Tamale has sister city relations with:

Key Landmarks

 Tamale Central Mosque
 Dakpema Chief's Palace
 Aliu Mahama Sports Stadium
 Tamale Jubilee Park

Notable people
Mubarak Wakaso (born 1990), professional footballer
Haruna Iddrisu (born 1970), Member of Parliament for Tamale South and the former Minister for Employment and Labour Relations in Ghana, Minority leader of Parliament
Abdul Majeed Waris (born 1991), professional footballer
Fancy Gadam (born 1988), Afro-pop and dancehall artiste
Alhassan Yahaya Seini, barrister and director of the Legal Aid Commission
Mahamudu Bawumia (born 1963), politician
Sheikh Bayan Basha
Sheikh Saeed
Chief Gupkenaa
Chief Dakpema
 Alhassan Suhiyini (member of Parliament for Tamale-North constituency).
 Inusah Fuseini (a former member of Parliament for Tamale-Central constituency)
Alhassan Bashir Fuseini (member of Parliament for Sagnarigu constituency).
Anyars Ibrahim (Ceo of Nation's builders corps).
Mona 4Reall, (born 1993) Socialite, model, musician, and businesswoman
Maccasio  (born April 6, 1995), Hip hop, hip life and an entrepreneur

Ongoing Projects

 The Tamale Interchange. Which is about 80% complete. It is hoped that the project will be fully completed by the end of 2021.
 Tamale International Airport. Phase II is in progress.

Communities in Tamale

 Lamashegu
 Zogbeli
 Kakpagyili
 Zujung
 Vitting
 Kukuo
 Kanvilli
 Gumani
 Jisonayili
 Gurugu
 Dungu
 Bamvim
 Bulpeila
 Sabonjida
 Sakasaka
 Tishigu
 malishegu
 Nyanshegu
 Kalpohini
 Dabokpa
 Choggu
 Kalariga
 Katariga
 Tuutingli
 Zagyuri
 Sagnarigu
 Yapalsi
 Sognayili
 Kpalsi
 Wurishe
 Changli
 Fuo
 Kunyevula
 Guunayili
 Aboabo
 Gumbihini
 Shishagu
 Kasaligu
 Nyerizee
 Datoyili
 Adubiliyili
 Manguli
 Sabonjida

Hotels and Guest Houses in Tamale
1. Picona Hotel

2. Radarch Lodge and Conference Centre

3. Miricha Hotel

4. Nim Avenue

5. Modern City Hotel

6. Sabonkudi estates

7. Regal hotel

8. Target Hills hotel

9. Pioneer lodge

10. B Sheini hotel

11. Naat guesthouse

12. Ganaa hotel

13. Global dream hotel

References

External links

 Official website of the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly
 Official Tamale Senior High Page
 Official UDS website

Regional capitals in Ghana
Populated places in the Northern Region (Ghana)
Dagbon

Tamale, Ghana


Cohousing is an intentional community of private homes clustered around shared space. The term originated in Denmark in the late 1960s. Each attached or single-family home has traditional amenities, including a private kitchen. Shared spaces typically feature a common house, which may include a large kitchen and dining area, laundry, and recreational spaces. Shared outdoor space may include parking, walkways, open space, and gardens. Neighbors also share resources like tools and lawnmowers.

Households have independent incomes and private lives, but neighbors collaboratively plan and manage community activities and shared spaces. The legal structure is typically a homeowner association or housing cooperative. Community activities feature regularly scheduled shared meals, meetings, and workdays. Neighbors gather for parties, games, movies, or other events. Cohousing makes it easy to form clubs, organize child and elder care, and carpool.

Cohousing facilitates interaction among neighbors and thereby provides social, practical, economic, and environmental benefits.

Characteristics

Cohousing communities are usually structured – in principle and often in architecture – to encourage frequent interactions and the formation of close relationships among their members. Neighbours are encouraged to cooperate within the community and to care for their neighbors. Cohousing developments are usually intentionally limited to around 20–40 homes and frequently feature large common areas for residents to interact in. While cohousing developments are designed to encourage community, residents usually still have as much personal privacy as they want. Residents are able to choose how much they engage in order to find the right balance between their privacy and the community. Decision making in cohousing communities is often based on forming a consensus within the community. Residents have shared space which they can all use, usually saving money; however, residents can still manage their own space to appeal to them.

Co-living
Cohousing can be considered related to co-living as the concepts appear to overlap. Both co-living and cohousing have shared areas that benefit all, such as spaces for events or communal meals. Cohousing provides self-contained private dwellings (often houses but sometimes apartments), often owned by the resident, but sometimes rented. Co-living on the other hand has independent units within the same building (apartments or rooms), which are often rented. However none of these are exclusive, thus the potential overlaps.The key distinction is that cohousing embeds collective resident control and stewardship into its legal form and decision making whereas co-living is typically owned and run by external investors or operators, although the owner sometimes also lives in the co-living space.

