Guitar World is a monthly music magazine for guitarists – and fans of guitar-based music and trends – that has been published since July 1980. Guitar World, the best-selling guitar magazine in the United States, contains original artist interviews and profiles, plus lessons/columns (with tablature and associated audio files or videos), gear reviews, news and exclusive tablature (for guitar and bass) of three songs per issue. The magazine is published 13 times per year (12 monthly issues and a holiday issue) by Future plc. Damian Fanelli has been Guitar Worlds Editor-in-Chief since June 2018.

History
Stanley Harris, a New York magazine publisher, launched Guitar World magazine in July 1980. The magazine's debut issue featured bluesman Johnny Winter on the cover and included pieces on the Allman Brothers Band, George Thorogood and pedal steel guitars. As former Editor-in-Chief Brad Tolinski wrote in the magazine's 40th-anniversary issue, "It was a decent start, but the design and editorial content was still a bit lackluster. If you compared it to an amp, GWs first few issues were a sturdy 40-watt tweed combo, when what Harris really wanted was a row of 100-watt Marshalls."

Dennis Page, an advertising rep enlisted to handle the business end of the new magazine, hired a new Editor-in-Chief, Noe Goldwasser [aka Noe Gold]; Gold had his ear to the metal underground, printing the first of many cover stories with Eddie Van Halen. He edited several landmark issues in the magazine's first decade, including GWs fifth anniversary issue in 1985, which featured a cover-to-cover celebration of Jimi Hendrix; and a July 1986 tribute to Led Zeppelin's Jimmy Page, featuring a 15-page interview with the reclusive legend, along with early note-for-note transcriptions of Page solos to Stairway to Heaven and Rock and Roll.

When Gold left the magazine in 1988, he was replaced by Editor-in-Chief Joe Bosso and Executive Editor Matt Resnicoff. Due to their divergent tastes in music (Bosso preferred covering rock 'n' roll artists while Resnicoff was a jazz-fusion devotee), the magazine suffered from a split-personality approach to its coverage. As publisher Page said, "For a time the magazine lost its way. We started including a lot of jazz, which our readers didn't care about. I knew the key was for us to get younger, not older."

That changed in 1989, when Tolinski was asked to step into the magazine's lead role. "One glance at the May and June 1989 issues sums up the story," Tolinski wrote in 2020. "On one cover, a rather nervous-looking Allan Holdsworth hides timidly behind his Steinberger guitar, and on the next, Zakk Wylde explodes with pure animal fury while the headline screams SPECIAL REPORT! THE YOUNG GUNS OF METAL. GW went from black and white to full-on Technicolor."

After the June issue, GW became a straight-up rock 'n' roll magazine, becoming the publication Stanley Harris and Dennis Page dreamed of – a guitar magazine for "rockers with big hair, tight jeans and pointy guitars." And although rock, hard rock and heavy metal are still covered GWs pages, country guitarists, roots rockers, blues masters and shredders of all stripes have graced its pages, not to mention its cover.

Tolinski remained with the magazine until April 2015, when he was replaced by Jeff Kitts, who had been on GWs editorial staff since the early 1990s. Kitts was replaced by Damian Fanelli, who has been GWs editor-in-chief since June 2018; Fanelli had been with the magazine since 2011, originally as its online managing editor, later becoming its managing editor.

Publishing history and sister magazines
Guitar Worlds debut issue was only 82 pages, had a very small staff and budget and wasn't even on a monthly schedule for about the first 12 years of publication. By 1984, GW began to multiply – spinoffs and offshoots became a large part of its focus as ownership looked to expand its reach into other markets and demographics. That year saw the publication of Guitar Heroes, a one-shot guide to more than 100 of the greatest guitar players of all time. In early 1992, the idea was revived as the semiannual Guitar World Legends, but with one major change: each issue was conceived as a tribute to an artist or genre, and included past GW interviews, lessons, equipment guides, rare photos and more.

GWs first official sister publication was Guitar School, which debuted in 1989 and foundered in 1997 shortly after its name was changed to Maximum Guitar. In the summer of 1993 GW branched out with Country Guitar, which morphed into Guitar World Acoustic and lasted until 2007. Mid-2003 saw GW venturing into the bass market with the premiere of Guitar World's Bass Guitar, which eventually ceased operation with its Pete Wentz-fronted June 2007 issue.

In the summer of 2009, GWs editorial staff launched Guitar Aficionado, a high-end publication designed for players passionate about the finer things associated with the rock 'n' roll lifestyle, including vintage and collectible axes, designer watches and fashion, exotic motorcycles, fine foods and spirits and more. By 2017, Guitar Aficionado had run its course.

Revolver, one of the leading hard rock and metal publications still in existence, was conceived as GWs sister publication in 1999. When it hit newsstands in the spring of 2000, Revolvers debut issue contained a unique mix of content, including an oral history of the Doors, a behind-the-scenes look at the Japanese pop scene and members of Slipknot wearing fashionable men's suits. But perhaps the world wasn't quite ready for such an eclectic combo: after only a few issues, Revolver was retooled and relaunched into the magazine metal fans know today.

While each of these magazines has either been killed off or – in the case of Revolver – sold to another company, GW is still part of a large family. As a member of Future plc, it calls Guitar Techniques, Total Guitar, Guitarist, Guitar Player and Bass Player its sister publications.

GW was published by Harris Publications from 1980 to 2003 and by Future US from 2003 to 2012. NewBay Media took over from 2012 to 2018, until Future plc re-acquired the magazine in April 2018.

Key editorial personnel

 Editor-in-Chief – Damian Fanelli
 Senior Music Editor – Jimmy Brown
 Tech Editor – Paul Riario
 Associate Editors – Andy Aledort, Chris Gill
 Art Director – Mixie von Bormann

GuitarWorld.com
GuitarWorld.com was first launched in 1994 as the online counterpart to Guitar World magazine. It is run by a separate team to the print publication and posts up-to-the-minute guitar news, features, interviews, lessons, reviews and buyer's guides, as well as select content from the magazine. The site reaches 3.3m users per month. Since 2020, it has become the online home of other Future guitar brands, including UK titles Guitarist, Total Guitar, Guitar Techniques and US title Bass Player, all of which were formerly hosted on GuitarWorld.com sister site MusicRadar. Australian Guitar is also part of the GuitarWorld.com portfolio of brands.

During Guitar Worlds NewBay Media era, the site was edited by Damian Fanelli, who is now the print magazine's Editor-in-Chief. Since 2019, GuitarWorld.coms Editor-in-Chief is former MusicRadar Guitars Editor Michael Astley-Brown.

Personnel

 Editor-in-Chief – Michael Astley-Brown
 Associate Editor – Jackson Maxwell
 Staff Writers – Sam Roche, Matt Owen

References

External links
Guitar World website

Monthly magazines published in the United States
Music magazines published in the United States
Guitar magazines
Magazines established in 1980
Magazines published in New York City

Guitar World


An out in baseball happens to the batter or his teammates on the field in a game. When a player is out, they leave the field, and when there are 3 outs, the other team goes up to bat. One way to get an out is if a baseball is caught while in the air and before it touches the ground after being hit by the batter. Another way is to strike out. To strike out you have to either miss the ball or not swing at good pitches three times while batting. Tag outs and force outs are the other main ways players get out.

Related pages
 Out (cricket)

References

Baseball rules

Out (baseball)


Mailin mac Tanaide Ó Maolconaire, Ollamh Síol Muireadaigh, c.1360–1441.

The Annals of Connacht, sub anno 1441, say of him:

Mailin son of Tanaide O Mailchonaire, ollav of the Sil Murray, principal author of the learning of Ireland and Scotland and head of his family for thirty-seven years, went the way of all flesh at the age of eighty or more, and may his soul find forgiveness for ever and ever. Amen.  He was buried with (?) the saints of the town on the fifteenth of February by the day of the month, Wednesday by the day of the week.

In an apparently unusual move, he was succeeded by his wife, Sadhbh Béan Ó Mailchonaire.

Sources
 Annals of Connacht, A. Martin Freeman, Dublin, 1946.
 Annals of Ireland from the year 1443 to 1468 ... translated by ... Dudley mac Firbisse, ed. John O'Donovan, in The Miscellany of the Irish Archaeological Society, vol. i, pp. 198–302, Dublin, 1846.

External links
 http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100011/index.html

1441 deaths
15th-century Irish historians
14th-century Irish historians
14th-century Irish poets
People from County Roscommon
15th-century Irish poets
Year of birth unknown
Irish male poets

Mailin mac Tanaide Ó Maolconaire


Mortal Causes is a 1994 novel by Ian Rankin. It is the sixth of the Inspector Rebus novels.  It was the fourth episode in the Rebus television series starring John Hannah, airing in 2004.

Plot summary

Set during the Edinburgh Festival, this novel starts with a brutally executed corpse being discovered in Mary King's Close, an ancient subterranean street. The body has a tattoo identified with "Sword and Shield", a long-thought-defunct Scottish Nationalist group with links to sectarianism in Northern Ireland. The victim turns out to be the son of notorious gangster 'Big Ger' Cafferty, and the plot moves towards the unthinkable prospect of a terrorist atrocity in a tourist-filled Edinburgh.

Connections to other Rankin books

 Scottish Sword and Shield was first mentioned in passing in The Black Book.
 Recurring character "the Weasel" makes his debut.

Writing Mortal Causes

Rankin has stated that one of the minor characters is based on the Northern Irish loyalist paramilitary Billy Wright.

Political background

The political background of the plot depicts an alliance between Scottish nationalist fringe groups and loyalist paramilitaries who believe they're being 'sold out' in the peace deal with the IRA.  While there is significant support for loyalist paramilitarism in Scotland, radical Scottish nationalist fringe groups are far more likely to support the Irish Republican cause and to see the Republic of Ireland as a partial role model for an independent Scotland.

However, the background also makes a point of showing how the Northern Irish paramilitaries have turned to regular organised crime and are willing to cut deals with each other with money, and much of the scheming is based around criminal deals - the attempted terrorist in the book has no political aims.

The joke

Throughout the book, Rebus keeps overhearing parts of a joke about a squid with a moustache that goes into a restaurant. According to Ian Rankin, the punch line is as follows: 'For Hans that does dishes can feel as soft as Gervase with mild, green, hairy-lipped squid'.

The punch line is a reference to the long-running advertising slogan of Fairy Liquid. ("Now hands that do dishes can feel soft as your face, with mild green Fairy Liquid.")

