A porringer is a shallow bowl, between 4 and 6 inches (100 to 150mm) in diameter, and 1½" to 3" (40 to 80mm) deep; the form originated in the medieval period in Europe and was made in wood, ceramic, pewter, cast iron and silver. They had flat, horizontal handles.

The precise purpose of porringers, or écuelles, as they are known in France, is in dispute; but it is thought that they were used to hold broth or gruel.

Colonial porringers tended to have one handle, whereas European ones tended to have two handles on opposite sides, on which the owner's initials were sometimes engraved, and they occasionally came with a lid. Porringers resembled the smaller quaich, a Scottish drinking vessel.

One can discern authentic pewter porringers in much the same way that silver can be authenticated from the touch marks that were stamped either into the bowl of the porringer or on its base. Wooden porringers are occasionally found from excavations, e.g., 16th-century example from Southwark and 11th century from Winchester.

The most famous colonial porringers are probably those made by Paul Revere.

In more modern times, some manufacturers of porringers have produced them without handles. These types of porringers appear to be deep bowls, with the sides being nearly totally flat. Porringers are also used less and less, as a bowl will suffice for most people; porringers, however, are still circulated, mainly as a Christening-gift.

A second, modern usage, for the term porringer is a double saucepan similar to a bain-marie used for cooking porridge. The porridge is cooked gently in the inner saucepan, heated by steam from boiling water in the outer saucepan. This ensures the porridge does not burn and allows a longer cooking time so that the oats can absorb the water or milk in which they are cooked more completely. Also, the porridge does not need stirring during the cooking process, which means the oats maintain their structural integrity and the porridge has a better mouthfeel and texture. The lower heat may also degrade less of the beta-glucan in the oats, which gives oats their cholesterol-lowering properties.

Porringers were also made out of earthenware clay that fired to red in a type of pottery that is called "redware" today but was called "earthen" during colonial and Early America. These would have the typical strap or pulled handle that is familiar on mugs and cups today.

Some collectors or materials historians also call what resembles the pewter porringer a "bleeding cup".

See also
 Grabit
 List of cooking vessels

References

External links
 One-handled Porringer picture from the Brooklyn Museum
 Two-handled Porringer picture from Learn NC
 Definition of porringer from Britannica online

Serving and dining
Cooking vessels

Porringer


England is a country in Europe with over sixty cities. It is in a union with Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. All four countries are in the British Isles and are part of the United Kingdom (UK).

Over 55 million people live in England (2015 estimate). This is 84% of the population of the UK. The capital city of England is London, which is also the biggest city in the country. Other large cities in England are Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds.

The English flag is a red cross on a white background. This cross is the cross of Saint George, who is the patron saint of England. Some other symbols used for England are a red rose and three lions.

History
Although people had lived in England long before, it was a long time before the land was unified. The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, about 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date to 500,000 years ago.

The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC. They used drinking and food vessels made from clay, and vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores. There was extensive Scandinavian trips to the islands around Scotland, and to Ireland, long before England was a unified country: check Skara Brae for one example.

This was first done by Æthelstan in 927 and Eadred in 953. A wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that included Denmark and Norway. However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042. When King Edward died, Harold Godwinson (the Earl of Wessex) became king. William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy (today part of northern France), said that Harold had promised to make William the king. He invaded England and fought King Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. William won, and became king of England.

Subsequently, the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire. They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V.

The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the Magna Carta, an English legal charter. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope.

During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois both claimed to own the House of Capet and with it France. The two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War. The Black Death epidemic hit England: starting in 1348, it killed up to half the population. From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family  the Yorkists and Lancastrians – known as the Wars of the Roses. Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to Tudors. Henry Tudor invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, won at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed.

For several centuries the religion of England was Roman Catholicism. The bishops (church leaders) of England and all their churches obeyed the Pope and the church in Rome. During the Protestant Reformation many did not agree with this. In the 1530s, the Pope told King Henry VIII that he could not divorce his wife. King Henry VIII created the Church of England (a "Protestant" church) partly so that he could divorce his wife. He made Protestantism the official church in England. For the next 200 years, there was struggle over whether the King (or Queen) of England should be Roman Catholic or Protestant.

Queen Elizabeth I was Henry's second daughter. She was a powerful queen who ruled for more than 40 years. Elizabethan England was the best of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of art, poetry, music and literature. The era is most famous for its drama, theatre and playwrights. When Queen Elizabeth I died, she had no children.

In 1603 James VI of Scotland (the son of Mary, Queen of Scots) became King James I of England. He called his two countries "Great Britain", but they were still separate countries with their own parliaments and laws, even though they were in personal union because they shared the same monarch.

James' son, Charles I and the English Parliament fought each other in the English Civil War (Scotland and Ireland were involved as well, and the story is complicated!). Oliver Cromwell became leader of the Parliamentary Army (the "Roundheads") and defeated the Royalist Army (the "Cavaliers"). King Charles was beheaded in 1649 and Oliver Cromwell became dictator ("Lord Protector"). When Cromwell died, his son Richard was not strong enough to rule, and Charles II, the son of Charles I, was invited to come to England and be king in 1660.

When King Charles II died, his brother James II was the next king. A lot of people did not like James because he was Roman Catholic. William of Orange was invited to invade England. He was the ruler of part of the Netherlands and husband of Mary, the daughter of King James. Many people welcomed William because he was a Protestant.

James left the country without a fight and Parliament asked William and Mary to become King and Queen together. When Mary II of England died, William ruled alone. Queen Mary's sister Anne became the next queen. While she was queen, England and Scotland were officially joined as one country. This was called the Acts of Union 1707. It also merged their separate parliaments. The parliament in London now included Scottish Members of Parliament ("MPs"), and was called the Parliament of Great Britain.

After this, the history of England becomes the history of Great Britain and United Kingdom. Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment created innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, which was a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England. Industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining became important. New and pioneering road, rail and water networks helped the expansion and development.

The United Kingdom was formed in 1800, when the Irish Parliament merged with the British one. Later on, many in Ireland fought against this merger. The result was the separation of the Republic of Ireland. This is not the whole of Ireland. The rest of the island, Northern Ireland, is now the only part of Ireland still in the UK. England is the only country of UK not to have its own government, Parliament or Assembly, but is governed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Seats in Parliament are decided by the number of electors in the various parts of the UK.

Geography
England is the largest part of the island of Great Britain, and it is also the largest constituent country of the United Kingdom. Scotland and Wales are also part of Great Britain (and the UK), Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. To the east and south, and part of the west, England is bordered by sea. France is to the south, separated by the English Channel. The Channel Tunnel, (Chunnel) under the English Channel, connects England to northern France (and the rest of mainland Europe). Ireland is a large island to the west, divided into Northern Ireland which is part of the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland.

London is the largest city and the capital. The longest river in England is the River Severn. Other large rivers are the Thames (which runs through London), the Trent and the Humber.

In geological terms, the Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in England, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country.

The English Lowlands are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling chalk hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs; where they meet the sea they form white chalk exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. This also includes relatively flat plains such as the Salisbury Plain, Somerset Levels, South Coast Plain. The Fens are the natural marshlands once widespread in various parts of England.

The United Kingdom is reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It has met Kyoto Protocol target of a 12.5% reduction from 1990 levels and intends to meet the legally binding target of a 20% cut in emissions by 2010. In 2019, the British Parliament became the first national government in the world to officially declare a climate emergency.

Achievements
England has been central to many aspects of the modern world. Global exploration and trade, the British Empire, modern science, modern agriculture, railways, the Industrial Revolution, the development of modern representative democracy. In all these developments England was deeply involved. In some of them, such as the Industrial Revolution, England was the place where modern developments first occurred.

The Royal Society is a society for science and scientists. It was founded in 1660 by Charles II. It is the oldest society of its kind still in existence.

Language

The English language is a West Germanic language spoken in many countries around the world. With around 380 million native speakers, it is the second most spoken language in the world, as a native language. As many as a billion people speak it as a second language. English is an influence on, and has been influenced by, many other languages.

William Shakespeare was an English playwright. He wrote plays in the late 16th century. Some of his plays were Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth. In the 19th century, Jane Austen and Charles Dickens were novelists. Twentieth century writers include the science fiction novelist H.G. Wells and J.R.R. Tolkien. The children's fantasy Harry Potter series was written by J.K. Rowling. Aldous Huxley was also from the United Kingdom.

English language literature is written by authors from many countries. Eight people from the United Kingdom have won the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Climate
All of Great Britain has an oceanic climate. There can be a temperature difference of 510°c between the north and the south (the north is generally colder), and there is often snow in the north before there is in the south.

