Numa Pompilius (;  753–672 BC; reigned 715–672 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions are attributed to him, such as the Roman calendar, Vestal Virgins, the cult of Mars, the cult of Jupiter, the cult of Romulus, and the office of pontifex maximus.

Genealogy

According to Plutarch, Numa was the youngest of Pomponius's four sons, born on the day of Rome's founding (traditionally, 21 April 753 BC). He lived a severe life of discipline and banished all luxury from his home. Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines and a colleague of Romulus, gave in marriage his only daughter, Tatia, to Numa. After 13 years of marriage, Tatia died, precipitating Numa's retirement to the countryside. According to Livy, Numa resided at Cures immediately before being elected king.

Titus Livius (Livy) and Plutarch refer to the story that Numa was instructed in philosophy by Pythagoras, but discredit it as chronologically and geographically implausible.

Plutarch reports that some authors credited Pompilius with only a single daughter, Pompilia. Pompilia's mother is variously identified as Numa's first wife Tatia, or his second wife Lucretia. Pompilia is said to have married the son of the first pontifex maximus, Numa Marcius, also named Numa Marcius, and by him gave birth to the future king Ancus Marcius.

Other authors, according to Plutarch, additionally gave Numa five sons, Pompo (or Pomponius), Pinus, Calpus, Mamercus, and Numa, from whom the noble families (gentes) of the Pomponii, Pinarii, Calpurnii, Aemilii, and Pompilii respectively traced their descent. Still other writers, writes Plutarch, believed these were fictional genealogies to enhance the status of these families.

Kingship

After the death of Romulus, there was an interregnum of one year, in which members of the Senate exercised the royal power in rotation, each for five days in a row. In 715 BC, after much bickering between the factions of Romulus (the Romans) and Tatius (the Sabines), a compromise was reached, and the Senate elected the Sabine Numa, who was approximately forty years of age, as the next king.

At first, Numa refused the offer of kingship. He argued that Rome, under the influence of Romulus's rule, was still a country of war. It needed a ruler who would lead their armies, not someone who lived a life of piety and reflection. However, his father and Sabine kinsmen, including his teacher and the father of Numa's son-in-law, Marcus, along with an embassy of two senators from Rome, together persuaded him to accept. In Plutarch and Livy's account, Numa, after being summoned by the Senate from Cures, was offered the tokens of power amid an enthusiastic reception by the people of Rome. He requested, however, that an augur should divine the opinion of the gods on the prospect of his kingship before he accepted. Jupiter was consulted, and the omens were favourable. Thus approved by the Roman and Sabine people and the heavens, he took up his position as King of Rome.

According to Plutarch, Numa's first act was to disband the personal guard of 300 so-called celeres (the "Swift") with which Romulus permanently surrounded himself. This gesture is variously interpreted as self-protection in the face of their questionable loyalty, a sign of Numa's humility, or a sign of peace and moderation.

Based on Roman chronology, Numa died of old age in 672 BC. After a reign of 43 years, he was about 81 years old. At his request, he was not cremated, but instead buried in a stone coffin on the Janiculum, near the altar of Fons. Tullus Hostilius succeeded him.

Rome had two kings in succession who differed in their methods. According to Livy, Romulus was a king of war while Numa was a king of peace, and thus Rome was well versed in both the arts of war and peace.

Agent of the gods

Numa was traditionally celebrated by the Romans for his wisdom and piety. In addition to the endorsement by Jupiter, he is supposed to have had a direct and personal relationship with a number of deities, most famously the nymph Egeria, who, according to legend, taught him to be a wise legislator. According to Livy, Numa claimed that he held nightly consultations with Egeria on the proper manner of instituting sacred rites for the city. Numa then appointed the priests for each of the deities. Plutarch suggests that he played on superstition to give himself an aura of awe and divine allure, in order to cultivate more gentle behaviour among the warlike early Romans: honoring the gods, abiding by law, behaving humanely to enemies, and living proper, respectable lives.

Numa was said to have authored several "sacred books" in which he had written down divine teachings, mostly from Egeria and the Muses. Plutarch (citing Valerius Antias) and Livy record that at his request he was buried along with these "sacred books", preferring that the rules and rituals they prescribed be preserved in the living memory of the state priests, rather than preserved as relics subject to forgetfulness and disuse. About half of these books--Plutarch and Livy differ on their number--were thought to cover the priesthoods he had established or developed, including the flamines, pontifices, Salii, and fetiales and their rituals. The  other books dealt with philosophy (disciplina sapientiae). According to Plutarch, these books were recovered some four hundred years later (in reality almost five hundred years, i. e. in 181 BC according to Livy 40:29:3-14) at the occasion of a natural accident that exposed the tomb. They were examined by the Senate, deemed to be inappropriate for disclosure to the people, and burned. Dionysius of Halicarnassus hints that they were actually kept as a very close secret by the pontifices.

Numa is reputed to have constrained the two minor gods Picus and Faunus into delivering some prophecies of things to come.

Numa, supported and prepared by Egeria, reportedly held a battle of wits with Jupiter himself, through an apparition whereby Numa sought to gain a protective ritual against lightning strikes and thunder.

Once, when a plague was ravaging the population, a brass shield fell from the sky and was brought to Numa. He declared that Egeria had told him it was a gift from Jupiter, to be used for Rome's protection. He ordered ceremonies to give thanks for the gift, and quickly brought about an end to the plague. The Ancile became a sacred relic of the Romans and was placed in the care of the Salii.

Institutions attributed to Numa
One of Numa's first acts was the construction of a temple of Janus as an indicator of peace and war. The temple was constructed at the foot of the Argiletum, a road in the city. After securing peace with Rome's neighbours, the doors of the temples were shut and remained so for the duration of Numa's reign, a unique case in Roman history.

Another creation attributed to Numa was the cult of Terminus, a god of boundaries. Through this rite, which involved sacrifices at private properties, boundaries and landmarks, Numa reportedly sought to instill in Romans the respect of lawful property and non-violent relationships with neighbours. The cult of Terminus, preached Numa, involved absence of violence and murder. The god was a testament to justice and a keeper of peace. In a somehow comparable, more moral rather than legal fashion, Numa sought to associate himself with one of the roles of Vegoia in the religious system of the neighbouring Etruscans, by deciding to set the official boundaries of the territory of Rome, which Romulus had never wanted, presumably with the same concern of preserving peace.

Recognizing the paramount importance of the Ancile, King Numa had eleven matching shields made, so perfect that no one, even Numa, could distinguish the original from the copies. These shields were the Ancilia, the sacred shields of Jupiter, which were carried each year in a procession by the Salii priests. Numa also established the office and duties of Pontifex Maximus and instituted (Plutarch's version) the flamen of Quirinus, in honour of Romulus, in addition to those of Jupiter and Mars that already existed. Numa also brought the Vestal Virgins to Rome from Alba Longa. Plutarch adds that they were then at the number of two, were later augmented to four by Servius Tullius, and stayed thus through the ages.

By tradition, Numa promulgated a calendar reform, which divided the year into twelve months according to the lunar course, but adjusted to be in accordance with the solstitial revolution. It was during this time that the months of January and February were introduced. Numa also made the distinction of the days being either profane or sacred.

In other Roman institutions established by Numa, Plutarch thought he detected a Laconian influence, attributing the connection to the Sabine culture of Numa, for "Numa was descended of the Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians."

Livy and Dionysius give a largely concordant picture of the vast founding work carried out by Numa concerning Roman religion and religious institutions.

Livy begins with the priesthoods which Numa established. Numa created a residentiary flamen to Jupiter endowed with regal insignia, who could carry out the sacred functions of the royal office, which Numa usually discharged: Numa did so to avoid the neglect of the rites whenever the king went to war, for he saw the warlike attitude of the Romans. He also created the flamines of Mars and Quirinus, as well as the Vestal virgins and the twelfth Salii of Mars Gradivus. Then, he chose Numa Marcius as pontiff. To him, he bestowed all the sacred ceremonies, his books and seals. The following words of this passage have been considered a systematic summary exposition of Roman religion:

quibus hostiis, quibus diebus, ad quae templa sacra fierent atque unde in eos sumptus pecunia erogaretur. Cetera quoque omnia publica privataque sacra pontificis scitis subiecit, ut esset quo consultum plebes veniret, ne quid divini iuris negligendo patrios ritus peregrinosque adsciscendo turbaretur. Nec celestes modo caerimonias sed iusta quoque funebria placandosque manes ut idem pontificem edoceret, quaeque prodigia fulminibus a Iove quo visu missa susciperentur atque curarentur.

[translated]...[showing] with what victims, upon what days, and at what temples the sacred rites were to be performed, and from what funds the money was to be taken to defray the expenses. He also placed all other religious institutions, public and private, under the control of the decrees of the pontiff, to the end that there might be some authority to whom the people should come to ask advice, to prevent any confusion in the divine worship being caused by their neglecting the ceremonies of their own country, and adopting foreign ones. He further ordained that the same pontiff should instruct the people not only in the ceremonies connected with the heavenly deities, but also in the due performance of funeral solemnities, and how to appease the shades of the dead; and what prodigies sent by lightning or any other phenomenon were to be attended to and expiated.

Livy lists the hostiae, victims, as the first competence of the pontiffs: following this come the days, temples, money, other sacred ceremonies, funerals and prodigies.

Livy continues saying Numa dedicated an altar to Jupiter Elicius as the source of religious knowledge, and consulted the god by means of auguries as to what should be expiated; he instituted a yearly festival to Fides (Faith) and commanded the three major flamines to be carried to her temple in an arched chariot and to perform the service with their hands wrapped up to the fingers, meaning Faith had to be sacred as in men's right hand; among many other rites he instituted he dedicated places of the Argei.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus devotes much more space to Numa's religious reforms. In his account the institution of eight priesthoods is attributed to Numa: curiones, flamines, celeres, augurs, vestals, salii, fetials and pontiffs. He says only a few words about the curiones, who were in charge of tending the sacrifices of the curiae; the flamines; the tribuni celerum, who were the bodyguard of the king but who also took part in some religious ceremonies; and the augurs, who were in charge of official divination.

Plutarch records some of these, such as sacrificing an uneven number of victims to the heavenly gods and an even number to the nether gods; the prohibition of making libations to the gods with wine; the prohibition of sacrificing without flour; the necessity of making a complete turn on oneself while praying and worshiping the gods.

