Grace Folashade Bent nee Makinwa (born 25 October 1960) is a Nigerian senator who was elected in April 2007 on the People's Democratic Party platform in the Adamawa South constituency of Adamawa State.

Background

Grace Folashade Bent was born in 1960. She attended Ilesa Grammar School (Graduate Class of 1978). At the University of Calabar she was a students' union activist.
She received a BA (Hons) in English and Literary Studies in 1998, and an MSc in Political Science and International Relations in 2003. She has a doctorate of Public Administration from Indiana State University, United States. Before entering the senate, Grace Folashade Bent was political adviser to the PDP National Chairman, Audu Ogbeh, Assistant Producer, NTA Kaduna, and Managing Director of Jack Ventures Nigeria.
She has published a book titled Women in Inter Ethnic Marriages in Nigeria.

According to some sources, Grace Folashade Bent was involved in obtaining fake degrees.

Career
After election in 2007 Grace Folashade Bent became chair of the Nigerian Senate Committee on Environment. In this role, she was involved in controversy over an extension of permission for gas flaring granted to oil companies by president Umaru Yar'Adua without consultation with the Senate.

In April 2008, following a visit to South Africa, Senator Bent sponsored a motion to issue a travel advice to all Nigerians traveling to South Africa to be wary of incessant attacks.

In March 2009, Senator Bent opposed the establishment of a Desert Control Commission on the basis that this would subsume or duplicate the functions of the national committee on ecological problems. The senate whip, Mahmud Kanti Bello, cautioned her not to drag the public hearing over the proposed commission into "undue arguments".

In September 2009, Grace Folashade Bent wrote a formal letter to Minister of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Senator Mohammed Adamu Aliero, protesting the excessive felling of trees for road construction.

Bent competed in the PDP primaries to be the April 2011 candidate for Adamawa South Senator, but lost to Ahmed Hassan Barata. He received 738 votes to her 406 votes.
Bent, who was said to have been favored by the PDP party leadership, later claimed that she had won a rerun primary.
While the question was being reviewed, a judge ordered the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to remove Barata's name from the list of candidates and replace it with Bent.
Bent's claim was later rejected by the INEC, by the Federal High Court, Abuja and by the PDP's counsel. She speaks Yoruba language, including the Ijesa dialect.

Politics
Grace Folashade Bent called on the chairman of the state chapter of the Peoples Democracy Party (PDP), Barr. A.T Shehu, for calling her a non-indigene of Adamawa State, describing his action as exhibition of "crass ignorance" of law. She wondered why a trained lawyer like the Adamawa PDP chairman will resort to what she called outright

"lies" for the purpose of tarnishing her image and turning the good people of Adamawa against her.

External links

References

1960 births
Living people
Yoruba women in politics
People from Adamawa State
Women members of the Senate (Nigeria)
Peoples Democratic Party members of the Senate (Nigeria)
University of Calabar alumni
Indiana State University alumni
21st-century Nigerian politicians
21st-century Nigerian women politicians

Grace Folashade Bent


Passive radar (also referred to as parasitic radar, passive coherent location, passive surveillance, and passive covert radar) is a class of radar systems that detect and track objects by processing reflections from non-cooperative sources of illumination in the environment, such as commercial broadcast and communications signals.  It is a specific case of bistatic radar – passive bistatic radar (PBR) – which is a broad type also including the exploitation of cooperative and non-cooperative radar transmitters.

Introduction

Conventional radar systems comprise a colocated transmitter and receiver, which usually share a common antenna to transmit and receive.  A pulsed signal is transmitted and the time taken for the pulse to travel to the object and back allows the range of the object to be determined.

In a passive radar system, there is no dedicated transmitter.  Instead, the receiver uses third-party transmitters in the environment and measures the time difference of arrival between the signal arriving directly from the transmitter and the signal arriving via reflection from the object.  This allows the bistatic range of the object to be determined.  In addition to the bistatic range, a passive radar will typically also measure the bistatic Doppler shift of the echo and also its direction of arrival.  These allow the location, heading and speed of the object to be calculated.  In some cases, multiple transmitters and/or receivers can be employed to make several independent measurements of bistatic range, Doppler and bearing and hence significantly improve the final track accuracy.

The term "passive radar" is sometimes used incorrectly to describe those passive sensors that detect and track aircraft by their RF emissions (such as radar, communications, or transponder emissions).  However, these systems do not exploit reflected energy and hence are more accurately described as Electronic Support Measure or anti-radiation systems.  Well known examples include the Czech TAMARA and VERA systems and the Ukrainian Kolchuga system.

History
The concept of passive radar detection using reflected ambient radio signals emanating from a distant transmitter is not new.  The first radar experiments in the United Kingdom in 1935 by Robert Watson-Watt demonstrated the principle of radar by detecting a Handley Page Heyford bomber at a distance of 12  km using the BBC shortwave transmitter at Daventry.

Early radars were all bistatic because the technology to enable an antenna to be switched from transmit to receive mode had not been developed.  Thus many countries were using bistatic systems in air defence networks during the early 1930s. For example, the British deployed the CHAIN HOME system; the French used a bistatic Continuous Wave (CW) radar in a "fence" (or "barrier") system; the Soviet Union deployed a bistatic CW system called the RUS-1, and the Japanese developed a bistatic CW radar called "Type A".

The Germans used a passive bistatic system during World War II.  This system, called the Klein Heidelberg Parasit or Heidelberg-Gerät, was deployed at seven sites (Limmen, Oostvoorne, Ostend, Boulogne, Abbeville, Cap d'Antifer and Cherbourg) and operated as bistatic receivers, using the British Chain Home radars as non-cooperative illuminators, to detect aircraft over the southern part of the North Sea.

Bistatic radar systems gave way to monostatic systems with the development of the duplexer in 1936.  The monostatic systems were much easier to implement since they eliminated the geometric complexities introduced by the separate transmitter and receiver sites.  In addition, aircraft and shipborne applications became possible as smaller components were developed.  In the early 1950s, bistatic systems were considered again when some interesting properties of the scattered radar energy were discovered, indeed the term "bistatic" was first used by Siegel in 1955 in his report describing these properties.

One of the largest and most complex passive radar systems was the UK's RX12874, or "Winkle". Winkle was deployed in the 1960s in response to the introduction of the carcinotron, a radar jammer that was so powerful it appeared to render long-distance radars useless. Winkle was able to home in on carcinotron broadcasts with the same accuracy as conventional radar, allowing the jammer aircraft to be tracked and attacked at hundreds of miles range. Additionally, by indicating the location of the jammer, other radars in the Linesman/Mediator network could reduce the sensitivity of their receivers when pointed in that direction, thereby reducing the amount of jamming received when pointed near the jammer's location.

The rise of cheap computing power and digital receiver technology in the 1980s led to a resurgence of interest in passive radar technology.  For the first time, these allowed designers to apply digital signal processing techniques to exploit a variety of broadcast signals and to use cross-correlation techniques to achieve sufficient signal processing gain to detect targets and estimate their bistatic range and Doppler shift.  Classified programmes existed in several nations, but the first announcement of a commercial system was by Lockheed-Martin Mission Systems in 1998, with the commercial launch of the Silent Sentry system, that exploited FM radio and analogue television transmitters.

Typical illuminators
Passive radar systems have been developed that exploit the following sources of illumination:
 Analog television signals
 FM radio signals
 Cellular phone base stations
 Digital audio broadcasting
 Digital video broadcasting
 Terrestrial High-definition television transmitters in North America
 GPS satellites (GPS reflectometry).
Satellite signals have generally been found more difficult for passive radar use, either because the powers are too low or because the orbits of the satellites are such that illumination is too infrequent. However, there have been significant developments in the area over the past years. The possible exception to this is the exploitation of satellite-based radar and satellite radio systems. In 2011, researchers Barott and Butka from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University announced results claiming success using XM Radio to detect aircraft with a low-cost ground station.

Principle
In a conventional radar system, the time of transmission of the pulse and the transmitted waveform is exactly known.  This allows the object range to be easily calculated and for a matched filter to be used to achieve an optimal signal-to-noise ratio in the receiver.  A passive radar does not have this information directly and hence must use a dedicated receiver channel (known as the "reference channel") to monitor each transmitter being exploited, and dynamically sample the transmitted waveform.  A passive radar typically employs the following processing steps:
 Reception of the direct signal from the transmitter(s) and the surveillance region on dedicated low-noise, linear, digital receivers
 Digital beamforming to determine the direction of arrival of signals and spatial rejection of strong in-band interference
 Adaptive filtering to cancel any unwanted direct signal returns in the surveillance channel(s)
 Transmitter-specific signal conditioning
 Cross-correlation of the reference channel with the surveillance channels to determine object bistatic range and Doppler
 Detection using constant false alarm rate (CFAR) scheme
 Association and tracking of object returns in range/Doppler space, known as "line tracking"
 Association and fusion of line tracks from each transmitter to form the final estimate of an object's location, heading and speed.
These are described in greater detail in the sections below.

Processing

Receiver system
A passive radar system must detect very small target returns in the presence of very strong, continuous interference.  This contrasts with a conventional radar, which listens for echoes during the periods of silence in between each pulse transmission.  As a result, the receiver must have a low noise figure, high dynamic range and high linearity.  Despite this, the received echoes are normally well below the noise floor and the system tends to be externally noise limited (due to reception of the transmitted signal itself, plus reception of other distant in-band transmitters).  Passive radar systems use digital receiver systems which output a digitized, sampled signal.

Digital beamforming
Most passive radar systems use simple antenna arrays with several antenna elements and element-level digitisation.  This allows the direction of arrival of echoes to be calculated using standard radar beamforming techniques, such as amplitude monopulse using a series of fixed, overlapping beams or more sophisticated adaptive beamforming.  Alternatively, some research systems have used only a pair of antenna elements and the phase-difference of arrival to calculate the direction of arrival of the echoes (known as phase interferometry and similar in concept to Very Long Baseline Interferometry used in astronomy).

