Tea culture is defined by how tea is made and consumed, how people interact with tea, and the aesthetics surrounding tea drinking.

Tea plays an important role in some countries. It is commonly consumed at social events, and many cultures have created intricate formal ceremonies for these events. East Asian tea ceremonies, with their roots in the Chinese tea culture, differ slightly among East Asian countries, such as the Japanese or Korean variants. Tea may differ widely in preparation, such as in Tibet, where the beverage is commonly brewed with salt and butter. Tea may be drunk in small private gatherings (tea parties) or in public (tea houses designed for social interaction).

Afternoon tea is a British custom with widespread appeal. The British Empire spread an interpretation of tea to its dominions and colonies, including modern-day regions of Hong Kong, India, and Pakistan, which had pre-existing tea customs, as well as regions such as East Africa (modern-day Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda), the Pacific (Australia and New Zealand), and Canada, which did not have tea customs, or countries that received high British immigration, such as Chile. The tea room or teahouse is found in the US, Ireland, and many Commonwealth cities.

Different regions favor different varieties of tea—white, yellow, green, oolong, black, or post-fermented (dark)—and use different flavorings, such as herbs, milk, or sugar. The temperature and strength of the tea likewise vary widely.

East Asia

China

Due to the importance of tea in Chinese society and culture, tea houses can be found in most Chinese neighborhoods and business districts. Chinese-style tea houses offer dozens of varieties of hot and cold tea concoctions. They also serve a variety of tea-friendly or tea-related snacks. Beginning in the late afternoon, the typical Chinese tea house quickly becomes packed with students and business people, and later at night, it plays host to insomniacs and night owls simply looking for a place to relax.

There are formal tea houses. They provide a range of Chinese and Japanese tea leaves, tea-making accoutrements, and a better class of snack food. Finally, some tea vendors specialize in selling tea leaves, pots, and other related paraphernalia. Tea is an essential item in Chinese culture and is mentioned in the seven necessities of (Chinese) daily life.

During the Tang dynasty, Lu Yu found that the plants that grow under shady hillsides produced poor-quality tea, often resulting in abdominal distension. The common tea-making methods at the time were boiling the water and tea leaves simultaneously. The water was heated in a cauldron on a brazier to the first boil level, described as "fish eyes." Appropriate salts were added to the water to enhance the flavor of the tea.

Two periods

In China, at least as early as the Tang dynasty, tea was an object of connoisseurship; in the Song dynasty, formal tea-tasting parties were held, comparable to modern wine tastings. As in contemporary wine tastings, the proper vessel was necessary, and much attention was paid to matching the tea to an aesthetically appealing serving vessel.

Historically, there were two phases of tea drinking in China based on the form of tea that was produced and consumed: tea bricks versus loose leaf tea.

Tea brick phase

Tea served before the Ming dynasty was typically made from tea bricks. Upon harvesting, the tea leaves were either partially dried or thoroughly dried and ground before being pressed into bricks. The pressing of Pu-erh is likely a relic of this process. Tea bricks were also sometimes used as currency. [1] Serving the tea from tea bricks required multiple steps:

 Toasting: Tea bricks are usually first toasted over a fire to destroy any mould or insects that may have burrowed into the bricks. Such infestations sometimes occurred since the bricks were stored openly in warehouses and storerooms. Toasting likely imparted a pleasant flavour to the resulting tea.
 Grinding: The tea brick was broken up and ground to a fine powder. This practise survives in Japanese powdered tea (matcha).
 Whisking: The powdered tea was mixed into hot water and frothed with a whisk before serving. The colour and patterns formed by the powdered tea were enjoyed while the mixture was imbibed.

The ground and whisked teas used then called for dark and patterned bowls in which the texture of the tea powder suspension could be enjoyed. The best of these bowls, glazed in patterns with names like oil spot, partridge feather, hare's fur, and tortoise shell, are highly valued today. The patterned holding bowl and tea mixture were often lauded in the period's poetry, with phrases such as "partridge in swirling clouds" or "snow on Hare's fur." Tea in this period was enjoyed more for its patterns and less for its flavour. The practise of powdered tea can still be seen in the Japanese tea ceremony, or Chadō.

Loose-leaf tea phase

After 1391, the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty, decreed that tributes of tea to the court were to be changed from brick to loose-leaf form. The imperial decree quickly transformed the tea-drinking habits of the people, changing from whisked teas to steeped teas. The arrival of the new method for preparing tea also required the creation or use of new vessels.

 The tea pot was needed so that the tea leaves could be steeped separately from the drinking vessel for an infusion of proper concentration. The tea must be kept warm, and the leaves must be separated from the resulting infusion when required.
 Tea caddies and containers also became necessary to keep the tea fresh and conserve its flavour. This was because tea leaves do not preserve as well as tea bricks. Furthermore, the natural aroma of tea became the focus of tea drinking due to the new preparation method.
 A change in Chinese tea-drinking vessels was evident. Smaller bowls with plain or simple designs on the interior surfaces were preferred over the larger patterned bowls used for enjoying the patterns created by powdered teas. Tea drinking in small bowls and cups was likely adopted since it gathers and directs the fragrant steam from the tea to the nose, allowing for a better appreciation of the tea's flavour.

Teawares made with a special kind of purple clay (Zisha) from Yixing went on to develop during this period (the Ming dynasty). Purple clay's structure made it an advantageous material with a tiny and high density, preferred for heat preservation and perviousness. Simplicity and rusticity dominated the idea of purple clay teaware decoration art. It soon became the most popular method of performing Chinese tea ceremonies, which often combine literature, calligraphy, painting, and seal cutting in Chinese culture.

Loose-leaf tea and purple clay teaware are still the preferred tea preparation methods in Chinese daily life.

Hong Kong
The English-style tea has evolved into a new local style of drink, the Hong Kong-style milk tea, more often simply "milk tea" in Hong Kong, by using evaporated milk instead of ordinary milk. It is popular at cha chaan tengs and fast food shops such as Café de Coral and Maxims Express. Traditional Chinese teas, including green tea, flower tea, jasmine tea, and pu-erh tea, are also common and are served at dim sum restaurants during yum cha.

Another Hong Kong specialty is lemon tea, served in cafes and restaurants as regular black tea with several slices of fresh lemon, either hot or cold, and a pot of sugar to add to taste. In 1979, local drinks manufacturer Vitasoy introduced a packaged brand, which remains popular and is gaining market traction in mainland China.Other brands followed suit in Hong Kong.