The prevailing wind for most of the year is from the Atlantic, to the west of England. Therefore, there is more rain on the western side of the country. The east is colder and drier than the west. The country usually has a mild climate because the Gulf Stream to the western side is warm water. The climate is warmer than it was 200 years ago, and now ice and snow are rare in the southern part of the country. Occasionally, air from the Arctic Circle comes down the eastern side of the country and the temperature can drop below 0oC.

Politics

As part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system. It has a monarch (meaning a king or queen is the head of that country). The head of state is King Charles III, who is became King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland upon his Mother's death on 9/8/2022, after her historical 70-year reign. The House of Commons is the lower house of the British Parliament in the Palace of Westminster. There are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.

The English people are represented by members of Parliament, not ruled by monarchs. After the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector, and the monarchy was disbanded. Although the monarchy was restored after his death, the Crown slowly became the secondary power, and Parliament the first. Members of Parliament (called MPs) were elected, but until the early twentieth century, only men who owned property could vote. In the nineteenth century, more people were given suffrage. But in 1928, all men and women got the vote: this is called "universal suffrage". Parliament is in Westminster in London, but it has power over the whole of the United Kingdom.

Almost all members of Parliament belong to political parties. The biggest parties are the Conservative Party, Labour Party, Liberal Democrats and Green Party. Members of the same party agree to act and vote more or less together. A party with more than half the seats (a majority) forms the government; the leader of the party becomes the Prime Minister, who then appoints other ministers. Because the government has a majority in Parliament, it can normally control what laws are passed.

Economy
England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £28,100 or $36,000.

Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure. The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – as of 2014 the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount.

The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy, which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there. London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world. Manchester is the largest financial and professional services sector outside London and is the mid tier private equity capital of Europe as well as one of the growing technology hubs of Europe.

Major conurbations
The Greater London Built-up Area is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than any other country in the United Kingdom besides England itself.

Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands. There are 52 settlements which have designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has 70. City status in England is granted by the monarch to a select group of communities.

While many cities in England are quite large, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham, population size is not a prerequisite for city status. Traditionally the status was given to towns with diocesan cathedrals, so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester.

Education
State primary schools and secondary schools exist. These consist of academy schools, community schools, sixth form colleges, further education colleges, grammar schools, foundation schools, faith schools, free schools, studio schools, university technical colleges and city technology colleges. The most common specialist schools are performing arts schools, science schools, maths schools, business schools and technology schools. Independent public or prep schools also exist. Eton College and Harrow School are the best known independent schools.

The National Curriculum was introduced in 1988, to give pupils a broad and balanced curriculum. The school curriculum aims to promote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils. Its purpose is to prepare them for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of later life. The basic areas of learning covers English literature, English language, maths, science, art and design, citizenship, religious education, geography, history, computing, design and technology, ancient and modern foreign languages, music and physical education.

Many prominent people who have reached the top in their fields have been products of English higher education. There have been universities in England since the Middle Ages. Ancient universities started in this time and in the Renaissance. The two oldest and most prestigious universities are Oxford University and Cambridge University. Imperial College, University College London and Manchester University are also highly rated by independent lists. There are now about a hundred universities.

Transport
Road traffic in the United Kingdom drives on the left hand side of the road (unlike the Americas and most of Europe), and the driver steers from the right hand side of the vehicle. The road network on the island of Great Britain is extensive, with most local and rural roads having evolved from Roman and Medieval times.

The system of rail transport was invented in England, so it has the oldest railway network in the world. It was built mostly during the Victorian era. The extensive railway network is managed by the state-owned public body Great British Railways (GBR). The system of underground railways in London, known as the Tube, has been copied by many other cities around the globe. England is home to the largest airport and is one of the most important international hubs in the world.

Media
The BBC is an organisation in the United Kingdom. It broadcasts in the United Kingdom and other countries on television, radio and the Internet. The BBC also sells its programmes to other broadcasting companies around world. The organisation is run by a group of twelve governors who have been given the job by the King, on the advice of government ministers. The BBC is established under a royal charter, which allows the BBC to broadcast.

National newspapers produced in England include The Times, The Guardian and the Financial Times. Magazines and journals published in England that have achieved worldwide circulation include Nature, New Scientist, The Spectator, Prospect, NME and The Economist.

English culture
See English literature,
English Heritage,
Aldeburgh Festival,
The Royal Society

English culture can be compared with Northern European countries, in the way that it is considered a bad thing to show off, as opposed to the US, where this is more acceptable. Humour, tradition and good manners are characteristics commonly associated with being English.

Sport
England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football, cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash, rounders, hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, and greyhound racing. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One.

The English football team won the World Cup in 1966. They came close in Italy 1990, closely losing in the semi-final against West Germany on penalties. In the 2006 World Cup they got to the quarter finals, then lost to Portugal after penalty kicks. In the 2018 FIFA World Cup, they came close again only to be knocked out in the semi-final, losing 2-1 to Croatia. After winning the 2019 Cricket World Cup, England became the first country to win the World Cups in football, rugby union and cricket.

English people invented:
 Football
 Rugby football
 Cricket
 Billiards and snooker
 Lawn tennis
 Rounders
 Rowing
 Darts
 Hockey
 Tennis

People from England
There are many well known English people. Here are just a few of them:
 Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400), poet
 William Shakespeare (1564–1616), playwright, poet
 Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723), architect
 Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), mathematician and physicist
 King Henry VIII, founder of the Church of England
 John Wesley, founder of the Methodist Church
 Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851), landscape and marine artist
 John Constable (1776–1837), landscape painter
 Jane Austen (1775–1817), novelist, Pride and Prejudice
 William Wordsworth (1770–1850), poet
 Michael Faraday (1791–1867), discoverer of electromagnetism
 Charles Dickens (1812–1870), writer
 Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859), engineer
 Charles Darwin (1809–1882), biologist, natural selection and The Origin of Species
 J.J. Thomson (1856–1940), physicist
 Howard Carter (1874–1939), archaeologist (Egypt)
 Sir Winston Churchill (1874–1965), twice Prime Minister, led country during World War II
 J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973), author and scholar, The Lord of the Rings
 Francis Crick (1916–2004), co-discovery of the structure of DNA
 Sir Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web
 The Beatles, musical group: (19621970)
 Led Zeppelin, rock band
 The Rolling Stones, rock band
 Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997)
 Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013), Prime Minister 1979–1990
 Sir Stanley Matthews (1915–2000), footballer, 1956 Ballon d'Or winner
 Bobby Moore (1941–1993), footballer, captain of the England team that won the 1966 FIFA World Cup.
 Sir Bobby Charlton, footballer, 1966 Ballon d'Or winner
 Ronnie O'Sullivan, snooker player
 Mo Farah, athlete
 Lewis Hamilton, Formula 1 driver and world champion 2008, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020
 Amy Winehouse (1983–2011), singer
 J.K. Rowling, author
 Stephen Hawking (1942-2018), theoretical physicist

Divisions

England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties, which are also known as geographic counties. The counties of England are areas used for different purposes, which include administrative, geographical, cultural and political demarcation. The original county structure has its origins in the Middle Ages.
The historic counties of Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmorland, Huntingdonshire and Middlesex are the five defunct ceremonial counties which were historically counties.

With their abolition as ceremonial counties, Yorkshire is divided for that purpose into the East Riding of Yorkshire, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire and West Yorkshire, Cumberland and Westmorland were combined with a former exclave of Lancashire to form Cumbria, Huntingdonshire merged into Cambridgeshire, and most of Middlesex became part of Greater London.

There is no well-established series of official symbols or flags covering all the counties. From 1889 the newly created county councils could apply to the College of Arms for coats of arms. A recent series of flags, with varying levels of official adoption, have been established in many of the counties by competition or public poll. County days are a recent innovation in some areas. There are seventeen first-class county cricket teams that are based on historical English counties.

Twelve of the 51 cities in England are in metropolitan counties and their city councils are single-tier metropolitan district councils. Outside the metropolitan counties eleven cities are unitary authorities, and fifteen have ordinary district councils, which are subordinate to their local county council.

Related pages
 Shire

References

Other websites

 The website for tourism in England
 The British Government website

England


He Luli (; 7 June 1934 – 19 March 2022) was a Chinese politician and paediatrician. She entered politics after practicing medicine for 27 years, serving as Vice-Mayor of Beijing, Chairwoman of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang, Vice Chairperson of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, and Vice Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.

He Luli was the daughter of He Siyuan, the Kuomintang mayor of Beijing who negotiated the peaceful surrender of the city to the Chinese Communist Party near the end of the Chinese Civil War.

Early life

He Luli was born on 7 June 1934, in Jinan, Shandong, China. Her father He Siyuan was the French-educated education minister of Shandong Province, and her mother was a Frenchwoman who adopted the Chinese name He Yiwen (). He Luli had two older brothers and a younger sister.

