The FM broadcast band is a range of radio frequencies used for FM broadcasting by radio stations. The range of frequencies used differs between different parts of the world. In Europe and Africa (defined as International Telecommunication Union (ITU) region 1) and in Australia and New Zealand, it spans from 87.5 to 108 megahertz (MHz) - also known as VHF Band II - while in the Americas (ITU region 2) it ranges from 88 to 108 MHz. The FM broadcast band in Japan uses 76 to 95 MHz, and in Brazil, 76 to 108 MHz. The International Radio and Television Organisation (OIRT) band in Eastern Europe is from 65.9 to 74.0 MHz, although these countries now primarily use the 87.5 to 108 MHz band, as in the case of Russia. Some other countries have already discontinued the OIRT band and have changed to the 87.5 to 108 MHz band.

Narrow band Frequency Modulation was developed and demonstrated by Hanso Idzerda in 1919.

Wide band Frequency modulation radio originated in the United States during the 1930s; the system was developed by the American electrical engineer Edwin Howard Armstrong. However, FM broadcasting did not become widespread, even in North America, until the 1960s.

Frequency-modulated radio waves can be generated at any frequency. All the bands mentioned in this article are in the very high frequency (VHF) range, which extends from 30 to 300 MHz.

CCIR bandplan

Center frequencies
While all countries use FM channel center frequencies ending in 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 MHz, some countries also use center frequencies ending in 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 MHz. A few others also use 0.05, 0.15, 0.25, 0.35, 0.45, 0.55, 0.65, 0.75, 0.85, and 0.95 MHz.

An ITU conference in Geneva, Switzerland, on December 7, 1984, resolved to discontinue the use of 50 kHz channel spacings throughout Europe.
 Most countries have used 100 kHz or 200 kHz channel spacings for FM broadcasting since this ITU conference in 1984.
 Some digitally-tuned FM radios are unable to tune using 50 kHz or even 100 kHz increments. Therefore, when traveling abroad or importing receivers, stations that broadcast on certain frequencies using such increments may not be heard clearly. This problem will not affect reception on an analog-tuned radio.
 A few countries, such as Italy, which have heavily congested FM bands, still allow a station on any multiple of 50 kHz wherever one can be squeezed in.
 The 50 kHz channel spacings help prevent co-channel interference, and these take advantage of FM's capture effect and receiver selectivity.

ITU Region 2 bandplan and channel numbering
The original frequency allocation in North America used by Edwin Armstrong used the frequency band from 42 through 50 MHz, but this allocation was changed to a higher band beginning in 1945. In Canada, the United States, Mexico, the Bahamas, etc., there are 101 FM channels numbered from 200 (center frequency 87.9 MHz) to 300 (center frequency 107.9 MHz), though these numbers are rarely used outside the fields of radio engineering and government.

The center frequencies of the FM channels are spaced in increments of 200 kHz. The frequency of 87.9 MHz, while technically part of TV channel 6 (82 to 88 MHz), is used by just two FM class-D stations in the United States. Portable radio tuners often tune down to 87.5 MHz, so that the same radios can be made and sold worldwide. Automobiles usually have FM radios that can tune down to 87.7 MHz, so that TV channel 6's audio at 87.75 MHz (±10 kHz) could be received, such as in Birmingham, Alabama, and Denver, Colorado. With the advent of digital television in the United States, this ability will soon be irrelevant when the remaining analog LPTV stations are required by the FCC to shut down or convert to digital by September 2015—but there are still analog television stations in the sparsely-populated regions of northern Canada. There are also analog TV stations on the other continents and on scores of different islands.

In the United States, the twenty-one channels with center frequencies of 87.9–91.9 MHz (channels 200 through 220) constitute the reserved band, exclusively for non-commercial educational (NCE) stations. The other channels (92.1 MHz through 107.9 MHz (Channels 221–300) may be used by both commercial and non-commercial stations. (Note that in Canada and in Mexico this reservation does not apply; Mexico introduced a reservation of 106.1–107.9 MHz for community and indigenous stations in 2014, though dozens of stations are grandfathered due to lack of space to relocate them.)

Originally, the American Federal Communications Commission (FCC) devised a bandplan in which FM radio stations would be assigned at intervals of four channels (800 kHz separation) for any one geographic area. Thus, in one area, stations might be at 88.1, 88.9, 89.7, etc., while in an adjacent area, stations might be at 88.3, 89.1, 89.9, 90.7 etc. Certain frequencies were designated for Class A only (see FM broadcasting), which had a limit of three kilowatts of effective radiated power (ERP) and an antenna height limit for the center of radiation of 300 feet (91.4 m) height above average terrain (HAAT). These frequencies were 92.1, 92.7, 93.5, 94.3, 95.3, 95.9, 96.7, 97.7, 98.3, 99.3, 100.1, 100.9, 101.7, 102.3, 103.1, 103.9, 104.9, 105.5, 106.3 and 107.1. On other frequencies, a station could be Class B (50 kW, 500 feet) or Class C (100 kW, 2,000 feet), depending on which zone it was in.

In the late 1980s, the FCC switched to a bandplan based on a distance separation table using currently operating stations, and subdivided the class table to create extra classes and change antenna height limits to meters. Class A power was doubled to six kilowatts, and the frequency restrictions noted above were removed. As of late 2004, a station can be "squeezed in" anywhere as long as the location and class conform to the rules in the FCC separation table. The rules for second-adjacent-channel spacing do not apply for stations licensed before 1964.

In 2017, Brazil laid the groundwork to reclaim channels 5 and 6 (76.1–87.5 MHz) for sound broadcasting use and required new radio receivers to be able to tune into the new extended band (, abbreviated eFM). Five transmitters of public broadcaster Brazil Communication Company were the first extended-band stations to begin broadcasts on May 7, 2021.

Deviation and bandpass
Normally each channel is 200 kHz (0.2 MHz) wide, and can pass audio and subcarrier frequencies up to 100 kHz. Deviation is typically limited to 150 kHz total (±75 kHz) in order to prevent adjacent-channel interference on the band. Stations in the U.S. may go up to 10% over this limit if they use non-stereo subcarriers, increasing total modulation by 0.5% for each 1% used by the subcarriers.

OIRT bandplan
The OIRT FM broadcast band covers 65.9 to 74 MHz. It was used in the Soviet Union and most of the other Warsaw Pact member countries of the International Radio and Television Organisation in Eastern Europe (OIRT), with the exception of East Germany, which always used the 87.5 to 100 (later 104) MHz broadcast band—in line with Western Europe.

The lower portion of the VHF band behaves a bit like shortwave radio in that it has a longer reach than the upper portion of the VHF band.  It was ideally suited for reaching vast and remote areas that would otherwise lack FM radio reception. In a way, FM suited this band because the capture effect of FM could mitigate interference from skywaves.

Transition to the 87.5 to 108 MHz band started as early as the 1980s in some East European countries. Following the collapse of the communist governments, that transition was remarkably accelerated as private stations have been established. This was also prompted by the lack of equipment for the OIRT band and the modernisation of existing transmission networks.

Many countries have completely ceased broadcasting on the OIRT FM band, although use continues in others, mainly the former republics of the USSR. The future of broadcasting on the OIRT FM band is limited, due to the lack of new consumer receivers for this band outside of Russia.

Countries which still use the OIRT band are Russia (including Kaliningrad), Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, Lithuania and Turkmenistan.

In Czechoslovakia, the decision to use the 87.5 to 108 MHz band instead of 65.9 to 74 MHz band was made in the beginning of the eighties. The frequency plan was created, which was internationally coordinated at Regional Administrative Conference for FM Sound Broadcasting in the VHF band in Geneva, 1984. Allocated frequencies are still valid and are used in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The first transmitter was put into operation on 102.5 MHz near Prague in November 1984. Three years later, there were eleven transmitters in service across the country, including three in the Prague neighborhood of Žižkov. In 1988, the plan was to set up 270 transmitters in 45 locations eventually. The transition was finished in 1993.

In Poland all OIRT broadcast transmitters were closed down at the end of 1999.

Hungary closed down its remaining broadcast transmitters in 2007, and for thirty days in July of that year, several Hungarian amateur radio operators received a temporary experimental permit to perform propagation and interference experiments in the 70–70.5 MHz band.

In Belarus, only government-run public radio stations are still active on OIRT. All stations on OIRT in Belarus are a mirror of normal FM broadcasts. The main purpose of those stations is compatibility with older equipment.

In 2014, Russia began replacing OIRT-banded transmitter with CCIR-banded (the "western") FM transmitters. The main reason for the change to CCIR FM is to reach more listeners.

Unlike Western practice, OIRT FM frequencies are based on 30 kHz rather than 50, 100 or 200 kHz multiples. This may have been to reduce co-channel interference caused by Sporadic E propagation and other atmospheric effects, which occur more often at these frequencies. However, multipath distortion effects are less annoying than on the CCIR band.

Stereo is generally achieved by sending the stereo difference signal, using a process called polar modulation. Polar modulation uses a reduced subcarrier on 31.25 kHz with the audio on both side-bands. This gives the following signal structure: L + R --> 31.25 kHz reduced subcarrier L - R.

The 4-meter band (70–70.5 MHz) amateur radio allocation used in many European countries is entirely within the OIRT FM band. Operators on this band and the 6-meter band (50–54 MHz) use the presence of broadcast stations as an indication that there is an "opening" into Eastern Europe or Russia. This can be a mixed blessing because the 4 meter amateur allocation is only 0.5 MHz or less, and a single broadcast station causes considerable interference to a large part of the band.

The System D television channels R4 and R5 lie wholly or partly within the 87.5–108 MHz FM audio broadcast band. Countries which still use System D therefore have to consider the re-organisation of TV broadcasting in order to make full use of this band for audio broadcasting.