Tibet

Butter, milk, and salt are added to brewed tea and churned to form a hot drink called po cha (bod ja, where bod means Tibetan and ja means tea) in Tibet, Bhutan, and Nepal. The concoction is sometimes called cha su mar, mainly in Kham, or Eastern Tibet. Traditionally, the drink is made with domestic brick tea and yak's milk, then mixed in a churn for several minutes. Using generic black tea, milk, and butter and shaking or blending work well too, although the unique taste of yak milk is difficult to replicate. (see recipe)

Tibet tea drinking has many rules. One such concern concerns an invitation to a house for tea. The host will first pour some Highland barley wine. The guest must dip his finger in the wine and flick some away. This will be done three times to represent respect for the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. The cup will then be refilled two more times, and on the last time, it must be emptied, or the host will be insulted. After this, the host will present a gift of butter tea to the guest, who will accept it without touching the bowl's rim. The guest will then pour a glass for himself and must finish the glass or be seen as rude.

Two main teas go with the tea culture. The teas are butter tea and sweet milk tea. These two teas are only found in Tibet.Other teas that Tibetans enjoy are boiled black teas. Many tea shops in Tibet sell these teas, which travelers often take as their primary hydration source.

Japan

Green tea's traditional role in Japanese society is as a drink for special guests and occasions. Green tea is served in many companies during afternoon breaks. Japanese often buy sweets for their colleagues when on vacation or business trips. These snacks are usually enjoyed with green tea. Tea will also be prepared for visitors coming for company meetings and guests visiting Japanese homes. A thermos full of green tea is a staple on family or school outings as an accompaniment to bento (box lunches). Families often bring along proper Japanese teacups to enhance the enjoyment of the traditional drink.

The strong cultural association Japan has with green tea has made it the most popular beverage to drink in traditional Japanese cuisine, such as sushi, sashimi, and tempura. At a restaurant, a cup of green tea is often served with meals at no extra charge, with as many refills as desired. The best traditional Japanese restaurants take as much care in choosing the tea they serve as in preparing the food.

Many Japanese are still taught the proper art of the centuries-old tea ceremony as well. Still, the Japanese now enjoy green tea processed using state-of-the-art technology. Today, hand pressing—a method demonstrated to tourists—is taught only as a technique preserved as a part of the Japanese cultural tradition. Most ubiquitous vending machines also carry a wide selection of hot and cold bottled teas. Oolong tea enjoys considerable popularity. Black tea, often with milk or lemon, is served ubiquitously in cafes, coffee shops, and restaurants.

Major tea-producing areas in Japan include Shizuoka Prefecture and the city of Uji in Kyoto Prefecture.

Other infusions bearing the name cha are barley tea (mugi-cha), which is popular as a cold drink in the summer; buckwheat tea (soba-cha); and hydrangea tea (ama-cha).

Korea

The Korean tea ceremony, or darye (茶禮), is a traditional form of tea ceremony practised in Korea. Darye literally refers to "etiquette for tea" or "tea rite." The chief element of the Korean tea ceremony is the ease and naturalness of enjoying tea in an easy, formal setting. Central to the Korean approach to tea is an easy and natural coherence, with fewer formal rituals, fewer absolutes, greater freedom for relaxation, and more creativity in enjoying a wider variety of teas, services, and conversations.

Taiwan

Taiwanese tea culture encompasses a more traditional Chinese tea culture, followed by centuries of Han Chinese migrations onto the island. Wild tea was first found in Taiwan by the Dutch East India Company.Since then, successive waves of immigration from mainland China to Taiwan have left a legacy of influences on tea culture.

Bubble tea, pearl milk tea (  ), or boba milk tea () is a tea beverage mixture with milk that includes balls of tapioca. Originating in Taiwan, it is especially popular in East Asia and Southeast Asia, including Japan, South Korea, China, Hong Kong, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Singapore, as well as India, Sri Lanka, Europe, Canada, and the United States. It is also known as black pearl tea or tapioca tea.

Southeast Asia

Indonesia
Tea drinking is deeply ingrained in Indonesian culture, with adults and children alike enjoying several cups a day, from hot to sweet to cold. There are several notable regional variants of Indonesian tea drink besides the common es teh manis (sweet iced tea).

Teh talua is a Minang tea drink that consists of tea powder, raw egg, sugar, and citrus. It becomes an intangible cultural heritage under the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture.
, a tea specially brewed in clay pots and cups This drink is added to gula batu (rock sugar) and drunk hot. It usually uses green tea or jasmine tea, which gives off a distinctive aroma, and is usually served in the morning, afternoon, or evening, accompanied by snacks. Teh poci can be easily found in the city of Tegal.

Nyaneut is the name pinned to the tradition of drinking tea typical of the people of Garut. The tradition is usually carried out to welcome the Islamic New Year. At first, Nyaneut began when the Dutch scientist Karel Frederik Hole opened tea plantations in Cigedug and Bayongbong in the 19th century. Since then, the area has been a producer of high-quality tea. Nyaneut has also become a habit for the people of Garut and its surroundings, who are at the foot of Mount Cikurai, to warm their bodies. Usually, tea is served to guests along with a snack in the form of boiled cassava. In the process of drinking tea, it begins by rotating the tea glass in the palm of the hand twice; after that, the aroma of the tea must be inhaled three times first, and then the tea may be drunk.

In Yogyakarta, patehan is part of the Royal Palace of Yogyakarta, which is in charge of preparing drinks, especially tea, along with all the equipment for the needs of the palace. both for traditional ceremonies and for routine daily needs. Water for making tea is taken from a special well called Nyai Jalatunda near the royal tea brewery called Gedhong Patehan. Patehan's daily agenda is to prepare a tea routine for the sultan at 6 a.m. and 11 a.m. The tea is delivered in a procession of five female courtiers.

Betawi people have a tea tradition called nyahi. It is said that the word "nyahi" itself comes from Arabic culture, from the word "syay," which means tea. Nyahi activities are usually done with family or friends in the afternoon, a few hours after lunch time. What is drunk is tubruk, which is a drink made from dry tea leaves that is brewed directly without filtering them and placed in a canned teapot or a teapot made of brass. The tradition is usually enjoyed with coconut sugar. The sweetener will be bitten first, followed by sipping hot tea. It is accompanied by some snacks like kue ape, boiled peanuts, boiled banana, wajik, kue apem, and so on.