The ritual of the spolia opima is ascribed to Numa, too, by ancient sources.

Finally, Arnobius states the indigitamenta were attributed to him.

Numa was credited with dividing the immediate territory of Rome into pagi (villages) and establishing the traditional occupational guilds of Rome:

So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths, carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters; and all other handicraftsmen he composed and reduced into a single company, appointing every one their proper courts, councils, and observances. (Plutarch)

Plutarch, in like manner, tells of the early religion of the Romans, that it was imageless and spiritual. He says Numa "forbade the Romans to represent the deity in the form either of man or of beast. Nor was there among them formerly any image or statue of the Divine Being; during the first one hundred and seventy years they built temples, indeed, and other sacred domes, but placed in them no figure of any kind; persuaded that it is impious to represent things Divine by what is perishable, and that we can have no conception of God but by the understanding".

William Blackstone says that Numa may be credited with "originally inventing" corporations: "They were introduced, as Plutarch says, by Numa; who finding, upon his accession, the city torn to pieces by the two rival factions of Sabines, and Romans, thought it a prudent and politic measure, to subdivide these two into many smaller ones, by instituting separate societies of every manual trade and profession."

Story of the books of Numa
Livy narrates that, in 181 BC, while digging in the field of the scriba L. Petilius at the foot of the Ianiculum, peasants found two stone coffers, eight  feet long and four feet wide, inscribed both in Latin and in Greek characters, one stating that Numa Pompilus, son of Pompon, king of the Romans was buried (there) and the other that Numa's books were inside it. When Petilius after the advice of his friends opened it, the one that was inscribed with the name of the king was found empty, the other containing two bundles each of seven books, not complete but looking very recent, seven in Latin dealing with pontifical law and seven in Greek of philosophy as it was in that remote past.

The books were shown to other people and the fact became public. Praetor Q. Petilius, who was friends with L. Petilius, requested them, found them very dangerous to religion and told Lucius he would have them burnt, but he allowed him to try and recover them by legal or other means. The scriba brought the case to the tribunes of the plebs, and the tribunes in turn brought it to the senate. The praetor declared he was ready to swear an oath that it was not a good thing either to read or to store those books, and the senate deliberated that the offer of the oath was sufficient by itself, that the books be burnt on the Comitium as soon as possible and that an indemnity fixed by the praetor and the tribunes be paid to the owner. L. Petilius though declined to accept the sum. The books were burnt by the victimarii.

The action of the praetor has been seen as politically motivated, and in accord with the Catonian reaction of those years. It is relevant though that some of the annalists of those times or only a few years later, do not seem to show any doubt about the authenticity of the books. The whole incident has been critically analyzed again by philologist E. Peruzzi, who by comparing the different versions, strives to demonstrate the overall authenticity of the books. By contrast, M.J. Pena's position is more reserved and critical.

Francophone scholars A. Delatte and J. Carcopino believe the incident to be the result of a real initiative of the pythagoric sect of Rome. The fears of the Roman authorities should be explained in connection to the nature of the doctrines contained in the books, which are supposed to have contained a type of physikòs lógos, a partly moral and partly cosmological interpretation of religious beliefs that has been proven by Delatte to be proper of the ancient pythagorism. Part of it must have been in contradiction with the beliefs of fulgural and augural art and of the procuratio of the prodigies. Most ancient authors relate the presence of treatises of pythagoric philosophy, but some, as Sempronius Tuditanus, mention only religious decrees.

Later traditions
The Christian philosopher Clement of Alexandria in his book Stromata claimed that King Numa Pompilius was influenced by Mosaic law, and due to this refrained from making human images in sculpture. Modern scholars do not accept this claim, as there were no known contacts between the early Kings of Rome and the ancient Hebrews.

See also
 Pompilia gens

References

Sources

Primary
 Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Numa Pompilius.
 Livy, Ab urbe condita, Liber 1

Secondary
 Unearthing Rome's king from the History News Network

 Numa on the Ara Pacis Augustae

External links

8th-century BC births
673 BC deaths
8th-century BC Romans
8th-century BC monarchs
Kings of Rome
7th-century BC Romans
7th-century BC monarchs
8th-century BC religious leaders
7th-century BC religious leaders
Classical oracles
Year of birth unknown
Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid

Numa Pompilius


In a radio antenna's, the main lobe or main beam is the region of the  radiation pattern containing the highest power or exhibiting the greatest field strength.

The radiation pattern of most antennas shows a pattern of "lobes" at various directions, where the radiated signal strength reaches a local maximum, separated by "nulls", at which the radiation falls to zero.  In a directional antenna in which the objective is to emit the radio waves in one direction, the lobe in that direction is designed to have higher field strength than the others, so on a graph of the radiation pattern it appears biggest; this is the main lobe.  The other lobes are called "sidelobes", and usually represent unwanted radiation in undesired directions.  The sidelobe in the opposite direction from the main lobe is called the "backlobe".

The radiation pattern referred to above is usually the horizontal radiation pattern, which is plotted as a function of azimuth about the antenna, although the vertical radiation pattern may also have a main lobe.   The beamwidth of the antenna is the width of the main lobe, usually specified by the half power beam width (HPBW),  the angle encompassed between the points on the side of the lobe where the power has fallen to half (-3 dB) of its maximum value.

The concepts of main lobe and sidelobes also apply to acoustics and optics, and are used to describe the radiation pattern of optical systems like telescopes, and acoustic transducers like microphones and loudspeakers.

See also
Beam radio navigation
Beam waveguide antenna
Beamwidth
Side lobe
Software defined antenna

Antennas

Main lobe


José Luis Vizcaíno Pimental (born March 26, 1968) is a Dominican former professional baseball player. He was a backup infielder for most of his Major League Baseball (MLB) career. He, along with Darryl Strawberry and Ricky Ledée, are the only Major League Baseball players to have played for all four former and current New York teams—the New York Yankees, the New York Mets, the Los Angeles Dodgers, and the San Francisco Giants. With the Yankees, he won the 2000 World Series against the Mets.

Early career

Los Angeles Dodgers (1989–1990)
Vizcaíno made his debut with the Dodgers as a late-season call-up in 1989, where he played five games at shortstop for them to conclude the season. In 1990, he was again called up late, playing in 37 games and where he hit a respectable .275. Despite his play, he was traded to the Chicago Cubs on December 14, 1990.

Chicago Cubs (1991–1993)
In Chicago, Vizcaíno saw his playing time increase, appearing in no less than 86 games in any given season, including a career-high 151 games in 1992. In 1993, he played a significant role, having 551 at-bats and being 9th in the National League with 131 singles as well as second in the NL with 9 sacrifice flies.

New York Mets (1994–1996)
The Cubs traded Vizcaíno to the New York Mets on March 30, 1994, for Anthony Young and minor-leaguer Ottis Smith. In 1994, Vizcaíno, now a starter for the first time in his career, collected 105 hits before the strike shortened the season. When play resumed in 1995, Vizcaíno responded with his best season to that point, collecting 146 hits, including a career-high 21 doubles and 56 runs batted in, although his strikeouts increased slightly to 76. He finished fifth in the National League in hits that year. In 1996, Vizcaíno played in 96 games for the Mets, hitting .303 (a career-high) with 32 runs batted in. On July 29, 1996, Vizcaíno was traded to the Cleveland Indians along with Jeff Kent for Carlos Baerga and Alvaro Espinoza.

Cleveland Indians (1996)
In Cleveland, Vizcaíno appeared in 48 games to complete the 1996 season, and made his first career trip to the postseason. In the 1996 American League Division Series against the Baltimore Orioles, Vizcaíno collected four hits (including two doubles) and one run batted in. Despite these contributions, the Indians were defeated by the Orioles. On November 13, 1996, he was traded to the San Francisco Giants along with Matt Williams and a player to be named later (Joe Roa) and Trent Hubbard along with Jeff Kent and Julián Tavárez.

San Francisco Giants (1997)
With the Giants, he appeared in 151 games hitting .266 with a career-high 50 runs batted in, along with a career-high 87 strikeouts while again returning to the postseason and finished tenth in the National League in hits. In the postseason, Vizcaíno collected two hits and one run while striking out five times as the Giants were defeated by the Florida Marlins. On October 29, 1997, he was granted free agency.

Return to the Dodgers (1998–2000)
On December 8, 1997, Vizcaíno re-signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers. He appeared in a career-low 67 games in 1998 hitting .262 with 29 runs batted in. In 1999, Vizcaíno played in 94 games collecting 29 runs batted in.

Vizcaíno began the 2000 season with the Dodgers, hitting a dismal .204 over 40 games (collecting only 19 hits). On June 20, he was traded to the New York Yankees with cash for Jim Leyritz.

New York Yankees (2000)
Vizcaíno appeared in 73 games for the Yankees, hitting .276 with 10 runs batted in, earning a spot on the Yankees postseason roster. In the American League Division Series, he scored one run as a pinch-runner. In the American League Championship Series, he played in four games collecting two hits, three runs, and 2 runs batted in (along with two stolen bases) as the Yankees defeated the Seattle Mariners. Vizcaíno played in four of the five games in the 2000 World Series against the New York Mets. He is most known for his dramatic hit on October 21, 2000, in Game 1. In the bottom of the 12th inning of the then longest game in World Series history, Vizcaíno hit the game-winning RBI single. He earned a World Series ring when the Yankees defeated the Mets in five games. On November 1, he was granted free agency.

Houston Astros (2001–2005)
Vizcaíno signed with the Astros on November 20. In 2001, he hit .277 with 71 hits and 14 runs batted in. He appeared in three games in the 2001 National League Division Series, he was 1 for 6 as Houston was defeated by the Atlanta Braves. In 2002, he hit .303 with five home runs and 37 runs batted in 125 games. In 2003, Vizcaíno appeared in only 91 games, where he collected 26 runs batted in. In 2004, Vizcaíno rebounded, hitting .274 and playing in 138 games at shortstop while Adam Everett was out with a broken wrist. In the 2005 National League Division Series, Vizcaíno went 0-for-5 in two games. Despite his lack of productivity, the Astros defeated the Braves in 5 games. In the 2005 National League Championship Series against the St. Louis Cardinals, Vizcaíno did not fare better, again going hitless. In the 2005 World Series, Vizcaíno collected one hit, one walk, and two runs batted in. In Game 2 of the 2005 World Series, he came close to repeating his 2000 World Series walk-off moment when he hit a two-run single with two outs in the ninth inning to tie the game. Following his game tying hit for the Houston Astros, Vizcaíno stayed in the game at shortstop for the bottom of the ninth, and on the way out to his position, he realized he had forgotten his cap and had to return to the dugout to get it. After the game Vizcaíno commented "It was crazy, I ran out there without [a cap], and when I realized it, I felt funny. More camera time for me, I guess." The Astros went on to lose when Scott Podsednik homered in the bottom of the inning and overshadowed Vizcaíno's heroics. In Game 3 of that year's Series, Vizcaíno played the entire game, which broke the record for the longest game in World Series history on October 25, 2005.