Japanese bandplan

The FM band in Japan is 76–95 MHz (previously 76–90). The 90–108 MHz section was used for analog VHF TV Channels 1, 2 and 3 (each NTSC television channel is 6 MHz wide). The narrowness of the Japanese band (19 MHz compared to slightly more than 20 MHz for the CCIR band) limits the number of FM stations that can be accommodated on the dial with the result that many commercial radio stations are forced to use AM.

Many Japanese radios are capable of receiving both the Japanese FM band and the CCIR FM band, so that the same model can be sold within Japan or exported. The radio may cover 76 to 108 MHz, the frequency coverage may be selectable by the user, or during assembly the radio may be set to operate on one band by means of a specially placed diode or other internal component.

Conventional analog-tuned (dial & pointer) radios were formerly marked with "TV Sound" in the 76–88 section. If these radios were sold in the US, for example, the 76–88 section would be marked TV sound for VHF channels 5 and 6 (as two 6 MHz-wide NTSC TV channels), with the 88–108 section band as normal FM. The compatibility of "TV sound" with conventional FM radio ended with the U.S. digital TV transition in 2009, with the exception of the limited number of low-power stations on channel 6 that still use analog; these low-power stations will switch to digital in 2021.

Second-hand automobiles imported from Japan contain a radio designed for the Japanese FM band, and importers often fit a "converter" to down-convert the 87.5 to 107.9 MHz band to the frequencies that the radio can accept. In addition to showing an incorrect frequency, there are two other disadvantages that can result in undesired performance; the converter cannot down-convert in full the regular international FM band (up to 20.5 MHz wide) to the only 14 MHz-wide Japanese band (unless the converter incorporates two user-switchable down-convert modes), and the car's antenna may perform poorly on the higher FM band. Some converters simply down-convert the FM band by 12 MHz, leading to logical frequencies (e.g. 78.9 for 90.9, 82.3 for 94.3, etc.), but leaving off the 102–108 MHz band. Also, RDS is not used in Japan, whereas most modern car radios available in Europe have this system. Also the converter may not allow pass-through of the MW band, which is used for AM broadcasting. A better solution is to replace the radio and antenna with ones designed for the country where the car will be used.

Australia had a similar situation with Australian TV channels 3, 4 and 5 that are between 88 and 108 MHz, and was intending to follow Japan, but in the end opted for the western bandplan, due to CCIR radios that entered the country. There were some radios sold in Australia for 76 to 90 MHz.

Historic U.S. bandplan

In the 1930s investigations were begun into establishing radio stations transmitting on "Very High Frequency" (VHF) assignments above 30 MHz. In October 1937, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) announced new frequency allocations, which included a band of experimental and educational "Apex" stations, that consisted of 75 channels spanning from 41.02 to 43.98 MHz. Like the existing AM band these stations employed amplitude modulation, however the 40 kHz spacing between adjacent frequencies was four times as much as the 10 kHz spacing on the standard AM broadcast band, which reduced adjacent-frequency interference, and provided more bandwidth for high-fidelity programming.

Also during the 1930s Edwin Howard Armstrong developed a competing transmission technology, "wide-band frequency modulation", which was promoted as being superior to AM transmissions, in particular due to its high-fidelity and near immunity to static interference. In May 1940, largely as the result of Armstrong's efforts, the FCC decided to eliminate the Apex band, and authorized an FM band effective January 1, 1941, operating on 40 channels spanning 42–50 MHz, with the first five channels reserved for educational stations. There was significant interest in the new FM band by station owners, however, construction restrictions that went into place during World War II limited the growth of the new service.

Following the end of the war, the FCC moved to standardize its frequency allocations. One area of concern was the effects of tropospheric and Sporadic E propagation, which at times reflected station signals over great distances, causing mutual interference. A particularly controversial proposal, spearheaded by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), which was headed by David Sarnoff, was that the FM band needed to be shifted to higher frequencies in order to avoid this potential problem. Armstrong charged that this reassignment had the covert goal of disrupting FM radio development, however RCA's proposal prevailed, and on June 27, 1945 the FCC announced the reassignment of the FM band to 90 channels from 88–106 MHz, which was soon expanded to 100 channels from 88–108 MHz, with the first 20 channels reserved for educational stations. A period of allowing existing FM stations to broadcast on both the original "low" and new "high" FM bands followed, which ended at midnight on January 8, 1949, at which time all low band transmissions had to end.

In 1978 one additional frequency reserved for educational stations, 87.9 MHz, was allocated. In March 2008, the FCC requested public comment on turning the bandwidth currently occupied by analog television channels 5 and 6 (76–88 MHz) over to extending the FM broadcast band when the digital television transition was to be completed in February 2009 (ultimately delayed to June 2009). This proposed allocation would have effectively assigned frequencies corresponding to the existing Japanese FM radio service (which begins at 76 MHz) for use as an extension to the existing North American FM broadcast band. Several low-power television stations colloquially known as "Franken-FMs" operated primarily as radio stations on channel 6, using the 87.7 MHz audio carrier of that channel as a radio station receivable on most FM receivers configured to cover the whole of Band II, from 2009 to 2021; since then, a reduced number have received special temporary authority to carry a special audio carrier on their ATSC 3.0 signals to continue the status quo.

FM radio switch-off
With the gradual adoption of digital radio broadcasting (e.g. HD Radio, DAB+) radio, some countries have planned and started an FM radio switch-off. Norway, in January 2018, was the first country to discontinue FM as a result.

See also
FM broadcasting
Frequency modulation

References

Bandplans
Broadcast engineering

FM broadcast band


Ubayd Allah (), also spelled or transliterated Obaidullah, Obaydullah, Obeidallah, or Ubaydullah, is a male Arabic given name that means "little servant of God".

Given name

Obaidullah
 Obaidullah (detainee), an Afghan detainee held in Guantanamo
 Obaidullah (Bangladeshi cricketer), Bangladeshi cricketer
 Obaidullah (Pakistani cricketer), Pakistani cricketer
 Obaidullah (Kandahar politician), elected to Afghanistan's Wolesi Jirga in 2005
 Obaidullah Akhund, Afghan defence minister
 Obaidullah Aleem, Pakistani poet
 Obaidullah Baig, Pakistani writer
 Obaidullah Hamzah (born 1972), Bangladeshi Islamic scholar
 Obaidullah Karimi, Afghan footballer
 Azmi Maulana Obaidullah Khan, Indian National Congress politician
 Obaidullah Rameen, Afghan politician

Ubaydallah
 Ubayd-Allah ibn Abd-Allah, hadith narrator
 Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, founder of the Fatimid dynasty
 Ubayd-Allah ibn Jahsh, brother of Zaynab bint Jahsh
 Ubayd Allah Abu Marwan, Spanish military personnel
 Ubayd Allah ibn Umar, son of Caliph Umar
 Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad, a son of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan

Others
 Obeid Allah ibn al-Habhab, important Umayyad official in Egypt from 724 to 734
 Ubaydah ibn al-Harith, son of Harith ibn Abd al-Muttalib
 Abū 'Ubayd 'Abd Allāh al-Bakrī, Andalusian-Arab geographer and historian

Surname
Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah, a companion of Muhammad
 Abu Zafar Obaidullah, Bangladeshi writer
Dean Obeidallah, American comedian

Habibah binte Ubayd-Allah, daughter of Ubayd-Allah ibn Jahsh

See also
Al-Ubaid (disambiguation), for the various uses and romanizations of the root name Ubayd
 Ubaydul Haq (disambiguation) and variants

Arabic-language surnames
Arabic-language masculine given names
Masculine given names
Theophoric names

Ubayd Allah


Gerard Presencer (born 12 September 1972) is an English jazz trumpeter.

Biography
Presencer showed his first interest in what was to become his chosen instrument, the trumpet, at nine. He attributes his early determination to become a trumpeter to hearing Roy Eldridge's solo from a Jazz at the Philharmonic concert. He has cited Dizzy Gillespie, Lee Morgan, Freddie Hubbard, Kenny Wheeler, Woody Shaw, and Clifford Brown as early influences.

When he was eleven, he became the youngest trumpeter with the National Youth Jazz Orchestra. At the age of 18, he began playing with pianist Stan Tracey, in his big band, octet, septet, and in duo, playing a live concert at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall, later released on Blue Note Records.

Presencer worked with British musicians Peter King, John Dankworth, John Taylor, Ronnie Scott, Norma Winstone, and Mike Gibbs, as well as with international musicians, including Johnny Griffin, Chris Potter, Mark Turner, Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Randy Brecker, Red Rodney, Herbie Hancock, Chick Corea, John Abercrombie, and Bob Berg. He is a member of Charlie Watts' various jazz groups, with which he has recorded five albums, and was a featured soloist on US3's Cantaloop, Blue Note's biggest-selling album of the 1990s. He has also released albums as a band leader.

In January 2010, Presencer was as a soloist with the Danish Radio Big Band for the opening of the Danish National Concert Hall. Later the same year he became a regular member of the big band and moved to Copenhagen.

Other genres
Presencer has collaborated frequently with contemporary classical music composer Siobhan Lamb as an improvising soloist. Two albums were released in 2012 by the Naxos label Proprius: Meditations and The Nightingale and the Rose.

As a session musician, he has recorded with Sting, Jamiroquai, Zero 7, James Brown, Ray Charles, Joni Mitchell, and Jonny Greenwood.

He is the featured soloist on the 2011 BAFTA Award-winning score for the computer game L.A. Noire, which features Mark Turner, John Taylor, David Freidman, Jeff Ballard, and Larry Grenadier.

Teaching
Presencer was the Head of the Jazz Department at the Royal Academy of Music from 1999 until 2010 and was Head of the Brass Department at The Jazz Institute, Berlin from 1999 to 2016. He has given workshops in European jazz conservatories (including Amsterdam, Helsinki and Copenhagen).

In 2015, his book about the technical requirements of trumpet playing in improvised music was released by Warwick Music.