After Japan invaded China in 1937, He Siyuan led a guerrilla operation in Shandong to fight the enemy. He sent his wife and four children to live in the British concession in Tianjin. After the Pacific War broke out in December 1941, Japan occupied the British concession and Yiwen moved the family home to Tianjin's Italian concession. On 31 December, the Italian authorities arrested Yiwen and the children and handed them to the Japanese, who held them as hostages and demanded He Siyuan's surrender. He rejected the demand, condemned Japan and Italy's breach of international law through diplomatic channels, and held Italian missionaries in China as a bargaining chip. Japan eventually relented and released the family.

After the end of World War II, He Siyuan served as Mayor of Beijing (then known as Beiping). During the ensuing Chinese Civil War, he negotiated with the Communists for the peaceful surrender of Beiping. To prevent the surrender, Chiang Kai-shek sent agents to assassinate him. In the early morning of 18 January 1949, two bombs exploded in the He residence, killing Luli's 12-year-old sister Lumei () and gravely injuring her mother. The rest of the family were also wounded. The Juntong agent who planted the bombs, Colonel Duan Yunpeng, was captured in 1954 and executed in 1967.

Career
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, He Luli studied medicine at Beijing Medical University (now Peking University Health Science Center) from 1952 to 1957. Starting in 1957, she worked as a doctor for 27 years at Beijing Children's Hospital, Xicheng District Children's Hospital, and Beijing No. 2 Hospital.

He Luli entered politics in 1984, when she was appointed Deputy Mayor of Xicheng District of Beijing. She joined the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang (RCCK) in April 1986. She was promoted to Deputy Mayor of Beijing in 1988, and served in that position until 1996. She also concurrently served as President of the Beijing Red Cross Society. In 1993 she was elected Vice President of the All-China Women's Federation.

In 1996 she was elected Chairwoman of the RCCK, replacing Li Peiyao, who had been murdered. She was reelected twice in 1997 and 2002, serving until 2007. She also became Vice Chairperson of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) in March 1996.

In March 1998, she was elected Vice Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. She was reelected in March 2003, serving until 2008.

In addition, she was a member of the Hong Kong SAR Preparatory Committee in 1997 and the Macao SAR Preparatory Committee in 1999. In 1999 she became President of the Central Socialist Academy and Honorary Vice-President of the Red Cross Society of China. In that year she also won a World Health Organization award for her contributions to the anti-smoking movement in China.

Personal life
He Luli married fellow physician Rong Guohuang () in 1958; they had two sons. Rong died in 1989. He Luli died on 19 March 2022, at the age of 87.

References

1934 births
2022 deaths
20th-century Chinese physicians
20th-century women physicians
Members of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang
People's Republic of China politicians from Shandong
Politicians from Jinan
Deputy mayors of Beijing
Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress
Vice Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Chinese paediatricians
Chinese women physicians
Peking University alumni
Chinese people of French descent
Physicians from Shandong
All-China Women's Federation people
Officers of the Legion of Honour

He Luli


Slave Labour is a mural that was painted by a British graffiti artist, Banksy, on the side wall of a Poundland store in Wood Green, London in May 2012. The artwork is 48 inches (122 cm) high by 60 inches (152 cm) wide, and depicts an urchin child at a sewing machine assembling a bunting of Union Jack patches. The work was a protest against the use of sweatshops to manufacture Diamond Jubilee and London Olympics memorabilia in 2012.

In February 2013 the mural was removed from its location and put up for sale at Fine art Auctions in Miami, US.  After an appeal from the residents of Wood Green the mural was withdrawn from sale in the US and returned to the UK.  It was sold at an auction in Covent Garden, London for (USD) $1.2 million.

Removal and sale
There is controversy over the disappearance of the mural, as a portion of the wall was physically removed from the building the artwork was sprayed upon.  The owners of the building have not commented on whether it was legally or illegally sold and removed.

When the mural disappeared in February 2013 it was listed for sale on an on-line site and later appeared for sale at the Fine Art Auctions Miami for half a million dollars ($500,000).  The auction house insisted the artwork was acquired through a legitimate transaction with a "well known" collector."  The listing of the art at auction outraged some Wood Green residents, who believed the work was a gift to them, and that listing the artwork for sale at auction contradicted the wishes of the artist whose message called for an end to exploitation in the name of capitalism.

Despite claims that the acquisition of the artwork was legitimate, the FAAM director Frederic Thut withdrew the artwork, even after three bids had already been placed.  Thut was also advised not to discuss the situation.

On 22 February 2013, a stencil of what is believed to be Banksy's signature rat holding a sign saying "Why?" appeared on the right of the area where the "Slave Labour" mural once stood, sparking views that it was a consolation to the community. To the left of that space, appeared the message '"Danger Thieves."  The rat artwork was covered in plexiglass to protect it but a  representative of Banksy claimed that the rat is a fake, and other Banksy enthusiasts agree.

Eventual sale of mural at auction
After protest from the residents of Wood Green the mural was returned to the UK.  On 3 June 2013, it was on sold for over £750,000 (US$1.1m) by Bankrobber London  at an auction held in the basement of the London Film Museum in Covent Garden by the Sincura Group. It was sold again in 2018 at Julien's Auctions in Los Angeles, United States for $730,000 (£561,000) to artist Ron English, who planned to whitewash the work in protest against purchases and sales of street art.

Interview with Banksy
When prompted to comment on the sale of his artworks through auction houses, Banksy replied by giving a quote from Henri Matisse: "I was very embarrassed when my canvases began to fetch high prices, I saw myself condemned to a future of painting nothing but masterpieces." Furthermore, in previous attempts to sell his artwork, he has stated his position, "For the sake of keeping all street art where it belongs I'd encourage people not to buy anything by anybody unless it was created for sale in the first place."

See also
 List of works by Banksy

References

2010s murals
2012 in England
2012 paintings
Murals in London
Works by Banksy

Slave Labour (mural)


Weitek Corporation was an American chip-design company that originally focused on floating-point units for a number of commercial CPU designs. During the early to mid-1980s, Weitek designs could be found powering a number of high-end designs and parallel-processing supercomputers.

Weitek started in 1981, when several Intel engineers left to form their own company. Weitek developed math coprocessors for several systems, including those based on the Motorola 68000 family, the 1064 and 1164, and for Intel-based i286 systems, the 1067. Intel's own FPU design for the i386 fell far behind in development, and Weitek delivered the 1167 for them. The Weitek 1167 Floating Point Coprocessor provided the combination of Weitek 1163, 1164 and 1165 chipset.  Later upgrades to this design led to the 2167, 3167 and 4167. Weitek would later outfit FPUs to the early SPARC architecture such as the 3170 and 3172. Weitek FPUs had several differences compared to x87 offerings, lacking extended double precision but having a register-file rather than a stack-based model, or using memory-mapped IO as opposed to port-mapped IO.

As orders increased for supercomputer applications, Weitek found themselves seriously disadvantaged by their fab, which was becoming rather outdated. HP approached them with a deal to use their newer fabs. This proved advantageous for both, and soon HP's fabs were open to anyone. Weitek also worked with HP on the design of their latest PA-RISC design and sold their own version known as the RISC 8200, which was sold as an embedded design and had some use in laser printers.

In the late 1980s Weitek saw a new opportunity and started developing frame buffers for Sun Microsystems workstations. In the early 1990s they also introduced the SPARC POWER μP (as in "power-up"), a pin-compatible version of the SPARC processor. The μP could be dropped into existing SPARCstation 2 and SPARCstation IPX workstations and ran at 80 MHz, double the clock speed of the CPUs it replaced. The chip ran twice as fast internally, providing a boost of about 50–60% in overall speed, due to the bus not getting any faster. However, they did not pursue this concept with later generations of SPARC processors.

Weitek turned their frame-buffer experience to the PC market in the early 90s and introduced a series of SVGA multimedia chipsets known as the "POWER" systems. Consisting of two chips, one drawing the graphics known as the P9000 and another handling the output, the VideoPower 5x86, the POWER series was used in a number of third-party designs based on the VESA Local Bus standard. The P9001 moved to PCI and became fairly popular in 1994, known as the Viper in designs from Diamond and Orchid. The final generation, the P9100, combined the P9001 and 5286 into a single chip. Weitek adapters were fairly successful in the early days of the 486 market, but fell from use when less expensive systems were introduced by a host of new players in the mid-1990s. A couple versions were also released for the Amiga and used its ReTargetable Graphics standard.

During the early 1990s most CPU designs started including FPUs built into the system, basically "for free", and Weitek made a series of attempts to re-enter the low-end CPU and graphics driver market with their W464 (486) and W564 (P5) systems, which used the host machine's RAM as the frame buffer to lower costs. By 1995 the company was almost dead, and in late 1996 the remains were purchased by Rockwell's Semiconductor Systems and quickly disappeared.