Signal conditioning
With some transmitter types, it is necessary to perform some transmitter-specific conditioning of the signal before cross-correlation processing.  This may include high-quality analogue bandpass filtering of the signal, channel equalization to improve the quality of the reference signal, removal of unwanted structures in digital signals to improve the radar ambiguity function or even complete reconstruction of the reference signal from the received digital signal.

Adaptive filtering
The principal limitation in detection range for most passive radar systems is the signal-to-interference ratio, due to the large and constant direct signal received from the transmitter.  To remove this, an adaptive filter can be used to remove the direct signal in a process similar to active noise control.  This step is essential to ensure that the range/Doppler sidelobes of the direct signal do not mask the smaller echoes in the subsequent cross-correlation stage.

In a few specific cases, the direct interference is not a limiting factor, due to the transmitter being beyond the horizon or obscured by terrain (such as with the Manastash Ridge Radar ), but this is the exception rather than the rule, as the transmitter must normally be within line-of-sight of the receiver to ensure good low-level coverage.

Cross-correlation processing
The key processing step in a passive radar is cross-correlation.  This step acts as the matched filter and also provides the estimates of the bistatic range and bistatic Doppler shift of each target echo.  Most analogue and digital broadcast signals are noise-like in nature, and as a consequence, they tend to only correlate with themselves.  This presents a problem with moving targets, as the Doppler shift imposed on the echo means that it will not correlate with the direct signal from the transmitter.  As a result, the cross-correlation processing must implement a bank of matched filters, each matched to a different target Doppler shift.  Efficient implementations of the cross-correlation processing based on the discrete Fourier transform are usually used, in particular for OFDM waveforms.  The signal processing gain is typically equal to the time-bandwidth product, BT, where B is the waveform bandwidth and T is the length of the signal sequence being integrated.  A gain of 50 dB is not uncommon.  Extended integration times are limited by the motion of the target and its smearing in range and Doppler during the integration period.

Target detection
Targets are detected on the cross-correlation surface by applying an adaptive threshold and declaring all returns above this surface to be targeted.  A standard cell-averaging constant false alarm rate (CFAR) algorithm is typically used.

Line tracking
The line-tracking step refers to the tracking of target returns from individual targets, over time, in the range-Doppler space produced by the cross-correlation processing.  A standard Kalman filter is typically used.  Most false alarms are rejected during this stage of the processing.

Track association and state estimation
In a simple bistatic configuration (one transmitter and one receiver) it is possible to determine the location of the target by simply calculating the point of intersection of the bearing with the bistatic-range ellipse.  However, errors in bearing and range tend to make this approach fairly inaccurate.  A better approach is to estimate the target state (location, heading and speed) from the full measurement set of bistatic range, bearing and Doppler using a non-linear filter, such as the extended or unscented Kalman filter.

When multiple transmitters are used, a target can be potentially detected by every transmitter.  The return from this target will appear at a different bistatic range and Doppler shift with each transmitter and so it is necessary to determine which target returns from one transmitter correspond with those on the other transmitters.  Having associated these returns, the point at which the bistatic range ellipses from each transmitter intersect is the location of the target.  The target can be located much more accurately in this way, than by relying on the intersection of the (inaccurate) bearing measurement with a single range ellipse.  Again the optimum approach is to combine the measurements from each transmitter using a non-linear filter, such as the extended or unscented Kalman filter.

Narrow band and CW illumination sources
The above description assumes that the waveform of the transmitter being exploited possesses a usable radar ambiguity function and hence cross-correlation yields a useful result.  Some broadcast signals, such as analogue television, contain a structure in the time domain that yields a highly ambiguous or inaccurate result when cross-correlated.  In this case, the processing described above is ineffective.  If the signal contains a continuous wave (CW) component, however, such as a strong carrier tone, then it is possible to detect and track targets in an alternative way.  Over time, moving targets will impose a changing Doppler shift and direction of arrival on the CW tone that is characteristic of the location, speed and heading of the target.  It is therefore possible to use a non-linear estimator to estimate the state of the target from the time history of the Doppler and bearing measurements.  Work has been published that has demonstrated the feasibility of this approach for tracking aircraft using the vision carrier of analogue television signals.   However, track initiation is slow and difficult, and so the use of narrowband signals is probably best considered as an adjunct to the use of illuminators with better ambiguity surfaces.

Performance
Passive radar performance is comparable to conventional short and medium-range radar systems. The detection range can be determined using the standard radar equation, but ensuring proper account of the processing gain and external noise limitations is taken. Furthermore, unlike conventional radar, the detection range is also a function of the deployment geometry, as the distance of the receiver from the transmitter determines the level of external noise against which the targets must be detected. However, as a rule of thumb, it is reasonable to expect a passive radar using FM radio stations to achieve detection ranges of up to 150 km, for high-power analogue TV and US HDTV stations to achieve detection ranges of over 300 km and for lower power digital signals (such as cell phone and DAB or DVB-T) to achieve detection ranges of a few tens of kilometres.

Passive radar accuracy is a strong function of the deployment geometry and the number of receivers and transmitters being used. Systems using only one transmitter and one receiver will tend to be much less accurate than conventional surveillance radars, whilst multistatic radars are capable of achieving somewhat greater accuracies. Most passive radars are two-dimensional, but height measurements are possible when the deployment is such that there is significant variation in the altitudes of the transmitters, receiver and target, reducing the effects of geometrical dilution of precision (GDOP).

Advantages and disadvantages
Advocates of the technology cite the following advantages:
 Lower procurement cost
 Lower costs of operation and maintenance, due to the lack of transmitter and moving parts
 Covert operation, including no need for frequency allocations
 Physically small and hence easily deployed in places where conventional radars cannot be
 Rapid updates, typically once a second
 Difficulty of jamming
 Resilience to anti-radiation missiles.

Opponents of the technology cite the following disadvantages:
 Immaturity
 Reliance on third-party illuminators
 Complexity of deployment
 1D/2D operation, but possible use 2 different systems for 3D (height + range).

Commercial and academic systems

Passive radar systems are currently under development in several commercial organizations.  Of these, the systems that have been publicly announced include:
 Lockheed-Martin Silent Sentry - exploiting FM radio stations
 BAE Systems CELLDAR - exploiting GSM base stations
 Selex ES Aulos passive radar
 Thales Air Systems Homeland Alerter - FM radio-based system
 Hensoldt  multiband passive radar
 Silentium Defence Maverick-M passive radar surveillance
 ERA VERA-NG Passive Surveillance ESM Tracker
 Daronmont Technologies SECAR-P Passive Radar for Australia

Several academic passive radar systems exist as well:
 Manastash Ridge Radar
 Alim radar system
 Silentium Defence Oculus space domain awareness observatory (Maverick-S passive radar)

Current research
Research on passive radar systems is of growing interest throughout the world, with various open-source publications showing active research and development in the United States (including work at the Air Force Research Labs, Lockheed-Martin Mission Systems, Raytheon, University of Washington, Georgia Tech/Georgia Tech Research Institute and the University of Illinois), in the NATO C3 Agency in The Netherlands, in the United Kingdom (at Roke Manor Research, QinetiQ, University of Birmingham, University College London and BAE Systems), France (including the government labs of ONERA), Germany (including the labs at Fraunhofer-FHR), Poland (including Warsaw University of Technology).  There is also active research on this technology in several governments or university laboratories in China, Iran, Russia and South Africa.  The low-cost nature of the system makes the technology particularly attractive to university laboratories and other agencies with limited budgets, as the key requirements are less hardware and more algorithmic sophistication and computational power.

Much current research is currently focusing on the exploitation of modern digital broadcast signals.  The US HDTV standard is particularly good for passive radar, having an excellent ambiguity function and very high power transmitters.  The DVB-T digital TV standard (and related DAB digital audio standard) used throughout most of the rest of the world is more challenging— transmitter powers are lower, and many networks are set up in a "single frequency network" mode, in which all transmitters are synchronised in time and frequency.  Without careful processing, the net result for passive radar is like multiple repeaters jammers.

Target imaging
Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and Georgia Institute of Technology, with the support of DARPA and NATO C3 Agency, have shown that it is possible to build a synthetic aperture image of an aircraft target using passive multistatic radar. Using multiple transmitters at different frequencies and locations, a dense data set in Fourier space can be built for a given target. Reconstructing the image of the target can be accomplished through an inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT). Herman, Moulin, Ehrman and Lanterman have published reports based on simulated data, which suggest that low-frequency passive radars (using FM radio transmissions) could provide target classification in addition to tracking information. These Automatic Target Recognition systems use the power received to estimate the RCS of the target. The RCS estimate at various aspect angles as the target traverses the multistatic system are compared to a library of RCS models of likely targets to determine target classification. In the latest work, Ehrman and Lanterman implemented a coordinated flight model to further refine the RCS estimate.

Ionospheric Turbulence Studies
Researchers at the University of Washington operate a distributed passive radar exploiting FM broadcasts to study ionospheric turbulence at altitudes of 100  km and ranges out to 1200  km.  Meyer and Sahr have demonstrated interferometric images of ionospheric turbulence with an angular resolution of 0.1 degrees, while also resolving the full, unaliased Doppler Power Spectrum of the turbulence.

Space Debris Detection and Tracking

Silentium Defence has launched the first operational ground passive radar specifically designed to track LEO. The Oculus Observatory is based in  Swan Reach, South Australia with plans to scale the technology globally. Silentium has a range of products that support both tactical and strategic applications ranging from drone detection, maritime surveillance to long-range air and space search. The University of Strathclyde is developing an in-orbit system to detect and track space debris from small fragments to inactive satellites. The work, supported by the UK and European Space Agencies, is a collaboration between the Aerospace Centre of Excellence and the Centre for Signal & Image Processing at the University of Strathclyde. Clemente and Vasile have demonstrated the technical feasibility of the detection of small pieces of debris using a range of existing illuminators and a receiver in Low Earth Orbit.