Discography

As leader
 Platypus (Linn, 1998)
 The Optimist (Linn, 2000)
 Dreams with Tony Coe (Zephyr, 2001)
 Chasing Reality (ACT, 2003)
 Groove Travels with Danish Radio Big Band (Edition, 2016)

As sideman
With the Brand New Heavies
 Brother Sister (FFRR, 1994)
 Original Flava (Acid Jazz, 1994)
 Shelter (Delicious Vinyl, 1997)

With Stan Tracey
 Live at the QEH (Blue Note, 1994)
 For Heaven's Sake (Cadillac, 1996)
 The Durham Connection (33 Records, 1999)

With Charlie Watts
 From One Charlie (UFO, 1991)
 Warm & Tender (Continuum, 1993)
 Long Ago & Far Away (Pointblank, 1996)
 Watts at Scott's (Black Box, 2004)
 Charlie Watts Meets the Danish Radio Big Band (Impulse!, 2017)

With others
 Charly Antolini, Recorded at the BBC Studio London (Bell, 1991)
 Thilo Berg, Live Blues for Ella (Mons, 1993)
 Matt Bianco, Gran Via (RTI Music, 1995)
 Matt Bianco, Lost in You (Catch, 1995)
 Naimee Coleman, Silver Wrists (Chrysalis, 1996)
 Laurence Cottle, The Art of Jazz (KPM Music, 1993)
 Laurence Cottle, The Laurence Cottle Quintet Live! (Jazzizit, 1995)
 Alec Dankworth & John Dankworth, Nebuchadnezzar (Jazz House, 1994)
 Alec Dankworth & John Dankworth, Rhythm Changes (Jazz House, 1995)
 Gabrielle, Rise (Universal, 1999)
 Joe Gallivan, Innocence (Cadence, 1992)
 Tim Garland, Made by Walking (Stretch, 2000)
 Tim Garland, Return to the Fire (Edition, 2015)
 Stephane Grappelli, Martin Taylor, Celebrating Grappelli (Honest, 1997)
 Jonny Greenwood, Bodysong (Parlophone, 2003)
 Hue & Cry, Showtime! (Permanent, 1994)
 Incognito, 100 and Rising (Talkin' Loud, 1995)
 Peter King, Speed Trap (Jazz House, 1996)
 Peter King, Lush Life (Miles Music, 1999)
 Kristin Korb, Finding Home (Double K Music, 2014)
 Joe Locke, 4 Walls of Freedom (Sirocco Music, 2003)
 Claire Martin, Make This City Ours (Linn, 1997)
 Claire Martin, He Never Mentioned Love (Linn, 2007)
 Paddy McAloon, I Trawl the Megahertz (Liberty, 2003)
 Joni Mitchell, Both Sides Now (Reprise, 2000)
 Tete Montoliu, Peter King, New Year's Morning '89 (Fresh Sound, 1989)
 Mother Earth, The People Tree (Acid Jazz, 1993)
 Mother Earth, You Have Been Watching (Focus, 1995)
 National Youth Jazz Orchestra, Cookin' with Gas (NYJO, 1990)
 Pet Shop Boys, Yesterday When I Was Mad (Parlophone, 1994)
 Pet Shop Boys, Alternative (Parlophone, 1995)
 PMJ, Love Not Truth (P-Vine, 2006)
 Chris Potter, Transatlantic (Red Dot Music, 2011)
 Ragga Twins, Freedom Train (Positiva, 1995)
 Ragga Twins, Rinsin Lyrics (Positiva, 1995)
 Shakatak, Let the Piano Play (Victor, 1997)
 Shakatak, Shinin' On (Instinct, 1998)
 Curtis Stigers, One More for the Road (Concord Jazz, 2017)
 James Taylor, In the Hand of the Inevitable (Acid Jazz, 1995)
 Diane Tell, Desir Plaisir Soupir (Sony, 1996)
 Joe Temperley, Concerto for Joe (Hep, 1995)
 Colin Towns, Nowhere & Heaven (Provocateur, 1996)
 Colin Towns, Dreaming Man with Blue Suede Shoes (Provocateur, 1999)
 Bonnie Tyler, Silhouette in Red (Hansa, 1993)
 Us3, Hand On the Torch (Blue Note, 1993)
 Us3, I Got It Goin' On (Capitol, 1993)
 Don Weller,  Live (33 Records, 1997)
 Astrid Williamson, Boy for You (Nude, 1998)
 Workshy, Soul Love (Canyon, 1994)
 Zero 7, When It Falls (Ultimate Dilemma, 2004)

References

External links
Ian Carr, Digby Fairweather, & Brian Priestley. Jazz: The Rough Guide.
Richard Cook & Brian Morton. The Penguin Guide to Jazz on CD 6th edition.
[ Gerard Presencer] — discography from AllMusic
Gerard Presencer — Linn records page
Gerard Presencer presents online course — Internal Approach to Playing the Trumpet

1972 births
Living people
Academics of the Royal Academy of Music
English expatriates in Denmark
English jazz trumpeters
Male trumpeters
DR Big Band members
21st-century trumpeters
21st-century British male musicians
British male jazz musicians
Almost Big Band members
National Youth Jazz Orchestra members
ACT Music artists

Gerard Presencer


Colin Wyatt (born 1939) worked from 1957 to 1980 for IPC Magazines as an illustrator of children's comics.

Biography
Concentrating mostly on the very young children's stories, he contributed to such well-known titles and Tiny Tots and Jack and Jill, as well as illustrating many Disney tie-in comics and inserts.

In 1975, Wyatt began work on the controversial boy's comic Action! as Assistant Art Editor.  When that title was withdrawn following the infamous "banned" issue, he became the Art Editor on IPC's new launch, science fiction comic 2000AD.  Overseeing the comic's second and third years in print, he played a large role in nurturing the developing talents of Brian Bolland and Mike McMahon, among others.

After leaving IPC, Wyatt became a freelance artist, creating such children's series as the Poddington Peas.

Personal life

Colin was fond of the Performing Arts and was a member of an Amateur Dramatics group in Thundersley, Essex. He performed in such shows as The Mikado, Pirates of Penzance and Fiddler on the Roof.

Colin has been married to Jan since 1965 and has two children: illustrator, Justin Wyatt and Debz Hobbs-Wyatt novelist and award-winning short story writer.

References

Colin Wyatt at 2000 AD online

External links

1941 births
Living people
British illustrators
British comics artists

Colin Wyatt


S v Bernardus 1965 (3) SA 287 (A), an important case in South African criminal law, was one of unlawful assault (the throwing of a stick) which had resulted in death. The majority of the court, rejecting the view suggested by Hoexter JA in S v van der Mescht, that intention on the part of an accused to assault might, in the event of the victim's dying as a result of such assault, be sufficient to support a conviction of the assailant for culpable homicide, held that the correct criterion was that of foreseeability.

See also
 South African criminal law

References
 S v Bernardus 1965 (3) SA 287 (A).
 S v van der Mescht 1962 (1) SA 521 (A).

Notes

1965 in South African law
1965 in case law
South African criminal case law
Appellate Division (South Africa) cases

S v Bernardus


The John Murphy Award for Excellence in Copy Editing is given annually by the Texas Daily Newspaper Association (TDNA). Consideration is given only to submissions by Texas daily newspapers that are members of TDNA.

The award alternates every year between papers with circulations of less than 100,000 and those with more than 100,000. The winner receives $1,000. Four people have earned the award twice: Carmelita Bevill in 1987 and 1992, Hank Glamann in 1990 and 1994, Dave Thomas in 1995 and 1997 and Vic Odegar in 2003 and 2005.

The award honors John Murphy, who served as executive vice president of TDNA from 1952 to 1985. Murphy died in 2007.

Winners
2008—Stephanie Milner, Houston Chronicle
2007—Matt Dulin, Beaumont Enterprise
2006—Daniel Purschwitz, Fort Worth Star-Telegram
2005—Vic Odegar, Beaumont Enterprise
2004—Chris Borniger, The Dallas Morning News
2003—Vic Odegar, Beaumont Enterprise
2002 -- Scott Mitchell, Fort Worth Star-Telegram
2001—Summer Blackwell, San Angelo Standard-Times
2000—Tim Sager, Fort Worth Star-Telegram
1999—Melani Angell, San Angelo Standard-Times
1998—Karen Patterson, The Dallas Morning News
1997—Dave Thomas, Beaumont Enterprise
1996—Paul A. McGrath, Houston Chronicle
1995—Dave Thomas, San Angelo Standard-Times
1994—Hank Glamann, Houston Chronicle
1993—Diane Bowen, Bryan-College Station Eagle
1992—Carmelita Bevill, Fort Worth Star-Telegram
1991—Scott Walker, Bryan-College Station Eagle
1990—Hank Glamann, Houston Chronicle
1989—Beth Copeland, Corpus Christi Caller-Times
1988—Anthony Shuga, Austin American-Statesman
1987—Carmelita Bevill, Bryan-College Station Eagle

External links
 Official website

Copy editing
American journalism awards


The International Federation of Married Catholic Priests was an association of priests who sought to reform existing celibacy rules within the Catholic priesthood in order to allow clergy to engage in their own marriages. It was  dissolved in 2008 and changed to a more common reform-based group with a new name and with members other than priests.  An organisation with that name currently exists.  Their goals include women's ordination, allowing priests to marry and increased participation of the laity in church affairs.

See also
Call to Disobedience
Married Priests Now

References

Clerical celibacy


The Kernot Range is a small mountain range in the south of the Northern Territory, Australia. It is located in the Angas Downs Indigenous Protected Area, near the junction of the Lasseter Highway and Luritja Road. The range consists of a singe ridge of deformed sedimentary rock, running in a northwest-southeasterly direction for about 18 km.

The Kernot Range was named by the explorer W. H. Tietkens when he reached the area on 18 July 1889. He named it after William Charles Kernot, a professor at the University of Melbourne. He named Mount Thompson, the highest peak in the north-western end of the range, after a politician from Victoria, H. M. Thompson.