1994 British novels
Inspector Rebus novels
Novels set in Edinburgh
Edinburgh Festival
Orion Books books

Mortal Causes


Charls Edward Walker (December 24, 1923 – June 2, 2015) was Under Secretary of the United States Department of the Treasury from 1969 to 1972, and Deputy Secretary of the Treasury in 1973 under John Connally.

Personal life, education, and early career
Walker was born in Graham, Texas. Walker married Harmolyn Hart in 1949. He received his bachelors and MBA degrees from the University of Texas at Austin.  He received a Ph.D. in economics from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1955.  He then was a professor for a time at the University of Texas at Austin.  He then worked as an economist with the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia and as an executive with Republic National Bank of Dallas. In 1961 he became Executive Vice President of the American Bankers Association, a position he retained until 1969. Walker died of heart disease on June 2, 2015 at the age of 91 in Rockville, Maryland.

Lobbying and political consulting
After leaving the Nixon administration Walker established a consulting firm. When he told Nixon that he was leaving government, the president said, "You're going to be doing what you have been, but now making money at it." Walker described the large companies he represented as "a few mom-and-pop clients."  Over the course of his career, these included General Motors, Gulf Oil, and major airlines. Walker established the ACCF in order to provide credibility to his advocacy for big business.

While defending the fully tax-deductible "three-martini lunch" in 1977 Walker said, "How could you set a ceiling that would apply both to a small town in Texas, where I recently bought a business lunch for two for $7, and to New York City, where you can pay anything?"

Walker advised John Connally during his brief 1980 presidential campaign. After Connally left the race, Walker joined the campaign of Ronald Reagan. Walker said of himself, "I think I provided the key memo." The memo he referred to offered a rationale for cutting taxes and general government spending while increasing military spending. According to Sidney Blumenthal, his other clients, such as the Business Roundtable, were relieved to know he was close to Reagan, whom they regarded as potentially dangerous. Walker and the ACCF won large cuts in corporate taxes in Reagan's 1981 economics legislation.

His ACCF colleague, Mark Bloomfield, said of Walker, "Charly was the classic caricature of the cigar-smoking super-lobbyist with a limo." Lyndon B. Johnson called Walker "an S.O.B. with elbows." Walker replied, "Where I come from, that's a term of endearment."

References

Sources
Martin B. Hickman. David Matthew Kennedy: Banker, Statesman, Churchman. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1987) p. 248.
Register of the Charls E. Walker papers

External links

1923 births
McCombs School of Business alumni
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni
American bankers
University of Texas at Austin faculty
Texas A&M University faculty
Emory University faculty
Stanford University staff
2015 deaths
People from Graham, Texas

Charls Walker


Alfredo Kindelán y Duany, 1st Marquess of Kindelán (13 March 1879 – 14 December 1962) was a Spanish general and politician. A close ally of Francisco Franco before and during the Spanish Civil War, their relationship would later become strained as Kindelán emerged as a leading advocate for a swift restoration of the monarchy. He belonged to the Kindelán family, a noted Spanish family of Irish origin.

Early career
Kindelán was a prominent figure within the Spanish Armed Forces and was founder and head of the Spanish Air Force. A staunch supporter of the monarchy, he took voluntary exile in April 1931 rather than live in a republic. Kindelán was one of the earliest collaborators of Francisco Franco, along with José Millán Astray, Luis Orgaz Yoldi and the leader's brother Nicolás.

Spanish Civil War
Kindelán was central to the conspiracies amongst the nationalist generals and took command of the right wing of the Air Force upon the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. In the early stages of the war he directed his operations from his place of exile in Gibraltar before returning to Spain. His importance to the actual war effort in the field, as well as that of the Air Force as a whole, declined after the arrival of the Aviazione Legionaria from Fascist Italy which soon became the main air combat unit. Nonetheless, he remained an influential figure and an important strategist.

One of Franco's most trusted aides, it was Kindelán who initially raised the prospect of Franco as overall commander of the Nationalist forces. He also helped to ensure that the role came with the promise of Franco ultimately assuming the role of head of state, largely because he trusted that Franco would restore the monarchy at the earliest possible opportunity.

In terms of the conduct of the war he was central to the planning of Emilio Mola's assault on the north in March 1937, having been convinced by Juan Vigón of the need for a swift resolution to the war. Franco's failure to follow this course became a bone of contention in the relationship between the two, with Kindelán regularly writing to Franco to plead with him to abandon his attacks on Valencia in favour of all-out war in the north. He further criticised Franco's involvement in the long-running Battle of the Ebro and suggested that his decision to commit to this rather than an attack on Barcelona added four months to the war.

Fall from grace
Following the nationalist victory, Kindelán made it clear that he viewed Franco's regime as a regency and sought a restoration of the Alphonsine line as soon as possible. Prone to criticism of Franco, whom he considered an equal rather than a superior, he was sidelined in August 1939 when he was given the role of military commander of the Balearic Islands, an effective demotion. He was also replaced as Air Force chief in 1939 by Juan Yagüe in a move Franco later claimed had been done at the instigation of the Axis powers. Kindelán was personally close to the United Kingdom, to such an extent that the British authorities attempted to use him to force Franco to restore the monarchy in 1942 in order to push Spain away from the Axis powers. Nothing came of the scheme however.

Kindelán enjoyed a return to favour of sorts in 1941 when he became Captain General of Catalonia, a promotion designed by Franco to improve the standing of the military as a buffer against the power of Ramón Serrano Súñer and the Falange. In November 1942, when Minister of the Army Carlos Asensio Cabanillas was pushing for Spain to finally enter the war, Kindelán privately informed Franco that were this to happen he would personally overthrow Franco and restore the monarchy. Given that Kindelán enjoyed the support of a number of leading generals Franco initially did not react but after three months he removed Kindelán from his new position. Kindelán then served as head of the Escuela Superior del Ejército although he was sacked from this position in August 1945 after a stinging attack on Franco in a fiercely pro-monarchist speech. Meanwhile, his memoirs were delayed until 1945 and even then were censored due to a passage of fairly restrained criticism dealing with Franco's conduct of the war in the north.

Later years
Removed from influence, Kindelán was free to devote his time to the various upper class conspiracies designed to ensure the restoration of Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona to the Spanish throne. When in 1946 the so-called 'Lausanne manifesto' was published calling for immediate restoration, Franco identified Kindelán as being the ringleader of those who had signed the document and ordered his imprisonment. Following an appeal to Franco by Fidel Dávila Arrondo on the grounds of Kindelán's strong service record and his advancing age El Caudillo relented and instead sent Kindelán into exile in the Canary Islands.

In 1961, Kindelán was ennobled as a Marqués, although the gesture was interpreted as an ironic joke on the part of Franco, mocking the fact that, despite all his efforts, Kindelán was still not living in the monarchy that he so desired. He died the following year with Spain still under Franco.

References

External links

1879 births
1962 deaths
People from Santiago de Cuba
Spanish aviation pioneers
Spanish generals
Spanish military personnel of the Rif War
Spanish military personnel of the Spanish Civil War (National faction)
Spanish monarchists
Spanish people of Irish descent
History of the Spanish Air Force
Captains General of Catalonia

Alfredo Kindelán


Primorsk (; ; ) is a town in Baltiysky District of Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the Vistula Lagoon.

Its population is  compared to .

Geography
The town is located in the southwest of the Sambia Peninsula. It is situated by a bay on the northern shore of the Vistula Lagoon, about  west of the administrative centre Kaliningrad.

History
The site has been associated with the name of St. Adalbert of Prague, who was sent with soldiers of Bolesław I the Brave of the newly established Poland to Christianize Prussia. St. Adalbert was beheaded nearby in 997 by the pagan Sambians after he destroyed their sacred oak grove. Several further attempts of conquest by Poles followed, but were successfully repelled. In 1254 Sambia was conquered by forces of the Teutonic Order, led by King Ottokar II of Bohemia, during the Prussian Crusade.

Upon the division of the conquered lands, the Bishop of Sambia had a castle erected at the site named Schonewik (derived from Old Prussian: Skanevīs). First mentioned in a 1268 deed, it is one of the oldest in the region. A settlement was laid out from 1299 onwards and its citizens, mainly descending from Stralsund in the Danish Principality of Rügen, received a first town charter in 1305. As the episcopal residence of the Sambian bishops, it was called Bischoveshusen or shortly Vischhusen from about 1325. The richly endowed Gothic parish church was one of the oldest in the province.

When in 1525 Bishop George of Polentz waived his rights, his Fischhausen residence was incorporated into the secular Duchy of Prussia, a newly formed vassal duchy of Poland. On 12 February 1526, the Hohenzollern duke Albert, former Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, married Princess Dorothea of Denmark at the Fischhausen Castle chapel. The fortress became the residence of his mentally disabled son Albert Frederick until his death in 1618. Afterwards, the castle decayed. From 1701 on, the town formed part of the Kingdom of Prussia and the castle was finally demolished by order of King Frederick I of Prussia, who had its stones used for the expansion of the nearby Pillau fortress.

Upon the re-organisation of the Prussian lands after the Congress of Vienna, Fischhausen became the administrative seat of a district (Kreis Fischhausen) within the Province of East Prussia in 1818. A station on the East Prussian Southern Railway line from Königsberg to Pillau with a branch-off to Palmnicken (Yantarny) on the Amber Coast was inaugurated in 1865. From 1871, the town formed part of the German Empire. According to the German 1939 census, the town's population was 3,879.

During World War II, the Soviet Red Army advanced towards Fischhausen after the capture of Königsberg. The town was captured after a battle on April 21–24, 1945; during the fighting the medieval town was almost completely destroyed. After the war, the town was transferred to Soviet control and in 1946 it was given its present name (which literally means "by the sea" in Russian). It finally lost its status as a district seat and was incorporated into Zelenogradsky District in 1947. Part of the newly established Baltiysky District since 1996, it was demoted in status to that of an urban-type settlement in 2005. In 2008, its town status was restored.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated within Baltiysky District as the town of district significance of Primorsk. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Primorsk is incorporated within Baltiysky Municipal District as Primorskoye Urban Settlement.