See also
Ross Technology

References

External links
Weitek - the original home page, cached but largely un-functional
Weitek Sparc2 Upgrade Chip
Weitek chip images and information on cpu-collection.de

Computer companies established in 1981
Computer companies disestablished in 1996
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct semiconductor companies of the United States
X86 microprocessors
Floating point

Weitek


The Hunchback of Notre Dame is a 1923 American drama film starring Lon Chaney, directed by Wallace Worsley, and produced by Carl Laemmle and Irving Thalberg. The supporting cast includes Patsy Ruth Miller, Norman Kerry, Nigel de Brulier, and Brandon Hurst. Distributed by Universal Pictures, the films was the studio's "Super Jewel" of 1923 and was their most successful silent film, grossing $3.5 million. The film premiered on September 2, 1923 at the Astor Theatre in New York, New York, then went into release on September 6.

The screenplay was written by Perley Poore Sheehan and Edward T. Lowe Jr., based on Victor Hugo's 1831 novel, and is notable for the grand sets that recall 15th century Paris as well as for Chaney's performance and make-up as the tortured hunchback bellringer Quasimodo. This was the seventh film adaptation of the novel. The film elevated Chaney, who was already a well-known character actor, to full star status in Hollywood, and also helped set a standard for many later horror films, including Chaney's The Phantom of the Opera in 1925. Two classic stills showing Chaney as Quasimodo can be seen on the internet, highlighting the makeup job, as well as the film's program book.

In 1951, the film entered the public domain in the United States because the claimants neglected to renew its copyright registration in the 28th year after publication. Currently, the film is available on Blu-ray and DVD, although the existing prints (all copied from 16mm sources) are all missing at least 15 minutes of footage that was in the original 1923 35mm release print.

Plot

The story is set in Paris in 1482. Quasimodo is a deaf, half-blind, hunchbacked bell-ringer of the famous Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. His master is a man named Jehan, the evil brother of Notre Dame's saintly archdeacon Dom Claude. One night, Jehan prevails upon Quasimodo to kidnap the fair Esmeralda, a dancing Roma girl (and the adopted daughter of Clopin, the king of the oppressed beggars of Paris' underworld).

The dashing Captain Phoebus rescues Esmeralda from Quasimodo, while Jehan abandons him and flees (later in the film, Quasimodo hates Jehan for abandoning him and is no longer loyal to him). At first seeking a casual romance, Phoebus becomes entranced by Esmeralda, and takes her under his wing. Quasimodo is sentenced to be lashed in the public square before Esmeralda and Dom Claude come to his aid.

To their dismay, Jehan and Clopin learn that Phoebus hopes to marry Esmeralda, despite being engaged to Fleur de Lys. Phoebus persuades Esmeralda to accompany him to a ball celebrating his appointment as Captain of the Guard by King Louis XI. He provides her with rich garments and introduces her to their hostess, Madame de Gondelaurier, as a Princess of Egypt.

Clopin, accompanied by his beggars, crashes the festivities and demands Esmeralda be returned. To avoid bloodshed, Esmeralda says that she does not belong with the aristocracy. Later, however, Esmeralda sends the street poet Pierre Gringoire to give Phoebus a note, arranging a rendezvous at Notre Dame to say goodbye to him. Phoebus arrives and is stabbed in the back by Jehan. After Esmeralda is falsely sentenced to death for the crime, she is rescued from the gallows by Quasimodo and carried inside the cathedral, where he and Dom Claude grant her sanctuary.

Later that night, Clopin leads the whole of the underworld to storm the cathedral, and Jehan attempts to take Esmeralda, first by guile (telling her that Phoebus's dying wish was for him to take care of her), then by force. Quasimodo holds off the invaders with rocks and torrents of molten lead. Meanwhile, the healed Phoebus is alerted by Gringoire and leads his men against the rabble. Clopin is killed in the battle.

When Quasimodo finds Jehan attacking Esmeralda, he throws his former master off the ramparts of Notre Dame, but not before Jehan fatally stabs him three times in the back. Phoebus finds and embraces Esmeralda. Witnessing this, Quasimodo rings his own death toll, and Gringoire and Dom Claude enter the bell tower just in time to see him die. The last image is of the great bell swinging silently above Quasimodo's corpse.

Cast

Production

Long before the film was produced or shot, Lon Chaney was the industry favorite to play the role of Quasimodo. Film Daily stated it was essentially common knowledge that Chaney wanted to play the role of Quasimodo and even claimed that Chaney considered organizing a company to make the film abroad. It is known that Chaney had acquired the rights to produce the film in 1921 and had been actively engaged in negotiating the production with Universal. Evidence of Chaney's seriousness included plans to do the production abroad with a German studio, the Chelsea Pictures Company. In April 1922, Chelsea Pictures announced that Lon Chaney would star in the role of Quasimodo and that Alan Crosland would direct the film. The film failed to materialize and the company seems to have disappeared without a trace.

Irving Thalberg, who had previously worked with Chaney and Tod Browning, desired to make a production that would rise artistically above the otherwise expensive productions Universal produced. In order to convince Universal's founder, Carl Laemmle, to formally approve the production, Thalberg pitched Hunchback to him as "a love story". Bolstered by Chaney's recent box office successes, Laemmle agreed.

Universal Weekly, the house publication of Universal, formally announced the production of The Hunchback of Notre Dame in August 1922.  The next issue stated that the Universal Scenario Department was working on the continuity and that preliminary plans for the sets were being drafted. In September 1922, Universal Weekly announced Lon Chaney's intention for it to have him act in his final "cripple role", following the successes of both The Miracle Man and The Penalty. Chaney's ownership of the film rights allowed him contractual latitude for far more artistic approval and control of this production than he had had in previous ones; for this, he would thus serve as an uncredited, de facto producer; Thalberg was undoubtedly complicit in such an arrangement, with it serving to prevent Carl Laemmle from cutting costs on the "artistic" production.

It is not known for certain, but Lon Chaney is believed to have even been influential in the selection of the director; although Wallace Worsley, the final choice for director, had previously worked successfully with Chaney on four previous films (The Penalty, The Ace of Hearts, Voices of the City, and A Blind Bargain; the last of which also featured Chaney as a hunchback) at Goldwyn, Michael Blake, a Lon Chaney scholar, states that Chaney's first choice for director was Erich von Stroheim, at that time Universal's prized "name" director after the successes of Blind Husbands and Foolish Wives. However, Stroheim was fired by Thalberg from Universal before production on Hunchback commenced—ironically, due to Thalberg's fears that Stroheim would incur cost overruns on his own separate production, Merry-Go-Round.

Universal Weekly thus announced Wallace Worsley, pending approval from his then-home studio Paramount, as the likely director of Hunchback in late November. Worsley's status as director, on loan from Paramount, was confirmed in the following issue, though such confirmation ran alongside an advertisement that stated Tod Browning would direct. Due to Worsley's prior commitments directing two other pictures for Paramount being extended due to the hurried replacement of their fatally ill star, Wallace Reid, with Jack Holt, the start date on Hunchback was pushed back nearly a month in order to accommodate Worsley; in the event, the second of the two films with Holt that Worsey was to direct was eventually helmed by Joseph Henabery, in his stead.

Universal announced its intentions to recreate the Notre Dame cathedral and the surrounding streets to the exacting specifications of the period. Universal staff set about creating the "Gallery of Kings", thirty five statues, each ten feet high with intended likeness of the originals. The construction of the sets was estimated to take six months to complete. The screenplay was completed by Edward T. Lowe, Jr. and Perley Poore Sheehan by the end of 1922.

In the beginning of January, it was announced that film production began with the "Court of Miracles" setting. Shooting the Parisian underworld scene required a cast of some several hundred extras. The construction of the Notre Dame set and the street settings had not yet been completed. In the beginning of February filming had moved to the Madame de Gondelaurier scenes. The production reportedly required three thousand costumes for extras, requiring six weeks for Universal costume department to complete.

In March, Film Daily reported Worsley had traded in his megaphone for a radio and loudspeaker to direct the large crowd of extras for the scenes. Radio Digest stated that it was a $7,000 radio and loudspeaker set up, .

Film Daily reported on June 8 that the filming of the camera shots had been completed and that Universal had signed a contract to lease the Astor Theatre for showing the film on September 2.

At the beginning of 1923, Universal's accounts believed that the cost of the production would be between $750,000 and $1,000,000. The film wound up costing $1,250,000 to produce and was in production from December 16, 1922 until June 8, 1923. It was the most expensive Lon Chaney film ever made. He was paid $2,500.00 per week salary.