See also
Anti-radiation missile
Bistatic radar
Multistatic radar
GNU Radio Passive Radar Project
Multilateration
Radar tracker
Semi-active radar homing
P-18 radar
YLC-2 Radar
Stealth aircraft
VERA passive sensor
Low-frequency radar
Signals intelligence
Kolchuga passive sensor
HEMPAS-CCIAS Radar
Elta EL/L-8388 ELINT passive radar

References

Further reading
 Howland, P.E.: "A Passive Metric Radar Using the Transmitters of Opportunity", Int. Conf.on Radar, Paris, France, May 1994, pp. 251–256
 Howland, P.E.: "Target tracking using television-based bistatic radar", IEE Proc.-Radar, Sonar & Navig., Vol. 146, No. 3, June 1999.
 Howland, P.E., Maksimiuk, D., and Reitsma, G.: "FM radio-based bistatic radar", Radar, Sonar and Navigation, IEE Proceedings, Vol. 152,  Issue 3, 3 June 2005 pp. 107 – 115,  Digital Object Identifier 10.1049/ip-rsn:20045077
 Kulpa K., and Czekała Z.: "Long-Range Performance Increase in Passive PCL Radar", 3rd Multinational Conference on Passive and Covert Radar, 2003 (PCR-2003). University of Washington Applied Physics Laboratory, Seattle, Washington, 21–23 October 2003
 K. Kulpa, Z. Czekala, "Masking Effect and its Removal in PCL Radar," IEE Proc. Radar, Sonar and Navigation, vol. 152, Issue 3, pp. 174 – 178, June 2005
 Nordwall B.D.: "Silent Sentry A New Type of Radar", Aviation Week & Space Technology, no 30, 1998, pp 70–71
 H. D. Griffiths, C. J. Baker, J. Baubert, N. Kitchen, M. Treagust, "Bistatic radar using satellite-borne illuminators of opportunity", Proc. International Conference RADAR 2002, pp. 1–5, October 2002
 M. Malanowski, "Influence of Integration Time on Tracking Performance in PCL Radar", Proc. Photonics Applications in Astronomy, Communications, Industry, and High-Energy Physics Experiments, vol. 6937, 28 December 2007

External links

Simple example of passive radar using analogue TV
A recording of the 2004 Watson-Watt Lecture at the UK Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) can be seen at the IEE website, which was on the subject of "Passive Covert Radar: Watson-Watt's Daventry Experiment Revisited".  This includes a summary of the work in this field since World War II.
A recording of a briefing on "The Role of Passive Radar Sensors for Air Traffic Control" at an IEE seminar from June 2006 can be seen here .
A recording of a briefing on "PCL Radar Tracking" at an IEE seminar from June 2006 can be seen here .
Researchers at Embry-Riddle claiming the use of XM-Radio to detect aircraft can be found here
FM radio passive radar using two ultra-low-cost RTLSDR dongles

Passive radars
Radar
Aerial warfare tactics

fi:Tutka#Passiivinen tutka

Passive radar


The Marlovian theory is an idea about who wrote Shakespeare's plays.  The Marlovian theory says that Christopher Marlowe wrote most of those poems and plays. The theory also says Marlowe did not die in Deptford on 30 May 1593.  It says his death was faked. Like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe was an Elizabethan poet and playwright.  They were both born in 1564.

Marlovian theory began in the 1800s. The idea is that the Church wanted to punish Marlowe for being an atheist, so Queen Elizabeth's government helped him fake his death, leave the country and continue writing plays by pretending those plays were Shakespeare's.

One piece of the puzzle is that the play Lust's Dominion was attributed to Marlowe when it was published in 1657. The play borrows from a pamphlet published in 1599, about the death of King Philip II of Spain in 1598. Marlowe died in 1593. The attribution has been recognized as spurious (wrong) by critics and scholars for nearly two centuries.

References

Theater
William Shakespeare
Controversies

Marlovian theory


Sweethome was a small rural community in Lincoln County, Oklahoma. The community was named for a similar community in Texas by the same name where many of the settlers lived before making the Run of '91. The Sweethome Baptist Church is the oldest church in the district. When segregation became law after statehood in 1907, the Sweethome school had the distinction of being the only school district in Lincoln County having the majority school be the colored school. They reserved one position on the school board for whites to represent the minority school in the district.

External links
Map:

Geography of Lincoln County, Oklahoma
Unincorporated communities in Oklahoma

Sweethome, Oklahoma


A hereditary monarchy is a type of government in which usually a king or a queen becomes the monarch by being related to the last monarch. That is the most common sort of monarchy and is the form used by almost all of the world's monarchies today.

Types

Hereditary monarchy
In a hereditary monarchy, the monarchs come from the same family, and the crown is passed down from one member of the family to another. The hereditary system can be more stable and can command loyalty, but at other times, great bloodshed happened over the question of succession.

When the king or queen of a hereditary monarchy dies or quits the throne (abdicates), the crown is generally passed to one of his or her children, often the oldest. When that child dies, the crown will be then passed to his or her child, or, if he or she has no child, to a sister, brother, niece, nephew, cousin, or some other relative. Hereditary monarchies most usually arrange the succession by a law that creates an order of succession. That way, it is known beforehand who will be the next monarch.

The order of succession in hereditary monarchies is now often based on the idea of primogeniture (oldest born), but other methods used to be much more common.

Succession
In the past, there were differences in systems of succession, often depending on whether only men can succeed or whether both men and women could succeed.

Agnatic succession
Agnatic succession means that women are not allowed to succeed or pass the succession from their fathers to their children. Agnates are relatives who have a common ancestor in an unbroken male line from father to father.

Cognatic succession
Cognatic succession means that both men and women can succeed. Women usually are allowed to succeed only if they have no brother alive. For example, in the United Kingdom, Princess Anne comes after her younger brothers (and her nephews and nieces) in the line of succession.

In the 1970s, Sweden changed from agnatic succession to "fully-cognatic" succession. That means the line of succession is based on age, not sex. Therefore, Princess Victoria of Sweden was born, she could never become queen, and when her younger brother was born, he became crown prince (heir to the throne), but the law changed, and Victoria became crown princess.

Elective monarchy
An elective monarchy can sometimes seem like a hereditary monarch. For example, only members of one family may be allowed to be elected, or before the monarch dies, the chosen heir (son, daughter, brother, sister, or other relative) might be elected.

In Europe, the Holy Roman Empire was an elective monarchy, but for many hundreds of years, only the head of the Habsburg family was elected. In 1806, the Holy Roman Emperor abolished the empire and instead became the Emperor of Austria, a hereditary monarch.

The only true example of an elective monarchy today is Malaysia, where a ruling Sultan of a Malaysian state, is elected as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for a term of five years.

References

Monarchy

Hereditary monarchy


Krsto Popović (; 13 September 1881 – 14 March 1947) was an officer of the Montenegrin Army who fought in the Balkan Wars and in the First World War.

Dissatisfied with the Podgorica Assembly of 1918 which merged Serbia and Montenegro into what would become Yugoslavia, he became one of the leaders of the 1919 Christmas Uprising on the side of the Greens who supported the newly dethroned King Nikola of the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty and who favored a confederation of Yugoslavia that still gave Montenegro a form of independence in skirmishes against the Whites who favored King Alexander of the Karađorđević dynasty and complete annexation of Montenegro into Yugoslavia.

After the uprising failed, Popović emigrated to Italy, but returned in June 1919 to start guerrilla warfare. He eventually laid down arms after the death of King Nikola in 1921 and he was eventually pardoned by King Alexander after proclaiming allegiance to him. He lived out his remaining years in Yugoslavia relatively peacefully until the Second World War when he formed the Lovćen Brigade. For this, he was labelled a collaborator by the new Communist government and in 1947 he was killed in an ambush by agents of the OZNA.

Life
Born in a Montenegrin family to father Todor "Zrno" Popović and mother Ćetna (née Krivokapić), he fought in the Balkan Wars and World War I in the Montenegrin army forces until being captured by Austro-Hungarian army in 1916. He was also one of the prominent heroes of the Battle of Mojkovac, where Montenegro helped the army of Serbia, its close ally, to retreat in face of  Austro-Hungarian attacks. After spending two years in the Austro-Hungarian prisoner camp, he returned to Montenegro to become the leader of the Christmas Uprising on 7 January 1919 and Saint Petar's Day Uprising in July of same year, fighting against the decision of the Podgorica Assembly to unite the Kingdom of Montenegro with the Kingdom of Serbia under the House of Karađorđević. Between 1919 and 1922, he was a leader of Montenegrin komite, fighters for the federalisation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1922, he emigrated to Argentina and later to Belgium in 1929.

The Greens voted against the unification of the Kingdom of Montenegro with the Kingdom of Serbia Podgorica Assembly, while the majority Whites (Bjelaši) supported it. Meanwhile, only several months after his arrival in Montenegro, Krsto Popović returned to Italy, where he served in the army of the Montenegrin government in exile, advancing to level of commander, and later to brigadier.

In 1929, from Belgium he sent a letter to King Alexander, in which he asked the King to pardon him from responsibility for the civil war in Montenegro from December 1918 until King Nikola's death. In this letter, he also proclaimed his loyalty to King Aleksandar Karađorđević. On 18 October 1929, in the province of Liege, Belgium, immigration police issued him a passport under number 9121, with visa number 94 in which he identified his nationality as Serb.

King Alexander subsequently pardoned him and he returned to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, receiving a pension and living in retirement until World War II broke out and Popović organized his collaboration militia, called the Lovćen Brigade. This militia was under the control or influence of the fascist Italian occupation force, and it waged war against the Partisans and the Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland (Chetniks). The official symbol of the paramilitary force was a green flag with the Petrović coat of arms. Popović's vision was  Montenegrin independence through cooperation with Fascist Italy, which led to his conflicts with both Montenegrin Partisans and Chetniks. During the war his militia split; one group joined the Partisans, and others joined the Chetniks. Popović did not join either side.

He was ambushed and killed in a shootout by OZNA agents , Veljko Milatović and Šaro Brajović in 1947. Mugoša was also killed in the shootout while Milatović and Brajović survived.

Personal life
In 1905, he married Marija (née Radojević) with whom he had five daughters and two sons Radovan and .