Notable people
Arthur von Hippel (1841–1916), ophthalmologist
Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928), physicist
Dietrich von Saucken (1892–1980), general
Marie Jonas (1893–1944), physician
Arno Motulsky (1923–2018), physician and geneticist

References

Notes

Sources

Cities and towns in Kaliningrad Oblast

Primorsk, Kaliningrad Oblast


Son-Rise is a home-based program for children and adults with autism spectrum disorders and other developmental disabilities, which was developed by Barry Neil Kaufman and Samahria Lyte Kaufman for their son Raun, who was diagnosed with autism and is claimed to have fully recovered from his condition. The program is described by Autism Speaks as a "child-centered program that places parents as the key therapists and directors of their program."

Parents are trained at the Kaufman's Autism Treatment Center of America (ATCA) - the division of The Option Institute in Sheffield, Massachusetts that teaches The Son-Rise Program. There, the Kaufman family and their fellow staff members teach families and professionals how to be aware of their attitudes—a core principle of the therapy—for bonding and relationship building, as well as creating a low-stimulus, distraction-free playroom or a room of attention environment so the autistic person (child or adult) can feel secure and in control of the over-stimulation. Parents and facilitators join in an autistic person's exclusive and restricted stimming behavior until the autistic person shows social cues for willing engagement. Then encouragement for more complex social activities is done in a non-coercive way. If the autistic person moves away from social interaction, the facilitator gives the autistic person their space by using parallel play in order to gain the child's or the adult's trust. To encourage skill acquisition, the program uses the autistic person's particular motivation for learning.

The program's developers claim if the parents learn to accept their loved one without judgement that they will teach themselves to interact with others, and that this will allow them to engage in social interaction because they chose to learn the skills. A 2003 study found that involvement with the program led to more drawbacks than benefits for the involved families over time, though there was a strong correlation between patterns of intervention implementation and parental perceptions of intervention efficacy. A 2006 study found that the program is not always implemented as it is described in the literature, which means it will be difficult to evaluate its success and failure rate.

History

In the 1970s, Barry and Samahria Kaufman created the treatment modality for their son, Raun, who had been diagnosed with severe autism. However, it remains unclear if Raun Kaufman had ever been autistic. Of the five clinics who evaluated the boy in New York State—each describing him as "socially withdrawn and uncommunicative," it was only the sixth clinic that felt he was autistic.

In 1976, Barry Neil Kaufman published Son-Rise, a book recounting his son's claimed recovery, which he self published in 1995 with the title Son-Rise: The Miracle Continues. The book was adapted into a televised docudrama film, called Son-Rise: A Miracle of Love and aired on NBC in 1979.

Today, Raun Kaufman is the Director of Global Education for the Autism Treatment Center of America. A 1997 BBC documentary followed the family of a five-year-old autistic boy treated by the program.

Effectiveness

There are no documented normalizations with older children, and it may be that success "depends on a certain level of intellectual potential". Some professionals have questioned the emphasis placed on eye contact and its potential problems for some children. The consensus within the medical community is that there is no cure for autism and only a very few treatments have empirical evidence for improvements in symptoms.
A 2003 study found that involvement with the Son-Rise Program led to more drawbacks than benefits for the involved families over time, although family stress levels did not rise in all cases. A 2006 study found that the Son-Rise Program is not always implemented as it is typically described in the literature, which suggests it will be difficult to evaluate its efficacy.

In 2009, United Kingdom's Advertising Standards Authority sanctioned the Option Institute for a misleading ad claiming Son-Rise as an autism cure. As of 2017, there was little evidence supporting the program.

References

External links
Autism Treatment Center of America

Autism-related organizations in the United States

Son-Rise


Hermann Uhde (July 20, 1914 – October 10, 1965) was a German Wagnerian bass-baritone. He was born in Bremen and died on stage of a heart attack during a performance in Copenhagen.

He studied in his hometown, where he gave his début in 1936. During the war, he sang in Munich and at the opera of The Hague (then occupied by German troops). He sang at the Salzburg Festival from 1949 on (singing the role of Kreon in the premiere of Carl Orff's Antigonae), at the Bayreuth Festival from 1951 on and at the Metropolitan Opera from 1955 to 1964.

He began as a low, dark bass, and later moved up to baritone. He continued singing low bass roles occasionally, such as the Grand Inquisitor from Don Carlos.

The cutting quality of his voice and diction lead to him being cast in villainous roles at the Bayreuth Festival, such as Telramund and Klingsor, or in morally ambiguous roles such as Wotan, Gunther or the title role in Flying Dutchman.  In spite of being a famous singer, he often also sang small roles such as Donner in Das Rheingold, Melot in  Tristan und Isolde, the Grand Inquisitor in Don Carlos, and Shchelkalov in  Boris Godunov. In the United States, he created a sensation at the Metropolitan Opera in his debut title role as Wozzeck (sung in English), with Eleanor Steber singing Marie.

Selected discography
Parsifal - Hans Knappertsbusch, 1951
Das Rheingold - Joseph Keilberth, 1952
Götterdämmerung - Clemens Krauss, 1953
Lohengrin- Joseph Keilberth, 1953; also Eugen Jochum, 1954.
Der Fliegende Holländer- Hans Knappertsbusch, 1955
Das Rheingold and Siegfried - Rudolf Kempe, 1960
"A Portrait of Hermann Uhde" - Gala, catalogue number 100.749

External links
Biography with pictures
 The Flying Dutchman, YouTube
 Lohengrin (with Astrid Varnay), YouTube

Operatic bass-baritones
1914 births
1965 deaths
Musicians who died on stage
Musicians from Bremen (city)
German bass-baritones
20th-century German male opera singers

Hermann Uhde


ATP synthase is an enzyme found in cells that makes ATP from ADP(adenosine di-phosphate) and inorganic phosphate. The ATP synthase is powered by the difference of concentration of pH between inside and outside the place where the enzyme is located. The exact mechanism in which it does so is unknown, although it is believed to work like a rotating machine.

Enzymes

ATP synthase


The Vision to the Youth Bartholomew () is an oil-on-canvas painting created during 1889 and 1890 by the Russian artist Mikhail Nesterov. It is the first and best known work in his series on Sergius of Radonezh, a medieval Russian saint. The painting is considered "the inaugural work of the Russian Symbolist movement" and is in the collection of the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow.

The image of St. Sergius of Radonezh, who had been born Bartholomew, was near and dear to the artist since childhood and was the embodiment of the moral ideal for Nesterov.  Nesterov gave St. Sergius a particularly important role in rallying the Russian people. The painting illustrates an episode from "The Life of St. Sergius" by Epiphanius the Wise:
One day his father sent him to look for a lost foal. On his way he met a monk, a venerable elder, a stranger, a priest, with the appearance of an angel. This stranger was standing beneath an oak tree, praying devoutly and with much shedding of tears. The boy, seeing him, humbly made a low obeisance, and awaited the end of his prayers.

The venerable monk, when he had ended his prayers, glanced at the boy and, conscious that he beheld the chosen vessel of the Holy Spirit, he called him to his side, blessed him, bestowed on him a kiss in the name of Christ, and asked: "What art thou seeking, or what dost thou want, child?" The boy answered, "My soul desires above all things to understand the Holy Scriptures. I have to study reading and writing, and I am sorely vexed that I cannot learn these things. Will you, holy Father, pray to God for me, that he will give me understanding of book-learning?" The monk raised his hands and his eyes toward heaven, sighed, prayed to God, then said, "Amen."

Taking out from his satchel, as if it were some treasure, with three fingers, he handed to the boy what appeared to be a little bit of white wheaten bread prosphora, saying to him: "Take this in thy mouth, child, and eat; this is given thee as a sign of God's grace and for the understanding of Holy Scriptures. Though the gift appears but small, the taste thereof is very sweet."
From that time on Bartholomew could read and write, became a monk, and adopted the name of Sergius.

The artist did his sketches of landscapes in 1899 in the vicinity of the Trinity Sergius Lavra, settling in the village of Komyakovo near Abramtsevo and Radonezh. Abramtzevo became one of his favourite places. There he finished the landscape part and then went to Ufa. The artist was in a hurry, because he was preparing for the XVIII Peredvizhniki exhibition and despite having flu, continued to work actively. One day he felt dizzy, he stumbled (he stood on a small stool), fell and injured the canvas. It was impossible to continue the work, he needed a new canvas, which finally was brought.

The painting, which caused the most contradictory opinions, became a sensation at the XVIII Peredvizhniki exhibition and was bought by Pavel Tretyakov for his gallery. Until the end of his life, the artist was convinced that "The Vision of the Youth Bartholomew" remained his best work. In old age, the artist used to say:
I won't be the one who lives. "Youth Bartholomew" will. If in thirty, in fifty years after my death, he will still be telling people something - that means he is alive, which means, I am alive. Жить буду не я. Жить будет «Отрок Варфоломей». Вот если через тридцать, через пятьдесят лет после моей смерти он ещё будет что-то говорить людям — значит, он живой, значит, жив и я

A later version of the painting, dating from 1922, was sold at Sotheby's in 2007 for $4.3 million (equivalent to $ million in ).

See also
 List of paintings by Mikhail Nesterov

References

1890 paintings
Paintings by Mikhail Nesterov
Religious paintings
Collections of the Tretyakov Gallery

The Vision to the Youth Bartholomew


Piazza del Campo is the main public space of the historic center of Siena, a city in Tuscany, Italy, and the campo regarded as one of Europe's greatest medieval squares. It is renowned worldwide for its beauty and architectural integrity. The Palazzo Pubblico and its Torre del Mangia, as well as various palazzi signorili surround the shell-shaped piazza. At the northwest edge is the Fonte Gaia.

The twice-a-year horse-race, Palio di Siena, is held around the edges of the piazza. The piazza is also the finish location of the annual road cycling race Strade Bianche.

History

The open site was a marketplace established before the thirteenth century on a sloping site near the meeting point of the three hillside communities that coalesced to form Siena: the Castellare, the San Martino, and the Camollia. Siena may have had earlier Etruscan settlements, but it was not a considerable Roman settlement, and the campo does not lie on the site of a Roman forum, as is sometimes suggested. The plazza was paved in 1349 in fishbone-patterned red brick with eight lines of travertine, which divide the piazza into nine sections, radiating from the mouth of the gavinone (the central water drain) in front of the Palazzo Pubblico. The number of divisions is held to be symbolic of the rule of The Nine (Noveschi) who laid out the campo and governed Siena at the height of its mediaeval splendour between 1292-1355. The campo was and remains, the focal point of public life in the city.  Eleven narrow, shaded streets radiate from the plazza into the city.