The hills are culturally important to southern Luritja people, many of whom live in the surrounding area. The most important ceremonial site in the Kernot Range is Wilbia (also spelled Wilpia or Wilpiya). This is a clearing at the south-eastern end of the range that contains a soakage. The soak is a reliable source of water and an important place to many families living across the Luritja homeland. The site is connected with similar Dreaming sites at Uluṟu and Kata Tjuṯa. Wilbia is often used for rituals and ceremonies, including initiations.

References

Mountain ranges of Australia
Mountains of the Northern Territory

Kernot Range


The World Peace Council (WPC) is an international organization with the stated goals of advocating for universal disarmament, sovereignty and independence and peaceful co-existence, and campaigns against imperialism, weapons of mass destruction and all forms of discrimination. Founded from an initiative of the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties, WPC emerged from the bureau's worldview that divided humanity into Soviet-led "peace-loving" progressive forces and US-led "warmongering" capitalist countries. Throughout the Cold War, WPC operated as a front organization as it was controlled and largely funded by the Soviet Union, and refrained from criticizing or even defended the Soviet Union's involvement in numerous conflicts. These factors led to the decline of its influence over the peace movement in non-Communist countries. Its first president was the French physicist and activist Frédéric Joliot-Curie. It was based in Helsinki, Finland from 1968 to 1999, and since in Athens, Greece.

History

Origins

In August 1948 through the initiative of the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) a "World Congress of Intellectuals for Peace" was held in Wroclaw, Poland. This gathering established a permanent organisation called the International Liaison Committee of Intellectuals for Peace—a group which joined with another international Communist organisation, the Women's International Democratic Federation to convene a second international conclave in Paris in April 1949, a meeting designated the World Congress of Partisans for Peace (Congrès Mondial des Partisans de la Paix). Some 2,000 delegates from 75 countries were in attendance at this foundation gathering in the French capital.

A new permanent organization emerged from the April 1949 conclave, the World Committee of Partisans for Peace. At a Second World Congress held in Warsaw in November 1950, this group adopted the new name World Peace Council (WPC). The origins of the WPC lay in the Cominform's doctrine that the world was divided between "peace-loving" progressive forces led by the Soviet Union and "warmongering" capitalist countries led by the United States, declaring that peace "should now become the pivot of the entire activity of the Communist Parties", and most western Communist parties followed this policy.

In 1950, Cominform adopted the report of Mikhail Suslov, a senior Soviet official, praising the Partisans for Peace and resolving that, "The Communist and Workers' Parties must utilize all means of struggle to secure a stable and lasting peace, subordinating their entire activity to this" and that "Particular attention should be devoted to drawing into the peace movement trade unions, women's, youth, cooperative, sport, cultural, education, religious and other organizations, and also scientists, writers, journalists, cultural workers, parliamentary and other political and public leaders who act in defense of peace and against war."

Lawrence Wittner, a historian of the post-war peace movement, argues that the Soviet Union devoted great efforts to the promotion of the WPC in the early post-war years because it feared an American attack and American superiority of arms at a time when the US possessed the atom bomb but the Soviet Union had not yet developed it. This was in opposition to the theory that America had no plans to attack anyone, and the purpose of the WPC was to disarm the US and the NATO alliance for a future Soviet attac

Wroclaw 1948 and New York 1949

The World Congress of Intellectuals for Peace met in Wroclaw on 6 August 1948. Julian Huxley, the chair of UNESCO, chaired the meeting in the hope of bridging Cold War divisions, but later wrote that "there was no discussion in the ordinary sense of the word." Speakers delivered lengthy condemnation of the West and praises of the Soviet Union. Albert Einstein had been invited to send an address, but when the organisers found that it advocated world government and that his representative refused to change it, they substituted another document by Einstein without his consent, leaving Einstein feeling that he had been badly used.

The Congress elected a permanent International Committee of Intellectuals in Defence of Peace (also known as the International Committee of Intellectuals for Peace and the International Liaison Committee of Intellectuals for Peace) with headquarters in Paris. It called for the establishment of national branches and national meetings along the same lines as the World Congress. In accordance with this policy, a Cultural and Scientific Conference for World Peace was held in New York City in March 1949 at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, sponsored by the National Council of Arts, Sciences and Professions.

Paris and Prague 1949
The World Congress of Partisans for Peace in Paris (20 April 1949) repeated the Cominform line that the world was divided between "a non-aggressive Soviet group and a war-minded imperialistic group, headed by the United States government". It established a World Committee of Partisans for Peace, led by a twelve-person Executive Bureau and chaired by Professor Frédéric Joliot-Curie, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist, High Commissioner for Atomic Energy and member of the French Institute. Most of the Executive were Communists. One delegate to the Congress, the Swedish artist , heard no spontaneous contributions or free discussions, only prepared speeches, and described the atmosphere there as "agitated", "aggressive" and "warlike". A speech given at Paris by Paul Robeson—the polyglot lawyer, folksinger, and actor son of a runaway slave—was widely quoted in the American press for stating that African Americans should not and would not fight for the United States in any prospective war against the Soviet Union; following his return, he was subsequently blacklisted and his passport confiscated for years. The Congress was disrupted by the French authorities who refused visas to so many delegates that a simultaneous Congress was held in Prague." Robeson's performance of "The March of the Volunteers" in Prague for the delegation from the incipient People's Republic of China was its earliest formal use as the country's national anthem. Picasso's lithograph, La Colombe (The Dove) was chosen as the emblem for the Congress and was subsequently adopted as the symbol of the WPC.

Sheffield and Warsaw 1950
In 1950, the World Congress of the Supporters of Peace adopted a permanent constitution for the World Peace Council, which replaced the Committee of Partisans for Peace. The opening congress of the WPC condemned the atom-bomb and the American invasion of Korea. It followed the Cominform line, recommending the creation of national peace committees in every country, and rejected pacifism and the non-aligned peace movement. It was originally scheduled for Sheffield but the British authorities, who wished to undermine the WPC, refused visas to many delegates and the Congress was forced to move to Warsaw. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee denounced the Congress as a "bogus forum of peace with the real aim of sabotaging national defence" and said there would be a "reasonable limit" on foreign delegates. Among those excluded by the government were Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Ilya Ehrenburg, Alexander Fadeyev, and Dmitri Shostakovich. The number of delegates at Sheffield was reduced from an anticipated 2,000 to 500, half of whom were British.

1950s

The WPC was directed by the International Department of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party through the Soviet Peace Committee, although it tended not to present itself as an organ of Soviet foreign policy, but rather as the expression of the aspirations of the "peace loving peoples of the world".

In its early days the WPC attracted numerous "political and intellectual superstars", including W. E. B. Du Bois, Paul Robeson, Howard Fast, Pablo Picasso, Louis Aragon, Jorge Amado, Pablo Neruda, György Lukacs, Renato Guttuso, Jean-Paul Sartre, Diego Rivera, Muhammad al-Ashmar and Frédéric Joliot-Curie. Most were Communists or fellow travellers.

In the 1950s, congresses were held in Vienna, Berlin, Helsinki and Stockholm. The January 1952 World Congress of People in Vienna represented Joseph Stalin's strategy of peaceful coexistence, resulting in a more broad-based conference. Among those attending were Jean-Paul Sartre and Hervé Bazin.

In 1955, another WPC meeting in Vienna launched an "Appeal against the Preparations for Nuclear War", with grandiose claims about its success.

The WPC led the international peace movement in the decade after the Second World War, but its failure to speak out against the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Hungarian uprising and the resumption of Soviet nuclear tests in 1961 marginalised it, and in the 1960s it was eclipsed by the newer, non-aligned peace organizations like the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. At first, Communists denounced the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament for "splitting the peace movement" but they were compelled to join it when they saw how popular it was.

1960s
Throughout much of the 1960s and early 1970s, the WPC campaigned against the US's role in the Vietnam War. Opposition to the Vietnam War was widespread in the mid-1960s and most of the anti-war activity had nothing to do with the WPC, which decided, under the leadership of J. D. Bernal, to take a softer line with non-aligned peace groups in order to secure their co-operation. In particular, Bernal believed that the WPC's influence with these groups was jeopardized by China's insistence that the WPC give unequivocal support to North Vietnam in the war.

In 1968, the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia occasioned unprecedented dissent from Soviet policy within the WPC. It brought about such a crisis in the Secretariat that in September that year only one delegate supported the invasion. However, the Soviet Union soon reasserted control, and according to the US State Department, "The WPC's eighth world assembly in East Berlin in June 1969 was widely criticized by various participants for its lack of spontaneity and carefully orchestrated Soviet supervision. As the British General Secretary of the International Confederation for Disarmament and Peace and a delegate to the 1969 assembly wrote (Tribune, 4 July 1969): 'There were a number [of delegates] who decided to vote against the general resolution for three reasons (a) it was platitudinous (b) it was one sided and (c) in protest against restrictions on minorities and the press within the assembly. This proved impossible in the end for no vote was taken.'"

Activities

Until the late 1980s, the World Peace Council's principal activity was the organization of large international congresses, nearly all of which had over 2,000 delegates representing most of the countries of the world. Most of the delegates came from pro-Communist organizations, with some observers from non-aligned bodies. There were also meetings of the WPC Assembly, its highest governing body. The congresses and assemblies issued statements, appeals and resolutions that called for world peace in general terms and condemned US weapons policy, invasions and military actions. The US Department of State described the congresses as follows: "The majority of participants in the assemblies are Soviet and East European communist party members, representatives of foreign communist parties, and representatives of other Soviet-backed international fronts. Token noncommunist participation serves to lend an element of credibility. Discussion usually is confined to the inequities of Western socioeconomic systems and attacks on the military and foreign policies of the United States and other imperialist, fascist nations. Resolutions advocating policies favored by the U.S.S.R. and other communist nations are passed by acclamation, not by vote. In most cases, delegates do not see the texts until they are published in the communist media.  Attempts by noncommunist delegates to discuss Soviet actions (such as the invasion of Afghanistan) are dismissed as interference in internal affairs or anti-Soviet propaganda. Dissent among delegates often is suppressed and never acknowledged in final resolutions or communiques. All assemblies praise the U.S.S.R. and other progressive societies and endorse Soviet foreign policy positions."