Myanmar
Myanmar is one of the very few countries where tea is not only drunk but eaten as lahpet—pickled tea served with various accompaniments.It is called lahpet so (tea wet) in contrast to lahpet chauk (tea dry) or akyan jauk (crude dry), with which green tea—yeinway jan or lahpet yeijan, meaning plain or crude tea—is made. In the Shan State of Myanmar, where most of the tea is grown, and also in Kachin State, tea is dry-roasted in a pan before adding boiling water to make green tea.

It is the national drink. Tea sweetened with milk is known as lahpet yeijo, made with acho jauk (sweet dry) or black tea and prepared the Indian way, brewed and sweetened with condensed milk. It is a very popular drink, although the middle classes, by and large, appear to prefer coffee most of the time. It was introduced to Myanmar by Indian immigrants, some of whom set up teashops known as kaka hsaing, later evolving to just lahpetyei hsaing (teashop).

It is common for Burmese to gather in tea shops to drink Indian tea served with a diverse range of snacks. Green tea is customarily the first thing to be served free of charge as soon as a customer sits down at a table in all restaurants as well as teashops.

Teashops are extremely prevalent, and are open for breakfast till late in the evening, with some even open for 24-hour catering for long-distance drivers and travellers.

Lahpet

Lahpet (pickled tea) is served in one of two ways:

 A-hlu lahpet or Mandalay lahpet is served on a plate or traditionally in a shallow lacquerware dish called lahpet ohk with a lid and divided into small compartments—pickled tea laced with sesame oil in a central compartment, and other ingredients such as crisp fried garlic, peas and peanuts, toasted sesame, crushed dried shrimp, preserved shredded ginger, and fried shredded coconut in other compartments encircling it. It may be served as a snack or after a meal with green tea on special occasions or just for family and visitors. A-hlu means alms and is synonymous with a novitiation ceremony called Shinbyu, although lahpet is also served in this form at hsun jway (offering a meal to monks) and weddings. Invitation to a shinbyu is traditionally made by calling from door to door with a lahpet ohk; acceptance is indicated by its participation.
 Lahpet thouk, or Yangon lahpet, is a pickled tea salad very popular all over Myanmar, especially with women, and some teashops would have it on their menu as well as Burmese restaurants. It is prepared by mixing all the above ingredients without the coconut. It also includes fresh tomatoes, garlic, and green chilli and is dressed with fish sauce, sesame or peanut oil, and a squeeze of lime.Some of the most popular brands sold in packets include Ayee Taung Lahpet from Mandalay, Shwe Toak from Mogok, Yuzana, and Pinpyo Ywetnu from Yangon. Hnapyan jaw (twice fried) ready-mixed garnish is also available today.

Thailand
Thai tea (also known as Thai iced tea) or "cha-yen" ( when ordered in Thailand,) is a drink made from strongly brewed red tea that usually contains added anise, red and yellow food colouring, and sometimes other spices as well. This tea is sweetened with sugar and condensed milk and served chilled. Evaporated or whole milk is generally poured over the tea and ice before serving without mixing to add taste and a creamy appearance. Locally, it is served in a traditional tall glass, and when ordered takeout, it is poured over the crushed ice in a transparent (or translucent) plastic bag. It can be made into a frappé at more westernised vendors.

It is popular in Southeast Asia and in many American restaurants that serve Thai or Vietnamese food, especially on the West Coast of the United States. Although Thai tea is not the same as bubble tea, a Southeast and East Asian beverage that contains large black pearls of tapioca starch, Thai tea with pearls is a popular flavour of bubble tea.

Green tea is also prevalent in Thailand, spawning many variations such as barley green tea, rose green tea, lemon green tea, etc. Thai green tea, however, is not to be confused with traditional Japanese green tea. Thai green tea tends to be very heavily commercialised and tastes sweeter.

Vietnam

The tea culture within Vietnam is ancient and is home to some of the oldest living tea plants. Before French colonisation, tea was primarily produced for personal and local-market consumption. The first tea plantation was established in 1890 within the Phu Tho province and was very successful. During the twentieth century, Vietnam saw a surge in tea production and began exporting tea worldwide. As of 2015, a study conducted by the United Nations concluded that Vietnam was the world's fifth-largest exporter of tea.In the same year, it was estimated that 80% of the total yield was dedicated to foreign markets.

The word in the Vietnamese language is trà ( or ) or chè ( or ). It is served unsweetened and unaccompanied by milk, cream, or lemon.

Traditionally, tea is frequently consumed as green tea (trà xanh). Variants of black tea (chè tàu) are also widely used, although frequently scented with Jasminum sambac blossoms (chè nhài, trà lài). Huế is renowned for its tea scented with Nelumbo nucifera stamens (trà sen).

In Vietnamese restaurants, including eateries overseas, a complimentary pot of tea is usually served once the meal has been ordered, with refills free of charge.

Malaysia
As of 2023, there are over 22.6% Ethnic Chinese who consume a lot of tea culturally. However, it is only in 1929 where the first tea plantation started in Cameron Highlands, situated at 1,500 meters above sea level. The temperature stays on an average of 18 degrees Celsius while the mildly acidic soil is perfect for growing Camellia sinensis. With sunshine all year round with high humidity, the tea leaves are sweet and aromatic. It is mostly the Chinese who drinks in a more traditional method by boiling leaves in a pot and serving in small cups.

After World War Two, the Indian Muslim immigrants working on rubber plantations brought a style called Teh Tarik or "pulled tea" in English. Preparation involves pouring sweetened condense milk and evaporated milk into a flavorsome black tea before pouring the contents from one cup to another. More experience baristas are capable of pouring it with maximum hand extension of over 1 meter apart. This style of pouring creates a creamy foam and helps cool the liquid. And the thicker the froth, the better the taste.

Central Asia

Tea was transported to Central Asia through the Silk Road. In Kazakhstan, traditional tea is black traditionally with milk. In Uzbekistan, traditional tea is green.

Tea is the unofficial national drink of Afghanistan, where it is widely consumed and offered to visitors. Both green and black tea are used (although green is preferred), and cardamom, saffron or blocks of sugar are often added, but normally without milk. Teahouses are common, which are locally called chai-khana.