The palazzi signorili that line the square were housing of the families of those who dominated governance of the city at the time, such as the Sansedoni, the Piccolomini, and the Saracini. Their homes have unified rooflines, deliberately built to demonstrate a sense of decorum in contrast to earlier high tower houses — seen as emblems of communal strife — such as may still be seen not far from Siena at San Gimignano. In the statutes of Siena, civic and architectural decorum was ordered: "...it responds to the beauty of the city of Siena and to the satisfaction of almost all people of the same city that any edifices that are to be made anew anywhere along the public thoroughfares... proceed in line with the existent buildings and one building not stand out beyond another, but they shall be disposed and arranged equally so as to be of the greatest beauty for the city."  The unity of these Late Gothic houses is effected in part by the uniformity of the bricks of which their walls are built: brick-making was a monopoly of the commune, which saw to it that standards were maintained.

At the foot of the Palazzo Pubblico's wall is the late Gothic Chapel of the Virgin built as an ex voto by the Sienese, after the terrible Black Death of 1348 had ended.

Fonte Gaia

The Fonte Gaia ("Joyous Fountain") was built in 1419 as an endpoint of the system of conduits bringing water to the city's centre. It replaced an earlier fountain that had been completed about 1342 when construction of the water conduits was completed. Under the direction of the Committee of Nine, many miles of tunnels were constructed to bring water in aqueducts to fountains and thence to drain to the surrounding fields.

A center of attraction for the many tourists, the present fountain is in the shape of a rectangular basin that is adorned on three sides with many bas-reliefs featuring the Madonna surrounded by the Classical and the Christian Virtues, emblematic of Good Government under the patronage of the Madonna. The white marble Fonte Gaia was originally designed and built by Jacopo della Quercia, whose bas-reliefs from the basin's sides are conserved in the Ospedale di St. Maria della Scala in Piazza Duomo. The original sculptures of goddesses featured on the 1419 fountain were replaced in 1866  by free copies by Tito Sarrocchi, who omitted Jacopo della Quercia's two nude statues of Rhea Silvia and Acca Larentia that the nineteenth-century city fathers found too pagan or too nude. When they had been set up in 1419, Jacopo della Quercia's nude figures were the first two female nudes, who were neither Eve nor a repentant saint, to stand in a public place since Antiquity.

Notes

External links

Buildings and structures in Siena
Campo, Piazza del
Tourist attractions in Tuscany

Piazza del Campo


The mathematics of gambling is a collection of probability applications encountered in games of chance and can get included in game theory. From a mathematical point of view, the games of chance are experiments generating various types of aleatory events, and it is possible to calculate by using the properties of probability on a finite space of possibilities.

Experiments, events, and probability spaces
The technical processes of a game stand for experiments that generate aleatory events. Here are a few examples:

The occurrences could be defined; however, when formulating a probability problem, they must be done extremely carefully. From a mathematical point of view, the events are nothing more than subsets, and the space of events is a Boolean algebra. We find elementary and compound events, exclusive and nonexclusive events, and independent and non-independent events.

In the experiment of rolling a die:
 Event {3, 5} (whose literal definition is the occurrence of 3 or 5) is compound because {3, 5}= {3} U {5};
 Events {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}, {6} are elementary;
 Events {3, 5} and {4} are incompatible or exclusive because their intersection is empty; that is, they cannot occur simultaneously;
 Events {1, 2, 5} and {2, 5} are nonexclusive, because their intersection is not empty;

In the experiment of rolling two dice one after another, the events obtaining "3" on the first die and obtaining "5" on the second die are independent because the occurrence of the first does not influence the occurrence of the second event, and vice versa.

In the experiment of dealing the pocket cards in Texas Hold'em Poker:
  The event of dealing (3♣, 3♦) to a player is an elementary event;
  The event of dealing two 3's to a player is compound because it is the union of events (3♣, 3♠), (3♣, 3♥), (3♣, 3♦), (3♠, 3♥), (3♠, 3♦) and (3♥, 3♦);
  The events "player 1 is dealt a pair of kings" and "player 2 is dealt a pair of kings" are nonexclusive (they can both occur);
  The events player 1 is dealt two connectors of hearts higher than J and player 2 is dealt two connectors of hearts higher than J are exclusive (only one can occur);
  The events player 1 is dealt (7, K) and player 2 is dealt (4, Q) are non-independent (the occurrence of the second depends on the happening of the first, while the same deck is in use).
These are a few examples of gambling events whose properties of compoundness, exclusiveness, and independency are readily observable. These properties are fundamental in practical probability calculus.

Combinations
Games of chance are also good examples of combinations, permutations, and arrangements, which are met at every step: combinations of cards in a player's hand, on the table, or expected in any card game; combinations of numbers when rolling several dice once; combinations of numbers in lottery and Bingo; combinations of symbols in slots; permutations and arrangements in a race to be bet on and the like. Combinatorial calculus is an integral part of gambling probability applications. In games of chance, most of the gambling probability calculus in which we use the classical definition of probability reverts to counting combinations. The gaming events can be identified with sets, which often are sets of combinations. Thus, we can identify an event with a combination.

For example, in a five-draw poker game, the event at least one player holds a four-of-a-kind formation can be identified with the set of all combinations of (xxxxy) type, where x and y are distinct values of cards. This set has 13C(4,4)(52-4)=624 combinations. Possible combinations are (3♠ 3♣ 3♥ 3♦ J♣) or (7♠ 7♣ 7♥ 7♦ 2♣). These can be identified with elementary events that the event to be measured consists of.

Mathematical principles

Law of large numbers

When random events occur a large number of times, the chance will cancel each other out so that the arithmetic mean of the results of these events is very close to its mathematical term value in a probabilistic sense. For example, when a coin is tossed, it is random which side of the coin faces up when it falls, but when it happens enough times, the number of times the coin goes up on both sides is about one-half each. This is known as the law of large numbers.

Winning and losing gambling also behaves as a random event in a single person and for a short period, but in the long run, as long as the gambler has a negative rate of return, then losing is going to happen sooner or later as the game progresses. For the casino, as well as advantage players, as long as the win rate of the gambling play is positive, it is a sure win.

Principle of positive rate of return
The key to determining victory or defeat is the rate of return as determined by the gambling rules and strategy. The rate of return reflects the truth and nature of gambling. The principle of designing gambling rules is usually to make the casino win rate slightly more than 50%, which is reflected in a positive rate of return that is slightly greater than zero. Gambling is not luck, but a contest of intellect, strategy, and yield. The ultimate win of long-term gambling depends on the gambler's rate of return: if the rate of return is positive, the expected return is greater than zero and one can win; if the rate of return is negative, the expected return is less than zero and one cannot win. When the negative rate of return, "long gambling will lose" the role of the law of large numbers will increasingly appear. Professional gamblers, adhering to the principle of a positive rate of return, do not gamble for a long time and will lose the gambling game, only to gamble on a sure win. They are non-gamblers.

Law of small numbers bias
The law of large numbers means that when the sample is close to the overall, its probability will be close to the overall probability. The "law of small numbers bias" refers to the fact that the probability distribution of an event in a small sample is considered to be the overall distribution, thus exaggerating the representativeness of the small sample to the overall population. Another situation is the so-called "gambler's fallacy". For example, when flipping a coin, if it comes up heads 10 times in a row, one would think that the next time it comes up tails is very likely; in fact, the probability of coming up heads or tails is 0.5 each time, and it has nothing to do with how many times it has come up heads.

Ignoring the effect of sample size, believing that small and large samples have the same expected value, and replacing the correct probabilistic law of large numbers with the false psychological law of small numbers, is the cause of the great increase in people's gambling mentality. Casinos believe in the law of large numbers, and gamblers unconsciously apply the law of small numbers. The law of large numbers allows casinos to make money, and the law of small numbers allows gamblers to give money to casinos, and this is the logic of casinos' existence.

Casino advantage
The casino advantage is the advantage that the casino has over the gamblers for each type of gambling game in the casino.

Take the coin toss for example, the chances of heads and tails are equal, 50% each, if a player bets $10 on the coin landing heads up and they win, the casino pays them $10. If they lose, all the $10 is lost to the casino, in this case, the casino advantage is zero (the casino is certainly not stupid enough to open this game); but if they win, the casino only pays them $9, if they lose, all the $10 is lost to the casino. The difference between winning and losing this 1 dollar, is the casino advantage, in the above case, the casino advantage is 10%.

In any kind of game in a casino, the casino has a certain advantage over the gamblers, and only in this way can the casino ensure that it will continue to open in the long run. The casino advantage varies greatly from game to game, with some games having a low casino advantage and others having a high casino advantage. People who gamble a lot try not to play games with a high casino advantage.

Expectation and strategy
Games of chance are not merely pure applications of probability calculus and gaming situations are not just isolated events whose numerical probability is well established through mathematical methods; they are also games whose progress is influenced by human action. In gambling, the human element has a striking character. The player is not only interested in the mathematical probability of the various gaming events, but he or she has expectations from the games while a major interaction exists. To obtain favorable results from this interaction, gamblers take into account all possible information, including statistics, to build gaming strategies.
You can easily pick a strategy that is conformable to your interests as a player by checking out the list in the next section. As can be seen, we have explained the basics of each method a gambler can test.

Even though the randomness inherent in games of chance would seem to ensure their fairness (at least with respect to the players around a table—shuffling a deck or spinning a wheel do not favor any player except if they are fraudulent), gamblers search and wait for irregularities in this randomness that will allow them to win. It has been mathematically proved that, in ideal conditions of randomness, and with negative expectation, no long-run regular winning is possible for players of games of chance. Most gamblers accept this premise, but still work on strategies to make them win either in the short term or over the long run.

House advantage or edge
Casino games provide a predictable long-term advantage to the casino, or "house" while offering the player the possibility of a large short-term payout. Some casino games have a skill element, where the player makes decisions; such games are called "random with a tactical element." While it is possible through skillful play to minimize the house advantage, a player rarely has sufficient skill to eliminate his inherent long-term disadvantage (the house edge or house vigorish) in a casino game. The common belief is that such a skill set would involve years of training, extraordinary memory, and numeracy, and/or acute visual or even aural observation, as in the case of wheel clocking in Roulette. For more examples see advantage gambling.