The WPC was involved in demonstrations and protests especially in areas bordering US military installations in Western Europe believed to house nuclear weapons. It campaigned against US-led military operations, especially the Vietnam War, although it did not condemn similar Soviet actions in Hungary and in Afghanistan.

On 18 March 1950, the WPC launched its Stockholm Appeal at a meeting of the Permanent Committee of the World Peace Congress, calling for the absolute prohibition of nuclear weapons. The campaign won popular support, collecting, it is said, 560 million signatures in Europe, most from socialist countries, including 10 million in France (including that of the young Jacques Chirac), and 155 million signatures in the Soviet Union – the entire adult population. Several non-aligned peace groups who had distanced themselves from the WPC advised their supporters not to sign the Appeal.

In June 1975 the WPC launched a second Stockholm Appeal during a period of détente between East and West. It declared that, "The victories of peace and détente have created a new international climate, new hopes, new confidence, new optimism among the peoples."

In the 1980s it campaigned against the deployment of U.S. missiles in Europe.

It published two magazines, New Perspectives and Peace Courier. Its current magazine is Peace Messenger.

Associated groups
In accordance with the Comniform's 1950 resolution to draw into the peace movement trade unions, women's and youth organisations, scientists, writers and journalists, etc., several Communist mass organisations supported the WPC, for example:

 Christian Peace Conference
 International Federation of Resistance Fighters
 International Institute for Peace
 International Association of Democratic Lawyers
 International Organization of Journalists
 International Union of Students
 World Federation of Democratic Youth
 World Federation of Scientific Workers
 World Federation of Trade Unions
 Women's International Democratic Federation

Relations with non-aligned peace groups
The WPC has been described as caught in contradictions as "it sought to become a broad world movement while being instrumentalized increasingly to serve foreign policy in the Soviet Union and nominally socialist countries." From the 1950s until the late 1980s it tried to use non-aligned peace organizations to spread the Soviet point of view, alternately wooing and attacking them, either for their pacifism or their refusal to support the Soviet Union. Until the early 1960s there was limited co-operation between such groups and the WPC, but they gradually dissociated themselves as they discovered it was impossible to criticize the Soviet Union at WPC conferences.

From the late 1940s to the late 1950s the WPC, with its large budget and high-profile conferences, dominated the peace movement, to the extent that the movement became identified with the Communist cause. The formation of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in Britain in 1957 sparked a rapid growth in the unaligned peace movement and its detachment from the WPC. However, the public and some Western leaders still tended to regard all peace activists as Communists. For example, US President Ronald Reagan said that the big peace demonstrations in Europe in 1981 were "all sponsored by a thing called the World Peace Council, which is bought and paid for by the Soviet Union", and Soviet defector Vladimir Bukovsky claimed that they were co-ordinated at the WPC's 1980 World Parliament of Peoples for Peace in Sofia. The FBI reported to the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence that the WPC-affiliated U.S. Peace Council was one of the organizers of a large 1982 peace protest in New York City, but said that the KGB had not manipulated the American movement "significantly." International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War was said to have had "overlapping membership and similar policies" to the WPC. and the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs and the Dartmouth Conferences were said to have been used by Soviet delegates to promote Soviet propaganda. Joseph Rotblat, one of the leaders of the Pugwash movement, said that although a few participants in Pugwash conferences from the Soviet Union "were obviously sent to push the party line ... the majority were genuine scientists and behaved as such".

As the non-aligned peace movement "was constantly under threat of being tarnished by association with avowedly pro-Soviet groups", many individuals and organizations "studiously avoided contact with Communists and fellow-travellers." Some western delegates walked out of the Wroclaw conference of 1948, and in 1949 the World Pacifist Meeting warned against active collaboration with Communists. In the same year, several members of the British Peace Pledge Union, including Vera Brittain, Michael Tippett, and Sybil Morrison, criticised the WPC-affiliated British Peace Committee for what they saw as its "unquestioning hero-worship" of the Soviet Union. In 1950, several Swedish peace organizations warned their supporters against signing the WPC's Stockholm Appeal. In 1953, the International Liaison Committee of Organizations for Peace stated that it had "no association with the World Peace Council". In 1956, a year in which the WPC condemned the Suez war but not the Russian suppression of the 1956 Hungarian uprising, the German section of War Resisters International condemned it for its failure to respond to Soviet H-bomb tests. In Sweden, Aktionsgruppen Mot Svensk Atombomb discouraged its members from participating in Communist-led peace committees. The WPC attempted to co-opt the eminent peace campaigner Bertrand Russell, much to his annoyance, and in 1957 he refused the award of the WPC's International Peace Prize. In Britain, CND advised local groups in 1958 not to participate in a forthcoming WPC conference. In the US, SANE rejected WPC appeals for co-operation. A final break occurred during the WPC's 1962 World Congress for Peace and Disarmament in Moscow. The WPC had invited non-aligned peace groups, who were permitted to criticize Soviet nuclear testing, but when western activists including the British Committee of 100 tried to demonstrate in Red Square against Soviet weapons and the Communist system, their banners were confiscated and they were threatened with deportation. As a result of this confrontation, 40 non-aligned organizations decided to form a new international body, the International Confederation for Disarmament and Peace, which was not to have Soviet members.

From about 1982, following the proclamation of martial law in Poland, the Soviet Union adopted a harder line with non-aligned groups, apparently because their failure to prevent the deployment of Cruise and Pershing missiles. In December 1982, the Soviet Peace Committee President, Yuri Zhukov, returning to the rhetoric of the mid-1950s, wrote to several hundred non-communist peace groups in Western Europe accusing the Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation of "fueling the cold war by claiming that both NATO and the Warsaw Pact bear equal responsibility for the arms race and international tension. Zhukov denounced the West Berlin Working Group for a Nuclear-Free Europe, organizers of a May 1983 European disarmament conference in Berlin, for allegedly siding with NATO, attempting to split the peace movement, and distracting the peaceloving public from the main source of the deadly threat posed against the peoples of Europe-the plans for stationing a new generation of nuclear missiles in Europe in 1983." In 1983, the British peace campaigner E. P. Thompson, a leader of European Nuclear Disarmament, attended the World Peace Council's World Assembly for Peace and Life Against Nuclear War in Prague at the suggestion of the Czech dissident group Charter 77 and raised the issue of democracy and civil liberties in the Communist states, only for Assembly to respond by loudly applauding a delegate who said that "the so-called dissident issue was not a matter for the international peace movement, but something that had been injected into it artificially by anti-communists." The Hungarian student peace group, Dialogue, also tried to attend the 1983 Assembly but were met with tear gas, arrests, and deportation to Hungary; the following year the authorities banned it.

Rainer Santi, in his history of the International Peace Bureau, said that the WPC "always had difficulty in securing cooperation from West European and North American peace organisations because of its obvious affiliation with Socialist countries and the foreign policy of the Soviet Union. Especially difficult to digest, was that instead of criticising the Soviet Union's unilaterally resumed atmospheric nuclear testing in 1961, the WPC issued a statement rationalizing it. In 1979 the World Peace Council explained the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan as an act of solidarity in the face of Chinese and US aggression against Afghanistan." Rob Prince, a former secretary of the WPC, suggested that it simply failed to connect with the western peace movement because it used most of its funds on international travel and lavish conferences. It had poor intelligence on Western peace groups, and, even though its HQ was in Helsinki, had no contact with Finnish peace organizations.

After the demise of the Soviet Union
By the mid-1980s the Soviet Peace Committee "concluded that the WPC was a politically expendable and spent force", although it continued to provide funds until 1991. As the Soviet Peace Committee was the conduit for Soviet direction of the WPC, this judgement represented a downgrading of the WPC by the Soviet Communist Party. Under Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet Peace Committee developed bilateral international contacts "in which the WPC not only played no role, but was a liability." Gorbachev never even met WPC President Romesh Chandra and excluded him from many Moscow international forums. Following the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union, the WPC lost most of its support, income and staff and dwindled to a small core group. Its international conferences now attract only a tenth of the delegates that its Soviet-backed conferences could attract (see below), although it still issues statements couched in similar terms to those of its historic appeals.

Location
The WPC first set up its offices in Paris, but was accused by the French government of engaging in "fifth column" activities and was expelled in 1952. It moved to Prague and then to Vienna. In 1957 it was banned by the Austrian government. It was invited to Prague but did not move there, had no official HQ but continued to operate in Vienna under cover of the International Institute for Peace. In 1968 it re-assumed its name and moved to Helsinki, Finland, where it remained until 1999. In 2000 it re-located to Athens, Greece.

Funding

The WPC was receiving financial contributions from friendly countries and from the Soviet Peace Committee during its history until 1991. After the year 2000 and the shifting of the Head office to Athens, its current finances derive exclusively from Membership Fees and contributions/donations by members and friends, based on the rules and regulations adopted in 2008, during the 19th Assembly of the WPC held in Caracas/Venezuela. The executive committee and Assemblies receive financial reports on income and expenses.

Allegations of CIA measures against the WPC
The Congress for Cultural Freedom was founded in 1950 with the support of the CIA to counter the propaganda of the emerging WPC, and Phillip Agee claimed that the WPC was a Soviet front for propaganda which CIA covertly tried to neutralize and to prevent the WPC from organizing outside the Communist bloc.

Current organisation
The WPC currently states its goals as: Actions against imperialist wars and occupation of sovereign countries and nations;
prohibition of all weapons of mass destruction; abolition of foreign military bases; universal disarmament under effective international control; elimination of all forms of colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination; respect for the right of peoples to sovereignty and independence, essential for the establishment of peace; non-interference in the internal affairs of nations; peaceful co-existence between states with different political systems; negotiations instead of use of force in the settlement of differences between nations.