Return to the Giants (2006)

Vizcaíno was not offered arbitration following the 2005 season from Houston. Instead, he signed a one-year contract with the San Francisco Giants, who designated pitcher Brian Burres for assignment to make room for him on the roster. On August 14, Vizcaíno was designated for assignment by the Giants after hitting just .210 over 64 games.

St. Louis Cardinals (2006)
On August 23, 2006, Vizcaíno was signed to a contract by the Cardinals and spent the rest of the 2006 season as a replacement for injured shortstop David Eckstein.

Post-playing career

Vizcaíno was hired as a Special Assistant of Baseball Operations in the Los Angeles Dodgers front office in January 2008.

Personal life
Vizcaíno's son, José Jr., played college baseball for Santa Clara University and was drafted by the San Francisco Giants in the 7th round of the 2015 MLB Draft.

References

External links

1968 births
Living people
Albuquerque Dukes players
Bakersfield Dodgers players
Chicago Cubs players
Cleveland Indians players
Dominican Republic expatriate baseball players in the United States
Gulf Coast Dodgers players
Houston Astros players

Los Angeles Dodgers players
Los Angeles Dodgers scouts
Major League Baseball infielders
Major League Baseball players from the Dominican Republic
Major League Baseball shortstops
New Orleans Zephyrs players
New York Mets players
New York Yankees players
St. Louis Cardinals players
San Francisco Giants players

José Vizcaíno


AL 200-1 (Afar Locality) is the fossilized upper palate and teeth of the species Australopithecus afarensis, estimated to be 3.0-3.2 million years old. Its characteristics are an ape-like arrangement of teeth including spatulate incisors and a gap between the canines and outside incisors.

It was discovered in the Afar Depression in Ethiopia by Ato Alemayehu Asfaw on 17 October 1974. Donald Johanson and Maurice Taieb announced the discovery and published the initial description of the fossil in 1976 (the first detailed description was published by Johanson and Yves Coppens the same year).

See also
List of fossil sites
List of human evolution fossils

References

Australopithecus fossils
Neogene fossil record

AL 200-1


Goran Tribuson (; born August 6, 1948, in Bjelovar) is a Croatian prose and screenplay writer.

Tribuson received his B.A. in literature from the Philosophical Faculty in Zagreb and his M.A. in filmology at the University of Zagreb. He worked for the Vjesnik Marketing Agency, and was a coeditor and revisor of the Croatian Lexicon. He teaches screen-writing at the Zagreb Academy of Dramatic Arts.

Along with Pavao Pavličić, Tribuson is the most productive and the most popular Croatian writer from the mid-1970s to the present day. From the point of view of style, genre and subject matter Tribuson's work can be divided in several phases which all have in common the author's concern for the reader for whom he is writing, a compact plot, a great writing skill and the avoidance of any ideology. Tribuson is equally skilled in the application of postmodernist techniques: persiflage, quotes, intertextuality, autoreference, metatextuality etc. His writing is influenced by rock and pop-culture, film and sometimes even jazz. His literary models are Raymond Chandler, Graham Greene and Karel Čapek.

He lives in Zagreb.

Work
Tribuson began writing and publishing short-stories in various magazines while he was still at college. As a subversive reaction to the superimposed social realism in Croatian literature a generation of fantastical writers emerged in the early 1970s, and Tribuson was part of it. He is still considered to be one of the most prominent representatives of this movement. His early fantastical stories were published in three collections, Zavjera kartografa (The Cartographists Conspiracy, 1972), Praška smrt (Death in Prague, 1975) i Raj za pse (Dog Heaven, 1978). Mysticism, the occult and horror are some of the themes of these stories. Thematically, the novel Snijeg u Heidelbergu (Snow in Heidelberg, 1980) belongs to the same fantastical cycle, although it also marks the beginning of a new phase. Critics consider it one of the best works of the fantastical writers' generation. It is a kind of mixture of the sotonic and the picaresque. Tribuson returns to the fantastical and the grotesque in several other works: in his novel Potonulo groblje (Sunken Cemetery, 1990), which is considered to be a contemporary version of the gothic novel and  which got him the "K. Š. Gjalski" literary award; in the novel entitled Sanatorij (Sanatorium, 1993), as well as in the collection of short-stories entitled Zvijezda kabarea (Star of the Cabaret, 1999), in which he emerges as a fully mature writer of the so-called fantastical prose.

The 1980s mark the beginning of Tribuson's so-called Aschenreiterov cycle which, in addition to the already mentioned ones, includes the novels Čuješ li nas Frido Štern (Do You Hear Us, Frida Štern, 1981) and Ruski rulet (Russian Roulette, 1982) subtitled "a boulevard novel", and erases the boundaries between the so-called "highbrow" and "lowbrow" literature.

The third cycle comprises Tribuson's autobiographical writings, the best known among them being a trilogy of "generation" novels: Polagana predaja (Slow Surrender, 1984), Legija stranaca (Foreign Legion, 1985) and several editions of the bestselling Povijest pornografije (History of Pornography, 1988), which deals with the theme of growing up in a small town, the emergence and disappearance of youthful illusions and ideals, the confrontation of socialism with the unstoppable breakthrough of rock, pop culture, film and media. This cycle of varying quality includes, among other things, autobiographical prose works such as Rani dani (Early Days, 1997), Trava i korov (Grass and Weed, 1999) and Mrtva priroda (Still Nature, 2003). These are witty, ironic, clever and often fragmentary writings about the author's family history which is intertwined with history in general. Thematically the cycle includes the humorous novel Ne dao Bog većeg zla (God Save Us From Greater Evil, 2002), written after the production of the film with the same title, for which Tribuson wrote the screenplay.

His fourth cycle consists of "pure" crime novels in the manner of the American hard boiled school: in his interviews, Tribuson repeatedly asserted that "a crime novel can either be a stylistic exercise or a social novel; if it is just an exercise, I am not interested in it". Thus, in the six novels published so far (Zavirivanje/Peaking 1985; Siva zona /The Grey Zone 1989; Dublja strana zaljeva /The Deeper End of the Bay 1991; Noćna smjena /Night Shift 1996; Bijesne lisice /Rabid Foxes 2000; Gorka čokolada /Bitter Chocolate 2004), structured as detective stories featuring P.I. Nikola Banić he has given a historical panorama of the Croatian society, from the beginning of the fall of socialism to the ups and downs of the transitional period. Tribuson has not only given literary legitimacy to the crime genre in Croatian literature, he also bases novels of this genre on the everyday reality of the local community.  Although his private investigator Nikola Banić, a Croatian version of Philip Marlowe, is a slightly unconventional detective type because he is a jazz fan, a beer drinker, a dedicated smoker and a man burdened with many family problems, he has become very popular among the readers.

Tribuson is the most popular Croatian writer of his generation. Critics sometimes consider him to be a populist writer, a writer who is too eager to please his audience with his genre novels. They therefore consider his fantastical novels to be his best. It is true, however, that Tribuson has produced works of anthological value in each of his cycles.

Books
Zavjera kartografa, (The Cartographists Conspiracy, stories), Zagreb: Znanje, 1972
Praška smrt, groteske, (Death in Prague, grotesques), Zagreb: Centar za kulturnu djelatnost Saveza socijalističke omladine, 1975
Raj za pse, (Dog Heaven, stories), Čakovec: "Zrinski", 1978
Snijeg u Heidelbergu, (Snow in Heidelberg, novel), Zagreb: "August Cesarec", 1980
Čuješ li nas Frido Štern, (Do You Hear Us, Frida Štern, novel), Zagreb: "August Cesarec", 1981
Ruski rulet : bulevarski roman, 2 sv., (Russian Roulette: a boulevard novel) Beograd: Prosveta, 1982
Spavaća kola, izabrane priče, (Sleeping Compartment, selected stories), Osijek: Revija, 1983
Polagana predaja, (Slow Surrender, novel), Zagreb: Znanje, 1984
Legija stranaca, (Foreign Legion, novel), Zagreb: Znanje, 1985
Zavirivanje: [prvi slučaj policijskog inspektora Banića], (Peaking: police inspector Banić's first case), Beograd: Prosveta, 1985
Uzvratni susret, (Counter game, novel) Opatija: "Otokar Keršovani", 1986
Made in U. S. A., roman, (Made in USA, novel), Zagreb: Znanje, 1986
Klasici na ekranu, zbirka priča, (Classics on the Screen, stories), Zrenjanin, 1987
Povijest pornografije, roman, (History of Pornography, novel), Zagreb : Znanje, 1988
Siva zona : [drugi slučaj policijskog inspektora Nikole Banića], (The Grey Zone: police inspector Banić's second case, novel) Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2001
Potonulo groblje, (Sunken Cemetery, novel), Zagreb: Znanje, 1990
Dublja strana zaljeva : [treći slučaj istražitelja Nikole Banića], (The Deeper End of the Bay: detective Nikola Banić's third case, novel), Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2001
Sanatorij, (Sanatorium, novel) Zagreb: Znanje, 1993
Noćna smjena : [četvrti slučaj istražitelja Nikole Banića], (Night Shift: detective Nikola Banić's fourth case, novel), Zagreb: Targa, 1996
Rani dani : kako smo odrastali uz filmove i televiziju, (Early Days: How We Grew Up With Films and Television, autobiographical writings), Zagreb: Znanje, 1997
Zvijezda kabarea : [nove priče], (Star of the Cabaret, new stories), Zagreb: Znanje, 1998
Osmi okular : izabrane priče; izbor i pogovor Igor Štiks, (The Eight Ocular, selected short stories), Zagreb: Ceres, 1998
Trava i korov : novi zapisi o odrastanju, (Grass and Weed: New Writings on Growing Up, autobiographical writings), Zagreb: Mozaik knjiga, 1999
Bijesne lisice : [peti slučaj istražitelja Nikole Banića], (Rabid Foxes: detective Nikola Banić's fifth case, novel), Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2000
Klub obožavatelja : periferijski kvartet, (The Fan Club: A Suburban Quartet, stories), Zagreb: Znanje, 2001
Ne dao Bog većeg zla, (God Save Us From Greater Evil, novel), Zagreb: Mozaik knjiga, 2002
Mrtva priroda : ogledi iz estetike, (Still Nature: Esthetical Essays, autobiographical writings), Zagreb: Mozaik knjiga, 2003
Gorka čokolada : [šesti slučaj istražitelja Nikole Banića], (Bitter Chocolate: detective Nikola Banić's sixth case, novel), Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2004
Divlja plaža, (Wild Beach) 2009
Susjed u nevolji (Neighbour in troubles) 2014