His son Radovan died as a member of the Yugoslav Partisans in the Battle of Neretva while his son Nikola would later become a general in the Yugoslav People's Army and a recipient of the Order of the People's Hero.

References

Literature

External links
 Krsto Zrnov Popovic at www.njegos.org
 Montenegrina.net

1881 births
1947 deaths
Military personnel from Cetinje
Cuce
People from the Principality of Montenegro
People of the Kingdom of Montenegro
People from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
19th-century Montenegrin people
20th-century Montenegrin people
Montenegrin soldiers
Montenegrin military personnel of the Balkan Wars
Montenegrin military personnel of World War I
World War I prisoners of war held by Austria-Hungary
Montenegrin nationalists
Montenegrin Federalist Party politicians
Montenegrin collaborators with Fascist Italy
Montenegrin collaborators with Nazi Germany
Recipients of Yugoslav royal pardons
Serbs of Montenegro
Zelenaši
Montenegrin independence activists
People shot dead by law enforcement officers

Krsto Popović


The house of correction was a type of establishment built after the passing of the Elizabethan Poor Law (1601), places where those who were "unwilling to work", including vagrants and beggars, were set to work. The building of houses of correction came after the passing of an amendment to the Elizabethan Poor Law. However the houses of correction were not considered a part of the Elizabethan Poor Law system because the Act distinguished between settled poor and wandering poor.

The first London house of correction was Bridewell Prison, and the Middlesex and Westminster houses also opened in the early seventeenth century.

Due to the first reformation of manners campaign, the late seventeenth century was marked by the growth in the number of houses of correction, often generically termed bridewells, established and by the passage of numerous statutes prescribing houses of correction as the punishment for specific minor offences.

Offenders were typically committed to houses of correction by justices of the peace, who used their powers of summary jurisdiction with respect to minor offences. In the Middlesex and Westminster houses of correction in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries the most common charges against prisoners were prostitution, petty theft, and "loose, idle and disorderly conduct" (a loosely defined offence which could involve a wide range of misbehaviour). Over two-thirds of the prisoners were female.

More than half of offenders were released within a week, and two-thirds within two weeks. In addition to imprisonment in a house of correction, over half of the convicted were whipped, particularly those found guilty of theft, vagrancy, and lewd conduct and nightwalking (prostitution).

Virtually all the prisoners were required to do hard labour, typically beating hemp.

In 1720 an act allowed the use of houses of corrections for pretrial detention of "vagrants, and other criminals, offenders, and persons charged with small offences". By the 1760s and 1770s, prisoners awaiting trial accounted for more than three-quarters of those committed to the Middlesex and Westminster houses.

Current facilities called house of correction
In the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, the term house of correction remains synonymous with state jails. The same is true for the State of Maryland. Milwaukee County, Wisconsin maintains a separate house of correction from its downtown jail facility.

References

Poor Law in Britain and Ireland
Penal system in England

House of correction


The Brierfield Furnace, also known as the Bibb Naval Furnace and Brierfield Ironworks, is a historic district in Brierfield, Alabama, encompassed by Brierfield Ironworks Historical State Park. The district covers  and includes one building and nine sites. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 20, 1974.

History
The Brierfield Furnace site was developed in 1861 by Caswell Campbell Huckabee, a Greensboro planter, and Jonathan Newton Smith, a Bibb County planter, on land purchased from Jesse Mahan near the Little Cahaba River, a tributary of the Cahaba. The endeavor was initially known as the Bibb County Iron Company, with Huckabee providing most of the capital and slave labor for construction. Richard Fell was employed to build a  stone blast furnace and, in 1862, a rolling mill. The company produced cast iron initially, but soon changed over to the more lucrative production of wrought iron. The iron was used to produce farm implements.

Recognizing the high quality of iron produced at Brierfield, Confederate officials forced the men to sell the ironworks to the government for $600,000 in 1863, renaming it the Bibb Naval Furnace. A new  brick furnace was built and a railroad line was constructed to connect the furnace to the mainline of the Alabama and Tennessee River Railroad. The output of the ironworks was then shipped to the Confederate arsenal at Selma. By 1864, the furnace was producing 25 tons of iron per day, much of which went into producing over 100 Brooke rifles ( a type of naval and coastal cannon), one of the South's most important weapons, at Selma. This all ended on March 31, 1865, when the Bibb Naval Furnace was destroyed by the 10th Missouri Volunteer Cavalry during Wilson's Raid.

Following the war, the operation was rebuilt under the private ownership of the Canebrake Company. The new company, formed by former Confederates Josiah Gorgas and Francis Strother Lyon, purchased the ironworks site from the Federal government for $45,000 in January 1866. They had the site back in production by November 2, 1866. In January 1867, Lyon turned the deed over to Gorgas, who became president of the newly formed Brierfield Ironworks. Gorgas leased the ironworks to Thomas S. Alvis on August 2, 1869. He ran the works until forced to close due to economic conditions following the Panic of 1873.

The facilities were purchased and reactivated by William D. and Kearsley Carter, of Louisville, Kentucky, in 1877. By 1882, the operation was under the management of Thomas Jefferson Peter, of Kansas. Peter had the furnace rebuilt and remodeled the rolling mill. He also had a nailery, coke ovens, and a washer built. However, at least partially due to the competition from cut-wire nails out of Pittsburgh, the ironworks finally closed for good in December 1894.

In the years following the closure the site lay abandoned. During the World War II era thousands of bricks were scavenged from the site. In 1976, the Bibb County Commission created a park containing  at the urging of the Bibb County Historical Society. This initial effort has evolved over the years into what is now the Brierfield Ironworks Historical State Park.

The modern park
The structures and sites that contribute to the National Register of Historic Places listing include the ruinous brick furnace (c. 1860s, 1880s), the tramway bed from the railroad (c. 1860s), the brick foundations of the rolling mill (c. 1862, 1880s), the nailery foundations (c. 1880s), coke ovens (c. 1880s), cemetery (c. 1850s), and the superintendent's house (c. 1870s).

Several other structures have been moved to the park from other nearby locations. They include the Ashby Post Office (c. 1900), Brierfield Ironworks Park Office (1894), Wilson Hayes House (c. 1900), J. Henry Jones General Store (c. 1900), Lightsey Cabin (1840), Sims-Hubbard Log Cabin (c. 1850), Billy Mitchell Cabin (1880s), and Mulberry Baptist Church (1897). The park also features the additional attractions of an outdoor amphitheater, hiking and nature trails, campsites, and a swimming pool.

See also
Birmingham District
Shelby Ironworks
Tannehill Ironworks

References

External links

Brierfield Ironworks Historical State Park

National Register of Historic Places in Bibb County, Alabama
Wilson's Raid
Ironworks and steel mills in Alabama
Industrial buildings and structures in Alabama
Alabama in the American Civil War
Historic districts in Bibb County, Alabama
Protected areas of Bibb County, Alabama
Parks in Alabama
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Alabama
Industrial buildings completed in 1861
1861 establishments in Alabama
Historic American Engineering Record in Alabama
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Alabama
American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places

Brierfield Furnace


Marco Tulli (20 November 1920 – 20 March 1982) was an Italian character actor, probably best known in the role of "Smilzo" in the Don Camillo film series.

Born in Rome, Tulli debuted as actor while he was still a university student, at the end of the Second World War. He was a prolific character actor in comedy films, often playing roles of curious and nosy persons. He was also very active on stage, in which he worked with Giorgio Strehler and Luciano Lucignani, and as television actor.

Selected filmography

References

External links

Italian male film actors
1920 births
Male actors from Rome
Italian male television actors
Italian male stage actors
1982 deaths
20th-century Italian male actors
People of Lazian descent

Marco Tulli


Jackie Wallace (born March 13, 1951) is a former American college and professional football cornerback. He played college football at the University of Arizona from 1970 through 1972 and in the National Football League (NFL) for the Minnesota Vikings, Baltimore Colts, and Los Angeles Rams from 1974 through 1979, taking part in two Super Bowls with the Vikings and Rams.

Since the end of his NFL career, Wallace has periodically struggled with substance abuse and experienced bouts of homelessness. In 2014, he joined a class-action concussion lawsuit against the NFL. His whereabouts were unknown until November 2019 when NOLA did another article about him.

Early life
Wallace was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, where he lived in the St. Bernard Projects.

Career
Wallace attended St. Augustine High School in New Orleans. He enrolled at the University of Arizona and played college football for the Arizona Wildcats from 1970 through 1972. United Press International and Sporting News named him a first-team All-America in 1972, while the Associated Press named him a third-team All-American. He was named to the All-Western Athletic Conference (WAC) team in his junior and senior years. Wallace had 20 interceptions with the Wildcats, the second-most in school history, with 19 of those coming in his junior and senior years. His 11 interceptions in 1971 is a WAC record.

The Minnesota Vikings selected Wallace in the second round, with the 34th overall pick, in the 1973 NFL draft. Wallace played six professional seasons as a cornerback from 1974 through 1979. He spent his rookie season on the Vikings' practice squad, including Super Bowl VIII. He became a starter for the Vikings the next year, and started in Super Bowl IX.

Wallace played for the Baltimore Colts in 1975 and the Los Angeles Rams from 1976 through 1979. His 52 punt returns and 618 punt return yards led the NFL in 1978. His final game in the NFL was Super Bowl XIV as a member of the Rams. After the game, he berated his coach in the Rose Bowl locker room for not using him in the game, saying the coach could "kiss his ass". That offseason, he was disinvited from the Super Bowl ring party and cut from the team. He retired with 11 career interceptions in 70 games played.

Post-football life
Out of the NFL, Wallace worked on an oil platform. The year after his football career ended, his mother died and he began to abuse alcohol and use crack cocaine. He has battled addictions to numerous drugs, including crack, alcohol, and heroin, throughout his life, and has disappeared for years at a time.