In Mongolia, suutei tsai is a traditional beverage of tea with milk. Variations in the recipe include using green or black tea, butter, or fat. Fresh whole milk is often preferred, and adjusting the salt content is common. Fried millet is a common addition, and the tea is often derived from compressed tea blocks. Historically, Mongols favoured milk-based drinks due to beliefs about water's sanctity. The practise was noted by the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck in the 13th century. Suutei tsai is a staple in Mongolian culture, often served during meals and to guests visiting a yurt. Its unique flavour, including the presence of salt, can be an acquired taste, and it's commonly enjoyed with boortsog (fried biscuit) or dumplings. Instant versions of Suutei Tsai are also available. Suutei tsai is commonly used for special occasions such as Tsagaan Sar and Naadam.

South Asia

Bangladesh

The habit of drinking tea in Bangladesh was started by the British during the British colonial period. The first Tea garden in Bangladesh was established in 1849 at Malnicherra, Sylhet district. Since then, tea has become a popular beverage among the Bangladeshis. In 2021, about 96.50 million kilograms (kgs) of the plant were produced by 167 farms across Bangladesh and almost 75% of them are consumed within the country. Teas are primarily served here to guests and usually drunk at breakfast and snack during any time of the day. The Bangladeshi tea culture has developed around the Tea stalls, which are the social gathering centres in the villages and communities. Different variants of tea such as Milk tea, Black tea, Malai chai, Lemon tea, and Seven Color Tea from Srimangal are highly popular in Bangladesh.

India

One of the world's largest tea producers, India is a country where tea is popular as a breakfast and evening drink. It is often served as masala chai with milk, sugar, and spices such as ginger, cardamom, black pepper, and cinnamon. Almost all the tea consumed is black Indian tea, CTC variety. Usually, tea leaves are boiled in the water while making tea, and milk is added.

Offering tea to visitors is the cultural norm in Indian homes, offices, and places of business. Tea is often consumed at small roadside stands, prepared by tea makers known as chai wallahs.

There are three most famous regions in India to produce black teas: Darjeeling, Assam, and Nilgiri. "Strong, heavy, and fragrant" are three criteria for judging black tea. Darjeeling tea is known for its delicate aroma and light colour and is aptly termed "the champagne of teas," which has a high aroma and yellow or brown liquid after brewing. Assam tea is known for its robust taste and dark colour, and Nilgiri tea is dark, intensely aromatic, and flavorful. Assam produces the largest quantity of tea in India, mostly of the CTC variety, and is one of the biggest suppliers of major international brands such as Lipton and Tetley. The Tetley brand, formerly British-owned and one of the largest, is now owned by the Indian Tata Tea Limited company.

On April 21, 2012, the Deputy Chairman of Planning Commission (India), Montek Singh Ahluwalia, said that tea would be declared a national drink by April 2013. Speaking on the occasion, former Assam Chief Minister Tarun Gogoi said a special package for the tea industry would be announced in the future to ensure its development. The move was expected to boost the tea industry in the country, but in May 2013 the ministry of commerce decided not to declare a national drink for fear of disrupting the competing coffee industry.

Pakistan

Tea is popular all over Pakistan and is referred to as chai (چائے). During British rule, tea became very popular in Lahore. Tea is usually consumed at breakfast, during lunch breaks at the workplace, and in the evening at home. Evening tea may be consumed with biscuits or cake. Guests are typically offered a choice between tea and soft drinks. It is common practise for homeowners to offer tea breaks to hired labourers and sometimes even provide them with tea during the breaks. The tea offered to labour is typically strong and has more sugar.

In Pakistan, both black and green teas are popular and are known locally as sabz chai and kahwah, respectively. The popular green tea called kahwah is often served after every meal in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Pashtun belt of Balochistan. In Lahore and other cities of Punjab, Kashmiri chai or cha is common, brought by ethnic Kashmiris in the 19th century. Traditionally, it is prepared with Himalayan rock salt, giving it its characteristic pink colour. It is taken with Bakar khani and Kashmiri kulcha (namkeen/salty version of Khand kulcha). Namkeen chai, or noon/loon chai, commonly called Kashmiri chai, and sometimes sheer (milk) cha or sabz chai (green tea, as the same tea is used for making khahwa/green tea) are sold and seen in Gawalmandi kiosks with salt for Kashmiri as well as sugar and pistachios for non-Kashmris. In the northern Pakistani regions of Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan, a salty, buttered Tibetan-style tea is consumed.

Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, black tea is usually served with milk and sugar, but the milk is always warmed. Tea is a hugely popular beverage among the Sri Lankan people, and part of its land is surrounded by the many hills of tea plantations that spread for miles. Drinking tea has become part of the culture of Sri Lanka, and it is customary to offer a cup of tea to guests. Many working Sri Lankans are used to having a mid-morning cup of tea and another in the afternoon. Black tea is sometimes consumed with ginger. In rural areas, some people still have tea with a piece of sweet jaggery.

West Asia

Iran

Tea found its way to Persia (Iran) through the Silk Road from India and soon became the national drink. The whole part of northern Iran along the shores of the Caspian Sea is suitable for the cultivation of tea. Especially in the Gilan province on the slopes of Alborz, large areas are under tea cultivation, and millions of people work in the tea industry. That region covers a large part of Iran's need for tea. Iranians have one of the highest per capita rates of tea consumption in the world, and since old times every street has had a Châikhâne (Tea House). Châikhânes are still an important social place. Iranians traditionally drink tea by pouring it into a saucer and putting a lump of rock sugar (nabât) in the mouth before drinking the tea.

Africa

Algeria

Mint tea is central to social life in the Maghreb and is very popular among the Tuareg people of Algeria, Libya, Niger, and Mali. The service can be ceremonial, especially when prepared for a guest. The tea is traditionally made by the head male in the family and offered to guests as a sign of hospitality. Typically, at least three glasses of tea are served. Tea is consumed throughout the day as a social activity.

Mint has been used as an infusion, decoction, and herbal medicine throughout the Mediterranean since antiquity. This aromatic plant was widely used in Algeria to cure and prevent cholera when it plagued the country from 1835 until 1865.

Egypt
Tea is the national drink in Egypt. In Egypt, tea is called "shai". Tea packed and sold in Egypt is almost exclusively imported from Kenya and Sri Lanka. The Egyptian government considers tea a strategic crop and runs large tea plantations in Kenya. Green tea is a recent arrival to Egypt (only in the late 1990s did green tea become affordable) and is not as popular.