Screenplays
Crvena prašina, (Red Dust) 1999, director Zrinko Ogresta
Srce nije u modi, (The Heart is Not Fashionable) 2000, director Branko Schmidt
Polagana predaja, (Slow Surrender) 2001, director Bruno Gamulin
Potonulo groblje,  (The Sunken Cemetery) 2002, director Mladen Juran
Ne dao bog većeg zla, (God Save Us From Greater Evil) 2002, director Snježana Tribuson

Collections
Hrvatska kratka priča : antologija priča "Večernjeg lista" 1964.-1994.; izbor, predgovor i bilješke Tomislav Sabljak, (Croatian Short Story: an anthology), Zagreb: Alfa : Večernji list, 1994
Antologija hrvatske novele, ed. Krešimir Nemec, (Anthology of Croatian novellas), Zagreb: Naklada Pavičić, 1997
Antologija hrvatskog humora : zlatna knjiga humorističke i satiričke književnosti kroz šest stoljeća, odabrao i priredio Fadil Hadžić, (Anthology of Croatian Humor: the Golden Book of Humoristic and Satirical Literature Through Six Centuries), Zagreb: VBZ, 1999
Antologija hrvatske književnosti, (Anthology of Croatian Literature), ed. Matilda Bolcs, Budapest: Nemzeti Tankonyvkiado, 1999
Prodavaonica tajni : izbor iz hrvatske fantastične proze, (Shop of Secrets: a selection of Croatian fantastic prose), ed. Jagna Pogačnik, Zagreb: Znanje, 2001
V objetí řeky: antologie chorvatské povídky 20. století / sestavil, úvod a slovník zastoupených autorů napsal Ivan Dobrovský; doslov napsal Miroslav Šicel; přeložili Vlasta Burmazová... [et al.] 1. vyd, Brno; Boskovice : František Šale – ALBERT, 2002
Pisci o pisanju, (Writers on Writing), ed. Milana Vuković Runjić, Zagreb: Vuković & Runjić, 2003

Bibliography, selected
 Velimir Visković u Pozicija kritičara: "kritičarske opaske o suvremenoj hrvatskoj prozi", Zagreb: Znanje, 1988 (The Position of the Critic: Critical Comments on Contemporary Croatian Literature)
 Miroslava Vučić: "Čitanje scenarija "Doviđenja u Nuštru" Gorana Tribusona, Književna revija, Osijek – 32 (1992), 3-4-5-6 ; str. 301–359 (Reading of the Screenplay)
 Gordana Crnković, "Posveta modernizmu : Goran Tribuson: Sanatorij", Riječi – (1993), 11/12 ; str. 163–168 (Dedication to Modernism: Goran Tribuson, Sanatorium)
 Đurđa Strsoglavec, "Goran Tribuson  Oduzmete li mi pravo na mijenu, učinili ste od mene mrtvog pisca : intervju s G. Tribusonom" (Goran Tribuson: If You Take Away My Right to Change, You've Made Me a Dead Writer: interview with G. Tribuson)
 Jasminka Kokolić, Ivana Bašić. Noćna smjena (Night Shift) / Helena Sablić-Tomić – Bibliografske bilješke uz tekst (Bibliographical notes on the Text), Književna revija, Osijek – 36 (1996), 1/2 ; str. 67–117
 Ivan Pinter, Strukturni izvori i uviri proze Gorana Tribusona (Structural Sources and Influences in Goran Tribuson's Prose) / Bibliografske bilješke uz tekst; Summary, Bjelovarski učitelj, Bjelovar- 5 (1996), 1/2 ; str. 3–18
 Jagna Pogačnik, Borgesovski model fantastike i kratka proza Gorana Tribusona (The Borgesian Model of the Fantastic and Short Prose) / Bibliografske bilješke uz tekst, Književna revija, Osijek  – 40 (2000), 1/2 ; str. 181–192
 Velid Đekić, Made in USA, proizvedeno u Hrvatskoj : Goran Tribuson (Made in USA made in Croatia: Goran Tribuson), Književna Rijeka, Rijeka – [6] (2001), 1 ; str. 84–85
 Antun Pavešković, Fusnote ljubavi i zlobe (6) : Goran Tribuson: Mrtva priroda (Ogledi iz estetike), (Footnotes of Love and Malice (6): Goran Tribuson, Still Nature, Esthetical Essays), Republika, Zagreb – 60 (2004), 10 ; str. 123–126.

References
 Helena Peričić and Ivan Kardum, "Tribusonov dug Bulgakovu - primjer(i) metaliterarnosti iz 70-ih i 80-ih", Književna smotra, Zagreb, 42, 2010, 155 (1), 33-46.

External links

Living people
1948 births
People from Bjelovar
Croatian dramatists and playwrights
Croatian novelists
Croatian male writers
Male novelists
Crime fiction writers
Golden Arena winners
Vladimir Nazor Award winners
Members of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb alumni
Academic staff of the University of Zagreb
Croatian screenwriters

Goran Tribuson


Charlotte Aiken (born 23 January 1992 in Plymouth, Devon) is an English ice dancer who represents Great Britain. With her partner Josh Whidborne, she is the 2012 Ondrej Nepela Memorial bronze medalist and 2012 British national silver medalist.

Career
Aiken teamed up with Whidborne in 2008. They are coached by John Dunn at Lee Valley in London. In 2009, they made the decision to relocate to Deeside in North Wales to train with coach Joan Slater and with the 2002 Olympian Marika Humphreys-Baranova as their choreographer. In January 2011, they relocated to Madrid, Spain, to train with John Dunn. In 2012, Dunn relocated with his students back to the UK.

In the 2012–2013 season, Aiken and Whidborne won their first senior international medal, bronze at the 2012 Ondrej Nepela Memorial. They then won the silver medal at the 2012 British Championships.

Personal life
Aiken has a younger brother, Henry, who also competes in ice dancing.

Programs
(with Whidborne)

Results
(with Whidborne)

References

External links

English female ice dancers
1992 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Plymouth, Devon

Charlotte Aiken


Elizabeth Janeway (née Hall) (October 7, 1913 – January 15, 2005) was an American author and critic.

Biography
Born Elizabeth Ames Hall in Brooklyn, New York, her naval architect father and homemaker mother fell on hard times during the Depression, leading her to end her Swarthmore College education and help support the family by creating bargain-basement sale slogans (she graduated from Barnard College just a few years later, in 1935).

Intent on becoming an author, Janeway took the same creative writing class again and again to help hone her craft. While working on her first novel, The Walsh Girls, she met and married Eliot Janeway, a much-quoted economist, who was to enjoy some influence with Presidents Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson (he was known as "Calamity Janeway" for his pessimistic economic forecasts). Elizabeth described Eliot as "the most intelligent man I had ever met."

The Janeways mingled with United States Supreme Court justices and many other public figures of the day (she recommended Erica Jong's Fear of Flying to Justice William O. Douglas).

At the behest of labor organizer Walter Reuther, she aided General Motors workers with their mid-1940s strike against the company.

Janeway finally finished Girls in 1943 while awaiting the birth of her second child; she signed the contract with the publishers while en route to the hospital. A later novel, 1949's The Question of Gregory, attracted attention due to the eerie similarities between Gregory and James Forrestal, a defense secretary and acquaintance of the Janeways who committed suicide. Janeway denied any connection between fact and fiction; she said the real theme of the book was "liberals in trouble".

All in all, Janeway wrote seven novels; one, 1945's Daisy Kenyon, was made into a film starring Joan Crawford. For a time, Janeway was a reviewer for The New York Times. In that capacity, she introduced writer Anthony Powell and served as a champion of controversial works such as Lolita. She was also a reviewer for Ms..

From 1965–1969, she served as president of the Authors Guild, addressing lawmakers about copyright protection and other matters.

Many of Janeway's early works focused on the family situation, with occasional glimpses at the struggles of women in modern society. In the early 1970s, she began a more explicitly feminist path with works such as Man's World, Woman's Place: A Study of Social Mythology. She befriended Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and Kate Millett, and was strongly in favor of abortion rights. Janeway continued to write and go on lecture tours. She learned to speak Russian so she could visit the Soviet Union.

Janeway was a judge for the National Book Awards in 1955 and for the Pulitzer Prize in 1971. She was an executive of International PEN. At its 1981 commencement ceremonies, her alma mater Barnard College awarded Janeway its highest honor, the Barnard Medal of Distinction.

Elizabeth Hall Janeway died in 2005 at her Rye, New York home. She was survived by two sons: Columbia Graduate School of Journalism professor, The Boston Globe editor, and former Atlantic Monthly executive Michael Janeway and William H. Janeway, until 2006 a vice chairman at Warburg Pincus, as well as by three grandchildren and a great-granddaughter.

The Star Trek: Voyager character Kathryn Janeway  originally shared her name, but writers changed the name after learning of her.

References

External links
 Obituary at The Guardian
 More Janeway quotes at thinkexist.com

1913 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American novelists
Barnard College alumni
Writers from Brooklyn
Novelists from New York City
People from Rye, New York
Swarthmore College alumni
American women novelists
20th-century American women writers
American women non-fiction writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American women

Elizabeth Janeway


The Derna dam collapses were the catastrophic failures of two dams in Derna, Libya on the night of 10–11 September 2023, in the aftermath of Storm Daniel. The dam collapses released an estimated 30 million cubic metres (39 million cubic yards) of water, causing flooding downstream as the Wadi Derna overflowed its banks. The floods partially destroyed the city of Derna. As of 18 September, estimates for the number of casualties range from 5,300 to 20,000 people. The event was the second-deadliest dam failure in history, after the 1975 Banqiao Dam failure in China.