Origins
The modern theory of cohousing originated in Denmark in the 1960s among groups of families who were dissatisfied with existing housing and communities that they felt did not meet their needs. Bodil Graae wrote a newspaper article titled "Children Should Have One Hundred Parents", spurring a group of 50 families to organize around a community project in 1967. This group split into two groups who developed the cohousing projects Sættedammen and Skråplanet, which are the oldest known modern cohousing communities. The key organizer was Jan Gudmand Høyer who drew inspiration from his architectural studies at Harvard and interaction with experimental U.S. communities of the era. He published the article "The Missing Link between Utopia and the Dated Single Family House" in 1968, converging a second group.

The Danish term bofællesskab (living community) was introduced to North America as cohousing by two American architects, Kathryn McCamant and Charles Durrett, who visited several cohousing communities and wrote a book about it. The book resonated with some existing and forming communities, such as Sharingwood in Washington state and N Street in California, who embraced the cohousing concept as a crystallization of what they were already about.  Though most cohousing groups seek to develop multi-generational communities, some focus on creating senior communities.  Charles Durrett later wrote a handbook on creating senior cohousing. The first community in the United States to be designed, constructed and occupied specifically for cohousing is Muir Commons in Davis, California.

There are precedents for cohousing in the 1920s in New York with the cooperative apartment housing with shared facilities and good social interaction. The Siheyuan, or quadrangle design of housing in China has a shared courtyard and is thus similar in some respects to cohousing.

Growth
Cohousing communities are part of the new cooperative economy in the United States and are predicted to expand rapidly in the next few decades as individuals and families seek to live more sustainably, and in community with neighbors. Since the first cohousing community was completed in the U.S. – Muir Commons in Davis, California – more than 160 communities have been established in 25 states plus the District of Columbia, with more than 125 in process. Most cohousing communities are intergenerational with both children and elders; in recent years, senior cohousing focused on older adult needs have grown. These communities come in a variety, but are often environment friendly and socially sustainable.

Hundreds of cohousing communities exist in Denmark and other countries in northern Europe. In Canada, there are 17 completed communities, and approximately 42 in the forming, development, or construction phase (see The Canadian Cohousing Network). There are more than 300 cohousing communities in the Netherlands (73 mixed-generation and 231 senior cohousing), with about 60 others in planning or construction phases.
There are also communities in Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and other parts of the world.

Cohousing started to develop in the UK at the end of the 1990s. The movement has gradually built up momentum and there are now 14 purpose built cohousing communities. A further 40+ cohousing groups are developing projects and new groups are forming all the time. Cohousing communities in the UK range from around 8 households to around 30 households. Most communities are mixed communities with single people, couples and families but some are only for people over 50 and one is only for women over 50 years. The communities themselves range from new developments built to modern eco standards to conversions of everything from farms to Jacobean mansions to former hospital buildings and are in urban, rural and semi- rural locations.

One of the strongest voices for cohousing in the United States is Grace Kim—a principal of Schemata Workshop architectural firm in Seattle, a founder of Capitol Hill Urban Cohousing in Seattle, and a boardmember of the US Cohousing Association.  For Kim, cohousing provides a possible solution to the worldwide problems of loneliness and isolation, through the intentionality of people to live collaboratively.  Kim spoke in Vancouver at an April 2017 TED talk on the topic of cohousing, asserting that cohousing can make us happier via an intentionality on relationships that births communitas—the spirit of community.

Design

Because each cohousing community is planned in its context, following the principles of complementary architecture. A key feature of this model is its flexibility to the needs and values of its residents and the characteristics of the site. Cohousing can be urban, suburban or rural. The physical form is typically compact but varies from low-rise apartments to townhouses to clustered detached houses. They tend to keep cars to the periphery which promotes walking through the community and interacting with neighbors as well as increasing safety for children at play within the community. Shared green space is another characteristic, whether for gardening, play, or places to gather.  When more land is available than is needed for the physical structures, the structures are usually clustered closely together, leaving as much of the land as possible "open" for shared use.  This aspect of cohousing directly addresses the growing problem of suburban sprawl.

In addition to "from-scratch" new-built communities (including those physically retrofitting/re-using existing structures), there are also "retrofit" (aka "organic") communities, in which neighbors create "intentional neighborhoods" by buying adjacent properties and removing fences. Often, they create common amenities such as common houses after the fact while living there. N Street Cohousing in Davis, California, is the canonical example of this type; it came together before the term Cohousing was popularized in the United States.