Egyptian tea comes in two varieties: Koshary and Saiidi. Koshary tea, popular in Lower (Northern) Egypt, is prepared using the traditional method of steeping black tea in boiled water and letting it set for a few minutes. It is almost always sweetened with cane sugar and is often flavored with fresh mint leaves. Adding milk is also common. Koshary tea is usually light, with less than a half teaspoonful per cup considered to be near the high end.

Saiidi tea is typical in Upper (Southern) Egypt. It is prepared by boiling black tea with water for 5 minutes over an intense flame. Saiidi tea is extremely heavy, with two teaspoonfuls per cup being the norm. It is sweetened with copious amounts of cane sugar (a necessity since the formula and method yield a very bitter tea). Saiidi tea is often black, even in liquid form.

Besides true tea, herbal teas (or tisanes) are often served at the Egyptian teahouses, with ingredients ranging from mint to cinnamon and ginger to salep; many of these are ascribed medicinal qualities or health benefits in Egyptian folk medicine. Karkade, a tisane of hibiscus flowers, is a particularly popular beverage and is traditionally considered beneficial for the heart.

Libya

Libyan tea is a strong black or green beverage served in small glass cups with foam or froth topping the glass. It is usually sweetened with sugar and traditionally served in three rounds. Mint or basil is used for flavouring; traditionally, the last round is served with boiled peanuts or almonds.

Mauritius
Tea plays an integral part in the culture of Mauritius. Tea drinking allows for socialising and is commonly served to guests and in the workplace.

The Mauritian people usually consume black tea, often with milk and sugar. Mauritius is a tea producer, initially on a small scale when the French introduced the plant to the island around 1765. It was under later British rule that the scale of tea cultivation increased.

Three major tea producers dominate the local market: Bois Cheri, Chartreuse, and Corson. The signature product is vanilla-flavoured tea, commonly bought and consumed on the island.

Morocco

Morocco is considered the largest importer of green tea worldwide.

Morocco consumes green tea with mint rather than black tea. It has become part of the culture and is used widely at almost every meal. The Moroccan people even make tea performances a unique culture in the flower country. Moroccan tea is commonly served with rich tea cookies, fresh green mint leaves, local "finger-shaped" brown sugar, and colourful tea glasses and pots.

Sahel

In the Sahel region on the southern fringe of the Sahara (such as in Mali, Niger, and Algeria), green gunpowder tea is prepared with little water and large amounts of sugar. By pouring the tea into the glasses and back, foam builds on the tea. Sahelian tea is a social occasion and has three infusions: the first is very bitter ("bitter as death"), the second is in between ("flavorful as life"), and the last is rather sweet ("sweet as love"), which are taken over several hours. Drinking tea is a social activity that is accompanied by conversation and storytelling.

Europe

Czech Republic and Slovakia
Specific tea culture has developed in the Czech Republic in recent years, including many styles of tearooms. Despite having the same name, they differ from British tearooms. Pure teas are usually prepared concerning their country of origin, and good tea palaces may offer 80 teas from almost all tea-producing countries. Different tea rooms have also created blends and methods of preparation and serving.

Although less visible than in the Czech Republic, tea culture exists in Slovakia. Tea rooms are considered an underground environment by many, but they continue to pop up almost in every middle-sized town. These tea rooms are appreciated for offering quiet environments with pleasant music. More importantly, they are usually non-smoking, unlike most pubs and cafés.

Germany

While coffee remains more popular than tea in Germany, the region of East Frisia is noted for its consumption of tea and its tea culture. Nearly 75 percent of all tea imported to Germany is consumed in this region.

Intense blends of Assam tea, Ceylon, and Darjeeling (East-Frisian Blend) are served whenever there are visitors to an East-Frisian home or other gatherings, as well as with breakfast, mid-afternoon, and mid-evening. The traditional preparation is as follows: Kluntje, a white rock candy sugar that melts slowly, is added to the empty cup (allowing multiple cups to be sweetened), and then the tea is poured over the Kluntje. A heavy cream "cloud" ("Wölkje"—a diminutive of 'cloud' in Frisian) is added to the tea "water", and the sugar represents "land". It is served without a spoon and traditionally drunk unstirred, i.e., in three tiers: In the beginning, one predominantly tastes the cream, then the tea, and finally the sweet taste of kluntje at the bottom of the cup. Stirring the tea would blend all three tiers into one and spoil the traditional tea flavour. The tea is served with small cookies during the week and cakes on special occasions or on weekends as a special treat. Some of the most common traditional cakes and pastries to accompany tea are apple strudel, black forest cake, and other cakes flavoured with chocolate and hazelnut.

 The tea is said to cure headaches, stomach problems, and stress, among many other ailments. The tea set is commonly decorated with an East Friesian rose design.As a guest, it is considered impolite to drink fewer than three cups of tea. Placing your cup upside down on the saucer or your spoon in the cup signals that you are finished and want no more tea.

Russia

The podstakannik ('подстаканник'), or tea glass holder (literally "thing under the glass"), is a part of Russian tea tradition. A Russian tea glass-holder is a traditional way of serving and drinking tea in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and other CIS and ex-USSR countries. Expensive podstakanniks are made from silver, classic series are made mostly from nickel silver, cupronickel, and other alloys with nickel, silver or gold plating. In Russia, it is customary to drink tea brewed separately in a teapot and diluted with freshly boiled water ('pair-of-teapots tea', 'чай парой чайников'). Traditionally, the tea is robust, its strength often indicating the hosts' degree of hospitality. The traditional implement for boiling water for tea used to be the samovar (and sometimes it still is, though usually electric). Tea is a family event and is usually served after each meal with sugar (one to three teaspoonfuls per cup), lemon (but without milk), and an assortment of jams, pastries, and confections. Black tea is commonly used, with green tea gaining popularity as a healthier, more "Oriental" alternative. Teabags are not used in the traditional Russian tea ceremony, only loose, large-leaf black tea.

In Russian prisons, where alcohol and drugs are prohibited, inmates often brew robust tea known as 'chifir' to experience its mood-altering properties.

France

While France is well known for its coffee drinking, afternoon tea has long been a social habit of the upper-middle class. Mariage Frères is a famous high-end tea shop from Paris, active since 1854. The French tea market is still only a fraction of the British one (a consumption of  per person a year compared to about  in the UK), but it has doubled from 1995 to 2005 and is growing steadily. Tea in France is of the black variety, but Asian green teas and fruit-flavoured teas are becoming increasingly popular. French people generally drink tea in the afternoon. It is often taken in salons de thé. Tea is usually served with some pastries, both sweet and pastries made especially for tea.