Background

Dam construction

The collapsed dams were built under Gaddafi's regime by Yugoslav company Hidrotehnika-Hidroenergetika from 1973 to 1977 to control flooding, irrigate agricultural lands and provide water to nearby communities. They were described as clay-filled embankment dams with a height of 75 meters (Derna dam) and 45 meters (Mansour dam). The Mansour (or Abu Mansour) dam had a water storage capacity of 1.5 million cubic meters, while the Derna (or Belad) dam upstream had a capacity of 22.5 million cubic meters (1.5 million cubic meters by another source).

Locations
Derna Dam

Abu Mansour Dam

Derna, Libya

Political situation
The scale of the disaster in Derna was attributed to decades of neglect of the region by and following the rule of Muammar Gaddafi. Throughout the 2010s the city was a battleground, during the Libyan civil war, concurrent NATO intervention, and conflicts between rival governments established after Gaddafi's overthrow. After Gaddafi's overthrow, the city changed hands four times. The city was under the Islamic State's rule from 2014 to 2018.

Warnings
Cracks had been reported in the dams as early as 1998. Derna's deputy mayor said that the dams had not been maintained since 2002 and were not built to withstand such volumes of water. The lack of maintenance occurred despite the allocation of more than 2 million euros for that purpose in 2012 and 2013. However, a Turkish construction firm called Arsel Construction Company Limited claimed that it had been contracted to do maintenance work on the dam and build another one in 2007, and stated on its website that it completed that work in 2012.

As recently as 2022, a researcher at the Omar Al-Mukhtar University in Bayda, Libya had warned in a paper that the dams needed urgent attention, pointing out that there was "a high potential for flood risk". The paper also called officials to urgently carry out maintenance on the dams, prophetically stating that "(in) a huge flood, the results will be catastrophic". The Wadi Derna had been known to be prone to flooding, having experienced four major floods between 1942 and 1986.

Storm Daniel

Immediately before the dam failures, Storm Daniel caused extreme rainfall across northeastern Libya. Between September 4th and September 10th the storm caused torrential rain in Greece and the Balkans, intensified into a Mediterranean cyclone, and moved South across the Mediterranean. On September 10th, the storm made landfall in Libya near the city of Benghazi. Twenty four hour rainfall totals of 150-240mm were recorded across northeastern Libya, and winds reached 70-80mph.  Daniel moved east and continued inland before degenerating into a low pressure-area, and the storm dissipated by 12 September.

Collapse
Prior to the storm, residents were prevented from leaving their homes after authorities imposed a precautionary curfew on 10 September 2023.

It is believed that the Derna dam, located at the convergence of two river valleys, collapsed initially. The released waters rushed 12 kilometers (seven miles) towards the sea and overwhelmed the Mansur dam, which was already under stress from rising water levels in its reservoir. Residents recalled hearing loud explosions at the time the dams burst.

These waters swept through Derna with video showing the flood reaching the city shortly before 03:00 EET (UTC+2:00) on 11 September. Videos posted to social media showed cars being submerged in the deluge. Prime Minister Hamada stated that residential neighborhoods were swept away, while Hamada's aviation minister Hisham Chkiouat said that Derna looked as if it had been hit by a "tsunami". He also said that 25% of the city had "disappeared", with large parts of the city dragged out to the Mediterranean Sea.

Hospitals in the city were rendered inoperable while morgues filled up, prompting bodies to be laid out on sidewalks and in the city's main square. More than 300 bodies were sent to a morgue in Tobruk to cope with the overcrowding. More than 1,000 bodies were later buried in mass graves. Naval teams were dispatched to recover bodies swept out to sea by the floods. Over the succeeding days, at least 200 bodies were found washed up as far as 20 kilometers from Derna. Others were found more than 100 kilometers (60 miles) from the city. One person was rescued after being found 11 nautical miles off the coast of Derna.

Damage and casualties
Casualty estimates of the disaster vary widely. The U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs gave an estimate of 11,300 dead,  but later withdrew that number.  Othman Abduljalil, the health minister of Libya's Government of National Stability at the time, said 6,000 people were missing in Derna alone. The mayor of Derna, Abdulmenam Al-Ghaithi, told al-Arabiya that the final death toll in the city could range from 18,000 to 20,000, equivalent to a fifth of the city's population.

Only three of the city's ten districts escaped the flooding, while five out of seven entry routes into Derna were rendered inaccessible. The collapse of  four bridges along the Wadi Derna effectively split the city into two. An analysis by the United Nations showed that more than 2,200 buildings in the city were flooded. Over 40,000 people were 'displaced'.

Aftermath

Domestic reactions
The Libyan Presidential Council based in Tripoli declared the cities of Derna, Shahhat, and Bayda disaster zones, while the Tripoli-based Health Ministry dispatched a plane carrying 14 tons of medical equipment, drugs, body bags, and personnel to Benghazi on 12 September. The House of Representatives (HoR) based in Benghazi, which controls most of the areas affected, declared three days of national mourning, as did the internationally recognized Government of National Unity (GNU) based in Tripoli led by Prime Minister Abdulhamid al-Dbeibah. Dbeibah pledged an investigation over the extensive damage, as well as the allotment of 2.5 billion Libyan dinars ($515 million) to help rebuild Derna and Benghazi, while the House of Representatives unveiled a nearly $2-billion budget for relief efforts. Dbeibah also announced the establishment of a meticulous evaluation process for foreign aid, saying that they would "only accept aid that is deemed necessary." On 14 September, Dbeibah took responsibility for the collapse of the dam and the failure to enact its maintenance. On 15 September, Libyan General Prosecutor al-Sediq al-Sour announced that he would open an investigation into the disaster in Derna. Ordinary Libyans also responded to calls for help on social media, with individuals as far away as Zawiya, in GNU-controlled territory west of Tripoli, volunteering to go to Derna to assist in relief efforts.

The first relief convoys arrived in Derna late on 12 September.

The United Nations noted that the rival governments had been coordinating with each other regarding the relief efforts. On 13 September, a GNU ministerial delegation left Tripoli to assess the damage in Derna. At the same time, reports emerged of the Libyan National Army – commanded by Khalifa Haftar – preventing journalists from entering the city and confiscating their phones. Haftar himself promised promotions to soldiers who participated in the relief efforts.

On 13 September, evacuations were advised by authorities for the town of Tocra, west of Derna, after they warned that a dam in the area was at risk of collapse.

On 14 September, the port of Derna was reopened to vessels with a draft of no more than 6.5 meters delivering humanitarian aid, while electricity was restored to the western part of the city. On the same day, the Libyan Ambulance and Emergency Service announced that remaining residents of Derna were to be evacuated and the city closed except for search-and-rescue teams. The Libyan disease control agency reported on 15 September that at least 150 people had contracted diarrhea in Derna after drinking contaminated water.

International reactions
Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi said that he would deploy the country's military in coordination with eastern Libyan forces to help in relief operations. He also declared three days of national mourning for the victims of the floods as well as those of the 2023 Moroccan earthquake on 8 September. A military delegation led by armed forces chief of staff Osama Askar went to eastern Libya on 12 September to meet with Khalifa Haftar. The delegation included 25 rescue teams and three military aircraft carrying humanitarian supplies. The bodies of 84 Egyptians who were killed in Derna were repatriated from Tobruk and buried on 13 September.

Following a request from the president of the Libyan Presidential Council, Mohamed al-Menfi, Algeria sent eight Ilyushin Il-76 aircraft carrying humanitarian aid that included food supplies, medical equipment, clothing, and tents.

On 12 September, Italy activated its civil protection departments, with Foreign Minister Antonio Tajani stating an assessment team was on their way. Anne-Claire Legendre, a spokesperson for France's foreign ministry, announced that the country was ready to respond to requests made by Libya's government. EU foreign policy chief Josep Borrell said the organization was on stand-by to bring support, while the commission's president Ursula von der Leyen expressed condolences. Member states Germany, Romania and Finland subsequently sent aid. The World Health Organization sent a shipment consisting of 40 tons of aid to Libya. The United Nations allocated $10 million for disaster relief.

Tunisia, Germany, Qatar, Iran, Malta, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates additionally pledged humanitarian assistance to Libya.

In the weeks following the disaster, journalists from around the world reported great difficulty getting into the city, being turned away at airports or needing authorization to enter. Many rescue workers were similarly restricted.

Global awareness of dam collapse risk
The dam failures in Libya heightened awareness of the risk of dam collapses around the world. Specific attention was given to Mullaperiyar Dam in India, which is at risk of failure.

Protests and prosecution
Protesters have called for officials in Libya's eastern government to be sacked for failing to maintain the dam or issue an evacuation. On 18 September, the home of Derna's mayor Abdulmenam al-Ghaithi was burnt down.

On 25 September, the mayor of Derna, Abdulmenam al-Ghaithi, and several other officials were detained over mismanagement and negligence accusations following the Derna dam collapse.

References

Dam failures in Africa
Dams in Libya
Man-made disasters in Libya
September 2023 events in Africa
2023 in Libya

Derna dam collapses


Dore Gold (, born 1953) is an American-Israeli political scientist and diplomat who served as Permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations from 1997 to 1999. He is currently the President of the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. He was also an advisor to the former Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu during his first term in office. In May 2015, Netanyahu named him Director-General of the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, a position he held until October 2016.

Early life
Dore Gold was born in 1953 in Hartford, Connecticut, in the United States, and was raised in a Conservative Jewish home. His primary education was spent at the Orthodox Yeshiva of Hartford. In the 1970s, Gold attended Northfield Mount Hermon School (Class of 1971) and then enrolled in Columbia University. There Gold earned BA and MA in Political Science, and then  a PhD in Political Science and Middle Eastern Studies.

He studied literary Arabic and specialized in international law, and his doctoral dissertation was about Saudi Arabia. This research later formed the foundation for his 2003 New York Times bestseller, Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. In the book, Gold argues that Saudi Arabia actively funds terrorism by supporting the enemies of the U.S. and attacking its allies.