Reception
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 91% of critics have given the film a positive review based on , with a weighted average rating of 8.08/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "A heart-rending take on the classic book, with a legendary performance by Lon Chaney."

"Here then is a picture that will live forever. Chaney's portrayal of Quasimodo the hunchback is suparb....a marvel of sympathetic acting. Chaney, in some miraculous way, awakens within us a profound feeling of sympathy and admiration for this most unfortunate and physically revolting human being." ---Motion Picture World

"Naturally there is much in this picture which is not pleasant...It is, however, a strong production, on which no pains or money have been spared to depict the seamy side of old Paris...It is a drama which will appeal to all those who are interested in fine screen acting, artistic settings and a remarkable handling of crowds who don't mind a grotesque figure and a grim atmosphere...Chaney throws his whole soul into making Quasimodo as repugnant as anything human could very well be, even to decorating his breast and back with hair" ---The New York Times

"Lon Chaney's remarkable performance as Quasimodo, the grateful hunchback, is, as it should be, easily the outstanding feature. His extraordinary make-up as a veritable living gargoyle reaches the limit of grotesquery (and at moments seems to go a shade beyond it) but his sprawling movements and frantic gestures are brilliantly conceived, and his final dance of frenzy at the defeat of Clopin's rabble is a scene of delirious passion which has seldom been equalled on the screen." ---Bioscope

"In spite of the liberties taken with the Victor Hugo novel, this picture is a superb and remarkably impressive spectacle....with the addition of some of the most stupendous and interesting settings ever shown. (Chaney's) performance transcends anything he has ever done. He is weird, almost repellent at times, but always fascinating. This picture should be placed on your list and not missed by any means." --- Photoplay

"The Quasimodo of Lon Chaney is a creature of horror, a weird monstrosity of ape-like ugliness, such a fantastically effective makeup as the screen has never known, and in all human probability will never know again." ---Exhibitors Trade Review

"The Hunchback is a two-hour nightmare. It's murderous, hideous and repulsive. Hugo's tale is immortal; Laemmle's picture is fragile as a film house commodity...[The film] is misery all of the time, nothing but misery, tiresome, loathsome misery that doesn't make you feel any the better for it. Mr. Chaney's performance entitles him to starring honors....(the film) may become a detriment to the box office it plays for." ---Variety

"The one thing that stands out in one's memory is Quasimodo. Mr. Chaney's work will live in the memory when all else will have faded away. (The Hunchback) is an accomplishment of which any producer should feel proud." ---Harrison's Reports

Accolades
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated

Preservation

The only surviving prints of the film are 16mm "show-at-home" prints distributed by Universal in the 1920s and 1930s for home-movie purposes, and no original nitrate 35mm negatives or prints exist. Most video editions (including public domain releases) of the film are derived from 16mm duplicate prints that were distributed by Blackhawk Films in the 1960s and 1970s.

A DVD release of a newly restored print of the film was released by Image Entertainment on October 9, 2007. A Blu-ray release of a newly restored print of the film was released by Flicker Alley on March 18, 2014. Another Blu-ray was released on September 28, 2021 by Kino Lorber with a brand new restoration from NBCUniversal.

A 100th anniversary screening of the film took place at the 2023 Calgary International Film Festival, with a new live score composed and performed by Chad VanGaalen.

Vox Lumiere
Composer Kevin Saunders Hayes uses this 1923 silent film in his Vox Lumiere 2005 theatre/concert production "Vox Lumiere - The Hunchback of Notre Dame".

See also
 List of films in the public domain in the United States

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Blake, Michael F. A Thousand Faces: Lon Chaney's Unique Artistry in Motion Pictures. Vestal, New York: Vestal Press, 1997. .

External links

 The Hunchback of Notre Dame at SilentEra.com

 Cue sheet music for the film on the Internet Archive

1923 films
American historical drama films
American monster movies
American silent feature films
1920s historical drama films
1920s monster movies
American black-and-white films
Films based on The Hunchback of Notre-Dame
Films directed by Wallace Worsley
Films set in Paris
Films set in religious buildings and structures
Films set in the 1480s
Films produced by Irving Thalberg
Universal Pictures films
Articles containing video clips
Films scored by Heinz Roemheld
Films produced by Carl Laemmle
Cultural depictions of Louis XI of France
Films about Romani people
1920s American films
Surviving American silent films
Silent American drama films
Films about disability
1920s English-language films

The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923 film)


Durleigh reservoir at Durleigh in Somerset, England covers  and was formed in 1938 when Durleigh brook, a tributary of the River Parrett, was dammed.

The reservoir's original purpose was to provide water for the newly built British Cellophane Factory in Bridgwater.

It is used for coarse fishing, particularly carp, roach, bream, perch, tench and pike.

The reservoir provides facilities for dinghy sailing, sailboarding and windsurfing through Durleigh Sailing Club.

The wildlife includes several bird species including: ducks, great crested grebes, swans and geese.

West Bower Manor (also known as Durleigh Manor), which stands on the shore of the reservoir, is all that remains of a large manorial property, the majority of which has been demolished. Parts of the building date from the 15th century though the core of the fabric may even be earlier, further parts were built in the 17th and 19th centuries.

The principal surviving element from the Medieval manor is the gatehouse. This has been extensively restored, but is a good example of a former courtyard gatehouse with a pair of faceted turrets on either side of the former entrance passageway.

References

Drinking water reservoirs in England
Reservoirs in Somerset

Durleigh reservoir


The Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance (MPNI) was a British government ministry responsible for the administration and delivery of welfare benefits. It was headed by the Minister of Pensions and National Insurance.

It was created in 1953 as a result of the amalgamation of the Ministry of Pensions and the Ministry of National Insurance. In 1968 a departmental reorganisation saw the Ministry merged with the Ministry of Health to form the Department of Health and Social Security.

Ministry of Pensions
The Ministry of Pensions was created in 1916 to handle the payment of war pensions to former members of the Armed Forces and their dependants. It was expanded rapidly during the opening months of the Second World War by secondment of civil servants from the Inland Revenue and other government departments. In 1940 most of the Ministry was moved to Cleveleys and its close environs, in Lancashire. The Rossall School was taken over initially, but later several hundred employees worked in prefabricated one-storey office buildings assembled on a site that had been part of the Holt's farm in the Norcross section of Carleton. Sir Walter Womersley was the Minister during the war. Other ministers are listed under Secretary of State for Work and Pensions. The Ministry moved to buildings on Millbank in London in 1949.

References

Pensions and National Insurance
1953 establishments in the United Kingdom
1968 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Ministries established in 1953
Government agencies disestablished in 1968
National Insurance


The United Nations categorizes Bangladesh as a moderate democratic Muslim country. Sunni Islam is the largest and most dominant religion practiced in the country.
In the Constitution of Bangladesh, Islam is referred to twice in the introduction and Part I of the constitution. The document begins with the Islamic phrase Bismillahir Rahmanir Raheem (بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ) which in English is translated as "In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful" and article (2A) declares that:"Islam is the state religion of the republic".

In Bangladesh, there are four major religions; Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity. A few people also follow religions like Sikhism, Bahai Faith, Sarnaism, Animism and some other religions. Islam is the largest religion in all the districts of Bangladesh.

Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina has stated that Bangladesh will be governed in line with the spirit of the Constitution of Medina. But at the same time, the Constitution of Bangladesh calls secularism one of the four fundamental principles of the original Constitution of Bangladesh. Despite having Islam as the state religion, Bangladesh is mostly governed by secular laws, set up during the times when the country was ruled by the British Crown.

The constitution also states that "the State shall ensure equal status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and other faiths and religions".
"Freedom of religion" is its basic structure guaranteed by Bangladeshi constitution in which it calls for equal rights to all its citizens irrespective of their religious differences and it also bans discrimination on the grounds of religion in various platforms.

Bangladesh is one of the few secular Muslim-majority nations and "proselytizing" i.e. conversions from one religion to another are legally accepted and is legalized by law under article 41 of the constitution, subject to law, public order and morality.

Population by religion

Religions

Islam

The Muslim population in Bangladesh was over 150.36 million according to the 2022 census which makes Muslims, 91.04% of the population in the country. Estimation shows that over 1 million Rohingya Muslim refugees live in Bangladesh who have come here during the period of (2016–17) massacre in Myanmar. On 28 September 2018, at the 73rd United Nations General Assembly, Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina said there are 1.1-1.3 million Rohingya refugees now in Bangladesh.

The Constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam as the state religion. Bangladesh is the fourth-largest Muslim-populated country. Muslims are the predominant community of the country and they form the majority of the population in all eight divisions of Bangladesh. The overwhelming majority of Bangladeshi Muslims are Bengali Muslims at 88 per cent, but a small segment about 2 per cent of them are Bihari Muslims and Rohingyas. Most Muslims in Bangladesh are Sunnis, but there is a small Shia community. Most of those who are Shia reside in urban areas. Although these Shias are few in number, Shia observance commemorating the martyrdom of Muhammad's grandson, Husain ibn Ali, is widely observed by the nation's Sunnis. Muslims celebrate Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, Muharram, Milad un Nabi, Shab-e-Barat and Chand Raat all across the country with much fanfare and grandeur. The annual Bishwa Ijtema is the largest and most notable congregation of Muslims in Bangladesh.

The Muslim community in the Bengal region i.e., Bangladesh and West Bengal, developed independently of the dominant Islamic trends in India. Features of Bangladeshi Hinduism, which differed in some respects from Hinduism in other parts of South Asia, influenced both the practices and the social structure of the Bangladeshi Muslim community. In spite of the general personal commitment to Islam by the Muslims of Bangladesh, observance of Islamic rituals and tenets varies according to social position, locale, and personal considerations. In rural regions, some beliefs and practices tend to incorporate elements that differ from and often conflict with orthodox Islam. According to Aziz Ahmad, Arabic Islamic scholars have considered the form of Islam followed in Bengal i.e. (Bangladesh, West Bengal) to have some elements of Crypto-Hinduism in it.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the second largest religious affiliation in Bangladesh, with around 13.1 million people identifying themselves as Hindus out of 165.16 million people and making up about 7.95 per cent of the total population as second largest minority according to the recent 2022 census. In terms of population, Bangladesh is the third largest Hindu populated country of the world, just after India and Nepal.

Bangladeshi Hindus are predominantly Bengali Hindus, but a distinct Hindu population also exists among the indigenous tribes like Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Santhal, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Tripuri, Munda, Oraon, Dhanuk etc.
Hindus are evenly distributed throughout all regions of Bangladesh, with significant concentrations in northern, southwestern and northeastern parts of the country. In nature, Bangladeshi Hinduism closely resembles the rituals and customs of Hinduism practised in the neighbouring Indian state of West Bengal, with which Bangladesh (at one time known as East Bengal) was united until the partition of India in 1947. Hindu festivals of Durga Puja, Rath Yatra and Janmashtami witness jubilant celebrations across various cities, towns and villages of Bangladesh.

Buddhism

About 1 million people in Bangladesh adhere to the Theravada school of Buddhism. Buddhists form about 0.63 per cent of the population of Bangladesh as per 2022 census.

In antiquity, the region of present-day Bangladesh was a center of Buddhism in Asia. Buddhist civilisation, including philosophies and architecture, traveled to Tibet, Southeast Asia and Indonesia from Bengal. The Buddhist architecture of Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand, including the Angkor Wat Temple and the Borobudur vihara, are believed to have been inspired by the ancient monasteries of Bangladesh such as the Somapura Mahavihara.

Most of the followers of Buddhism in Bangladesh live in the Chittagong division. Here, Buddhism is practised by the Bengali-speaking Baruas, who are almost exclusively Buddhist and are concentrated heavily in the Chittagong area as well as few of the Barua Buddhists live in other parts of Bangladesh, such as Comilla, Mymensingh, Rangpur, Sylhet districts. Most of the followers of Buddhism in Bangladesh live in southeastern region, especially in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Chittagong and Comilla district. Most of the Buddhists of Chittagong Hill Tracts belong to the Chakma, Marma, Mru, Khumi, Bawm, Chak, Kuki, Murang, Tanchangya and Khiang tribes, who since time immemorial have practised Buddhism. Other tribal communities who practise animism, have come under some Buddhist influence. The beliefs and rituals of the Buddhist communities in this region are amalgamations of Buddhism and ancient animistic faiths. Buddha Purnima is the most widely observed festival among both Bengali Buddhists and Buddhist tribes.

Christianity

Christianity arrived in what is now Bangladesh during the late sixteenth to early seventeenth centuries AD, through the Portuguese traders and missionaries. Christians numbering around half a million account for approximately 0.29 per cent of the total population and they are mostly an urban community. Roman Catholicism is predominant among the Bengali Christians, while the remaining are mostly Baptist and others. Few followers of Christianity are also present among certain indigenous tribal communities such as Garo, Santal, Orao, Chakma, khasi, Lushei, Bawm, etc.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) also exists in Bangladesh.

Sikhism

The presence of this religion goes back to the visitation of Guru Nanak in 1506–07 with some of his followers to spread Sikhism in the region of the present-day Bangladesh. When some Bengali people accepted this faith, a Sikh community was born. This community became bigger when almost 10,000 Sikhs came from India during the Bangladesh Liberation War. This community has made great progress in the country. Today there are almost 10 gurdwaras in Bangladesh. Among them only 7 are well-known, especially the Gurdwara Nanak Shahi beside the University of Dhaka in Dhaka, which was built in 1830, the oldest gurdwara in Bangladesh.

Judaism

Since the 18th century there have been Jews in what today is Bangladesh, but their number was always very small, often only some few individuals. The Jewish population in East Bengal was only about 135 Jews at the time of the Partition of British India in 1947.

By the late 1960s, much of the Jewish community had left for Calcutta. According to historian Ziauddin Tariq Ali, a trustee of the Liberation War Museum, "There were two Jewish families in Bangladesh [after independence], but both migrated to India — one in 1973 and the other in 1975." In 2018 there were 4 Jews in Dhaka.

Other religions
Bangladesh has a small community of the Bahá'í Faith. Bahá'ís have spiritual centres in Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, Sylhet, Barisal, Rangpur, Mymensingh, Jessore, Rangamati and other places.

Bangladesh also has a tiny Brahmo Samaj community.

The Jehovah's Witnesses also exist in Bangladesh.

Atheism

A survey, commissioned by WIN-Gallup International, conducted from 5 November 2014, to 25 November 2014, found that fewer than one per cent of Bangladeshi's said they were "convinced Atheists".

In Bangladesh several people especially bloggers, secularists, liberals, non-religious, Non-Muslims  have been brutally killed by Islamic militants for mocking and questioning Islam. Jihadist Islamic militants in the nation are seen as a key challenge by the Bangladeshi authorities. The Islamist terrorism was imported into Bangladesh in the early 1990s by the jihadist returnees of the Soviet–Afghan War, who wanted to turn Bangladesh into a full-fledged Islamic state ruled by the Islamic law or Sharia law with 100 percent Muslim population.

History

Demographic landscape of Bangladesh before partition

East Bengal (present-day-Bangladesh) had a population of 39.12 million by the year (1941), of which 27.5 million people were followers of Islamic religion representing about (70.3%) of the region's population, while 10.95 million belongs to the Hindu faith constituting (28%) of the region. Smaller number of 6.65 lakhs people follows Buddhism, Animism and Christianity together presenting around (1.7%) of the region.

Demographic landscape of Bangladesh after Independence from Pakistan (1974)

After 1974, East Pakistan became sovereign nation of People republic of Bangladesh. During that time the population of Bangladesh was found to be 68.7 million, of which majority of 58.7 million people professed to Islamic Faith comprising 85.4% of the country's population, Hindus are second largest community with a population of 9.28 million comprising 13.5% of the country's population, while 1.1% practices other religions like Buddhism and Christianity.

Immigration & refugee crisis

Before the Partition of Bengal, it was found that the Muslim population of West Bengal stood at 26% and the Hindu population of East Bengal stood at 28% respectively. Soon after partition, Muslim population in West Bengal have reduced from 26% in 1941 to 19% in 1951, while Hindu population in East Bengal have reduced from 28% in 1941 to 22% in 1951.

During 1971 Bangladesh liberation war

It is estimated that during the time of Bangladesh liberation war, an estimated population of around 10 million people most being 80% Hindus fled from East Pakistan to neighbouring India as refugees following the torture of Pakistani army, and after independence nearly an estimated population of 1.5-2 million Hindus stayed back in India and never went back.