Cohousing differs from some types of intentional communities in that the residents do not have a shared economy or a common set of beliefs or religion, but instead invest in creating a socially rich and interconnected community. A non-hierarchical structure employing a consensus decision-making model is common in managing cohousing. Individuals do take on leadership roles, such as being responsible for coordinating a garden or facilitating a meeting.

Ownership form
Cohousing communities in the U.S. currently rely on one of two existing legal forms of real estate ownership: individually titled houses with common areas owned by a homeowner association (condominiums) or a housing cooperative. Condo ownership is most common because it fits financial institutions' and cities' models for multi-unit owner-occupied housing development. U.S. banks lend more readily on single-family homes and condominiums than housing cooperatives. Charles Durrett points out that rental cohousing is a very likely future model, as it already is being practiced in Europe. In Australia, due to higher legal complexity of cooperatives, cohousing projects are most commonly developed under limited proprietary company with cooperative-like rules.

Cohousing differs from standard condominium development and master-planned subdivisions because the development is designed by, or with considerable input from, its future residents.  The design process invariably emphasizes consciously fostering social relationships among its residents.  Common facilities are based on the actual needs of the residents, rather than on what a developer thinks will help sell units.  Turnover in cohousing developments is typically very low, and there is usually a waiting list for units to become available.

In Europe the term "joint building ventures" has been coined to define the form of ownership and housing characterized as cohousing. According to the European Urban Knowledge Network (EUKN): "Joint building ventures are a legal federation of persons willing to build who want to create owner-occupied housing and to participate actively in planning and building."

See also

 , aka Baugruppe

References

Further reading
Gresleri, Jacopo. Cohousing. Esperienze internazionali di abitare condiviso, Genova: Plug in, 2015,
McCamant, Kathryn; Durrett, Charles. Creating Cohousing: Building Sustainable Communities, New Society Publishers, 2011, .
Durrett, Charles. The Senior Cohousing Handbook: A Community Approach to Independent Living, 2nd ed., New Society Publishers, 2009, .
McCamant, Kathryn; Durrett, Charles. Cohousing: A Contemporary Approach to Housing Ourselves (2nd ed.), Ten Speed Press, 1994, .
Meltzer, Graham S.  Sustainable Community: Learning from the Cohousing Model. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford Press, 2005, .
Williams, Jo. Designing neighbourhoods for social interaction: The case of cohousing", Journal of Urban Design 2005, Vol. 10, No. 2, 195–227.

External links

Communities Self-Identifying as "Uses Cohousing Model" in FIC's Communities Directory
CohoUS an association a community of communities, includes directory of US cohousing communities
Cohousing-L, mailing list about cohousing (45,000 messages 1993–2020).
Foundation for Intentional Community (FIC)

Media

 Grace Kim: https://www.ted.com/talks/grace_kim_how_cohousing_can_make_us_happier_and_live_longer

Living arrangements
Intentional living

Types of communities

Cohousing


Vitelcom Group was a Spanish manufacturer and distributor of consumer electronics, concentrating on the home entertainment and mobile phone markets. It also provided mobile phone content such as games.

Vitelcom made DVD and VCR equipment under contract using the Funai brand name, mobile phones using the Grundig mobile name under license, plus handheld computer equipment and ADSL modems.

History
Primary markets were Iberia and Latin America, although Vitelcom had some success in selling mobile handsets to a wider market, either under the Grundig brand or branded by the local mobile network operator.

During 2004 to 2005 Vitelcom was engaged in a patent infringement dispute with Nokia which was resolved before it went to court.

In 2007 the company fell into administration and was wound up in 2008. The name "Vitelcom" is now used by a New Zealand IT company.

Products
Product released: TSM5, TSM30 and TSM1000

References

External links
Grundig Mobile
iPhone Unlocker
iPhone Data Recovery

Companies of Andalusia
Mobile phone manufacturers
Defunct companies of Spain
Electronics companies of Spain
Industrial history of Spain

Vitelcom


Mayfield Mountain, Granville County, North Carolina is situated in Wilton, North Carolina. This hill is accompanied by one other "mountain" called Jenkins Mountain. These hills rise two to three hundred feet above the surrounding hills. At the base of these mountains is a river called Ford's Fork creek.  These hills are abundant with wildlife including Whitetail deer, Bobcats, Coyotes, Carolina river dogs, Groundhogs, Turkeys, Red and yellow tailed hawks, Owls, Grey squirrels, Black bears, and Rabbits. These mountains are privately owned.

Mountains of North Carolina
Landforms of Granville County, North Carolina

Mayfield Mountain