Ireland

Ireland is the second-biggest per capita consumer of tea in the world with consumption of  per person per year. Although broadly similar to tea culture in the United Kingdom, Irish tea culture's main distinguishing feature are the slightly spicier and stronger flavours than traditional English blends. Popular brands of tea sold in Ireland are Barry's, Bewley's and Lyons.

Portugal
Tea growing in Portugal takes place in the Azores, a group of islands located  west of Mainland Portugal. Portugal was the first to introduce the practise of drinking tea to Europe and the first European country to produce tea.

In 1750, terrains ranging from the fields of Capelas to those of Porto Formoso on the island of São Miguel were used for the first trial crops of tea, delivering  of black tea and  of green tea. A century later, with the introduction of skilled workers from the Macau Region of China in 1883, production became significant, and the culture expanded. Following the instructions of these workers, the species Jasminum grandiflorum and Malva vacciones were introduced to give 'nobility' to the tea aroma, though only the Jasminum was used.

This tea is currently traded under the name of the processed compound, Gorreana, and is produced by independent families. No herbicides or pesticides are allowed in the growing process, and modern consumers associate the production with more recent organic teas. However, production standards concerning the plant and cropping have not changed for the last 250 years.

Turkey

As of 2016, Turkey tops the per capita tea consumption statistics at .

Turkish tea or Çay is produced on the eastern Black Sea coast, which has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil. Turkish tea is typically prepared using çaydanlık, an instrument especially designed for tea preparation, essentially an on-top-of-the-kitchen-range replacement for the more traditional samovar. Water is brought to a boil in the larger lower kettle, and then some of the water is used to fill the smaller kettle on top - demlik - and steep several spoons of loose tea leaves, producing a strong tea. When served, the continually cooking water from the bottom part is used to dilute the strong tea from the top part on a per-cup basis, giving each serving the choice between strong ("koyu"/dark) or weak ("açık"/light). Tea is drunk from small glasses to enjoy it hot in addition to showing its colour, with lumps of beetroot sugar, either dissolved in the cup for sweetness or pressed between the tongue tip and upper palate for reduced sugar intake (kırtlama). To a lesser extent than in other Muslim countries, tea replaces both alcohol and coffee as the social beverage. Within Turkey, tea is usually known as Rize tea.

In 2004, Turkey produced 205,500 tonnes of tea (6.4% of the world's total tea production), which made it one of the largest tea markets in the world, with 120,000 tons being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported. In 2010 Turkey had the highest per capita consumption in the world at . As of 2013, the per-capita consumption of Turkish tea exceeds 10 cups per day and  per year. Tea is grown mostly in Rize Province on the Black Sea coast.

United Kingdom

The British are the third-largest per capita consumers of tea in the world, with each person consuming on average  per year.Tea is usually black tea served with milk and often with sugar. Strong tea served with milk and optionally one or more teaspoons of sugar, usually in a mug, is commonly referred to as builder's tea for its association with builders and, more broadly, with the working class. Much of the time in the United Kingdom, tea drinking is not the delicate, refined cultural expression that the rest of the world imagines—a cup (or commonly a mug) of tea is something drunk frequently throughout the day. This is not to say that the British do not have a more formal tea ceremony, but tea breaks are an essential part of the working day. The term is often shortened to "tea," indicating a break. This term was exported to the game of cricket and, consequently, to most other countries of the former British Empire.

History

The popularity of tea dates back to the 19th century when India was part of the British Empire, and British interests-controlled tea production in the subcontinent. It was, however, first introduced in the UK by the Portuguese Catherine of Braganza, queen consort of Charles II in the 1660s and 1670s. As tea spread throughout the United Kingdom and through the social classes, tea gardens and tea dances developed. These include watching fireworks or a dinner party and dance, concluding with an evening tea. The tea gardens lost value after World War II, but tea dances are still held today in the UK.

Some scholars suggest that tea played a role in the Industrial Revolution. Afternoon tea possibly became a way to increase the number of hours labourers could work in factories; the stimulants in the tea, accompanied by sugary snacks, would give workers energy to finish out the day's work. Further, tea helped alleviate some of the consequences of the urbanisation that accompanied the industrial revolution: drinking tea required boiling one's water, thereby killing water-borne diseases like dysentery, cholera, and typhoid.

Tea as a meal

In the United Kingdom, tea is not only the beverage's name but also the meal's name. The kind of meal a person means depends significantly on their social background and where they live. The differentiation in usage between dinner, supper, lunch, and tea is one of the classic social markers of British English (see U and non-U English).

Commonwealth countries

Afternoon tea and its variants are the best-known "tea ceremony" in the Commonwealth countries, available in homes and commercial establishments. In some varieties of English, "tea" refers to a Savoury meal. Taiwanese bubble tea, known locally as pearl milk tea, has become widely popular in urban Australia and New Zealand, with multiple chains in every major city.

North America

Canada
In Canada, various types of tea are used by many indigenous tribes as healing and ceremonial medicines. For example, the Ojibwe and Cree tribes in Ontario use cedar tea during sweat lodge ceremonies to cleanse and nourish their bodies. When European settlers arrived on North American shores, it was the indigenous people that taught them to make pine needle tea to help cure their scurvy; pine needles are a great source of vitamin C.

Tea remains a popular hot drink among Canadians of European (especially British and Irish) heritage. Black orange pekoe tea and other breakfast-style teas may be drunk with the morning meal or during a mid-morning or afternoon break. These types of teas are typically served with milk and sugar. Red Rose and King Cole are some of the more well-known Canadian brands of tea, and the Tim Hortons chain of cafés serves their ready-to-drink "steeped tea," a strong breakfast-style tea. Cookies, tea biscuits or scones, and other pastries may accompany any tea that is served, but formal "afternoon tea" in the British tradition is typically confined to tourist destinations, such as Victoria's Empress Hotel or Toronto's Royal York Hotel.

United States

American tea culture encompasses the methods of preparation and means of consumption of tea within the context of the culture of the United States. American restaurants and workplaces typically offer machine-made drip brew coffee by default, while hot tea brewed by the cup with tea bags is available by request. Tea parties can be celebrated for many occasions, from the very small and intimate to the large family gatherings and celebrations.