Secularism

Aspects and practices of secularism
Bangladesh declared itself a secular state with its birth in 1971. Secularism was chosen as one of the four pillars that were to guide official policy of the nation. To certain extent Bangladeshi people were "secular". Secularism in Bangladesh means pluralism of religious faiths as opposed to more expansive definitions of the term. Tajuddin Ahmad, Provisional Prime Minister of Bangladesh (1971-72) have meet with a Buddhist delegation. According to a report in the Bangladesh Observer, the prime minister declared that Bangladesh would be a "completely secular state without state religion and would ensure absolute freedom to every religious beliefs and practices. He said that the state would never interfere in the matter of any religion but at the same time he said it would not allow anybody to exploit the people in the name of religion," like mixing of religion with politics which can be seen in theocratic state like Pakistan. On 12 October 1972, while participating in a discussion in parliament on the draft of the  constitution, Banagabandhu literally Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the 1st Prime Minister of Bangladesh who was once a devout member of Muslim league has said: "We Bangladeshis believe in secularism. Secularism does not mean the absence of religion. Muslims, Hindus, Christians, Buddhists everyone will perform their own religion. No one can interfere with others' religious beliefs. The people of Bangladesh do not want interference in religion." "He further said that Religion cannot be used for political reasons. Religion will not be allowed to be used in Bangladesh for political purposes. He believed that if anyone does it, the people of Bangladesh will retaliate against them,". But soon after his death, the original constitution was changed in 1978 with installment of the phrase "absolute trust and faith in the Almighty Allah" as 5th amendment of the constitution by Ziaur Rahman government in order to replace secularism as a state principle. The military dictator who followed Rehman, Hussain Muhammad Ershad, went one step further and declared Islam as the official religion in 1988. Bangabandhu's party, the Bangladesh Awami League, once again came to the power in January 2009 with the promise to restore the 1972 constitution. They partially did so through the 15th Amendment to the constitution in 2013 but they kept Islam as the state religion. In 2010, Bangladesh Supreme Court declared the 5th amendment illegal and restored secularism as one of the basic tenets of the Constitution though Islam remained the state religion in the constitution.

Main aspects of secular principles

Article 8 of part - (II) described  secularism as the fundamental principles of state policy.
The main principles of Secularism in the Bangladeshi constitution were described under article 12 of Part- (II) -

12. The principle of secularism shall be realised by the elimination of -

(a) Communalism in all its forms;

(b) The granting by the State of political status in favour of any religion;

(c) The abuse of religion for political purposes;

(d) Any discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practicing a particular religion.

Controversy

Islam is the state religion of Bangladesh by article 2A but this article came into direct conflict with the article 12 of part- (II) of 2nd stanza which states that "The state should not grant political status in favour of any religion" as secularism has been defined as one of the four fundamental principles of Bangladesh. Article (2A) of the constitution also state's that "the state shall ensure equal status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and other religions" while giving a special status to Islam which have led to a huge controversy regarding the country's foundation.
The Supreme Court of Bangladesh on 28 March 2016 upheld the status of Islam as the State religion. The ruling was given by the High Court Division of the court while dismissing a petition which was almost about 28 years ago, filed by Samendra Nath Goswami challenging Islam as the religion of republic which directly contradicts with secular foundation of the nation. Petition was also held earlier by Professor Anisuzzaman, one of the leaders of the petitioning organisation who said that Bangladesh was founded as a secular state, and having a state religion contradicts the basic structure of the constitution,".
 On 14 November 2016 a senior ruling Awami League leader have said that Bangladesh will drop Islam as the country's state religion "when the time comes" and Islam has been kept as the state religion for strategic reasons," said the party's Presidium Member and former minister Abdur Razzaq. The Bangladesh Army have close ideological association with centre-right and conservative political parties led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, and the army have also stated that the term Bangladeshi nationalism refers to the country as an Islamic nation given that more than 91% of the population of their nation is Muslim. Every year, on 9 June, Bangladesh's Hindu, Buddhist and Christian religious unity leaders marked the day as "Black Day" together as because on this day of 1988 year, the country have been declared Islamic by General Hussain Muhammad Ershad. The Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council have also renewed its call several times for the 8th amendment Islam as state religion of republic to be scrapped from the constitution. Recently on 4 July 2021, there was a huge debate going on parliament that keeping secularism in the country's constitution is against Islam and Quran. Harunur Rashid, a Bangladeshi lawmaker of BNP party member told to Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in the parliament "that there is no mention of secularism in the Quran and it conflicts Islam". Then Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina have replied him back by stating "secularism in the constitution of Bangladesh never conflicts Islam as in the Quran there is a mentioned of the word - ('La'kum Dinukum Waliyadin') which means everybody has the right to follow their own belief and religion and s/he will follow his religion. The BNP lawmaker have also said that keeping secularism in the constitution is conflicting for the Muslim majority country leading to once more time a heated controversy regarding the country's foundation. On 15 October 2021, Bangladesh's State Minister for Information Murad Hasan have said that Bangladesh will return to its 1972 constitution offered by Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Murad said that Islam is not state religion and he does not believe in that. He have further said that "We'll return to the 1972 constitution. We'll get that bill passed in parliament under the leadership of the Prime Minister (Sheikh Hasina)," soon. He further said, Military dictators tried to undermine Bangladesh's core ideal of secularism by declaring Islam as the state religion and lashed out at the Bangladesh Nationalist Party lead Jamaat e islami for unleashing violence and creating divisions in the country in the name of religion. Bangladesh's Jatiya Party (JaPa) Chairman GM Quader on Monday criticized the State Minister for Information Dr Murad Hassan for his remarks on changing the status of Islam as the state religion of Bangladesh. GM Quader have said that "He violated the oath to preserve the constitution. As per as him the state minister should step down" as because the state minister wants to removed Islam from the official status by reverting the original 1972 secular constitution of Bangladesh. He further alleged that the state minister also committed a nefarious act by making derogatory remarks against JaPa founder HM Ershad and the Army. The party leader urged the prime minister to take action against the junior minister and expel him from Awami League. In 2022 November, Bangladesh Law Minister Anisul Huq have announced that Bangladesh's Ruling party Awami League is planning to restore country's Original 1972 Secular Constitution, and will soon repeal the Amendment that made It an 'Islamic' Nation by scrapping Article 2A and further said that It will be done when the right time comes. On 8th January, 2023 Bangladesh Hindu-Buddhist-Christian Oikya Parishad have submitted a memorandum to Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, demanding that the ruling Awami League have misused the minority vote and betrayed them severely. The submission of memorandum came after the parishad ended its road march to Capital city from Chittagong. The parishad also staged a protest rally in front of the Dhaka's Ramna Kali Mandir and at that time, Parishad's general secretary Mr. Rana Dasgupta have read out the memorandum saying that, "They have seen from their naked eyes that how the 1972's Secular constitution have got transformed into a communal one and how the state religion Islam (Article 2A) got incorporated in the constitution in the year of 1988 by Military dictatorial President Hussain Muhammad Ershad. He further concluded that "It's not only have divided the people on the basis of religion, but also turned the religious-ethnic minorities of the country into 2nd class citizens. Many religious minority groups have been forced to emigrate due to years of deprivation, discrimination, persecution and oppression by the Islamic state." Later On, the parishad have demanded a ministry formation for the cause of welfare and social upliftment of minority communities. On 1st March 2023, Professor Syed Anwar Husain of History Department of Dhaka University have called the students and youth community of the nation to build up a resistance against the compromise of the government and have said that keeping Islam as state religion in the constitution, the nation could not be secular state in true sense and as a result present ruling Awami League government is compromising with the communal Islamist forces to remain in power. He further said that the state had deviated from its core ideal principles of Secularism as "Bangladesh was founded on the basis of Bengali nationalism and not on the basis of Muslim nationalism". Various writers and journalists like Shahriar Kabir have said that they had warned the Awami League government for making such a compromise with the Islamic forces. On 30th August, 2023, Bangladeshi Politicians, Social activitists and lawyers at a discussion in the capital have demanded exact restoration of the 1972 constitution in the country. Inserting Islam as the state religion (Article 2A) in the constitution, have violated the four basic core principles of: nationalism, democracy, socialism and secularism. President Rashed Khan Menon of Workers Party of Bangladesh, a partner of Awami League-led alliance, have demanded the exact restoration of the constitution of 1972 with Its four fundamentals, dropping Islam from state religion status. He further said that by keeping both Secularism and Islam as state religion, the exact restoration of the 72 constitution couldn't be possible. He further call for all the democratic political parties, progressive alliances, civil society to wage movements in support of exact restoration of the 1972 Original Constitution of Bangladesh and that the state should ensure the constitutional rights of every people living in this nation as Citizens.

Law, religion, and religious freedom

Although Bangladesh initially opted for a secular nationalist ideology as embodied in its Constitution, the principle of secularism was subsequently replaced by a commitment to the Islamic way of life through a series of constitutional amendments and government proclamations between 1977 and 1988. During the eighties, the state was designated exclusively Islamic. However, in 2010, the secularism of the 1972 Constitution was reaffirmed. The Government generally respects this provision in practice; however, some members of the Hindu, Christian, Buddhist, and Ahmadiyya communities experience discrimination. The Government (2001-2006), led by an alliance of four parties (Bangladesh Nationalist Party, Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami, Islami Oikya Jote and Bangladesh Jatiyo Party) banned the Ahmadiyya literature by an executive order.

Family laws concerning marriage, divorce, and adoption differ depending on the religion of the person involved. There are no legal restrictions on marriage between members of different faiths.