Political career
Dore Gold's political career began in 1985 when Gold served as senior research associate at Tel Aviv University's Moshe Dayan Centre for Near East Studies. Later, he was appointed Director of the U.S. Foreign and Defense Policy Project at the Jaffee Centre for Strategic Studies at Tel Aviv University and held this position from 1985 to 1996.

In 1991, Gold was an advisor to the Israeli delegation at the Madrid Peace Conference. From June 1996 to June 1997 he served as Foreign Policy Adviser to Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu.

According to Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin, Gold and Netanyahu advisor Yitzhak Molcho were the first envoys of the newly elected Likud government to meet with Yasser Arafat in the Gaza Strip on June 27, 1996. Dennis Ross relates to the "Abu-Mazen-Dore Gold" talks that ensued afterwards as a result of which the Palestinians closed down offices in East Jerusalem that Israel had argued were a violation of  the Oslo Accords.

Also in 1996, Gold secured a commitment from Secretary of State Warren Christopher that the Rabin "deposit" on the future of the Golan Heights did not bind the State of Israel. This effort also included obtaining a new US commitment from the Clinton administration to the September 1975 Ford letter, in which it was stated that the US would give great weight to Israel remaining on the Golan Heights. This renewed commitment came in a formal letter of assurances to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on September 19, 1996.

In December 2013, it was announced that Gold would once again advise Netanyahu, with his purview covering Israel's relations with the U.S. and United Nations, as well as Iran policy.

On May 25, 2015, Netanyahu announced Gold's appointment as Director-General of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, subject to the cabinet's approval. On October 13, 2016, Gold resigned from the Director-General's position for personal reasons.

Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
Since 2000 Gold has served as president of the non-profit institute, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. From 2001 to 2003, Gold served as an adviser to Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, most notably at the Aqaba Summit with President George W. Bush. During this period, Gold regularly appeared on US network television programs on behalf of the Sharon government, including Meet the Press, The Today Show, CNN's Late Edition, as well as on Fox and Friends. In July 2003, Gold testified as an expert before the U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs on Saudi Arabia's alleged role in providing ideological and financial support for international terrorism.

Since 2006, Gold led an international effort by the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs to advocate that UN member states take legal measures against President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad of Iran on grounds that he violated the anti-incitement clauses of the 1948 Genocide Convention, with his repeated statements about "wiping Israel off the map." Gold led a delegation to a conference held jointly with the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations at the New York County Bar Association on December 14, 2006. Speakers included former Canadian Justice Minister Irwin Cotler, Prof. Alan Dershowitz of Harvard Law School, and the US ambassador to the UN John Bolton. Senator Hillary Clinton sent a letter of support to the conference.

Gold led an Israeli delegation to a second conference at the British House of Commons on January 25, 2007 which was chaired by Lord David Trimble and supported by members of the British Labour Party and the Conservative Party. Former Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu joined the Israeli team. As a result of this effort, over 60 members of the House of Commons called for the indictment of Ahmadinejad. A third event organized by Gold and the International Association of Genocide Scholars was held on September 23, 2008 in Washington D.C. Speaking at the third conference was Ambassador Richard Holbrooke, former US ambassador to the UN, as well as Salih Mahmoud Osman, a member of the Sudanese Parliament and advocate for human rights in Darfur.

Publications

Books
 The Rise of Nuclear Iran: How Tehran Defies the West (Regnery, 2009).
 The Fight for Jerusalem:  Radical Islam, the West, and the Future of the Holy City ( / Publisher: Regnery, Blackstone Audiobooks / Date: Jan 2007)
 Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos (Crown Forum, November, 2004).
 Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism (Regnery, 2003).
 American Military Strategy in the Middle East: The Implications of the US Regional Command Structure (CENTCOM) For Israel (Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense Publications), 1993.
 Israel as an American Non-NATO Ally: Parameters of Defense and Industrial Cooperation (Boulder: Westview Press), 1992.

Selected articles
The Political Battle Over the 'Occupation'. The Weekly Standard. July 20, 2012.
'Land Swaps' and the 1967 Lines. The Weekly Standard. June 20, 2011.
Israel's 1967 Borders Aren't Defensible. The Wall Street Journal. May 21, 2011.
 Countdown to September. Jerusalem Viewpoints. May, 2011.
Foreign Policy. April, 2011.
Statement before the Foreign Affairs Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives . April 5, 2011.
The International Context of the U.S. Veto at the UN Security Council . Makor Rishon. February 25, 2011.
Israel's Naval Blockade of Gaza Is Legal, Necessary . Bloomberg. June 10, 2010.
Iran's Nuclear Aspirations Threaten the World. LA Times. August 6, 2009.
Israel's Forgotten Rights in Jerusalem. Haaretz. May, 2009.
Did Israel use "Disproportionate Force" in Gaza?. JCPA. December 28, 2008.
The Dangers of 'Peace' Making: America's Latest Efforts Merely Entrenched al Qaeda in the Gaza Strip. Wall Street Journal. August 12, 2007.
Saudi Arabia's Dubious Denials of Involvement in International Terrorism. Jerusalem Viewpoints. Oct 1, 2003.
Saudi Support for International Terrorism. U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs.  July 31, 2003.
The Kingdom of Incitement. Wall Street Journal.  April 14, 2003.
Baseless Comparisons: UN Security Council Resolutions on Iraq and Israel (Jerusalem Issue Brief, 24 September 2002).
Only Buffer Zones Can Protect Israel. The New York Times. Feb 27, 2002.

References

External links

Biography of Dore Gold from the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
JCPA publications by Dore Gold
Biography of Dore Gold from the Jewish Virtual Library
Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies
Dore Gold interviewed for the Jerusalem Post
 by Leon Charney on The Leon Charney Report
'Only a blind person would ignore the gravity of the threat which is emerging': an interview with Dore Gold - Fathom Journal

1953 births
American Conservative Jews
American emigrants to Israel
American political scientists
American Zionists
Bonei Zion Prize recipients
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Israeli Conservative Jews
Israeli diplomats
Israeli political scientists
Jewish American politicians
Living people
Northfield Mount Hermon School alumni
People from Hartford, Connecticut
21st-century American Jews
Diplomats from Jerusalem

Dore Gold


One Wild Oat is a comedy play by the British writer Vernon Sylvaine which premiered in 1948. Its West End run was at the Garrick Theatre with direction by the veteran entertainer Jack Buchanan. It ran for 508 performances from December 1948 to February 1950. The cast originally included Robertson Hare and Alfred Drayton, who had appeared together in several of Sylvaine's farces and their subsequent film adaptations. In 1949, following the death of Drayton, his role was taken over first by Arthur Riscoe and then Hartley Power.

Synopsis
Two feuding neighbors, a barrister and a bookmaker, join forces to try and prevent their secret pasts from coming back to haunt them.

Film Adaptation

In 1951 the play was adapted into a film made at the Riverside Studios in Hammersmith and starring Robertson Hare and Stanley Holloway. The film featured a brief cameo role from Audrey Hepburn.

References

Bibliography
 Wearing, J.P. The London Stage 1940-1949: A Calendar of Productions, Performers, and Personnel.  Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.

1948 plays
British plays adapted into films
Plays by Vernon Sylvaine
Plays set in London
Comedy plays
West End plays

One Wild Oat (play)


Alingar District is located approximately 27 km from Mehtarlam, the provincial capital of Laghman Province and borders with Alishing and Dawlat Shah districts to the West, Nuristan Province to the North, Kunar and Nangarhar provinces to the East and Qarghayi and Mihtarlam districts to the South.It has about 60 villages located in four main valleys. The population is 85,600 (2006) - 70% of them Pashtun, 20% Pashai and 5% Tajik. The district center is the village of Shahi, located on  at 915 m altitude. in the valley of the Alingar River, which crosses the district and is the main source of irrigation. The security situation is reported to be relatively stable, although there are some private disputes. The district is reported free of mines.

The main crops are wheat, rice, corn, vegetables. There are also fields with poppy. The district is mountainous, hence there is little arable land. Some of the agricultural land has been destroyed by flooding. The main sources of income are farming, daily wage labour and remittances from abroad. It was reported that around 30% of the population work in agriculture, 20% work abroad in Pakistan and Iran, 2% are government employees, 2% traders, and around 45% are without work.

During the wars 80% of the houses were destroyed and many fled to Pakistan and now they are returning slowly. The health care and education sectors are relatively well, but improvement is needed especially in the distant villages.

According to claims made by the Afghanistan liberation movement the district was liberated on March 21, 2023.

References

External links
AIMS District Map
2003 AIMS District Profile

Districts of Laghman Province

Alingar District


The Original Edit is the third official album by producer Dr. Zeus. All the vocals of this album were by Lehmber Hussainpuri. This album was released in May 2005 after much controversy. This album had no singles or music videos released because of the delay and big budget. This album was the reason for the breakup between two great bhangra performers: Lehmber Hussainpuri & Dr. Zeus

Meaning of the title
The Original Edit means that even though it is an edited version, it still is the original version out there. This was due to the controversy and early release of the album by Lehmber Hussainpuri in India under his own name.

Track listing
 Sachiyan Suniyan Ni - Lehmber Hussainpuri
 Je Jatt Bigr Gaya - Lehmber Hussainpuri
 Giddech Deor Meinu Lageyaa - Lehmber Hussainpuri
 Oh Kuri Patni - Lehmber Hussainpuri
 Nit Kush Naal Peendah - Lehmber Hussainpuri and Sabrina
 Das Ki Soniyeh - Lehmber Hussainpuri
 Putt Jattan Da Jawan - Lehmber Hussainpuri
 Yaaran Diya Yaarian Ne Mareyah - Lehmber Hussainpuri
 Je Jatt Bigr Gaya: The Mr. Shabz Mix - Lehmber Hussainpuri

Reviews
Dr. Zeus yet again won "The Album of The Year" award with this album and it was considered a top class album. The main reason for this was because the album was released 2 months earlier in India. Many people liked Folk Attack (Indian version of The Original Edit) rather than the original version because it didn't contain raps and MC's.
The Original Edit was a great album for modern bhangra fans and Folk Attack was a great album for older bhangra fans. So with 2 albums containing the same music all types of bhangra fans were satisfied.
This is ever greatest remixed album in which there is included grim on some tracks.
there was need of something new as it was just the remake of old songs.