In the Southern United States, a regional favorite called sweet tea – which is brewed, sweetened, and chilled before consumption – may be served at all meals and throughout the day as an alternative to other beverages. In the United States, about 85% of the tea consumed is served cold or iced. Iced tea is more frequently consumed during periods of hot weather or in lower latitudes, and hot tea is likewise more common in colder weather. Any confusion when visiting different parts of the country can easily be solved by explicitly asking for either "hot tea" or "iced tea." Afternoon tea, as a meal, is rarely served in the US except on ritualized special occasions such as the tea party or an afternoon out at a high-end hotel or restaurant, which may also offer cream tea on their menu.

Camellia sinensis, the source of tea leaves and buds, can be grown in warmer parts of the United States. Commercial cultivation has been tried at various times and locations since the 1700s, but tea has remained a niche crop and has never been cultivated widely in the United States. As of 2020, the US mainland has one relatively large plantation with complete mechanization in Charleston, South Carolina, and numerous small commercial tea gardens that pick tea by hand. Some growers feel that tea production is not viable without some mechanization, but there is evidence that unmechanized tea production is viable, albeit with lower net profit margins. Most domestically grown teas are available through mail order and online purchases.

As of 2016, the Charleston Tea Garden, located on Wadmalaw Island, outside of Charleston, South Carolina, is the only large-scale tea plantation in the United States, at 127 acres. Smaller scale commercial farms are located in the states of Alabama, Hawaii, Oregon, South Carolina, and Washington. There are also a handful of commercial farms in the process of being developed in the states of South Carolina, Mississippi, New York, and Texas. Still, they have yet to reach the point of selling products to the general public regularly.

Formal tea

Formal tea service, hosted at home or a historic building as part of a social event, is part of the United States culture, a skill preserved and passed down from generation to generation through the hereditary families whose ancestors founded the 13 New England colonies or fought in the American Revolution. There are hundreds of heritage societies. Many of the oldest are listed in the Hereditary Register of the United States of America.
A formal tea is often hosted in the home of a society lady or by an organization, primarily of women. There may be a formal meeting followed by socialization amongst those present where introductions are made, and recognitions are given. A formal tea might be referred to as a tea party and where the women who are hosting the party or attending the party are well known in their local society, there might also be a newspaper article mentioning prominent society members and their families who attended the event.

Tea as popular culture
In the United States, tea can typically be served at all meals as an alternative to coffee when served hot or soft drinks when served iced. Tea is also consumed throughout the day as a beverage. Afternoon tea, the meal done in the English tradition, is rarely served in the United States, although it remains romanticized by small children; it is usually reserved for special occasions like tea parties.

Rather than drinking tea hot, many Americans prefer tea served with ice. In fact, in the United States, about 80% of the tea consumed is served cold or "iced". Iced tea has become an iconic symbol of the Southern United States and Southern hospitality, often appearing alongside summer barbecue cooking or grilled foods. Iced tea is often made as sweet tea, which is simply iced tea with copious amounts of sugar or sweetener.

Iced tea can be purchased like soda in canned or bottled form at vending machines and convenience stores. This pre-made tea is usually sweetened. Sometimes some other flavorings, such as lemon or raspberry, are added. Many restaurants dispense iced tea brewed throughout the day from upright containers.

Decaffeinated tea is widely available in the United States for those who wish to reduce the physiological effects of caffeine.

Before World War II, the US preference for tea was equally split between green tea and black tea, 40% and 40%, with the remaining 20% preferring oolong tea. The war cut off the United States from its primary sources of green tea, China and Japan, leaving it with tea almost exclusively from British-controlled India, which produced black tea. After the war, nearly 99% of the tea consumed was black tea. Green, oolong, and white teas have recently become more popular again, and are often touted as health foods.

Fast-food coffee chains have significantly impacted how Americans are exposed to herbal and exotic teas. Once considered a rarity, chai, based on Indian masala chai, has become a popular option for people who might drink a caffè latte. Although not as commercialized.

Taiwanese-style bubble tea was introduced in the United States in the 1990s, but interest began to swell in the early to mid-2000s owing to the widespread success of bubble tea chains. Offering variations of the traditional bubble tea form (milk tea with tapioca pearls) was effective in bringing in a more diverse client base for popular bubble tea chains like Boba Guys.

South America

Argentina
While coffee is more popular than tea in Argentina due to the nation's roots in Spain and Italy, Argentina shares in the unique mate culture of the Rioplatense region. Argentines are known for carrying around a mate, or gourd, and bombilla, a special straining straw, to share mate with friends, family, and strangers throughout the day. The tea itself is known as yerba mate.

Brazil

Brazilian tea culture has its origins with the infused beverages or chás (), made by the indigenous cultures of the south region. It has evolved since the Portuguese colonial period to include imported varieties and tea-drinking customs. There is a folk knowledge in Brazil which says that Brazilians, mainly the urban ones, have a greater taste for using sugar in teas than in other cultures due to the lack of habit to unsweetened drinks.

Chile
Chile tea consumption per capita ranks amongst the highest in the world and is by far the highest within Latin America. Chile's tea culture draws back to both English immigration and the general Anglophilia within the Chilean elites during the 19th century, with consumption of the drink spreading quickly among all social classes as inexpensive alternatives reached the market. Besides black and green tea, Chileans often store herbal infusions, such as chamomile and matico. Although there is not a fixed moment of the day for tea consumption (it being a common breakfast alternative to coffee and also a regular after-lunch staple), it is most commonly associated with the late afternoon meal of the once (lit. 'elevenses' in Spanish, though contrary to most variations of the meal it is not a morning snack), which most Chileans report as having instead of dinner.

History

The popular consumption of tea dates back to the 18th century, initially promoted by sailors from England, who arrived in the port cities during the time of colonial Chile, to later, once independence from Spain was obtained, spread with the arrival of British immigrants, especially by the English in Valparaíso, Punta Arenas and Antofagasta, who managed to massify their custom of "tea time" in the Chilean population, initially within the Creole aristocracy, and later spread to all social classes in the country. In 1767, the authorities of the Kingdom of Chile created a tax on yerba mate, a very popular drink at the time, with the purpose of financing the construction of the Cal y Canto de Santiago bridge, thus increasing the cost of this concoction, for which the working class was forced to drink tea instead, as a cheaper alternative.