Ted Jackson, a photojournalist for The Times-Picayune, discovered him homeless on the streets of New Orleans in 1990, and published a photo he took of the former player, which inspired Wallace to make an attempt at recovery; at the time, his whereabouts had been unknown for roughly a decade. He became sober, got married, and bought a house in the northeastern suburbs of Baltimore. His sobriety lasted until 2002, when a domestic dispute with his wife led to him fleeing back to the streets of New Orleans. After several years of drug use, he was jailed in 2008 for check fraud, serving half of a seven-year sentence. He was released early for good behavior. On June 5, 2012, the WDSU television channel in New Orleans ran an article about the New Orleans Mission (a homeless shelter) closing its doors due to financial problems. In the article, Wallace stated that he was homeless and had been frequenting the shelter for two months. Wallace achieved sobriety again in 2014 and joined Narcotics Anonymous; the same year, Wallace took part in a lawsuit against the NFL regarding concussions.

In July 2017, Wallace disappeared again, having relapsed and returned to the streets. In 2018, he regained sobriety and resumed contact with friends and family.

In August 2020, photojournalist Ted Jackson released a biography of Wallace's life titled You Ought To Do A Story About Me.
The two were interviewed by The Today Show, NPR's Weekend Edition and Access Hollywood detailing on how they met, became friends and eventually ended up collaborating on the book.

References

External links

1951 births
Living people
American football cornerbacks
Arizona Wildcats football players
Baltimore Colts players
Homeless people
Los Angeles Rams players
Minnesota Vikings players
Players of American football from New Orleans
St. Augustine High School (New Orleans) alumni

Jackie Wallace


Non-interventionism or non-intervention is a political philosophy or national foreign policy doctrine that opposes interference in the domestic politics and affairs of other countries but, in contrast to isolationism, is not necessarily opposed to international commitments in general. A 1915 definition is that non-interventionism is a policy characterized by the absence of "interference by a state or states in the external affairs of another state without its consent, or in its internal affairs with or without its consent".

This is based on the grounds that a state should not interfere in the internal politics of another state as well as the principles of state sovereignty and self-determination. A similar phrase is "strategic independence".

History

The norm of non-intervention has dominated the majority of international relations and can be seen to have been one of the principal motivations for the US' initial non-intervention into World Wars I and II, and the non-intervention of the liberal powers in the Spanish Civil War, despite the intervention of Germany and Italy. The norm was then firmly established into international law as one of the United Nations Charter's central tenets, which established non-intervention as one of the key principles which would underpin the emergent post-World War II peace.

However, this was soon affected by the advent of the Cold War, which increased the number and intensity of interventions in the domestic politics of a vast number of developing countries under pretexts such as instigating a "global socialist revolution" or ensuring "containment" of such a revolution. The adoption of such pretexts and the idea that such interventions were to prevent a threat to "international peace and security" allowed intervention under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. Additionally, the UN's power to regulate such interventions was hampered during the Cold War due to both the US and USSR holding veto power in the United Nations Security Council.

In different countries

China

Mutual non-interference has been one of China's principles on foreign policy since 1954. After the Chinese economic reform, China began to focus on industrial development and actively avoided military conflict over the subsequent decades. As of December 2018, China has used its veto eleven times in UN Security Council. China first used the veto on 25 August 1972 to block Bangladesh's admission to the UN. From 1971 to 2011, China used its veto sparingly, preferring to abstain rather than veto resolutions indirectly related to Chinese interests. According to David L. Bosco, China turned abstention into an "art form," abstaining on 30% of Security Council Resolutions between 1971 and 1976.

Sweden

Sweden has remained non-interventionist since the backlash against the king following Swedish losses in the Napoleonic Wars; the coup d'etat that followed in 1812 caused Jean Baptiste Bernadotte to establish a policy of non-intervention, which has remained since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815.

Switzerland

Switzerland has long been known for its policy of defensively armed neutrality.

United States

In December 2013, the Pew Research Center reported that their newest poll, "American's Place in the World 2013," had revealed that 52 percent of respondents in the national poll said that the United States "should mind its own business internationally and let other countries get along the best they can on their own." That was the most people to answer that question this way in the history of the question, which pollsters began asking in 1964. Only about a third of respondents felt that way a decade earlier.

Decline

Since the end of the Cold War, new emergent norms of humanitarian intervention are challenging the norm of non-intervention, based upon the argument that while sovereignty gives rights to states, there is also a responsibility to protect its citizens. The ideal, an argument based upon social contract theory, has states being justified in intervening within other states if the latter fail to protect (or are actively involved in harming) their citizens.

That idea has been used to justify the UN-sanctioned intervention Operation Provide Comfort in Northern Iraq in 1991 to protect the Kurds and in Somalia, UNOSOM I and UNOSOM II from 1992 to 1995 in the absence of state power. However, after the US "Black Hawk Down" event in 1993 in Mogadishu, the US refused to intervene in Rwanda or Haiti. However, despite strong opposition from Russia and China, the idea of the responsibility to protect was again used to justify NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999 and the 2011 military intervention in Libya.

The new norm of humanitarian intervention is not universally accepted and is often seen as still developing.

See also

 Interventionism
 Isolationism
 Neutral country
 A Few Words on Non-Intervention by John Stuart Mill
 International relations theory
 Prime Directive, a non-interventionist principle in the fictional Star Trek universe
 List of anti-war organizations
 List of countries without armed forces
 List of peace activists

References

Bibliography
 Kupchan, Charles A. (2020) Isolationism: A History of America's Efforts to Shield Itself from the World (Oxford University Press, 2020).

 Wheeler, N.J. (2003) "The Humanitarian Responsibilities of Sovereignty: Explaining the Development of a New Norm of Military Intervention for Humanitarian Purposes in International Society" in Welsh, J.M. Humanitarian Intervention and International Relations Oxford: Oxford Scholarship Online, pp. 29–50.
 Walzer, M.J. (2000) Just and Unjust Wars New York: Basic Books, pp. 86–108.

External links

International law
International relations theory
Libertarian theory
Paleolibertarianism
Political theories

Non-interventionism


The Treaty of Wallingford, also known as the Treaty of Winchester or the Treaty of Westminster, was an agreement reached in England in the summer of 1153.

Sources
 Bradbury, Jim. (1996) Stephen and Matilda: The Civil War of 1139–53. Sutton Publishing. .
 King, Edmund. (2010) King Stephen. New Haven, U.S.: Yale University Press. .

Treaties
12th century in England
1153

Treaty of Wallingford


Antonina graminis or Rhodes grass scale is a species of mealybug in the family Pseudococcidae. In the 1940s the species, originating in Asia, infested nearly 69 species fodder and turf grasses in Texas causing major economic loss. Classical biological control was made use of in the 1950s and 60s with nearly complete control achieved after the aerial introduction of a wingless encyrtid parasite from India, Neodusmetia sangwani. By 1976 the control was a complete success and nearly 17 million USD was estimated as savings due to the parasite.

References

Further reading

Insects described in 1897
Pseudococcidae
Hemiptera of Asia

Antonina graminis


Li Peng (; 20 October 1928 – 22 July 2019) was a Chinese politician who served as the fourth Premier of the People's Republic of China from 1987 to 1998, and as the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, China's top legislative body, from 1998 to 2003. For much of the 1990s Li was ranked second in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) hierarchy behind then Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin. He retained his seat on the CCP Politburo Standing Committee until his retirement in 2002.

Li was the son of an early Communist revolutionary, Li Shuoxun, who was executed by the Kuomintang. After meeting Zhou Enlai in Sichuan, Li was raised by Zhou and his wife, Deng Yingchao. Li trained to be an engineer in the Soviet Union and worked at an important national power company after returning to China. He escaped the political turmoil of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s due to his political connections and his employment in the company. After Deng Xiaoping became China's leader in the late 1970s, Li took a number of increasingly important and powerful political positions, eventually becoming premier in 1987.

As Premier, Li was the most visible representative of China's government who backed the use of force to quell the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. During the protests, Li used his authority as premier to declare martial law and, in cooperation with Deng, who was the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, declared military law and the suppression of the 1989 Tiananmen square protestors, ultimately resulting in a massacre.

Li advocated a largely conservative approach to Chinese economic reform, which placed him at odds with General Secretary Zhao Ziyang, who fell out of favour in 1989. After Zhao was removed from office, Li promoted a conservative socialist economic agenda but lost influence to incoming vice premier Zhu Rongji, and was unable to prevent the increasing market liberalization of the Chinese economy. During his time in office, he helmed the controversial Three Gorges Dam project. He and his family managed a large Chinese power monopoly, which the Chinese government broke up after his term as premier expired. Li died at the age of 90 in Beijing.

Childhood
Li was born as Li Yuanpeng () at his family house in Shanghai French Concession, now in 545 Yanan Road, Huangpu District in Shanghai. His family has ancestral roots in Chengdu, Sichuan. He was the son of Li Shuoxun, one of the earliest CCP revolutionaries, who was the political commissar of the Twentieth Division during the Nanchang uprising, and Zhao Juntao, also an early Communist operative. In 1931, Li's father, then working undercover in Hainan, was captured and executed by the Kuomintang. Li was believed to have met Deng Yingchao, wife of senior Communist leader Zhou Enlai, in Chengdu in 1939, who then took him to Chongqing to meet Zhou, though  Zhou was in the Communist base of Yan'an, and they did not meet until late 1940. In 1941, when Li was twelve, Zhou sent Li to Yan'an, where Li studied until 1945. As a seventeen-year-old, in 1945, Li joined the Chinese Communist Party.

Early career
In 1941, Li Peng began studying at the Yan'an Institute of Natural Science (a predecessor of the Beijing Institute of Technology). In July 1946, Li was sent to work in Zhangjiakou. According to his own recollection, in 1947, he journeyed through Shandong and North Korea, eventually ending up in Harbin where he began managing some work for a lard processing plant. In 1948, Li Peng was sent to study at the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, majoring in hydroelectric engineering. A year later, in 1949, Zhou Enlai became Premier of the newly declared People's Republic of China. Li graduated in 1954. During his time in the Soviet Union, Li was the head of the Chinese Students Association in the Soviet Union.