Folk Attack

Due to Dr. Zeus not completing the tracks in time, Lehmber Hussainpuri took the uncompleted tracks behind Zeus' back to India. There he released an album called Folk Attack under BaseLine Records even though he was signed to Envy Records. All the songs from The Original Edit, plus 2 bonus songs (Adde and Kehre Pind Di) were on the album. Zeus, angry over how the tracks leaked, fired Lehmber and therefore this was the final project the two worked on together.

Dr. Zeus also decided to remove Lehmber's face from the booklet cover of the CD; leaving only his turban visible.

The album Back Unda Da Influence released a few years later which featured Lehmber Hussainpuri. Zeus decided to credit Lehmber as Lamb Burger Hussainpuri.

2005 albums
Bhangra (music) albums

The Original Edit


Respect, also called esteem, is a positive feeling or deferential action shown towards someone or something considered important or held in high esteem or regard. It conveys a sense of admiration for good or valuable qualities. It is also the process of honoring someone by exhibiting care, concern, or consideration for their needs or feelings.

In many cultures, people are considered to be worthy of respect until they prove otherwise. Some people may earn special respect through their exemplary actions or social roles. In so-called "honor cultures", respect is more often earned in this way than granted by default. Courtesies that show respect may include simple words and phrases like "thank you" in the West or "" in the Indian subcontinent, or simple physical signs like a slight bow, a smile, direct eye contact, or a handshake. Such acts may have very different interpretations depending on the cultural context.

Signs and other ways of showing respect

Language
One definition of respect is a feeling of admiration for someone or something elicited by their abilities, qualities, and achievements.

An honorific is a word or expression (such as a title like "Doctor" or a pronoun form) that shows respect when used in addressing or referring to a person.

Typically honorifics are used for second and third persons; use for first person is less common. Some languages have anti-honorific first person forms (like "your most humble servant" or "this unworthy person") whose effect is to enhance the relative honor accorded a second or third person.

For example, it is disrespectful not to use polite language and honorifics when speaking in Japanese with someone having a higher social status. The Japanese honorific "" can be used when English is spoken.

In China, it is considered rude to call someone by their first name unless the person is known by the speaker for a long period of time. In work-related situations, people address each other by their titles. At home, people often refer to each other by nicknames or terms of kinship. In Chinese culture, individuals often address their friends as juniors and seniors even if they are just a few months younger or older. When the Chinese ask for someone's age, they often do so to know how to address the person.

Physical gestures

In Islamic cultures, there are many ways to show respect to people. For example, one may kiss the hands of parents, grandparents, or teachers. Also, it is narrated in the sayings of Muhammad that if a person looks at the faces of parents and teachers with a smile, he or she will definitely be rewarded by Allah with success and happiness.

In India, it is customary that, out of respect, when a person's foot accidentally touches a book or any written material (considered to be a manifestations of Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge) or another person's body, it will be followed by an apology in the form of a single hand gesture () with the right hand, where the offending person first touches the object with the finger tips and then the forehead and/or chest. This also counts for money, which is considered to be a manifestation of the goddess of wealth, Lakshmi. Pranāma, or the touching of feet in Indian culture is a sign of respect. For instance, when a child is greeting his or her grandparent, they typically will touch their hands to their grandparents' feet. In Indian culture, it is believed that the feet are a source of power and love.

In many African/West Indian descent communities and some non-African/West Indian descent communities, respect can be signified by the touching of fists.

Many gestures or physical acts that are common in the West can be considered disrespectful in Japan. For instance, one should not point directly at someone. When greeting someone or thanking them, it may be insulting if the person of lower status does not bow lower than the person with higher status. The duration and level of the bow depends on many factors such as age and status. Some signs of physical respect apply to women only. If a woman does not wear cosmetics or a brassiere, it is possible that she will be considered unprofessional or others may think she does not care about her situation.

Respect as a virtue
Respect for others is a variety of virtue or character strength. The philosopher Immanuel Kant made the virtue of respect the core of his Categorical Imperative:
 So act that you treat humanity… always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.

China

Chinese culture

In Chinese culture, bowing is generally reserved as a sign of respect for elders and ancestors. When bowing, they place the fist of the right hand in the palm of their left at stomach level. The deeper the bow, the more respect they are showing.

Traditionally, there was not much hand-shaking in Chinese culture. However, this gesture is now widely practiced among men, especially when greeting Westerners or other foreigners. Many Westerners may find Chinese handshakes to be too long or too weak, but this is because a weaker handshake is a gesture of humility and respect.

Kowtowing, or kneeling and bowing so deeply that one's forehead is touching the floor, is practiced during worship at temples. Kowtowing is a powerful gesture reserved mainly for honoring the dead or offering deep respect at a temple.

Many codes of behavior revolve around young people showing respect to older people. Filial piety is a virtue of having respect for ancestors, family, and elders. As in many cultures, younger Chinese individuals are expected to defer to older people, let them speak first, sit down after them, and not contradict them. Sometimes when an older person enters a room, everyone stands. People are often introduced from oldest to youngest. Often, younger people will go out of their way to open doors for their elders and not cross their legs in front of them. The older you are the more respect you are expected to be treated with.

Respect as a cultural value

Indigenous American culture
In many indigenous American societies, respect is viewed as a moral value that teaches indigenous people about their culture. This moral value is treated as a process that influences participation in the community and also helps people develop and become integrated into their culture. For this reason, the value of respect is taught during childhood.

Respect as a form of behavior and participation is especially important as a basis of how children must conduct themselves in their community. Children engage in mature activities such as cooking for the family, cleaning and sweeping the house, caring for infant peers, and crop work. Indigenous children learn to view their participation in these activities as a representation of respect. Through this manner of participation in activities of respect, children not only learn about culture but also practice it as well.

See also
 Asch conformity experiments
 Dignity
 Etiquette
 :Category: Social graces
 Etiquette in Asia
 Golden Rule
 Milgram experiment
 Non-aggression principle
 PLUR

References

Further reading

External links

 —Multidisciplinary research project on interpersonal respect, with additional quotes, gallery, literature

Concepts in ethics
Cultural conventions
Human behavior
Interpersonal relationships
Virtue
Feeling

Respect


The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally temperature in Earth's atmosphere, falls with altitude. Lapse rate arises from the word lapse, in the sense of a gradual fall.  In dry air, the adiabatic lapse rate (i.e., decrease in temperature of a parcel of air that rises in the atmosphere without exchange energy with surrounding air) is 9.8 °C/km (5.4 °F per 1,000 ft). The saturated air lapse rate (SALR), or moist adiabatic lapse rate (MALR), is the decrease in temperature of a parcel of water-saturated air that rises in the atmosphere. It varies with the temperature and pressure of the parcel and is often in the range 3.6 to 9.2 °C/km (2 to 5 °F/1000 ft), as obtained from the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The environmental lapse rate is the decrease in temperature of air with altitude for a specific time and place (see below). It can be highly variable between circumstances.

Lapse rate corresponds to the vertical component of the spatial gradient of temperature. Although this concept is most often applied to the Earth's troposphere, it can be extended to any gravitationally supported parcel of gas.

Definition
A formal definition from the Glossary of Meteorology is:
The decrease of an atmospheric variable with height, the variable being temperature unless otherwise specified.

Typically, the lapse rate is the negative of the rate of temperature change with altitude change:

where  (sometimes ) is the lapse rate given in units of temperature divided by units of altitude, T is temperature, and z is altitude.

Convection and adiabatic expansion

The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between thermal conduction, thermal radiation, and natural convection. Sunlight hits the surface of the earth (land and sea) and heats them. They then heat the air above the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer energy from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly .

However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and carry internal energy upward. This is the process of convection. Vertical convective motion stops when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation.

When a parcel of air expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing thermodynamic work. An expansion or contraction of an air parcel without inward or outward heat transfer is an adiabatic process. Air has low thermal conductivity, and the bodies of air involved are very large, so transfer of heat by conduction is negligibly small. Also, in such expansion and contraction, intra-atmospheric radiative heat transfer is relatively slow and so negligible. Since the upward-moving and expanding parcel does work but gains no heat, it loses internal energy so that its temperature decreases.

The adiabatic process for air has a characteristic temperature-pressure curve, so the process determines the lapse rate. When the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate: the rate of temperature decrease is  ( per 1,000 ft) (3.0 °C/1,000 ft). The reverse occurs for a sinking parcel of air.

When the lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate the atmosphere is stable and convection will not occur.

Only the troposphere (up to approximately  of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes convection: the stratosphere does not generally convect. However, some exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops associated with severe supercell thunderstorms, may locally and temporarily inject convection through the tropopause and into the stratosphere.

Energy transport in the atmosphere is more complex than the interaction between radiation and convection. Thermal conduction, evaporation, condensation, precipitation all influence the temperature profile, as described below.

Mathematics of the adiabatic lapse rate
The following calculations use a very simple model of an atmosphere. In this model, an atmosphere is either dry or moist and exists within a still vertical column at equilibrium.

Dry adiabatic lapse rate
Thermodynamics defines an adiabatic process as:

the first law of thermodynamics can be written as

Also, since the density  and , we can show that:

where  is the specific heat at constant pressure.

Assuming an atmosphere in hydrostatic equilibrium:

where g is the standard gravity. Combining these two equations to eliminate the pressure, one arrives at the result for the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR),

Moist adiabatic lapse rate

The presence of water within the atmosphere (usually the troposphere) complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As a parcel of air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated; that is, the vapor pressure of water in equilibrium with liquid water has decreased (as temperature has decreased) to the point where it is equal to the actual vapor pressure of water. With further decrease in temperature the water vapor in excess of the equilibrium amount condenses, forming cloud, and releasing heat (latent heat of condensation). Before saturation, the rising air follows the dry adiabatic lapse rate. After saturation, the rising air follows the moist (or wet) adiabatic lapse rate. The release of latent heat is an important source of energy in the development of thunderstorms.