The player's disadvantage is a result of the casino not paying winning wagers according to the game's "true odds", which are the payouts that would be expected considering the odds of a wager either winning or losing. For example, if a game is played by wagering on the number that would result from the roll of one die, true odds would be 5 times the amount wagered since there is a 1/6 probability of any single number appearing. However, the casino may only pay 4 times the amount wagered for a winning wager.

The house edge (HE) or vigorish is defined as the casino profit expressed as a percentage of the player's original bet. In games such as Blackjack or Spanish 21, the final bet may be several times the original bet, if the player doubles or splits.

Example: In American Roulette, there are two zeroes and 36 non-zero numbers (18 red and 18 black). If a player bets $1 on red, his chance of winning $1 is therefore 18/38 and his chance of losing $1 (or winning -$1) is 20/38.

The player's expected value, EV = (18/38 x 1) + (20/38 x -1) = 18/38 - 20/38 = -2/38 = -5.26%. Therefore, the house edge is 5.26%. After 10 rounds, play $1 per round, and the average house profit will be 10 x $1 x 5.26% = $0.53. Of course, the casino can't win exactly 53 cents; this figure is the average casino profit from each player if it had millions of players each betting 10 rounds at $1 per round.

The house edge of casino games varies greatly with the game. Keno can have house edges up to 25% and slot machines can have up to 15%, while most Australian Pontoon games have house edges between 0.3% and 0.4%.

The calculation of the Roulette house edge was a trivial exercise; for other games, this is not usually the case. Combinatorial analysis and/or computer simulation are necessary to complete the task.

In games that have a skill element, such as Blackjack or Spanish 21, the house edge is defined as the house advantage from optimal play (without the use of advanced techniques such as card counting or shuffle tracking), on the first hand of the shoe (the container that holds the cards). The set of the optimal plays for all possible hands is known as "basic strategy" and is highly dependent on the specific rules, and even the number of decks used. Good Blackjack and Spanish 21 games have to house edges below 0.5%.

Online slot games often have a published return to player (RTP) percentage that determines the theoretical house edge. Some software developers choose to publish the RTP of their slot games while others do not. Despite the set-theoretical RTP, almost any outcome is possible in the short term.

Standard deviation
The luck factor in a casino game is quantified using standard deviation (SD). The standard deviation of a simple game like Roulette can be simply calculated because of the binomial distribution of successes (assuming a result of 1 unit for a win, and 0 units for a loss). For the binomial distribution, SD is equal to , where  is the number of rounds played,  is the probability of winning, and  is the probability of losing. Furthermore, if we flat bet at 10 units per round instead of 1 unit, the range of possible outcomes increases 10 fold. Therefore, SD for Roulette even-money bet is equal to , where  is the flat bet per round,  is the number of rounds, , and .

After enough large number of rounds the theoretical distribution of the total win converges to the normal distribution, giving a good possibility to forecast the possible win or loss. For example, after 100 rounds at $1 per round, the standard deviation of the win (equally of the loss) will be . After 100 rounds, the expected loss will be .

The 3 sigma range is six times the standard deviation: three above the mean, and three below. Therefore, after 100 rounds betting $1 per round, the result will very probably be somewhere between  and , i.e., between -$34 and $24. There is still a ca. 1 to 400 chance that the result will be not in this range, i.e. either the win will exceed $24, or the loss will exceed $34.

The standard deviation for the even-money Roulette bet is one of the lowest out of all casinos games. Most games, particularly slots, have extremely high standard deviations. As the size of the potential payouts increase, so does the standard deviation.

Unfortunately, the above considerations for small numbers of rounds are incorrect, because the distribution is far from normal. Moreover, the results of more volatile games usually converge to the normal distribution much more slowly, therefore much more huge number of rounds are required for that.

As the number of rounds increases, eventually, the expected loss will exceed the standard deviation, many times over. From the formula, we can see the standard deviation is proportional to the square root of the number of rounds played, while the expected loss is proportional to the number of rounds played. As the number of rounds increases, the expected loss increases at a much faster rate. This is why it is practically impossible for a gambler to win in the long term (if they don't have an edge). It is the high ratio of short-term standard deviation to expected loss that fools gamblers into thinking that they can win.

The volatility index (VI) is defined as the standard deviation for one round, betting one unit. Therefore, the VI for the even-money American Roulette bet is .

The variance  is defined as the square of the VI. Therefore, the variance of the even-money American Roulette bet is ca. 0.249, which is extremely low for a casino game. The variance for Blackjack is ca. 1.2, which is still low compared to the variances of electronic gaming machines (EGMs).

Additionally, the term of the volatility index based on some confidence intervals are used. Usually, it is based on the 90% confidence interval. The volatility index for the 90% confidence interval is ca. 1.645 times as the "usual" volatility index that relates to the ca. 68.27% confidence interval.

It is important for a casino to know both the house edge and volatility index for all of their games. The house edge tells them what kind of profit they will make as percentage of turnover, and the volatility index tells them how much they need in the way of cash reserves. The mathematicians and computer programmers that do this kind of work are called gaming mathematicians and gaming analysts. Casinos do not have in-house expertise in this field, so they outsource their requirements to experts in the gaming analysis field.

Bingo probability
The probability of winning a game of Bingo (ignoring simultaneous winners, making wins mutually exclusive) may be calculated as:

since winning and losing are mutually exclusive. The probability of losing is the same as the probability of another player winning (for now assuming each player has only one Bingo card). With  players taking part:

with  players and our player being designated . This is also stated (for mutually exclusive events) as
.

If the probability of winning for each player is equal (as would be expected in a fair game of chance), then
and thus  and therefore . Simplifying yields

For the case where more than one card is bought, each card can be seen as being equivalent to the above players, having an equal chance of winning.

where  is the number of cards in the game and  is the card we are interested in.

A player () holding  cards therefore will be the winner if any of this cards win (still ignoring simultaneous wins):

A simple way for a player to increase his odds of winning is therefore to buy more cards in a game (increase ).

Simultaneous wins may occur in certain game types (such as online Bingo, where the winner is determined automatically, rather than by shouting "Bingo" for example), with the winnings being split between all simultaneous winners. The probability of our card, , winning when there is either one or more simultaneous winners is expressed by:

where  is the probability of there being  simultaneous winner (a function of the game type and number of players) and  being the (fair) probability that  is one of the winning cards. The overall expected value for the payout (1 representing the full winning pot) is therefore:

Since, for a normal bingo game, which is played until there is a winner, the probability of there being a winning card, either  or  or ... or , and these being mutually exclusive, it can be stated that

and therefore that

The expected outcome of the game is therefor not changed by simultaneous winners, as long as the pot is split evenly between all simultaneous winners. This has been confirmed numerically.

To investigate whether it is better to play multiple cards in a single game or to play multiple games, the probability of winning is calculated for each scenario, where  cards are bought.

where n is the number of players (assuming each opposing player only plays one card). The probability of losing any single game, where only a single card is played, is expressed as:

The probability of losing  games is expressed as:

The probability of winning at least one game out of  games is the same as the probability of not losing all  games:

When , these values are equal:

but it has been shown that  for . The advantage of  grows both as  grows and  decreases. It is therefore always better to play multiple games rather than multiple cards in a single game, although the advantage diminishes when there are more players in the game.

See also
 Mathematics of bookmaking
 Poker probability
 Statistical association football predictions
 Online gambling
 Online Bingo

References

Further reading
 The Mathematics of Gambling, by Edward Thorp,
 The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic, Revised Edition, by Richard Epstein,
 The Mathematics of Games and Gambling, Second Edition, by Edward Packel,
 Probability Guide to Gambling: The Mathematics of Dice, Slots, Roulette, Baccarat, Blackjack, Poker, Lottery and Sport Bets, by Catalin Barboianu, ,
  excerpts
 Luck, Logic, and White Lies: The Mathematics of Games, by Jörg Bewersdorff, 2005, 2nd edition 2021, , , introduction of the 1st edition
 Understanding Your Game: A Mathematician's Advice for Rational and Safe Gambling, by Catalin Barboianu,

External links
Probability and gambling math discussion from the Wizard of Odds
Application of probability theory in games of chance

Gambling mathematics


Paul Anton de Lagarde (2 November 1827 – 22 December 1891) was a German biblical scholar and orientalist, sometimes regarded as one of the greatest orientalists of the 19th century. Lagarde's strong support of anti-Semitism, vocal opposition to Christianity, Social Darwinism and anti-Slavism are viewed as having been among the most influential in supporting the ideology of Nazism.<ref>Fascism: Intellectual origins, Encyclopaedia Britannica</ref>Johnson, Paul (1983), "Modern Times", Harper and Row: New York

His great learning and gifts were mixed with dogmatism and distrust in the activities of others. In politics, he belonged to the Prussian Conservative party. He died in Göttingen on 22 December 1891.

Early life and education
De Lagarde was born in Berlin as Paul Bötticher; in early adulthood he legally adopted the family name of his maternal line out of respect for his great-aunt who raised him.  At Humboldt University of Berlin (1844–1846) and University of Halle-Wittenberg (1846–1847) he studied theology, philosophy and Oriental languages.

In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris.

Career
In 1854 he became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not interrupt his biblical studies. In 1866 he received three years leave of absence to collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded German orientalist and theologian Heinrich Ewald as professor of oriental languages at the University of Göttingen.  Like Ewald, Lagarde was an active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim, the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. Lagarde was easily the most renowned Septuagint scholar of the nineteenth century, and he devoted himself ardently to Oriental studies.