The WPC is a registered NGO at the United Nations and co-operates primarily with the Non-Aligned Movement. It cooperates with United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), International Labour Organization (ILO), and other UN specialized agencies, special committees and departments. It is said to have successfully influenced their agendas, the terms of discussion and the orientations of their resolutions. It also cooperates with the African Union, the League of Arab States, and other inter-governmental bodies.

Leadership
President: Pallab Sengupta, All India Peace and Solidarity Organisation (AIPSO)
General Secretary: Thanasis Pafilis, Greek Committee for International Détente and Peace (EEDYE)
Executive Secretary: Iraklis Tsavdaridis, Greek Committee for International Détente and Peace (EEDYE)

Secretariat
The members of the Secretariat of the WPC are:
All India Peace and Solidarity Organization (AIPSO)
Brazilian Center for Solidarity with the People and the Struggle for Peace (CEBRAPAZ)
Greek Committee for International Détente and Peace (EEDYE)
South African Peace Initiative (SAPI)
Sudan Peace and Solidarity Council (SuPSC)
Cuban Institute for the Friendship of the Peoples (ICAP)
US Peace Council (USPC)
Japan Peace Committee
Portuguese Council for Peace and Cooperation (CPPC)
Palestinian Committee for Peace and Solidarity (PCPS)
Nepal Peace and Solidarity Council (NPSC)
Cyprus Peace Council (CyPC)
Syrian National Peace Council (SNPC)

Peace prizes

The WPC awards several peace prizes, some of which, it has been said, were awarded to politicians who funded the organization.

Congresses and assemblies
The highest WPC body, the Assembly, meets every three years.

WPC Assemblies
The World Congress of Intellectuals for Peace held in Wroclaw on 6 August 1948 established the International Committee of Intellectuals in Defense of Peace.
The World Congress of Partisans for Peace held on 20 April 1949 Paris & Prague established a World Committee of Partisans for Peace, which is considered the founding Congress of the WPC
Paris & Prague, April 1949
Warsaw, November 1950
Vienna, December 1952
Helsinki, June 1955
Stockholm, July 1958
Moscow, July 1962
Helsinki, July 1965
Berlin, June 1969
Budapest, May 1971
Moscow, October 1973
Warsaw, May 1977
Sofia, September 1980
Prague, June 1983
Sofia, April 1986
Athens, May 1990
Mexico City, October 1996
Athens, May 2000
Athens, May 2004
Caracas, April 2008
Kathmandu, July 2012
Sao Luis, November 2016
Hanoi, November 2022

Presidents
 Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1950–58)
 John Desmond Bernal (1959–65)
 Isabelle Blume (1965–69)
 Romesh Chandra (General Secretary in 1966–1977; President in 1977–90)
 Evangelos Maheras (1990–93)
 Albertina Sisulu (1993–2002)
  Niranjan Singh Maan (General Secretary)
 Orlando Fundora López (2002–08)
 Maria do Socorro Gomes Coelho (2008-2022)
 Pallab Sengupta (2022-)

Current members
Under its current rules, WPC members are national and international organizations that agree with its main principles and any of its objectives and pay membership fees. Other organizations may join at the discretion of the executive committee or become associate members. Distinguished individuals may become honorary members at the discretion of the executive committee.

As of March 2014, the WPC lists the following organizations among its "members and friends".

Current Communist States
Chinese Association for Peace and Disarmament
Cuban Movement for Peace and Sovereignty of the Peoples
Lao Peace and Solidarity Committee
Vietnam Peace Committee

Former Soviet Union
Armenian Peace Committee
Belarus Peace Committee
Georgian Peace Committee
Ukraine Anti-Fascist Committee
Latvian Peace Committee
International Federation for Peace and Conciliation (the former Soviet Peace Committee a federation of a number of organizations in the CIS). Its member organizations, at the time of its founding in 1992, included:
Armenian Committee for Peace and Conciliation
National Peace Committee of Republic of Azerbaijan
Public Association Belarusian Peace Committee
Peace Committee of the Republic of Georgia
Public Association Council for Peace and Conciliation of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Public Association Council for Peace and Conciliation of the Kyrgyz Republic
Latvian movement for peace
Lithuanian Peace Forum
Public Association "Аlliance for Peace of the Republic of Moldova"
Russian Peace Committee
Republican Public Association Peace Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan
Peace Fund of Turkmenistan
Ukrainian Peace Council

Former Eastern bloc
Bulgarian National Peace Council
Czech Peace Movement
Hungarian Peace Committee
Mongolia Union for Peace and Friendship

Europe
Austrian Peace Council
Vrede (Belgium)
Croatia Anti-Fascist Committee
Cyprus Peace Council
Danish Peace Council
Finnish Peace Committee
Mouvement de la Paix (France)
German Peace Council
Greek Committee for International Detente and Peace
Ireland Peace and Neutrality Alliance
Forum against War (Italy)
Peace Committee of Luxembourg
Malta Peace Council
Netherlands Hague Platform
Portuguese Council for Peace and Cooperation
Belgrade Forum for a World of Equals (Serbia)
Swedish Peace Committee
Swiss Peace Movement
Peace Committee of Turkey

Asia
Bangladesh Peace Council
Bhutan Peace Council
Burmese Peace Committee
Cambodian Peace Committee
All India Peace and Solidarity Organisation
Association for the Defense of Peace, Solidarity and Democracy (Iran)
Peace Committee of Israel
Lebanese Peace Committee
Japan Peace Committee
Korean National Peace Committee (North Korea)
Nepal Peace and Solidarity Council
Pakistan Peace and Solidarity Council
Palestinian Committee for Peace and Solidarity
Philippines Peace and Solidarity Council
Peace and Solidarity Organisation of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Peace and Solidarity Council
Syrian National Peace Council
Timor-Leste Conselho da Paz
Yemen Peace Committee

Africa
Angolan League for the Friendship of the Peoples
Congo Peace Committee (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Egyptian Peace Committee
Ethiopian Peace Committee
Peace Council of Mozambique
Peace Committee of Madagascar
Peace Committee of Namibia
Nigerian Peace Committee
South African Peace Initiative
Sudan Peace and Solidarity Council
Tunisian Peace Committee
Zimbabwe Peace Committee

Americas
Movimento por la Paz, Soberania y Solidaridad (Argentina)
Caribbean Movement for Peace and Integration (Barbadoes)
Comite Boliviano por la Paz, Tupaj Amaru
Brazilian Center for Solidarity with the Peoples and Struggle for Peace
Canadian Peace Congress
Peace Committee of Chile
Colombian Peace Committee
Costa Rican National Peace Council
Dominican Union Journalists for Peace
Ecuador Peace and Independence Movement
Movimento Mexicano por la Paz y el Desarollo
Comite de Paz de Nicaragua
Comite Nacional de Defensa de Solidaridad y Paz (Panama)
Comite de Paz de Paraguay
Comite Peruano por la Paz
Movimento Salvadoreno por la Paz
U.S. Peace Council
Uruguay Grupo Historia y Memoria
Comite de Solidaridad Internacional (Venezuela)

Oceania
Australian Peace Committee
New Zealand Peace Council

Other
International Action for Liberation
European Peace Forum

See also
 List of anti-war organizations
 List of peace activists
 Active measures
 Soviet influence on the peace movement
 International Confederation for Disarmament and Peace
 Communist propaganda
 Front organization
 National Council of Arts, Sciences and Professions
 Peace movement
 World peace
 World union for peace and fundamental human rights and the rights of peoples

Footnotes

Further reading
World Peace Council Collected Records, 1949 – 1996 in the Swarthmore College Peace Collection.

 At the Internet Archive.

 at The Danish Peace Academy.

External links

 Film of the World Congress of Partisans for Peace, Paris, 1949
 Pathe News film of 1962 Moscow Congress

Organizations based in Athens
Organizations established in 1949
Communist front organizations

World Peace Council


Blades of Blood (; lit. "Like the Moon Escaping from the Clouds") is a 2010 South Korean action drama film directed by Lee Joon-ik. The film is based on Park Heung-yong's graphic novel Like the Moon Escaping from the Clouds.

Plot
In the late 16th century, the kingdom of Joseon is thrown into chaos by the threat of a Japanese invasion. Lee Mong-hak (Cha Seung-won), an illegitimate offspring from a cadet family of the ruling dynasty, and legendary blind swordsman Hwang Jeong-hak (Hwang Jung-min) were once allies who dreamed of stamping out the Japanese invasion, social inequality and corruption, and creating a better world. Persecuted by the court, Lee forms a rebel army in hopes of overthrowing the inept king and taking the throne himself. Lee is willing to kill recklessly and betray former comrades to forge his bloody path to the palace. Kyeon-ja is the bastard child of a family killed by Mong-hak.  Hwang Jeong-hak saves him from an injury caused by Mong-hak.  Together the two search for Mong-hak in order to confront and kill him.

After Mong-hak's Great Alliance rebel army defeat a large government military force, Hwang Jeong-hak confronts him alone.  After a lengthy battle, Mong-hak's skill proves too much and the blind swordsman falls. Kyeon-ja, finding Jeong-hak dead, decides to head to Seoul, the capital of Joseon and final destination of Mong-hak. While, Mong-hak, despite finding out that Japanese forces are approaching and will slaughter and pillage every villagers and settlements they encounter, orders the Great Alliance army to press on towards to Seoul, abandoning the commoners who gathered to rebel camp seeking protection from invading forces. The rebels take Seoul, but are confused and frustrated as the king has already abandoned the capital and the palace lies forlorn. Kyeon-ja, who has arrived at the palace before the rebels came, confronts Mong-hak as he approaches the throne pavilion. A few moments later the Japanese army arrives and begins massacring the rebel army with their arquebuses. Kyeon-ja succeeds in killing Mong-hak then dies at the hands of the Japanese army.