In 2010, secularism was restored, but Islam remains the nominal state religion per Article 12.

In 2022, Freedom House rated Bangladesh's religious freedom as 2 out of 4.

Further reading
Benkin, Richard L. (2014). A quiet case of ethnic cleansing: The murder of Bangladesh's Hindus. New Delhi: Akshaya Prakashan.
Dastidar, S. G. (2008). Empire's last casualty: Indian subcontinent's vanishing Hindu and other minorities. Kolkata: Firma KLM.
Kamra, A. J. (2000). The prolonged partition and its pogroms: Testimonies on violence against Hindus in East Bengal 1946–64.
Taslima Nasrin (2014). Lajja. Gurgaon, Haryana, India : Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd, 2014.
Rosser, Yvette Claire. (2004) Indoctrinating Minds: Politics of Education in Bangladesh, New Delhi: Rupa & Co. .
Mukherji, S. (2000). Subjects, citizens, and refugees: Tragedy in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, 1947-1998. New Delhi: Indian Centre for the Study of Forced Migration.
Sarkar, Bidyut (1993). Bangladesh 1992: This is our home: Sample Document of the Plight of our Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and Tribal Minorities in our Islamized Homeland: Pogroms 1987–1992. Bangladesh Minority Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, (and Tribal) Unity Council of North America.

See also
 Bengali Muslims
 Bengali Hindus
 Bengali Buddhists
 Bengali Christians
 Freedom of religion in Bangladesh
 1991 Bangladesh census
 2001 Bangladesh census
 2011 Bangladesh census

References

Religious demographics

Religion in Bangladesh


Pearson Language Tests is a unit of the Pearson PLC group, dedicated to assessing and validating the English language usage of non-native English speakers. The tests include the Pearson Test of English Academic (PTE Academic), the PTE General (formerly known as London Tests of English (LTE)), and PTE Young Learners. These are scenario-based exams, accredited by the QCA and Ofqual, and are administered in association with Edexcel, the world's largest academic examining body.

In 2009, Pearson Language Tests created the Pearson Test of English Academic (Ref.) under endorsement from the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC), the organization responsible for the GMAT. The test is scored under CEFR guidelines, and is administered through the Pearson Virtual User Environment.

Upon release, it was recognized by nearly 6,000 organizations. For instance, the test is approved for use by the Australia  Border Agency and the Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship for visa applications. PTE-A is also acceptable for the United Kingdom and New Zealand visa applications. The test is predominantly read by a computer rather than a human grader to reduce waiting times of the results for students.

Pearson Test of English Academic
The Pearson Test of English Academic is an English language test designed to assess the readiness of non-native English speakers to participate in a university-level English language instruction program.  Pearson created PTE Academic in response to demand from institutions, government and other organizations for a more accurate way of testing non-native English language students who enter the English-speaking academia world.

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Test scores are reported on the Global Scale of English, a standardized, numeric scale from 10 to 90 which can measure English language proficiency more precisely with reference to the widely known set of levels distinguished in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, or CEFR.

Structure
The Pearson Test of English Academic comprises 3 sections: i) Speaking & Writing ii) Reading and iii) Listening.

Here is the detailed paper pattern:

PTE General
PTE General (formerly known as the London Test of English) or Pearson English International Certificate (as of December 2020) is an international English language examination for speakers of English as a foreign language (EFL). It is developed by Pearson Language Tests and administered by Edexcel, the exams are accredited by QCA, the Qualification and Curriculum Authority. In some countries (e.g. Poland, Greece) the oral interview is assessed by locally trained assessors, whereas in other countries (e.g. France, Italy, Argentina) they are entirely graded in London.

Pearson English International Certificate is consistent with a theme-based exam designed to test how well a learner can communicate in authentic and realistic situations, and not on how well they remember formal vocabulary and structures. For this reason, the tests use real-life scenarios rather than pedantic grammatical exercises. They test the four skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking.  There are six levels which are mapped to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The Framework was developed by the Council of Europe to enable language learners, teachers, universities or potential employers to compare and relate language qualifications by level.

Reading, writing, listening and speaking are tested at all levels.  The alignment of the London Tests of English to the CEFR has been established by mapping the test specifications to the CEFR descriptors. This mapping process was submitted to an external audit by University of Westminster. Work is in progress to further improve the robustness of the alignment on the basis of empirical data. Levels 4 and 5 of the PTE General are accepted for entrance to universities in the UK and by a variety of international companies.

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PTE General were originally developed by the University of London Schools Examination Board in 1982. The Examination Board merged with Business & Technological Council (BTEC) in 1996 to become Edexcel, the largest examining body of academic and vocational in the UK.

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PTE General were one of the first set of ESOL exams to apply the Notional-Functional Syllabus and Schema Theory to language testing. Schema Theory was developed by psychologists such as R.C.Anderson and Frederic Bartlett. Schemata (plural of schema) are learned models suggesting relationships between objects and help structure future learning.

PTE General tasks are related through a common theme which allows candidates to activate the different domains of knowledge they have acquired and thus further enhance second language acquisition. It also provides a coherent thread for candidates to guide them through the various tasks.

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PTE Young Learner test

PTE Young Learners (formerly known as LTEfC) are international English language exams for young children (aged from 7 to 12) who are learning English as a foreign language (EFL). They test the four skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking.

PTE Young Learners exams are based around the amusing  adventures of the Brown family. The exams are theme based and designed to be fun and motivating. At the lower levels they aim to test how well children can use language structures and at the higher levels how well they can use language to complete communicative tasks. For this reason, the tests use real-life scenarios rather than grammatical exercises.

There are four PTE Young Learners levels

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The PTE Young Learners were originally developed by the University of London Schools Examination Board in 1982. The Examination Board merged with Business & Technological Council (BTEC) in 1996 to become Edexcel.

Theory of Schema

PTE Young Learners and PTE General are based on a scenario, which accords with Schema Theory. This means that all exam tasks are related through a common theme which allows candidates to activate the different domains of knowledge they have acquired and thus further enhance second language acquisition. It also provides a coherent thread for candidates to guide them through the various tasks. The tasks can be interrelated through a common topic or a scenario where the different tasks "build" a story and integrate different language skills.

Technology

Pearson has developed an online marking system, ePEN, and a web-based test centre service system, Edexcel Online, to provide rapid feedback on the individual performance of students in the exams.

References

External links
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English language tests
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Pearson Language Tests


Eremophila eriocalyx, commonly known as desert pride, is a flowering plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae and is endemic to Western Australia. It is an erect shrub with greyish leaves, very hairy sepals and petals that range in colour from white to yellow, sometimes pink or purple.

Description
Eremophila eriocalyx is an erect, sometimes spindly shrub, usually growing to a height of between  with branches that are covered with white or yellowish hairs. The leaves are arranged alternately along the branches and are linear to lance-shaped with the edges thickened and turned under. They are mostly  long and  wide and covered with soft, white hairs.

The flowers are borne singly in leaf axils on a hairy stalk usually  long. There are 5 hairy green to reddish-purple sepals which are mostly  long. The petals are  long and joined at their lower end to form a tube. They are a shade of cream to yellow, white or sometimes purple to pinkish-purple. The petal tube is mostly covered with glandular hairs except for the inner side of the petal lobes. The inside of the tube is filled with woolly hairs. The 4 stamens are enclosed in the petal tube sometimes equalling it in length. Flowering occurs from August to October and is followed by fruits which are oval-shaped, have distinct ribs, are glabrous and  long.

Taxonomy and naming
The species was first formally described in 1859 by Victorian Government Botanist Ferdinand von Mueller in Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae. His description was based on plant material collected by Augustus Frederick Oldfield near the Murchison River. The specific epithet (eriocalyx) is derived from the ancient Greek erion (ἔριον), "wool" and kalyx (κάλυξ), "calyx", and "refers to the distinctive woolly sepals".

Distribution and habitat
Desert pride is widespread from the coast of Western Australia between Geraldton and Kalbarri and eastwards to near the Plumridge Lakes. It grows in a wide range of soils, often in mulga woodland.

Conservation status
Eremophila eriocalyx is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.

Use in horticulture
This eremophila has attractive flowers - yellow buds appear between woolly sepals then open to white with a lemon or creamy tinge, although other colour forms occur. It can be propagated by cuttings but in humid areas preferably by grafting onto Myoporum rootstock. It will grow in most soils, although more slowly in clay soils, in full sun or partial shade, is both drought tolerant and frost hardy, and is long lived in the garden situation.

References

eriocalyx
Eudicots of Western Australia
Plants described in 1859
Endemic flora of Western Australia
Taxa named by Ferdinand von Mueller

Eremophila eriocalyx