Political interests
Parallel to his academic work, he attempted to establish a German national religion whose most striking manifestations were an aggressive anti-Semitism, anti-slavism and expansionism. He held few concrete religious beliefs at the ready for his postulated national religion as his first political treatise Über das Verhältnis des deutschen Staates zu Theologie, Kirche und Religion. Ein Versuch Nicht-Theologen zu orientieren (On the Relationship of the German State to Theology, Church and Religion: An Attempted Orientation for Non-Theologians) demonstrates. In regard to the state, he called for its initial and most important task to be to create a climate in which a national religion could flourish. Meanwhile, he obliged those who had faith in God to a radical morality wherein they distinguish solely between "duty or sin" in their every action. In addition, first a formal language must be developed for the religiosity of these newborn men. In the second part of his 1875 book, Über die gegenwärtige Lage des deutschen Reichs. Ein Bericht (On the Current Situation of the German Reich: A Report), he connected thereto and specified as follows:

The historian Ulrich Sieg classifies his position as follows: "He despised the Christianity that he considered bland and lukewarm and hoped for a folkish religion of the future." Lagarde was conversant with Adolf Stoecker, the founder of the anti-Semitic Berlin Movement. He also showed interest in folkish-anti-Semitic societies such as the Deutscher Volksverein of Bernhard Förster and Max Liebermann von Sonnenberg, as well as the Deutschsoziale Partei of Theodor Fritsch. To the latter, he established contact in 1886 by sending his treatise Die nächsten Pflichten deutscher Politik (The Coming Tasks of German Politics), at the core of which he considered to be a German policy of settlement in Eastern Europe. In German Writings, in which he compiled his previously published political essays, there can be found numerous anti-Semitic passages in which we learn, among other things, that he considered Jews to be the greatest barrier to German unification, whereas he simultaneously avowed the concept of a German colonization of southeastern Europe and proposed that the Jewish population settled there at the time be resettled to Palestine or Madagascar. The only alternatives for Lagarde were the total assimilation or emigration of the Jews.

In his 1887 essay "Jews and Indo-Germanics", he wrote: "One would have to have a heart of steel to not feel sympathy for the poor Germans and, by the same token, to not hate the Jews, to not hate and despise those who – out of humanity! – advocate for the Jews or are too cowardly to crush these vermin. Trichinella and bacilli would not be negotiated with, trichinella and bacilli would also not be nurtured, they would be destroyed as quickly and as thoroughly as possible."

In addition to his influence on anti-Semitism and anti-slavism, Lagarde is also of importance to the formation of German imperialist thought. In this regard, he concentrated on German border colonization within Europe rather than the acquisition of overseas colonies. This bears a close resemblance to the later concept of German Lebensraum most notably espoused by Friedrich Ratzel. In 1875, Lagarde maintained that the primary objective of German politics was the "gradual Germanization of Poland." Since he was concerned about how many Germans emigrated in their search for land, he advocated a border colonizing land acquisition for the peasantry, which he considered the "true foundation of the state." This land acquisition aimed to create a Mitteleuropa under German leadership "that reaches from the Ems to the mouth of the Danube, from the Neman to Trieste, from Metz to about the Bug."

In his 1918 book, The New Europe, Tomáš Masaryk regards Lagarde as one of the leading philosophical and theological spokesmen of Pan-Germanism, and furthermore describes Heinrich von Treitschke as its historian, Wilhelm II as its politician and Friedrich Ratzel as its geopolitical geographer. In all of them he saw the representatives of the imperialistic "German Drang nach Osten" that threatened the Slavic countries.

Legacy
Lagarde's anti-Semitism laid the foundations for aspects of National Socialist ideology, in particular that of Alfred Rosenberg. Rosenberg argued that Germany should create a "national" form of Christianity purged of Semitic elements and insisted that Jews were "pests and parasites" who should be destroyed "as speedily and thoroughly as possible".Stern, Fritz The Politics of Cultural Despair: a study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology, 1961 (see Chapter I, "Paul de Lagarde and a Germanic Religion"). His library now belongs to the New York University.

Works
Legarde edited the Didascalia apostolorum syriace (1854) and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum and in Paris. He edited the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Karlsruhe, Prophetae chaldaice (1872), the Hagiographa chaldaice (1874), an Arabic translation of the Gospels, Die vier Evangelien, arabisch aus der Wiener Handschrift herausgegeben (1864), a Syriac translation of the Old Testament Apocrypha, Libri V. T. apocryphi syriace (1865), a Coptic translation of the Pentateuch, Der Pentateuch koptisch (1867), and a part of the Lucianic text of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from manuscripts for nearly half the Old Testament.

Of the Armenians he published Zur Urgeschichte der Armenier (1854) and Armenische Studien (1877).  He was also a student of Persian, publishing Isaias persice (1883) and Persische Studien (1884).  In 1880, de Lagarde attempted to reconstruct a Syriac version of Epiphanius' treatise, On Weights and Measures, which he entitled, Veteris Testamenti ab Origene recensiti fragmenta apud Syros servata quinque. Praemittitur Epiphanii de mensuris et ponderibus liber nunc primum integer et ipse syriacus (Gootingae 1880). He followed up his Coptic studies with Aegyptiaca (1883), and published many minor contributions to the study of oriental languages in Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1866), Symmicta (1. 1877, ii. 1880), Semitica (i. 1878, ii. 1879), Orientalia (1879–1880) and Mittheilungen (1884).  Mention should also be made of the valuable Onomastica sacra (1870; 2nd ed., 1887).

He edited:

In Deutsche Schriften (1878–81; 4th ed., Göttingen, 1903), he attempted to involve himself in politics. It deals with the position of the German state relative to theology, the church and religion. It became a nationalist text.

Notes

References
  This work in turn cites:
 Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie Anna de Lagarde, Paul de Lagarde (1894)

Further reading
 Heike Behlmer, Thomas L. Gertzen and Orell Witthuhn. Der Nachlass Paul de Lagarde. Orientalistische Netzwerke und antisemitische Verflechtungen. De Gruyter Oldenbourg. Europäisch-jüdische Studien - Beiträge, 46. De Gruyter (2020) - https://www.degruyter.com/view/title/540282?format=G&rskey=qGGhF5&result=1 and DOI: 10.1515/9783110615463
 Ulrich Sieg, Deutschlands Prophet. Paul de Lagarde und die Ursprünge des modernen Antisemitismus (München, Carl Hanser 2007).
 Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair'' (1961).

External links

Collection of Lagarde's writings at Archive.org
Der Pentateuch Koptisch Herausgegeben von Paul de Lagarde

1827 births
1891 deaths
Writers from Berlin
German biblical scholars
Christian Hebraists
German orientalists
German nationalists
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
History of Madagascar
People from the Province of Brandenburg
Syriacists
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Academic staff of the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg
Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
German male non-fiction writers
Antisemitism in Germany

Paul de Lagarde


sexual maturity is the capability and genetic function of all organisms to reproduce and grow to their full stages of sexual reproduction, to produce offspring and populate their respective species. it all starts when an organism gets older and more hormonal signals are charged thus causing a whole lot of change in the physiology of the organism size, age and reproductive organs.

Mammal sexual maturity description
sexual maturity in mammals is when an adult or fully grown up animal has reach the full growth of their sex organs and when they get older and their bodies to produce more hormones, it first start off when a juvenile reaches signs of puberty having pubic hair, deep voice and the capability to breastfeed offspring through sucking of a females breast or mammary gland and the capability for males to ejaculate and have sexual intercourse . this goes with all mammals. some mammals either have the capability to reproduce and be infertile, all the information about sexual maturity and fertilization all rely on DNA, genetics and mutation.

plant sexual maturity descriptions
plants sexual maturity is when the plant now sends hormonal signals to the shoot apex (a terminal bud that grows 0.1 to 1.0 mm that contains the apical meristem, which develops l leaves and the surrounding leaf primordial) which helps in stimulation the sexual reproduction and development. the factors that contribute to a plants sexual maturity is age, size, ecology, environment, exposure to the sun, their competition, their temperature and nutrients. they can also spread pollen filled with sperm cells that can be picked up by insects that suck on pollen like bees

Anatomy of sexual maturity
The anatomy of sexual maturity is categorized by the elongation of the penis on the male and the development of the mammary glands and the breasts on the female as well as the fact that now, fully grown adult males can now ejaculate and that fully grown adult females can now breastfeed offspring and give birth, females will also be on their periods (menstruation) thus causing bleeding of the uterus. after sexual maturity, there will appear 1 out of roughly 300,000-400,000 fertilization egg only around 300-400 eggs are ovulated during sexual intercourse, the male will ejaculate thus sperm will enter the females vagina and then insert themselves in the fertilization egg thus turning into a fetus overtime and after 7-9months,the fetus then turns into a fully grown infant.

species that lay eggs
there are many Species that can develop and form Eggs that contain the placenta inside which then helps the offspring develop inside the egg 20 0r 21 eggs in bird species such as poultry or waterfowl. in other species like insects and marine life, the animal can produce a random amount of eggs oftentimes more than one. It is oftentimes that eggs of certain marine species have a slim chance of survival, probabilities being 1 in 500 that an egg hatches and grows into a fledged out adult specimen.

Sources
http://www.actforlibraries.org/an-explanation-of-sexual-maturity/#:~:text=Sexual%20maturity%20in%20plants%20happens%20as
http://www.plant-biology.com/Shoot-Apex.php#:~:text=The%20Shoot%20apex%20is%20also%20known%20as%20the,is%20present%20i
https://www.cnyfertility.com/how-many-eggs-do-women-have/#:~:text=Because%20many%20eggs%20start%20to%20develop%20but%20d
https://www.fao.org/3/y5169e/y5169e06.htm#:~:text=The%20incubation%20period%20for%20chicken,and%20replaced%20with%20more%20chicks.

Sexuality

Sexual maturity


Nightmares is a 1983 American horror anthology film directed by Joseph Sargent and starring Emilio Estevez, Lance Henriksen, Cristina Raines, Veronica Cartwright, and Richard Masur. The film is made up of four short films based on urban legends; the first concerns a woman who encounters a killer in the backseat of her car; the second concerns a video game-addicted teenager who is consumed by his game; the third focuses on a fallen priest who is stalked by a pickup truck from hell; and the last follows a suburban family battling a giant rat in their home.

Nightmares was originally filmed as a two-hour pilot of a proposed television series to be broadcast by the NBC network during the 1983–1984 TV season.

Plot

Terror in Topanga
During a routine traffic stop, a highway patrolman is viciously stabbed multiple times by an unseen assailant; though he survives and is taken to the hospital. The perpetrator is identified by various TV and radio reporters as William Henry Glazier, a serial killer who escaped a mental institution and is currently terrorizing the Topanga area.

Meanwhile, Lisa, a housewife and chain smoker, puts her children to bed as a bulletin warning about Glazier appears on her television. Lisa discovers that she is out of cigarettes, prompting her to rush to the store to buy some more. Her husband Phillip forbids her from leaving the house at such a late hour with a killer on the loose, and advises her to kick her habit instead. Despite this, she writes Phillip a note, then sneaks to her car and drives to the store.