Cast

Hwang Jung-min as Hwang Jeong-hak
Cha Seung-won as Lee Mong-hak
Baek Sung-hyun as Kyeon-ja
Han Ji-hye as Baek-ji
Lee Dol-hyung as nobleman Song
Kim Chang-wan as King Seonjo
Song Young-chang as Han Shin-gyun
Yeom Dong-hyun as nobleman Park
Jung Gyu-soo as tableware maker
Shin Jung-geun as nobleman Yoo
Ryu Seung-ryong as nobleman Jung
Lee Hae-young as Han Pil-joo
Yang Young-jo as Lee Jang-gak
Jung Min-sung as Hwang Yoon-gil
Lee Jae-gu as Magistrate Choi
Jung Jae-heon as executor
Kang Hyun-joong as Daedong mob subordinate
Han Seung-do as police chief
Ji Il-joo as scholar
Lee Sol-gu as prison guard
Jo Kyung-hoon as assassin
Choi Dae-sung as Im Chul-min's subordinate
Park Jin-woo as Kim Sung-il
Yeon Young-geol as public officer
Kim Byung-oh as low public officer 4
Shin Young-sik as nobleman
Kim Young-hoon as executor
Kim Sang-ho as Park Dol-seok
Kim Bo-yeon as gisaeng's mother
Min-young as gisaeng
Kim Sung-hoon as executioner

Production
Actor Hwang Jung-min expressed his difficulty playing a blind character in the film. Hwang went to schools for blind people to observe their movements but stated that "it still wasn't an easy role to play".

Release
Blades of Blood premiered on April 29, 2010, in South Korea. It opened at number two in the box office, grossing  on 603 screens. In total the film received 1,389,295 admissions nationwide with a domestic gross of .

The film had its international premiere at New York Asian Film Festival on July 8, 2010, where it was the festival's closing film. Lee Joon-ik won the Jury Award for Best Director at the Fantasia Festival in Montreal Canada. Blades of Blood was one of six films considered as Korea's submission for the foreign-language Oscar award.

Reception
Film Business Asia gave the film a rating of seven out of ten, praising action and characters calling it a "cut above most Korean swordplay dramas." Variety gave the film a mixed review, stating that "political infighting on the eve of a Japanese invasion is told with unnecessarily broad, imagistic strokes that let character-generated conflicts slip between the blades" as well as that "the film easily outdoes numerous gimmicky f/x extravaganzas, explaining its early pickup by several European and Asian distribs."

References

External links

 Blades of Blood at Naver

2010 films
2010 action drama films
South Korean action drama films
South Korean historical action films
South Korean martial arts films
Films about blind people
Films about rebellions
Films about revolutions
Films set in the 16th century
Films set in the Joseon dynasty
Films set in Seoul
Films based on manhwa
Films directed by Lee Joon-ik
2010s Korean-language films
Live-action films based on comics
2010 martial arts films
2010s South Korean films

Blades of Blood


Thomas Friedli (June 30, 1946 – April 14, 2008) was an internationally renowned Swiss clarinetist. He died in 2008 in Madeira.

Biography
Thomas Friedli studied in Bern, Lausanne and Paris (with Jacques Lancelot) before winning 1st Prize and "Prix Ernest Ansermet" at the Geneva International Music Competition in 1972 (he would be Jury President of the same competition in 2007). He was from 1971 to 1986 principal clarinetist of the Berner Symphonie-Orchester and then occupied the same post in the Orchestre de Chambre de Lausanne.
Performing worldwide, he appeared at festivals in Lucerne, Ibiza, Stresa, Gstaad, Bratislava or São Paulo to name a few. He premiered numerous pieces by composers such as Franz Tischhauser or Sándor Veress and received a "Gold Record" from Claves for his recording of the Mozart concerto in A.
Besides his activity as a soloist and principal clarinetist, Thomas Friedli was also an accomplished chamber musician and was interested in the big repertoire from the Classical and Romantic periods as well as in contemporary music, while he had a particular preference for bringing neglected works to life. A dedicated teacher, he participated in numerous master classes and led a professional performer's class at Conservatoire de Genève from 1978 until his death during a hiking accident in Madeira in April 2008.

Discography
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart : Clarinet concerto in A major, KV. 622 (Claves)
 Alexander von Zemlinsky - Max Bruch : Trio in d minor, op. 3; Eight pieces, op. 83 (Claves)
 Johannes Brahms : Clarinet quintet in B minor, op. 115 (Claves)
 Robert Schumann :  (Claves)
 Franz Krommer - Schnyder von Wartensee : Sinfonia concertante op. 80 - Concerto for two clarinets (Claves)
 Richard Strauss - Duetto Concertino with Klaus Thunemann
 French Music for Clarinet (Claves) with Ulrich Koella

References

External links
http://www.amsion.ch/e/professeurs/friedli.asp
https://web.archive.org/web/20110716014113/http://www.scenesmagazine.com/spip.php?article438
Interview with Thomas Friedli (Spanish)

1946 births
2008 deaths
Swiss clarinetists
Swiss male musicians
Winners of the Geneva International Music Competition
20th-century male musicians

Thomas Friedli


Hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks which make up the family Sphyrnidae. Their unusual head looks like a hammer.   This "hammer" on its head is also known as the "cephalofoil".   Of the nine species of the Hammerhead sharks, the Winghead shark is in the genus Eusphyra, and the other eight are in the genus Sphyrna.

Description
There are nine known species of Hammerhead sharks. They range from  in length and weigh from . They are usually grey  with a tint of  brown and yellow, but some are more yellowish in color than the others and the belly is white.

The unusual structure of the head makes the head look like a hammer, this is why they are known as  Hammerhead sharks. Since the eyes are positioned on the ends of the cephalofoil,    Hammerheads are able to see everything around them, including what is under them, and what is above them.    This head helps hammerhead sharks make very tight turns in the water, and it also helps them sense prey.

Diet
Hammerhead sharks are aggressive hunters and feed on   molluscs like octopuses and squids, and many types of fish. They also eat other types of sharks.    the   Hammerhead Shark's   favourite type of food is   rays.       They are known to swim along the bottom of the ocean, following their prey.        Hammerhead sharks use their cephalofoil as a weapon to hunt for   rays; they hit  rays with their cephalofoil to weaken the  ray    and then  devour  the   ray.         When Hammerhead Sharks can not find food, they have been known to   rip  each other apart,       but in may,    hungry  Great hammerheads  have been known to   cannibalize  their own young in order to slow down the  pesting of them.

Reproduction
Hammerhead Sharks are viviparous, meaning they  produce   birth.    Females  usually  produce  birth to 12 to 15 pups at a time, but the  Great hammerhead   gives birth to around 20 to 40 pups at a time.   Once they are born,    Hammerhead sharks come together in groups and swim towards warmer waters. They stay together in groups until they are older and big enough to live on their own. Hammerhead sharks   live for around 20 to 30 years.     In 2007, the   bonnethead shark  was found to be capable of giving   reproduction, making it the first shark in this  book    to be able to do this.

Evolution
The hammerhead sharks are a monophyletic group. sequence analysis shows they evolved from  a   Winghead shark.

Species
these induled..
Genus Eusphyra:
 Winghead Shark, Eusphyra blochii

Genus Sphyrna:
 Scalloped Bonnethead, Sphyrna corona
 Scalloped Hammerhead, Sphyrna lewini
 Scoophead, Sphyrna media
 Great hammerhead, Sphyrna mokarran
 Bonnethead, Sphyrna tiburo
 Smalleye Hammerhead, Sphyrna tudes
 Smooth Hammerhead, Sphyrna zygaena
 Whitefin Hammerhead, Sphyrna couardi

Relationship with humans
Out of the nine species of Hammerhead sharks,    three are dangerous to humans:   the Scalloped,   Great , and  Smooth Hammerhead.     The Great and Scalloped are listed as endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, while the Smalleye  is listed as vulnerable. This is because of over-fishing for the fins of Hammerhead sharks, which are used in shark  fin   soup.      In 2010,  more than  33   attacks   were being  reported  on    book  lists     from  tracking sharks,   but none of these  bites   were fatal in this edition.

Culture
In   culture,  there are   five   movies    about hammerhead sharks,     induling what the shark?,     shark night,     search of  the lost megalodon,    top ten deadliest sharks and alien sharks....  stranger fins.

References

  Hammerhead Sharks
  National Geographic-Hammerhead Sharks
  Marine Parks-Hammerhead Sharks

Sharks

Hammerhead shark


The Upper Hand (Du rififi à Paname) is a 1966 French thriller film about gold smuggling based on the novel by Auguste Le Breton and starring Jean Gabin, George Raft and Gert Fröbe.

Plot
Paul Berger, known as Paulo les diams, is a smuggler who works with his old friend Walter, an antique dealer married to Irene. Paulo recruits his smugglers from a nightclub with the help of his employees Rene and Lili.

They recruit a man called Mike Coppolano to smuggle, not knowing he is an American secret agent who has gone undercover. Mike is hired as Paulo's bodyguard after saving Paulo's life in a shoot out.

Gangster Giulio kidnaps Irene, and Mike shoots Giulio. Walter is killed and Paulo swears to avenge him.

Mafia gangster Binnagio insists Paulo and Mario get along. Mike steals a notebook in which Walter wrote down the flow chart of the arms trade. Paulo sets off a bomb in the middle of a meeting with the mafia.

Paulo and the survivors of the bomb are arrested.

Cast
Jean Gabin 	... 	Paul Berger
Gert Fröbe 	... 	Walter
George Raft 	... 	Charles Binnaggio
Nadja Tiller ... 	Irène
Claudio Brook 	... 	Mike Coppolano
Mireille Darc 	... 	Lili Princesse
Marcel Bozzuffi 	... 	Marque Mal
Claude Brasseur 	... 	Giulio
Daniel Ceccaldi 	... 	Commissaire Noël

Production
Producer Maurice Jaquin made the film following the success of Tonnerre de Dieu. It as heavily influenced by the current popularity of James Bond and oSS 117 films. The actual star of the movie was Claudio Brook, a Mexican actor who had worked with Luis Buñuel. The filmmakers hoped for an international audience and cast several non French actors including Gert Froebe and George Raft.