When Li returned to China in 1955, the country was firmly under the control of the Communist Party. Li took part in technical, then management work in the power industry, beginning his career in Northeast China. At the outset of the Cultural Revolution, Li was sent to Beijing to head up the municipal power bureau. He played a leading role in the construction of the Tuhe Powerplant in Tangshan and the Gaojing Powerplant in Beijing. During his time at Gaojing, he worked three days and three nights supervising the construction of the site. On 4 October 1974, he was struck by a vehicle while riding his bicycle home from work. In 1976, Li was dispatched to affected regions of the Tangshan earthquake as head of the power restoration efforts.

Li advanced politically after the ascent of Deng Xiaoping, and served as the Vice Minister and later Minister of Power, the Communist Party secretary of the North China Electric Power Administration Bureau between 1979 and 1983, as well as the vice minister of Water Conservancy and Power between 1982 and 1983. Much of Li's rapid political promotion was due to the support of Party elder Chen Yun.

Li joined the Central Committee at the Twelfth National Congress in 1982. In 1985 he was named minister of the State Education Commission, and was elected to the Politburo and the Party Secretariat. In 1987 Li became a member of the powerful Politburo Standing Committee.

Premiership

Defender of state control

In November 1987, after Premier Zhao Ziyang was promoted to General Secretary, Li became acting Premier. He was formally elected Premier in March 1988.  Within a year of this promotion, Li would play a major role in ending Zhao's career, after Zhao publicly supported demonstrators in Tiananmen Square. At the time of his promotion, Li seemed like an unusual choice for Premier because he did not seem to share Deng's enthusiasm for introducing market reforms. Li was raised to the position of Premier thanks partially to the departure of Hu Yaobang, who was forced to resign as General Secretary after the Party blamed him for a series of student-led protests in 1987.

Throughout the 1980s, political dissent and social problems, including inflation, urban migration, and school overcrowding, became great problems in China. Despite these acute challenges, Li shifted his focus away from the day-to-day concerns of energy, communications, and raw materials allocation, and took a more active role in the ongoing intra-party debate on the pace of market reforms. Politically, Li opposed the modern economic reforms pioneered by Zhao Ziyang throughout Zhao's years of public service.  While students and intellectuals urged greater reforms, some party elders increasingly feared that the instability opened up by any significant reforms would threaten to undermine the authority of the Communist Party, which Li had spent his career attempting to strengthen.

After Zhao became General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, his proposals in May 1988 to expand free enterprise led to popular complaints (which some suggest were politically inspired) about inflation fears. Public fears about the negative effects of market reforms gave conservatives (including Li Peng) the opening to call for greater centralization of economic controls and stricter prohibitions against Western influences, especially opposing further expansion of Zhao's more free enterprise-oriented approach. This precipitated a political debate, which grew more heated through the winter of 1988–1989.

Tiananmen Square

The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 began with the mass mourning over the death of former General secretary Hu Yaobang, widely perceived to have been purged for his support of political liberalization. On the eve of Hu's funeral, 100,000 people gathered at Tiananmen Square. Beijing students began the demonstrations to encourage continued economic reform and liberalization, and these demonstrations soon evolved into a mass movement for political reform. From Tiananmen Square, the protesters later expanded into the surrounding streets. Non-violent protests also occurred in cities throughout China, including Shanghai and Wuhan. Rioting occurred in Xi'an and Changsha.

The Tiananmen protests were partially protests against the affluence of the children of high-ranking Communist Party officials, and the perception that second-generation officials had received their fortunes through exploiting their parents' influence. Li, whose family has often been at the center of corruption allegations within the Chinese power industry, was vulnerable to these charges.

An editorial published in the People's Daily on 26 April and bearing the name of Deng Xiaoping, denounced the demonstrations as "premeditated and organized turmoil with anti-Party and anti-socialist motives". The article had the effect of worsening the demonstrations by angering its leaders, who then made their demands more extreme. Zhao Ziyang later wrote in his autobiography that although Deng had stated many of those sentiments in a private conversation with Li Peng shortly before the editorial was written, Li had the comments disseminated to Party members and published as the editorial without Deng's knowledge or consent.

Li strictly refused to negotiate with the Tiananmen protesters out of principle, and became one of the officials most objected to by protesters. One of the protest's key leaders, Wu'erkaixi, during a hunger strike, publicly scolded Li on National Television, saying he was ignoring the needs of the people. Some observers say that Wang's statements insulted Li personally, hardening his resolve to end the protest by violent means.

Among the other senior members of the central government, Li became the one who most strongly favored violence and known as the "Butcher of Beijing" for his role in the crackdown. After winning the support of most of his colleagues, apparently including Deng Xiaoping, Li officially declared martial law in Beijing on 20 May 1989 and the protests were crushed by the military on 3–4 June.  Most estimates of the dead range from several hundred to several thousand people. Li later described the crackdown as a historic victory for Communism, and wrote that he feared the protests would be as potentially damaging to China as the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) had been.

Political longevity

Although the Tiananmen crackdown was an "international public relations disaster for China," it ensured that Li would have a long and productive career. He remained powerful even though he had been one of the main targets of protesters, partly because the leadership believed that limiting Li's career would be the same as admitting that they had made mistakes by suppressing the 1989 protests. By keeping Li at the upper levels of the Party, China's leaders communicated to the world that the country remained stable and united.

In the immediate aftermath of the Tiananmen protests, Li took a leading role in a national austerity program, intended to slow economic growth and inflation and re-centralize the economy. Li worked to increase taxes on agriculture and export-industries and increased salaries to less efficient industries owned by the government. Li directed a tight monetary policy, implementing price controls on many commodities, supporting higher interest rates, and cutting off state loans to private and cooperative sectors in attempts to reduce inflation.

In 1992, Li attended the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. The meeting was the beginning of China's shift to a more active role in international environmental policy. At the conference, Li stated that the pursuit of environmental protection should not cause neglect of economic development and that international environmental cooperation should not infringe on national sovereignty.

Li suffered a heart attack in 1993 and began to lose influence within the Party to first-ranking vice premier Zhu Rongji, a strong advocate for economic liberalization. In that year, when Li made his annual work report to the Politburo, he was forced to make over seventy changes to make the plans acceptable to Deng. Perhaps realizing that opposition to the market reforms would be poorly received by Deng and other Party elders, Li publicly supported Deng's economic reforms. Li was reappointed Premier in 1993, despite a large protest vote for Zhu. Zhu Rongji eventually succeeded Li after the latter's second term expired in 1998.

Li began two megaprojects when he was the Premier. He initiated the construction of the Three Gorges Dam on 14 December 1994, and later began preparations for the Shenzhou Manned Space Program. Both programs were subject to much controversy within China and abroad. The Shenzhou program was especially criticized for its extraordinary cost (tens of billions of dollars). Many economists and humanitarians suggested that those billions in capital might be better invested in helping the Chinese population deal with economic hardships and improvement in the China's education, health services, and legal system.

Chairmanship of the National People's Congress
Li remained premier until 1998, when he was constitutionally limited to two terms. After his second term expired, he became the chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. Support for Li for the largely-ceremonial position was low, as he received less than 90% of the vote at the first session of the 9th National People's Congress, where he was the only candidate. He spent much of his time monitoring what he considered his life's work to have been, the Three Gorges Dam. Li's interest in the Dam reflected his earlier career as a hydraulic engineer, and he spent much of his career in office in presiding over a vast and growing power industry. At this time Li Peng considered himself to be a builder and a modernizer.

Legacy and death
After retiring in 2003, Li retained some influence in the Politburo Standing Committee. Luo Gan, who presided over law enforcement and national security between 2002 and 2007, was considered Li's protégé. After the retirement of Luo Gan after 17th Party Congress, Li's influence waned considerably. He was subject to frequent speculation over corruption issues that plague him and his family. In addition, perhaps more than any other leader, Li's public image had become inextricably associated with memory of the 1989 Tiananmen crackdown, and as a result he continued to be a widely despised figure among a substantial segment of the Chinese population well into the 21st century. He was generally unpopular in China, where he (had) "has long been a figure of scorn and suspicion".

Li spent much of the 1990s expanding and managing an energy monopoly, State Power Corporation of China. Because the company was staffed by Li's relatives, Li was accused of turning China's energy industry into a "family fiefdom". At its height, Li's power company controlled 72% of all energy-producing assets in China, and was ranked as the sixtieth-largest company in the world by Fortune magazine.  After Li's departure from government, Li's energy monopoly was split into five smaller companies by the Chinese government.

In 2010, Li's autobiographical work, The Critical Moment – Li Peng Diaries, was published by New Century Press. The Critical Moment covered Li's activities during the period of the Tiananmen Square protests, and was published on the protests' twenty-first anniversary. The Critical Moment was characterized by reviewers as largely an attempt to minimize Li's culpability during the most egregious stages of the crackdown; some also say he attempted to shift blame to Deng. He reappeared at the 19th Party Congress on 18 October 2017, marking his last public appearance prior to his death.

Li died on 22 July 2019 at the age of 90. He had been receiving medical treatment in a hospital in Beijing at the time of his death. His funeral was held on 29 July 2019.

Family
Li Peng was married to Zhu Lin (), a deputy manager in "a large firm in the south of China". Li and Zhu had 3 children: Li's elder son, Li Xiaopeng; Li's daughter, Li Xiaolin; and, Li's younger son, Li Xiaoyong. Li Xiaoyong is married to Ye Xiaoyan, the daughter of Communist veteran Ye Ting's second son, Ye Zhengming.

Li's family benefited from Li's high position during the 1980s and 1990s.  Two of Li's children, Li Xiaopeng and Li Xiaolin, inherited and ran two of China's electrical monopolies. State-run Chinese media have publicly questioned whether it is in China's long-term interest to preserve the "new class of monopoly state capitalists" that Li's family represents. Li Xiaopeng entered politics in Shanxi and became its governor in 2012 and then in 2016, he became Minister of Transport. Li Xiaolin served as chief executive of China Power International Development, before being transferred out in 2016 to a minor executive post at a different power company.