While the dry adiabatic lapse rate is a constant  ( per 1,000 ft, ), the moist adiabatic lapse rate varies strongly with temperature. A typical value is around , (, , ). The formula for the moist adiabatic lapse rate is given by:

where:
{| border="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| wet adiabatic lapse rate, K/m
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| Earth's gravitational acceleration = 9.8076 m/s2
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| heat of vaporization of water =
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| specific gas constant of dry air = 287 J/kg·K
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| specific gas constant of water vapour = 461.5 J/kg·K
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the dimensionless ratio of the specific gas constant of dry air to the specific gas constant for water vapour = 0.622
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the water vapour pressure of the saturated air
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the mixing ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the pressure of the saturated air
|-
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| temperature of the saturated air, K
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, = 1003.5J/kg·K
|}

Environmental lapse rate
The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and location. As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of   or  from sea level to 11 km  or . From 11 km up to 20 km  or , the constant temperature is  , which is the lowest assumed temperature in the ISA. The standard atmosphere contains no moisture. Unlike the idealized ISA, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. For example, there can be an inversion layer in which the temperature increases with altitude.

Effect on weather

The varying environmental lapse rates throughout the Earth's atmosphere are of critical importance in meteorology, particularly within the troposphere. They are used to determine if the parcel of rising air will rise high enough for its water to condense to form clouds, and, having formed clouds, whether the air will continue to rise and form bigger shower clouds, and whether these clouds will get even bigger and form cumulonimbus clouds (thunder clouds).

As unsaturated air rises, its temperature drops at the dry adiabatic rate.  The dew point also drops (as a result of decreasing air pressure) but much more slowly, typically about  per 1,000 m. If unsaturated air rises far enough, eventually its temperature will reach its dew point, and condensation will begin to form. This altitude is known as the lifting condensation level (LCL) when mechanical lift is present and the convective condensation level (CCL) when mechanical lift is absent, in which case, the parcel must be heated from below to its convective temperature. The cloud base will be somewhere within the layer bounded by these parameters.

The difference between the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the rate at which the dew point drops is around  per 1,000 m. Given a difference in temperature and dew point readings on the ground, one can easily find the LCL by multiplying the difference by 125 m/°C.

If the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely stable — rising air will cool faster than the surrounding air and lose buoyancy. This often happens in the early morning, when the air near the ground has cooled overnight. Cloud formation in stable air is unlikely.

If the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates, the air is conditionally unstable — an unsaturated parcel of air does not have sufficient buoyancy to rise to the LCL or CCL, and it is stable to weak vertical displacements in either direction. If the parcel is saturated it is unstable and will rise to the LCL or CCL, and either be halted due to an inversion layer of convective inhibition, or if lifting continues, deep, moist convection (DMC) may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection (LFC), after which it enters the free convective layer (FCL) and usually rises to the equilibrium level (EL).

If the environmental lapse rate is larger than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, it has a superadiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely unstable — a parcel of air will gain buoyancy as it rises both below and above the lifting condensation level or convective condensation level. This often happens in the afternoon mainly over land masses. In these conditions, the likelihood of cumulus clouds, showers or even thunderstorms is increased.

Meteorologists use radiosondes to measure the environmental lapse rate and compare it to the predicted adiabatic lapse rate to forecast the likelihood that air will rise. Charts of the environmental lapse rate are known as thermodynamic diagrams, examples of which include Skew-T log-P diagrams and tephigrams. (See also Thermals).

The difference in moist adiabatic lapse rate and the dry rate is the cause of foehn wind phenomenon (also known as "Chinook winds" in parts of North America). The phenomenon exists because warm moist air rises through orographic lifting up and over the top of a mountain range or large mountain. The temperature decreases with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, until it hits the dew point, where water vapor in the air begins to condense. Above that altitude, the adiabatic lapse rate decreases to the moist adiabatic lapse rate as the air continues to rise. Condensation is also commonly followed by precipitation on the top and windward sides of the mountain. As the air descends on the leeward side, it is warmed by adiabatic compression at the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Thus, the foehn wind at a certain altitude is warmer than the corresponding altitude on the windward side of the mountain range. In addition, because the air has lost much of its original water vapor content, the descending air creates an arid region on the leeward side of the mountain.

See also
 Adiabatic process
 Atmospheric thermodynamics
 Fluid dynamics
 Foehn wind
 Lapse rate climate feedback
 Scale height

Notes

References

Further reading
  www.air-dispersion.com

External links
 Definition, equations and tables of lapse rate from the Planetary Data system.
 National Science Digital Library glossary:
 Lapse Rate
 Environmental lapse rate
 Absolute stable air
 An introduction to lapse rate calculation from first principles from U. Texas

Atmospheric thermodynamics
Climate change feedbacks
Fluid mechanics
Meteorological quantities
Spatial gradient
Atmospheric temperature
Vertical position

Lapse rate


Ferdinand Lemaire was a librettist and writer. He is best remembered as the librettist for Camille Saint-Saëns's opera Samson et Delila (1876). Lemaire was born in Martinique. He was a creole. He married into Saint-Saëns's family. He agreed to write Samson but only as opera, rather than as an oratorio as the composer first intended.

Librettists

Ferdinand Lemaire


DeAlva Eyvonnie Sibley (May 25, 1922 – July 20, 1998), better known by her ring name June Byers, was an American women's professional wrestler famous in the 1950s and early 1960s. She held the Women's World Championship for ten years and is a member of the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame. She is overall a three-time women's world champion.

Early life
Born in Houston, Texas, the tomboyish Sibley grew up around wrestling. Her uncle, Ottoway Roberts, worked for local wrestling promoter Morris Siegel, and as she got older, she often hung around the wrestlers and asked them to teach her their moves. On one occasion while DeAlva was playing around in the ring, the women's wrestling promoter Billy Wolfe happened to see her and recognized her potential. Already divorced once and facing poverty, she accepted Wolfe's offer to be trained as a professional wrestler.

Professional wrestling career
Taking her family nickname of "June" and her ex-husband's last name of "Byers" for her ring name, Sibley made her professional debut in 1944. She spent the first years of her career traveling the country in Wolfe's promotion, sometimes winning preliminary matches but regularly losing to the more established stars such as Mae Young and champion Mildred Burke. Slowly rising in the ranks, she first won gold in 1952 when she and partner Millie Stafford won the Tag Title over Young and Ella Waldek.

That same year Mildred Burke had a bitter falling-out with husband Wolfe and departed the promotion, leaving the world title vacant. On June 14, 1953, a still relatively unknown Byers won a 13-woman tournament in Baltimore to claim the belt. She quickly became a popular fan favorite champion, even appearing as a contestant on the popular game shows What's My Line? and I've Got A Secret on August 16, 1953.

After a year of tense negotiation, Wolfe finally coaxed Burke into meeting Byers in a definitive two out of three falls match on August 20, 1954 in Atlanta, Georgia. Byers won the first fall, and then the match was called after an hour during the second fall. In the book The Queen of the Ring author Jeff Leen writes that despite battling injuries, Burke was able to hold Byers to a stalemate after dropping the first fall and thus deprive her of the second fall she needed to truly defeat Burke. Despite the inconclusive finish, the Atlanta Athletic Commission eventually awarded the match to Byers. Burke angrily returned to her own promotion, the World Women's Wrestling Association, where she held its title and billed herself as world champion. She maintained later that she had dropped the first fall with the intent to compete stronger in the second, and it is noted that Wolfe used all possible connections to try to get a win for his new star (and daughter-in-law) Byers. Byers, for her part, stressed that "Mildred claims she wasn't defeated, but I pinned her in the first fall. During the second fall, she left the ring and refused to come back. Regardless of what she told people, it was a shoot." Whatever the truth, the match outcome was satisfactory enough for the media to discredit Burke and acknowledge Byers as the legitimate world champion. Jeff Leen's account in Queen of the Ring contradicts Byers's claims about Burke leaving the ring and refusing to return. Furthermore, Leen details how Billy Wolfe had a great deal to do with putting Byers over as the "winner" and he quotes the ring announcer following the match as saying, "Commissioner stops the bout. Mildred Burke is still officially champion of the world".

As the face of women's wrestling for the next decade, Byers's athleticism and technical skills did much to open new markets for women's wrestling and improve its perception in the eyes of the public as being more than mere tawdry spectacle. Complementing her repertoire of scientific moves was her toughness in an age of very tough women, and she was known for working incredibly stiff against newcomers: one such wrestler recalled getting a broken nose and two black eyes from Byers intentionally punching her in the face. Byers wrestled many matches with Penny Banner, and the two had great respect for one another: Byers ranked Banner as among her toughest opponents, while Banner named Byers the greatest of all time.

In 1956, the Baltimore Athletic Commission stripped Byers of the NWA Championship when she announced her plans to retire as champion. A thirteen-woman battle royal was used to determine the new champion. After The Fabulous Moolah won the championship, Byers came out of retirement to challenge her for the title, but Byers lost the match.

On March 31, 2017, Byers was posthumously inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame as a part of the Legacy wing.

Personal life
The Fabulous Moolah alleges that while traveling with Billy Wolfe's troupe of female wrestlers, Byers often slept with Wolfe (despite his marriage to Burke) in order to get better bookings.

Upon Wolfe's death, Byers moved to St. Louis to work for wrestling promoter, and later TV ring announcer, Sam Menacker, who became her third husband. In 1963, while attempting to drive after being hit in the head with a Coke bottle, Byers experienced quadruple vision and collided with a tree. The leg damage from the auto accident cut her career short at age 41 and forced her to retire on January 1, 1964. In her later life, she had double vision from the incident.

Byers returned to Texas after retirement from the ring, becoming a real estate agent. She had two children, Billy and Jewel. Her son was fatally electrocuted in an accident, and Byers was reportedly never the same afterward. She died of pneumonia at her Houston home in 1998.

Championships and accomplishments
 Independent
 Women's World Championship (1 time, final)
 Women's World Championship Tournament (1953)

 American Wrestling Association
 AWA World Women's Championship (1 time)

 National Wrestling Alliance
 NWA World Women's Championship (1 time)
 NWA World Women's Tag Team Championship (7 times) – with Ethel Johnson (1), Millie Stafford (2), Mary Jane Mull (2), Mars Bennett (1) and Barbara Baker (1)

 Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
 Women's Wrestling (Class of 2006)

 WWE
 WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2017)

References

External links

June Byers at the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame

1922 births
1998 deaths
20th-century American actresses
American female professional wrestlers
AWA World Women's Champions
Deaths from pneumonia in Texas
Entertainers from Houston
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
WWE Hall of Fame Legacy inductees
Stampede Wrestling alumni
Infectious disease deaths in Texas
20th-century female professional wrestlers
NWA World Women's Champions

June Byers