During her drive, Lisa listens to a radio bulletin warning residents about Glazier, before she is startled by a hitchhiker. Lisa reaches the store and buys groceries and cigarettes. She warns the cashier about Glazier, but he claims to be prepared by unveiling a pistol. On the drive home, Lisa discovers that she is nearly out of gas, and with all the local gas stations already closed for the night, she stops at an out-of-the-way station. The attendant who approaches her happens to perfectly match Glazier's physical appearance. Lisa also grows increasingly alarmed as the attendant seems to be studying her car and herself intently. Suddenly, the attendant lunges at the car with a gas nozzle, breaking the window. He drags Lisa out of the car, then draws a pistol and shoots the actual Glazier, who was revealed to be hiding in Lisa's back seat the entire time. The attendant calms Lisa and offers to call the police.

The police drive the frightened Lisa back home. Phillip asks if Lisa got her cigarettes, and Lisa responds by showing the pack and throwing it away in a trash can, indicating that the experience apparently scared her into quitting.

The Bishop of Battle
J.J. Cooney is an immensely talented video game player who, accompanied by his friend Zock Maxwell, heads into an inner-city arcade to challenge a gang of Hispanic players to a few rounds of Pleiades, offering the winner a dollar per game with a five game minimum. After a few games, one of the gang members recognizes J.J., and tells the others that they are getting hustled, prompting J.J. and Zock to escape.

J.J. and Zock then head to the arcade at their local shopping mall, where J.J. is hoping to use the money he got from hustling to try and beat The Bishop of Battle, a notoriously difficult video game where players fight off enemies and escape from a 3-D maze that features thirteen different levels. Zock mentions how no one they know has ever made it to the thirteenth level, to the point that he and many others believe it is just a myth. J.J., however, is thoroughly convinced that the thirteenth level is real, as he heard about a player in New Jersey who reached it twice. After an argument about J.J.'s obsession with video games, particularly The Bishop of Battle, J.J. gives Zock his cut of the profits as Zock leaves. J.J. spends the next several hours repeatedly trying and failing to make it to the thirteenth level, but he only manages to make it to level 12. Determined not to give up, even after closing time, J.J. tries to play one more game, only for the owner of the arcade to throw him out.

At J.J.'s apartment, his parents also voice their concern with his obsession with gaming, primarily about how it is affecting his performance in school, leading his father to ground him until his grades improve. That night, J.J. sneaks out when his parents are asleep and breaks into the arcade to attempt to finish the game. J.J.'s parents are awoken by a call from Zock, who had a nightmare about J.J. and is worried whether or not he made it home, leading them to discover J.J. is gone. Back at the arcade, J.J finally manages to reach the thirteenth level. Suddenly, the arcade cabinet's screen begins flickering and the cabinet begins shaking violently until it collapses. The Bishop of Battle's voice rings out, commending J.J. for his skills and welcoming him to level 13, before the cabinet releases a wave of energy. Once the wave passes, the game's 3-D enemies fly out of the cabinet's wreckage and into the real world. The enemies fire lasers at J.J. that manage to do serious damage to the surrounding arcade machines, but J.J. manages to defend himself with the gun from the game's controls, which now fires real laser blasts. He flees to the parking lot, but drops the gun in the process. The Bishop of Battle eventually appears, drawing closer and closer to a terrified J.J.

The next morning, Zock and J.J.'s parents head to the arcade. They discover the damage the arcade sustained during the previous night, as well as the Bishop of Battle cabinet, which has been mysteriously reconstructed. Zock hears J.J.'s voice emanating from the cabinet, reciting the Bishop of Battle's lines. Zock and J.J.'s parents then discover J.J. on the screen, watching as he turns into the sprite of the game's player character.

The Benediction
Catholic priest Frank MacLeod  is tending a field near the small parish where he serves. A doe tentatively approaches him, but it is quickly bitten and killed by a rattlesnake. MacLeod attempts to kill the snake, but instead manages to throw it away, watching as it disappears into thin air before discovering that it managed to bite his hand. This is revealed to be a nightmare as he wakes up in bed, screaming and clutching his hand.

Later that day, Frank officiates the funeral of a young boy, but is unable to provide the mourners with words of comfort. Visiting his bishop, Frank explains how he witnessed the boy's death first-hand, and how the experience has given him a crisis of faith. Ignoring the advice of a fellow priest, Frank resigns and leaves the rectory with some holy water, intending to search for a new purpose in life.

He soon encounters a black Chevrolet C-20 Fleetside with tinted windows on the road shortly after he leaves, and signals for it to pass, but it goes at the same time he does, nearly causing an accident. A while later, Frank experiences a flashback to the death of the young boy mentioned earlier; the child had been pointlessly and critically injured during a robbery of the local store, and while the parents wanted him to administer last rites, Frank wanted to call an ambulance in an attempt to save the child's life. The same truck from earlier appears out of nowhere behind Frank and rams into his car, detaching his rear bumper and forcing him off the road. Frank then has a flashback to his talk with the Bishop, where he reveals that he has been plagued with visions of anarchy, his lost faith convincing him that there is no God who would allow such suffering.

As Frank attempts to fix the bumper, the truck appears again, nearly running him over. Frank attempts to escape, but the truck manages to catch up with him, prompting him to desperately asks its unseen driver what they want before once again being forced off the road. Frank gets back on the road again, keeping an eye out for the truck. He soon hears an ominous rumbling sound and discovers a large bulge appearing in the ground. The truck explodes out of the ground and once again turns to Frank, prompting him to drive away. It is then revealed that the truck is driven by Satan himself, who remains unseen. The Devil destroys Frank's car in a collision that does no damage to his truck. Injured from the crash and left with nowhere to run, Frank climbs out of his ruined car as Satan's truck goes in for the kill. In desperation, Frank tosses the container of holy water he had been carrying at the truck, vaporizing it, before he falls unconscious. Emergency responders arrive at the scene, but they do not find evidence that the truck was ever there. Frank has one final flashback of a talk with his bishop, who mentions that only a very select few have been given signs that higher powers exist. He requests that the paramedics take him to the hospital located in his parish, having regained his faith from the experience.

Night of the Rat
On a stormy night, housewife Claire Houston hears something scurrying in the attic of her house. While she believes it to be rats, her husband Steven believes it to just be the wind, advising her to go to sleep. The next morning, Steven discovers that Claire has been browsing the phone book to look for an exterminator, as she believes that there is an infestation. Having plans for a swimming pool to be put in, Steven does not want to spend any extra money and simply suggests that Claire set up a few mousetraps. After Steven leaves for work, Claire hears noises coming from the cabinets in her kitchen. When she goes to investigate, she watches as drinking glasses and cans of food are knocked off the shelves.

Later that night, Steven sets up additional mousetraps in the attic. A rat is soon caught in one of the traps, and Steven throws the dead rat in the garbage. Meanwhile, the family's cat Rosie investigates the house's crawlspace, where she is mauled to death by an unseen creature. The next day, Claire's daughter Brooke discovers that Rosie is missing and becomes worried. At the same time, the kitchen sink is revealed to be clogged with a large amount of grey fur. Claire enters the crawlspace to look for Rosie, but finds the cat's corpse and begins hearing ominous noises. She glimpses the silhouette of a large creature with glowing red eyes peering out at her in the darkness, prompting her to escape. Later that day, Brooke discovers that her room and her toys have been torn to shreds. Entering the room, Claire discovers that the only toy left untouched is a stuffed rat, just as the lights begin flickering on and off.

Eventually, Claire calls an exterminator, Mel Keefer, who discovers that the creature, which he has identified as a rat, has managed to gnaw through the pipes and get to the power cables inside, causing the flickering lights. Keefer also discovers a large, saliva-covered hole behind a cabinet in the kitchen, just as Steven comes home. Unhappy that Claire has hired Keefer, Steven asks him to leave.

That night, Brooke sleeps in the guest room as she wishes for Rosie to come back. Claire then receives a phone call from Mel, who has made a breakthrough: he has looked in an old book he owns for information about a creature known as "The Devil Rodent". According to legend, the Devil Rodent is a large, malevolent rat with large amounts of strength and intellect that used to terrorize individuals in 17th century Europe. As Mel also mentions that the Devil Rodent cannot be destroyed, Steven grabs the phone and tells Keefer not to call again. Suddenly, the family hear the piano downstairs playing jumbled notes, discovering that the keys have been gnawed on as Brooke comes downstairs. Steven manages to save her after a china cabinet nearly falls on her. Discovering more saliva-covered holes in the wall and hearing the radio suddenly turn on and off, Steven loads a shotgun and goes in search of the creature as Claire and Brooke hide upstairs. The power turns on and off repeatedly as Steven searches the kitchen. Brooke hears the creature in the ceiling, prompting Steven to go up to the attic.

The door to the guest room suddenly slams shut as Brooke begins screaming. Kicking the door open, Steven and Claire come face to face with the Devil Rodent itself. The giant rat proceeds to demonstrate psychokinetic abilities, moving furniture, opening and closing doors and windows, and damaging the room repeatedly with a loud wail. The Devil Rodent manages to telepathically communicate with Brooke, who tells her parents that the creature is a mother looking for her baby. Steven rushes into the kitchen, roots through the garbage can, and pulls out the dead rat he originally threw away. He places it in a shoebox and puts the box near the window. As the Devil Rodent moves towards the box and reclaims her baby, Steven points his gun at her, but is unable to shoot. The giant rat unleashes one last roar and disappears out the window. The frightened family reunite, shedding tears of relief as Brooke ponders where the Devil Rodent is going next.

Cast
Terror in Topanga
 Cristina Raines as Lisa
 Anthony James as The Store Clerk
 William Sanderson as The Gas Station Attendant
 Lee Ving as William Henry Glazier
 Clare Torao as Mori, The Newswoman (credited as Clare Nono)

The Bishop of Battle
 Emilio Estevez as J.J. Cooney
 Louis Giambalvo as Jerry Cooney
 Mariclare Costello as Adele Cooney
 Moon Unit Zappa as Pamela
 Billy Jayne as Zock Maxwell
 James Tolkan as Voice of the Bishop of Battle

The Benediction
 Lance Henriksen as MacLeod
 Tony Plana as Father Luis Del Amo
 Timothy Scott as Sheriff
 Robin Gammell as Bishop
 Rose Mary Campos as Mother

Night of the Rat
 Richard Masur as Steven Houston
 Veronica Cartwright as Clair Houston
 Bridgette Andersen as Brooke Houston
 Albert Hague as Mel Keefer

Production
Nightmares was initially filmed in late 1982 as a two-hour pilot for a proposed series to be aired by NBC during its 1983-84 television season, but Universal Pictures executives decided to put it out as a theatrical film instead.
It has been a long-held belief that the four segments of the film were initially conceived and shot for ABC's thriller anthology series Darkroom, but were deemed too intense for television. However, on the audio commentary on the 2015 Blu-ray release, executive producer Andrew Mirisch clarifies that the film actually began life as a pilot for an unnamed anthology series for NBC before becoming a theatrical feature for Universal Pictures.