Honours

See also
 Politics of the People's Republic of China
 History of the People's Republic of China (1989-2002)

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links
Li Peng human rights lawsuit
Li Peng biography @ China Vitae, the web's largest online database of China VIPs
Corpus of Political Speeches  Free access to political speeches by Li Peng and other Chinese politicians, developed by Hong Kong Baptist University Library

1928 births
2019 deaths
.
Premiers of the People's Republic of China
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Shanghai
Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress
People's Republic of China politicians from Shanghai
Ministers of Education of the People's Republic of China
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Seraphin of Montegranaro (; 1540 – October 12, 1604), was an Italian Capuchin friar who is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church.

Life

Born Felix Rapagnano (also written Felice) at Montegranaro, then in the March of Fermo, he was the second of four children of poor but pious parents, Gerolamo Rapagnano and Teodora Giovannuzzi. His father was a mason. Because of their poverty, the family depended on the productivity of all of its members. The eldest son, Silenzio, followed in his father's footsteps as a mason. The slighter and less manually adept Felix was hired out to a local farmer as a shepherd. Felix enjoyed shepherding since it afforded him time for prayer. Even at an early age, he had an inclination toward silence, seclusion, and prayer. When their father died, however, he was summoned home. His brother understood that Felix lacked the skills of a mason, but hoped to use him as an unskilled laborer. All attempts proved futile. Felix could not even learn how to slake lime. He did learn, however, to put up with the physical and emotional abuse heaped upon him by his irascible brother.

Felix kept in mind stories he had heard about the desert ascetics and of their fasting and penances, and dreamed of becoming like them. He confided in a friend, Luisa Vannucci from Loro Piceno, who encouraged him to enter religious life. She specifically mentioned the Capuchins because she was familiar with these friars and with their reputation for virtue. Immediately, he left for Tolentino and presented himself to the Capuchin minister provincial, expecting to be admitted that very day. But such was not the Capuchin custom. Instead, he was sent home, in all likelihood because of his age and fragile condition. In 1556, he repeated his request to the minister provincial, who this time accepted him and sent him to the novitiate of the province at Jesi.

After he completed a year of probation, Felix received the religious name Seraphin (or in Italian, Serafino, meaning "seraph"). Upon entering into the Order, he remarked, "I have nothing, just a crucifix and a rosary, but with these I hope to benefit the friars and become a saint". Seraphin was distinguished from the first by his unaffected simplicity, mortification, and obedience as well as a great charity towards the poor. He had a special devotion to the Blessed Sacrament and to the Blessed Virgin. He was assigned to serve variously as a porter or questor at various friaries throughout the March, but most of his religious life was spent at Ascoli Piceno. Seraphin died at Ascoli Piceno in the early afternoon of October 12, 1604.

Miracles and reputation
Seraphin's physical appearance was described as that of a peasant: hair always rumpled, clumsy at manual tasks, and mainly illiterate. But his holiness was recognized by many. At times, he was discouraged by the ridicule of his Capuchin brothers. Seraphin would regain his composure and perspective through prayer. He explained, "When I entered religious life I was a poor, unskilled laborer, lacking both talent and potential. I remained as I was, and this caused so many humiliations and rebukes which the devil used as opportunities to tempt me to leave religious life and retreat to some desert, withdrawing into myself. I entrusted myself to the Lord, and one night I heard a voice coming from the tabernacle say, 'To serve God you must die to yourself and accept adversity, of whatever type.' So I accepted them and resolved to recite a rosary for anyone who caused me trouble. Then I heard the voice from the tabernacle say, 'Your prayers for those who mortify you are very pleasing to me. In exchange, I am ready to grant you many graces.'"

A Capuchin custom was to keep rooms near the porter's office available for the use of travelers and pilgrims. At whatever hour of the night, Seraphin would answer the door. Many recounted that, after the city gates had been closed for the night, they had sought refuge at the Capuchin friary, which were usually located outside the city walls, and that they had been welcomed warmly by Seraphin. He spent entire nights in church. Friars testified that, after everyone else had gone to bed, they would often hear him walking toward the church to spend the night in adoration before the Blessed Sacrament. There he was heard praying, "Peace, Lord, I ask peace for so-and-so." Seraphin once confided that the reason he spent so much of the night in church was because, in his room, he was greatly tempted against chastity, even in his old age.

Recollections sustain that Seraphin was endowed with the gift of reading the secrets of hearts, and with that of miracles and prophecy. Although unlettered, Seraphin's advice was sought by secular and ecclesiastical dignitaries. His reputation reached as far as the Dukes of Bavaria and Parma, the Peopli nobles of Bologna, and Cardinal Ottavio Bandini. The bishop of Ascoli, the eminent theologian Cardinal Girolamo Bernerio, also sought out his advice.

Seraphin was austere in his person. Only once in his life did he accept a new religious habit, and then, only out of obedience. For forty continuous years, he ate only soup or salad. In keeping with the spirituality prevalent at the time, Seraphin had a personal devotion of serving as many Masses as possible. To avoid having people kiss his hand or tunic to show their respect, Seraphin would carry a crucifix with him, offering it for them to kiss instead.

However, Seraphin also possessed a great sense of humor. Once, a woman asked him if she would give birth to a boy or a girl. He attempted to avoid answering. But the woman insisted, saying, "How shall I know what name to choose?" Chuckling, Seraphin responded, "As far as that goes, choose Ursula and Companions," indicating that throughout her life the woman would give birth to a succession of girls.

Veneration

Even before Seraphin's burial in 1604, his first biographer put pen to paper. He was canonized by Pope Clement XIII on July 16, 1767. Pope Clement canonized Seraphin, together with John Cantius, Joseph Calasanz, Joseph of Cupertino, Jerome Emiliani and Jane Frances de Chantal. In the papal bull of canonization, the illiterate and physically clumsy Capuchin was acclaimed as a person who "knew how to read and understand the great book of life which is our Savior, Jesus Christ. For that reason, he deserves to be listed among Christ's principal disciples."

Serafin's feast day is celebrated on October 12. His tomb is in the Capuchin friary at Ascoli Piceno. A church at San Lorenzo Nuovo is dedicated to him.

References

1540 births
1604 deaths
People from the Province of Fermo
Capuchins
Roman Catholic religious brothers
Miracle workers
Burials in le Marche
Franciscan saints
Capuchin saints
Canonized Roman Catholic religious brothers
16th-century Christian saints
17th-century Christian saints
Italian Roman Catholic saints
Venerated Catholics
Canonizations by Pope Clement XIII

Seraphin of Montegranaro


Steven Ray Nagel (October 27, 1946 – August 21, 2014), (Col, USAF), was an American astronaut, aeronautical and mechanical engineer, test pilot, and a United States Air Force pilot. In total, he logged 723 hours in space. After NASA, he worked at the University of Missouri College of Engineering as an instructor in its Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department.

Personal data
Nagel was born on October 27, 1946, in Canton, Illinois. He was married to fellow astronaut Linda M. Godwin of Jackson, Missouri. They had two daughters. His hobbies included sport flying, amateur radio operations and music. His wife's father, Mr. James M. Godwin, resides in Oak Ridge, Missouri.

Education
Nagel graduated from Canton High School, Canton, Illinois, in 1964; received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering (high honors) from the University of Illinois in 1969, and a Master of Science degree in mechanical engineering from California State University, Fresno, in 1978.

Flight experience
Nagel received his commission in 1969 through the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC) program at the University of Illinois. He completed Undergraduate Pilot Training at Laredo Air Force Base, Texas, in February 1970, and subsequently reported to Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, for F-100 training. From October 1970 to July 1971, Nagel was an F-100 pilot with the 68th Tactical Fighter Squadron at England Air Force Base, Louisiana. He served a 1-year tour of duty as a T-28 instructor for the Laotian Air Force at Udon RTAFB, Udon Thani, Thailand, prior to returning to the United States in October 1972 to assume A-7D instructor pilot and flight examiner duties at England Air Force Base, Louisiana.

Nagel attended the USAF Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California, from February 1975 to December 1975. In January 1976, he was assigned to the 6512th Test Squadron located at Edwards. As a test pilot, he worked on various projects which included flying the F-4 and A-7D.

He logged 12,600 hours flying time—9,640 hours in jet aircraft.

NASA career

Nagel became a NASA astronaut in August 1979. His technical assignments included: backup T-38 chase pilot for STS-1; support crew and backup entry spacecraft (CAPCOM) for STS-2; support crew and primary entry CAPCOM for STS-3; software verification at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) and the Flight Simulation Laboratory (FSL); representing the Astronaut Office in the development of a crew escape system for the Space Shuttle; Acting Chief of the Astronaut Office (1991). With the completion of his fourth flight, Nagel had logged a total of 723 hours in space. Nagel retired from the Air Force, effective February 28, 1995. He retired from the Astronaut Office, effective March 1, 1995, to assume the full-time position of Deputy Director for Operations Development, Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Office, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. In September 1996, Nagel transferred to Aircraft Operations Division where he performed duties as a Research Pilot. Nagel was a veteran of four space flights (STS-51-G and STS-61-A in 1985, STS-37 in 1991, and STS-55 in 1993) as described below:

Spaceflight experience

Nagel first flew as a mission specialist on STS-51G, which launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on June 17, 1985. The crew aboard the Shuttle Discovery deployed communications satellites for Mexico (Morelos), the Arab League (Arabsat), and the United States (AT&T Telstar). They used the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to deploy and later retrieve the SPARTAN satellite which performed 17 hours of x-ray astronomy experiments while separated from the Space Shuttle. In addition, the crew activated the Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF), six "Getaway Specials," participated in biomedical experiments, and conducted a laser tracking experiment as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative. After completing approximately 170 hours of space flight, Discovery landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on June 24, 1985.

Nagel then flew as pilot on STS-61A, the West German D-1 Spacelab mission, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on October 30, 1985. This mission was the first in which payload activities were controlled from outside the United States. More than 75 scientific experiments were completed in the areas of physiological sciences, materials processing, biology, and navigation. After completing 111 orbits of the Earth, Shuttle Challenger landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California on November 6, 1985.