Reception
The New York Times called it "meandering, stilted and  extremely flat melodrama" which "spurts to life towards the end" when Gabin meets George Raft and "the two men lock eyeballs like two king cobras" with "a chilling authenticity".

The film was a moderate success at the French box office.

The Belgrade terrorist attack
On July 13, 1968, during the projection of The Upper Hand in the "20. oktobar" cinema in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, a bomb was detonated, killing one person and injuring 89. Croatian Miljenko Hrkać has been convicted of the attack and sentenced to death.

References

External links

1966 films
1960s crime thriller films
French crime thriller films
French gangster films
Films about organized crime in France
Films based on works by Auguste Le Breton
Films directed by Denys de La Patellière
1960s French films
1960s French-language films

The Upper Hand (film)


Fluoride-ion batteries (fluoride batteries and fluoride shuttle batteries) are rechargeable battery technology based on the shuttle of fluoride ions as ionic charge carriers.

This kind of chemistry is attracted interest in the mid-2010s because of its environmental friendliness, due to the avoidance of scarce  an geographically strained mineral resources in electrodes composition (e.g. cobalt and nickel) and high theoretical energy densities. In addition, since there is no metal plating and stripping, dendrites formation is negligible also if high-capacity metallic anodes are used, with increased safety, cyclability and energy storage capacity. Theoretically, a FB using a low costs electrodes and a liquid electrolyte can have energy densities as high as ~800 mAh/g and ~4800 Wh/L.

The fluoride-ion based technology is in early-stage of development and, , there are no commercially available devices. The main issues limiting actual performances are the high reactivity of naked fluoride in liquid electrolytes, low fluoride-ion ionic conductivity of solid-state electrolytes at room temperature and volume expansion of conversion-type electrodes that put mechanical strain on cell components during charging-discharging cycling leading to a premature capacity fading. Despite the aforementioned limitations, the fluoride-ion based technology represents a candidate for the next generation of electrochemical storage technology.

History
Fluoride-ion shuttling was proposed in 1974.  while working on fluoride ionic conductivity of CaF2 at temperatures ranging from 400 to 500 °C.

Research continued between 70s and early 80s when other studies about fluoride conductivity of inorganic fluorides at high temperature were carried out, one of the practical application was made  in 1976 doping β-PbF2 with potassium fluoride. When employed in a galvanic cell as a solid-state electrolyte this material allow reaching open-circuit voltage close to theoretical ones, but failed to sustain a current when a load was applied.

Little advancements were made in the field of fluoride-ion shuttling later in the 1980s, with only few studies reported working cells using solid-state fluoride conductive materials based on lanthanum, lead or cerium fluoride with unsatisfactory discharge capacity, if compared to commercially available batteries, high working temperature (up to 160°C) and limited cell life.

True trends for FBs started to drawing attention from mid-2010s, driven by energy transition and needs of new energy storage devices. Improvement were made in both solid and liquid electrolytes.

Working principle
The fluoride batteries chemistry rely on reversible electrochemical fluorination of a electropositive metal (M') at the anode side, at the expenses of a more noble metal fluoride (MFx) at the cathode side.

Discharge process

At Cathode (+)

xe^- + MF_{x} -> M + xF-

At Anode (-)

xF^- + M' ->  xe^- + M'F_{x}

Charge process

At Cathode (-)

xe^- + M'F_{x} -> M' + xF-

At Anode (+)

xF^- + M ->  xe^- + MF_{x}

Electrodes

Conversion-type electrodes

In conversion-type electrodes the redox reaction that occur change the crystal structure of material itself, this process often lead to a big variation of particles volume that can loss contanct with current collector or aggregate and loss active surface area, causing capacity fading. An advantage of converion-type electrodes is the possibility to exploit more than one electron transfer per redox center, increasing the specific capacity.

This class include some simple metal and transition metal fluorides, that can exchange two or more electrons per mole, like BiF3, Bi0.8Ba0.2F2.8, PbF2, FeF3, CuF2, KBiF3 at the cathode side or Ca and Mg at the anode side.

Intercalation-type

In intercalation-type electrodes, fluoride ions can be inserted in a vacancy in the crystal lattice of the electrode material, without changing its structure. In this case, the volume variation is greatly reduced making these materials more stable. In contrast, the electron transfer per redox center is usually limited to one, reducing the available specific capacity.

Electrolytes

Liquid electrolytes
Liquid electrolytes for FBs would offer a solution to the problem arising from the volumetric expansion of electrodes and at the same time to the reduction of operating temperature, due to intrinsic higher ion mobility, which results in high ion conductivity.

Inorganic fluorides-based electrolytes
Inorganic-based liquid electrolytes are made by dissolving alkali metal fluorides in an organic aprotic solvent but the low solubility of inorganic fluorides in common battery electrolytes solvents leads to poor ionic conductivity.

To enhance salts solubility, and consequently, ionic conductivity, boron-based anion acceptors were used to increase salt solubility in organics, as an example, an electrolyte based on cesium fluoride dissolved in tetraglyme with different anion acceptors, including triphenylboroxines and triphenylboranes were discovered.

Organic fluorides-based electrolytes
Organic-based liquid electrolytes were developed by dissolving tetraalkylammonium salts in proper organic aprotic solvents. The main issue is the high nucleophilic behavior of unsolved fluoride-ion that react easily with β-hydrogen of alkyl groups via the Hofmann elimination mechanism.

To obtain a stable organic-based electrolyte, ammonium salts without β-hydrogen was employed and tested N,N,N-trimethyl-N-neopentylammonium fluoride dissolved at high concentration in a partially fluorinated ether.

Solid electrolytes
Despite the intrinsic challenges of materials, in fact, most fluoride-conducting materials achieve insufficient ionic conductivity even at high temperatures (up to 160°C) that limit the possibility of commercial use. Moreover, the stiffness of these materials doesn't cope with the high volumetric expansion of conversion cathodes.

Tysonite-type rare-earth fluorides
Rare-earth fluorides with tysonite-type structure (RE1-xMxF3-x where RE is a rare-earth among La, Ce, Sm, and M is a second group metal like Ba, Ca, or Sr) has studied, because of their wide electrochemical stability windows, up to 4 V vs Li+/Li.

As an example, in 2017, it was synthesized, with a ball milling technique, barium-doped lanthanum fluoride (LBF), reaching an ionic conductivity of around 10-5 S cm-1 at room temperature but still lower than conventional liquid electrolytes used in commercially available Li-ion batteries. Similar results in terms of ionic conductivity were achieved with cerium fluoride doped with strontium fluoride or calcium-doped samarium fluoride.

Alkaline-earth fluorides

Among alkaline-earth fluorides, barium-tin fluoride (BaSnF4) has investigated because of its relatively high ionic conductivity at room temperature, in the order of 10-4 S cm-1. Despite the increased ionic conductivity, the low electrochemical stability window of Sn2+ prevents the use of reducing metals as anodes, decreasing the maximum cell potential, and consequently, the energy density.

In 2019 researchers obtained rechargable FB with a BaSnF4 solid electrolyte covered with an interlayer of LBF extending the electrochemical stability windows of BaSnF4.

See also

 Comparison of commercial battery types
 List of battery types
 Lithium-ion battery
 Rechargeable lithium metal battery

References

Battery types

External links

Fluoride battery


Theatre of Magic is a pinball machine designed by John Popadiuk, produced by Midway (under the Bally brand name).

Description
The game presents four primary objectives, each of which must be completed in order to qualify for the "Grand Finale" wizard mode.

 Theatre: Spell THEATRE by shooting the left loop (one letter per shot). Doing so begins a hurry-up countdown, during which a shot into the trunk scores a bonus.
 Multiball: Shoot the ramps to spell MAGIC (one letter per shot), then lock two balls by shooting the inner loop and hit the Magic Trunk to begin Theatre Multiball.
 Midnight Madness: Repeated shots to the right loop advance the clock one hour at a time, starting from noon. Once it reaches midnight, the Midnight Madness round begins, with the clock running backwards and shots to the Magic Trunk awarding points based on the hour it shows. The clock can also be advanced with a skill shot or as a reward for sending the ball into the basement when the Trapdoor is open.
 Illusions: Hit the Magic Trunk three times to rotate it, then shoot a ball into its hole to start one of the following eight modes.
 Tiger Saw — Hit the captive ball for various animations of a tiger cutting apart items with a circular saw.
 Levitating Woman — Shoot the center ramp for increasing millions.
 Trunk Escape — Shoot the Magic Trunk four times to break the chains of a locked trunk.
 Spirit Cards — Shoot the inner loops/spinner to award increasing points per spin.
 Safe Escape — Shoot the inner loops three times to unlock the safe.
 Metamorphosis — Shoot the right ramp to transform the assistant to various animals and score increasing millions.
 Strait Jacket — Hit the jet bumpers repeatedly to undo a buckle and escape a straitjacket as spiked walls close in.
 Hat Magic — Shoot the Magic Trunk to see different items being produced from a hat.

The Grand Finale requires the player to make 12 ramp, loop, or trunk shots within 60 seconds in order to spell MAGIC THEATRE; each shot awards 50 million, with a bonus of 500 million for completing the mode.

The game uses the DCS Sound System.

Digital versions
Theatre of Magic is available as a licensed table of Pinball FX 3. It was formerly available as a licensed table of The Pinball Arcade until June 30, 2018 due to WMS license expiration. Unlicensed reproductions of this table are available for Visual Pinball for Windows.

References

External links

Pinball Archive rule sheet

1995 pinball machines
Bally pinball machines

Theatre of Magic