Reception

Though the poster and trailer boasted that the film would be a "sleeper" and "one you won't forget", the film was not well received on release. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 29% based on seven reviews, with an average rating of 5.5/10.

In her review for the New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote, "Nothing spoils a horror story faster than a stupid victim. And Nightmares, an anthology of four supposedly scary episodes, has plenty of those."

Time Out praised The Bishop of Battle, but stated, "In general, though, the scripting is unimaginative, derivative, and desperately predictable as the film limps through its jokily cautionary tales."

Home media
The film was released on VHS by Universal Pictures in the 1980s, and on Betamax in 1983. It was later released on VHS and DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment in 1999 in "Full Frame (1.33:1) Presentation" and has since gone out of print.

On December 22, 2015, Scream Factory released Nightmares on Blu-ray.

See also
 Body Bags, a 1993 horror anthology that also was produced for television, and also had major filmmakers attached (John Carpenter and Tobe Hooper)
 Creepshow, a series of anthology horror films helmed by Stephen King and George A. Romero

References

External links
 Project to make actual The Bishop of Battle video game

 Nightmares at Box Office Mojo

1983 films
1983 horror films
American horror anthology films
Films about computing
Films about video games
Films based on urban legends
Films directed by Joseph Sargent
Films scored by Craig Safan
Films with screenplays by Christopher Crowe (screenwriter)
1980s monster movies
American monster movies
Universal Pictures films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films

Nightmares (1983 film)


William Jory Henwood FRS (16 January 18055 August 1875), Cornish mining geologist, was born at Perran Wharf, Cornwall.

In 1822 he commenced work as a clerk in an office of the Perran Foundry, owned by the Fox family of Falmouth, a post previously held by his father, John Henwood. He received some tuition in science at the home of Charles Fox.

Henwood soon took an active interest in the working of mines and in the metalliferous deposits. He was funded by the Fox family and local gentry to survey Cornish mines. He developed a theory on how metal lodes had been formed. Unfortunately, he saw Robert Were Fox, who was researching in the same field, as a plagiarist.

In 1832 Henwood was appointed to the office of assay-master and supervisor of tin in the duchy of Cornwall, a post from which he retired in 1838. Meanwhile, he had commenced in 1826 to communicate papers on mining subjects to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and the Geological Society of London, and in 1840 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society.

In 1843 he went to take charge of the Gongo Soco mines in Brazil; afterwards he proceeded to India to report on certain metalliferous deposits for the Indian government; and in 1858, impaired in health, he retired and settled at Penzance.

Publications
In 1839 a paper entitled "On the Expansive Action of Steam in some of the Pumping Engines on the Cornish Mines", published in the Philosophical Magazine, won him the Telford Medal in silver.

His most important memoirs on the metalliferous deposits of Cornwall and Devon were published in 1843 by the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. At a much later date he communicated with enlarged experience a second series of Observations on Metalliferous Deposits, and on Subterranean Temperature  (reprinted from Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, 2 vols, 1871).

In 1874 he contributed a paper on the Detrital Tin-ore of Cornwall (Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall). The Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him in 1875, and the mineral Henwoodite was named after him.

He was concerned about the conditions of slaves, working in mines, and he published a pamphlet on the subject in 1864, reprinted in volume eight (1871) of the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.

References

1805 births
1875 deaths
Geologists from Cornwall
Fellows of the Royal Society
Brazilian people of Cornish descent
British emigrants to Brazil

William Jory Henwood


Joaquim José da França Júnior (March 18, 1838 – November 27, 1890) was a Brazilian playwright, journalist and, initially, a painter. Alongside Martins Pena, he is one of the most famous adepts of the "comedy of manners" genre.

He is patron of the 12th chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters.

Life
França Júnior was born in Rio de Janeiro, in 1838, to Joaquim José da França and Mariana Inácia Vitovi Garção da França. He studied in the Colégio Pedro II and at the Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de São Paulo. Graduating in 1862, he moves to Bahia, where he exerces his profession for some time.

Returning to Rio de Janeiro in 1880, he entered at the Escola Nacional de Belas Artes, where he studied under guidance of Georg Grimm. A member of the Grimm Group, he would later abandon the painting to dedicate himself only to literature.

His plays are famous for mocking and ridicularizing the situation of Brazil during the final years of the 19th century.

He died in 1890.

Works
 Meia Hora de Cinismo (1861)
 A República-Modelo (1861)
 Tipos da Atualidade (1862)
 Ingleses na Costa (1864)
 Defeito de Família (1870)
 Amor com Amor se Paga (1870)
 Beijo de Judas (1881)
 Como se Fazia um Deputado (1881)
 Caiu o Ministério! (1882)
 Maldita Parentela (1887)
 Entrei para o Clube Jácome (1887)
 De Petrópolis a Paris (1889)
 As Doutoras (1889)
 Portugueses às Direitas (1890)

External links
 França Júnior's biography at the official site of the Brazilian Academy of Letters

1838 births
1890 deaths
Brazilian male dramatists and playwrights
University of São Paulo alumni
Writers from Rio de Janeiro (city)
Patrons of the Brazilian Academy of Letters
19th-century Brazilian dramatists and playwrights
19th-century Brazilian male writers

França Júnior


Transposition means to change places. It is a technical term in several disciplines:

Transposition (music)
Transposition (chess)
Transposition (genetics), a term sometimes used for the action of a transposon

Related words
Transpose, the transpose of a matrix in mathematics

Transposition


The XIIª Squadriglia Squadriglia MAS (Mezzi d'Assalto)   (Italian for "12th Assault Vessel Squadron")  was a formation of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) which served on Lake Ladoga as part of the Axis siege of Leningrad during World War II.

Background
On 22 June 1941 the Axis, led by Nazi Germany, launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. During the summer of 1941 the Germans advanced into the USSR on three broad fronts, towards Leningrad in the north, Moscow in the centre, and Kiev in the south.

By August 1941 the German Army Group North was on the outskirts of Leningrad, having occupied the Baltic states and northwest Russia, while the Finns had advanced south into the Viipuri peninsula, leaving the city surrounded and cut off from all communication by land. The city's  only communication route was by water, over Lake Ladoga.
To service and preserve this route, the Soviets collected a fleet of over 50 merchant vessels, protected by more than 40 escort vessels, with which they ran supply convoys to the city. Against this, the Axis had little response; their only offensive force was a single Finnish ship, the torpedo boat Sisu, which was unable to interrupt the Soviet supply route.

In order to act against this supply route, the Axis determined to build up a naval presence on the lake, and, recognizing the Regia Marina's expertise in small boat operations, requested the dispatch of a force of MAS boats to the lake. In response the RM formed the XII MAS in April 1942.

Formation
Following the request to the RM for assistance in the lake operations the RM formed the XII MAS as a section of the Decima MAS. This took place in April 1942 at La Spezia, on the Tyrrhenian Sea. XII MAS comprised four MAS boats and their crews and support staff, a total of 99 men, under the command of Capitano di Corvetta Giuseppe Bianchini.

In May 1942 the force began the journey to the lake, loading the boats onto transports for the journey overland via the Brenner Pass and Innsbruck to Stettin, and by ship to Helsinki. The final leg was by road to Sortanlahti on Lake Ladoga, which served as the XII MAS's base of operations. The squadron  arrived on 22 June 1942, 12 months to the day after the opening of Barbarossa. Already on the lake was the Finnish torpedo boat Sisu, and a German force, Naval Detachment K, composed of a number of minesweepers (KM) and armed barges (Siebel ferries). The whole force was under the overall command of Colonel E I Järvinen, of the Finnish Army.

Operational history

The XII MAS commenced operations on 25 June 1942, making reconnaissance sweeps across the lake, landing observers behind Soviet lines, and searching for submarines.
On 25 July MAS 526 was damaged in an accident, and was temporarily put out of action.

On 14 August MAS 527 and 528 intercepted  a force of three Soviet gunboats; after an exchange of fire the MAS closed in and launched torpedoes, sinking one of the gunboats.

On 27 August MAS 527 encountered a Soviet convoy consisting of two tugs pulling a train of barges, escorted by a third tug. MAS 527 shadowed this group and summoned help, and with the arrival of MAS 528 attacked with torpedoes, causing the barge train to blow up.

On 1 September MAS 529 met two Soviet gunboats while on patrol off Verkkosaari island; she engaged them by gunfire, before retiring unharmed.
On 29 September  MAS 528 and 529, commanded by Bianchini, encountered a Soviet convoy of a tug and barge train, escorted by a gunboat. They were able to manoeuvre into position to make a torpedo attack, but scored no hits.

During October the force was involved in providing support to the land forces, as winter approached, and on 30 October the lake became too frozen for operations to continue. The XII MAS was evacuated from the base at Sortanlahti, withdrawing to winter quarters in Tallinn.

The spring of 1943 saw a change in the war situation; the Regia Marina decided to transfer the XII MAS to the Mediterranean, though the four MAS boats were handed over to the Finnish navy rather than being transported back to Italy.

Aftermath

Following its 1000-mile journey to its area of operations, XII MAS served on Lake Ladoga for a 90-day period, making 59 sorties, and engaging in 17 actions, during which they sank Soviet barges, a gunboat (Bira class) and a merchant ship of 1300 tons. Despite the skill and enthusiasm which the MAS brought to this corner of the Eastern Front, the combined operation was unable to stop Soviet efforts to maintain supply route to Leningrad, and the winter of 1942/43 saw the Sinyavino offensive and Operation Iskra, which led to an easing of the Soviet supply dilemma, though the siege was not completely lifted until January 1944.

See also
British naval expedition to Lake Tanganyika

Notes

References

Military units and formations of Italy in World War II
MAS fleet
Military units and formations established in 1942
Military units and formations disestablished in 1943
1942 establishments in Italy
1943 disestablishments in Italy
1943 establishments in Italy
Naval special forces units and formations

XII Squadriglia MAS