On his third flight, Nagel was commander of STS-37, which launched into orbit on April 5, 1991, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and landed on April 11, 1991, at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During this mission, the crew aboard the Shuttle Atlantis deployed the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory for the purpose of exploring gamma ray sources throughout the universe. The crew and conducted the first scheduled space walk in more than five and one-half years, and the first successful unscheduled spacewalk to free a stuck antenna on the satellite.

Nagel also served as commander of STS-55, the German D-2 Spacelab mission. After launching on April 26, 1993, on the Shuttle Columbia; the crew landed 10 days later on May 6, 1993, at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the ambitious mission 89 experiments were performed in many disciplines such as materials processing, life sciences, robotics, technology, astronomy and earth mapping.

In total, he logged 723 hours in space.

Post-NASA career
In 2011, Nagel and his wife Linda moved to Columbia, Missouri, where they both were teaching at the University of Missouri. Nagel was a retention specialist in the College of Engineering and instructor in the Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department, specializing in aerospace propulsion; Godwin was a professor in the physics department, specializing in astronomy.

Specifically he worked at the University of Missouri College of Engineering. There he served as an instructor in the university's Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department.

Organizations
Life member of the Order of Daedalians and Alpha Delta Phi; and honorary member of Phi Eta Sigma, Sigma Tau, Tau Beta Pi, and Sigma Gamma Tau.

Special honors

Awarded the Air Force Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal with 7 Oak Leaf Clusters; and for Undergraduate Pilot Training, recipient of the Commander's Trophy, the Flying Trophy, the Academic Trophy, and the Orville Wright Achievement Award (Order of Daedalians); also presented the Air Force Meritorious Service Medal (1978).

Recipient of 4 NASA Space Flight Medals, (1985, 1991, 1993), NASA Exceptional Service Medals (1988, 1989), NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal (1992), AAS Flight Achievement Award, STS-37 Crew (1992), Outstanding Alumni Award (University of Illinois, 1992), NASA Distinguished Service Medal (1994), Distinguished Alumni Award (California State University, Fresno, 1994), Lincoln Laureate (State of Illinois, 1994).

Death
Nagel died in Columbia, Missouri from advanced melanoma on August 21, 2014. He was 67 years old.

See also

List of spaceflight records

References

External links

NASA Oral History Project, Steven R. Nagel
Astronautix biography of Steven R. Nagel
Spacefacts biography of Steven R. Nagel
Nagel at Spaceacts

1946 births
2014 deaths
1985 in spaceflight
1991 in spaceflight
1993 in spaceflight
Aviators from Illinois
American test pilots
American aerospace engineers
American mechanical engineers
California State University, Fresno alumni
Deaths from cancer in Missouri
Deaths from melanoma
People from Canton, Illinois
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the NASA Distinguished Service Medal
United States Air Force astronauts
United States Air Force officers
NASA people
U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School alumni
Grainger College of Engineering alumni
University of Missouri faculty
Engineers from California
Engineers from Illinois
American flight instructors
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Military personnel from Illinois

Steven R. Nagel


Shimon Sholom Kalish (1882–1954) was the Hasidic Rebbe of Amshinov–Otvotsk.

Biography
He was the son of Menachem Kalish (1860-1918), the second Rebbe of Amshinov (Hasidic dynasty) in Mszczonów (Yiddish: אמשינאוו Amshinov), Poland, and the brother of Yosef Kalish, Rebbe of Amshinov (d. 1935).
When Menachem died in 1918, Kalish, became rebbe in Otwock. He was a major driving force behind the exodus of thousands of young men in Mir, Kletsk, Radin, Novhardok, and other yeshivas, via Russia and Japan to Shanghai at the outbreak of World War II. By the time Shanghai came under Japanese control, it held 26,000 Jews (Shanghai Ghetto). It is said that when the Mir Yeshiva was in Shanghai and they did not know what time Sabbath was so they asked Kalish he ״answered that they should keep three days of sabbath just in case״.

As World War II intensified, the Nazis stepped up pressure on Japan to hand over the Shanghai Jews. Warren Kozak describes the episode when the Japanese military governor of the city sent for the Jewish community leaders. The delegation included Kalish. The Japanese governor was curious: "Why do the Germans hate you so much?"

"Without hesitation and knowing the fate of his community hung on his answer, Reb Kalish told the translator (in Yiddish): "Zugim weil mir senen orientalim — Tell him the Germans hate us because we are Oriental." The governor, whose face had been stern throughout the confrontation, broke into a slight smile. In spite of the military alliance, he did not accede to the German demand and the Shanghai Jews were never handed over."

After the war, Kalish moved to the United States. Upon his passing in 1954, his son Yerachmiel Yehuda Myer Kalish (1901-1976) accompanied his father's body to Tiberias in Israel, and remained there.

References

1882 births
1954 deaths
Polish Hasidic rabbis
Hasidic rebbes
Jewish Chinese history
Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union

Shimon Sholom Kalish


Bilibo is a "shell-shaped, hard-wearing piece of plastic" used as a toy. It is produced in six different colors. It was developed in 2001 by Swiss designer Alex Hochstrasser in consultation with experts for child development.

The form has been designed for children of various ages to sit comfortably in the shell whilst controlling their movements by touching the ground with their hands and feet.

According to a child's age and interests Bilibo is used as an accessory for role- and fantasy-play, it can be filled with objects, sand or water and emptied again or stacked. Rocking, spinning and balancing in or on the shell helps develop motor skills and the child's sense of balance.
The shells are also used in physiotherapy to stimulate the vestibular and proprioceptive systems.

Children on Richard & Judy could generally be seen to prefer cardboard boxes to the Bilibo, and confirmed this preference when asked.

Bilibo has received several international awards, including Spiel Gut in Germany, the Swiss Product Design Award in 2002 and Toy of the Year – UK Good Toy Awards in 2006.

References

External links
 Bilibo Website
 Website of manufacturer
 Official Hungarian Bilibo Website

2000s toys
Design
Physical activity and dexterity toys

Bilibo


Edward Hugh Buggy (9 June 1896 –  18 June 1974) was a leading journalist well known as an Australian rules football writer covering the Victorian Football League (renamed in 1989 Australian Football League).

Born at Seymour, Victoria in 1896, Buggy attended school there before moving to Melbourne with his mother after the death of his father. He commenced his journalism career at the South Melbourne Record, and joined the Melbourne Argus in 1917. He studied for the diploma of journalism at the university in 1921. He was gifted with a photographic memory.

Journalist
Although he was deputy news editor of the Sydney Sun for five years, Buggy preferred the role of reporter. He was closely involved in reporting many of the dramatic events of his time such as the fatal shoot-out between Squizzy Taylor and 'Snowy' Cutmore in 1927 and the arrival in Brisbane of Kingsford-Smith and the Southern Cross in 1928. In 1932, following the opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge, he was the only reporter to gain an interview with Captain Francis de Groot.

Buggy was much travelled during his journalism career, working for several Sydney and Melbourne based newspapers. Leaving the Argus during 1923, Buggy worked for the new Melbourne Evening Sun in 1923–25, then moved to the Sydney Sun in 1925–27, 1928–31 and 1937–42, The Sun News-Pictorial in 1927 and the Melbourne Herald in 1932–37. In 1950 he rejoined the Argus, and became its chief football-writer in 1951. After the Argus ceased publication in 1957, he worked for various Melbourne suburban newspapers and contributed to the Catholic newspaper, the Advocate, and as chief court reporter for The Truth for three years.

Censor
During World War II he was chief operational censor at General Douglas MacArthur's headquarters in 1942–46. From 1946 to 1950 he was an editor with Radio Australia.

Author
He ghost wrote for Sir Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm the Story of the Southern Cross Trans-Pacific Flight in 1928, and for Joe Maxwell V.C., M.C. & Bar, D.C.M the World War I recounting of his experiences Hells Bells and Mademoiselles in 1932, then in 1946 he wrote Pacific Victory.

In 1977 his book The Real John Wren was published.

Sport journalism

Buggy was also a highly respected writer on sport, particularly Australian rules football, although he covered a variety of sports. He had a flair for the picturesque sporting phrase: he was widely believed to have coined the term 'bodyline' during the 1932/33 Ashes Test cricket series, but this claim was never settled conclusively.

He became chief football-writer at The Argus in 1951, and served in the role until the The Argus ceased publication in 1957.

Death
Buggy married twice, but both marriages ended in divorce and were childless. He died following a heart seizure on 18 June 1974 and was buried in Seymour.

Hall of Fame
Buggy was inducted to the Australian Football Hall of Fame in 1996, with his citation reading:
Joined The Argus newspaper in 1917 and became a highly respected football writer. Became its chief football writer in 1951, after gaining wider experience elsewhere. Worked for suburban newspapers and continued to write football for the Advocate. Wrote several important club histories, including one on Carlton.

Works
 Buggy, H., Hugh Buggy's Murder Book: True Crime Stories by a Famous Reporter, Argus & Australasian Ltd., (Melbourne), 1948?
 Buggy, H., Let's Look at Football, Argus, (Melbourne), 1952.
 Buggy, H., Pacific Victory: A Short History of Australia's Part in the War against Japan, Victorian Railway Printing Works, (North Melbourne), 1945.
 Buggy, H., The Real John Wren, Widescope, (Camberwell), 1977.
 Buggy, H. & Bell, H., The Carlton Story: A History of the Carlton Football Club, Eric White Associates, (Melbourne), 1958.
 Buggy, H., Taylor, P. & Banfield, P., Football Headlines: Great Men and Great Moments of the Australian Game, Argus and Australasian Ltd., (Melbourne), 1955.
 Kingsford-Smith, C.E. & Ulm, C.T.P., Story of the "Southern Cross" Trans-Pacific Flight, 1928, Penlington & Somerville, 1928.
 Ross, J. (ed.), The Australian Football Hall of Fame, HarperCollinsPublishers, (Pymble), 1999.

References

External links
 Australian Football Hall of Fame
 Australian Dictionary of Biography: Buggy, Edward Hugh (1896–1974)

Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees
1974 deaths
1896 births
20th-century Australian journalists
The Herald (Melbourne) people
The Argus (Melbourne) people

Hugh Buggy