At eleven, a typical Chilean meal served after lunch, tea is one of the most consumed beverages in the entire country.

During the 20th century, tea rooms began to become popular in different cities of Chile, closed spaces for social gatherings, especially attended by the female public and dedicated to social gatherings, where attendees drank tea accompanied by cookies or some other plate of traditional Chilean pastries During the 21st century, the consumption of tea in Chile experienced a diversification in the existing offer in the national market, slowly increasing the consumption of other varieties of tea other than traditional black tea, such as green tea, in addition to an increase in associated brands. to the "premium" or gourmet category, which offer a higher quality of their products. This coincided with the increase in the opening of "teterías", specialized premises with a wide variety of teas, to serve and to take away.

Tea as a meal

According to a 2018 study prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Chile is one of the fifteen largest tea consumers in the world and the main one in Latin America.

Elevenses (Las once) are a traditional Chilean meal served at mid-afternoon-night —when tea is taken along with cakes, various desserts, and various varieties of bread, which is widely used in Chile, with its accompaniments, in the manner of tea time. English (afternoon tea or high tea), It usually varies in content, depending on the region of Chile, and the time it is served, but normally it is customary to "take once" between 6:00 p.m. and 8:00 p.m.

Oceania

Australia

Australian cuisine has historically been influenced by British cuisine and British Tea Culture. Australian Indigenous people usually drank native tea. However, tea consumption in Australia increased because of British Colonisation of the island.

New Zealand
New Zealand is one of the highest tea consumption countries per capita in the World and Oceania. Like Canada and Australia, New Zealand Tea Culture is influenced by British Tea Culture.

See also

 Coffee culture
 Cannabis culture
 Drinking culture
 International Tea Day
 Teacake
 Teaism
 Yerba mate
 History of tea

References

External links

East Frisan Tea Museum in Norden, Germany https://teemuseum.de
Bünting Tea Museum in Leer, Germany https://www.buenting-teemuseum.de/

Culture
Culture

Urban culture

Tea culture


The  is the 13th edition of the Japan Film Professional Awards. It awarded the best of 2003 in film. The ceremony did not take place in this year.

Awards
Best Film: Bright Future
Best Director: Kiyoshi Kurosawa (Bright Future, Doppelganger)
Best Actress: Chizuru Ikewaki (Josee, the Tiger and the Fish)
Best Actress: Shinobu Terajima (Vibrator, Akame 48 Waterfalls)
Best Actor: Joe Odagiri (Bright Future)
Best Actor: Tatsuya Fuji (Bright Future, The Man in White)
Best New Director: Miwa Nishikawa (Hebi Ichigo)

10 best films
 Bright Future (Kiyoshi Kurosawa)
 Vibrator (Ryūichi Hiroki)
 Josee, the Tiger and the Fish (Isshin Inudo)
 Baka no Hakobune (Nobuhiro Yamashita)
 Sayonara, Kuro (Joji Matsuoka)
 Akame 48 Waterfalls (Genjiro Arato)
 A Snake of June (Shinya Tsukamoto)
 Women in the Mirror (Yoshishige Yoshida)
 Utsukushii Natsu Kirishima (Kazuo Kuroki)
 9 Souls (Toshiaki Toyoda)
 Doppelganger (Kiyoshi Kurosawa)

References

External links

Japan Film Professional Awards
2004 in Japanese cinema
Japan Film Professional Awards

13th Japan Film Professional Awards


A pennant is a commemorative pennon typically used to show support for a particular athletic team. Pennants have been historically used in all types of athletic levels: high school, collegiate, professional etc. Traditionally, pennants were made of felt and fashioned in the official colors of a particular team.

Often graphics, usually the mascot symbol, as well as the team name were displayed on pennants. The images displayed on pennants were either stitched on with contrasting colored felt or had screen-printing.

Today, vintage pennants with rare images or honoring special victories have become prized collectibles for sporting enthusiasts. While pennants are typically associated with athletic teams, pennants have also been made to honor institutions and vacation spots, often acting as souvenirs.

Association football

The swapping of pennants between captains before a match is also a long-held tradition in association football.

Australian sports
In Australian sports, the term "flag" is used in the same context. The first ever "flag" was awarded to Fitzroy after the club won the 1895 VFA premiership, and gave rise to the tradition of the "flag" being unfurled at the premiership club's first home match of the following season.

Baseball

In Major League Baseball, a pennant typically refers to such a flag flown specifically by the National League or American League championship team of a given season, or to such a championship itself. The last few weeks of the regular American professional baseball season are known as a pennant race: this is a reference to the period between 1876 and 1968 when the league championships were determined by the team with the best record at the end of the regular season.

The pennant winners earn the right to play in MLB's title round, the World Series. Since 1969, the pennants are determined by the National and American League Championship Series playoffs, which are analogous to the NBA and the NHL Conference Finals series and to the NFL's NFC and AFC Championship Games.

See also
Gonfalon

References

Association football culture
Australian rules football culture
Baseball culture
Sports paraphernalia
Sports memorabilia
Association football fandom

Pennant (sports)


Casiotone was a series of home electronic keyboards made by Casio in the early 1980s. Casio promoted the Casiotone 201 (CT-201) as "the first electronic keyboard with full-size keys that anyone could afford". The name "Casiotone" disappeared from Casio's keyboard catalog when more accurate synthesis technologies became prevalent, but the brand was reused for new models launched in 2019.

The first Casiotone keyboards used a sound synthesis technique known as vowel-consonant synthesis to approximate the sounds of other instruments (albeit not very accurately). Most Casiotone keyboards were small, with miniature keys designed for children's fingers, and were not intended for use by professional musicians; they usually contained a rhythm generator, with several user-selectable rhythm patterns, and often the means to automatically play accompaniments.

Families

The original Casiotone keyboards came in three distinct families, separated by the method of synthesis.

 The famous VL-Tone VL-1 (1981) uses a method of sound synthesis based on the Walsh function.
 Keyboards such as the CT-202 () use vowel-Consonant synthesis. The later model of this family, the MT-65, is one of the more well known and sought after models, as it also contains auto-accompaniment drum beats and bass lines.
 Some other keyboards (such as the MT-35 and MT-45) use a combination of two different binary weighted numbers (1 and 64). The larger weight bit provides the fundamental, and the smaller weight bit provides the harmonic complexity.

The later, more professional range of keyboards, the CZ series (1984–1986), used phase distortion synthesis, which is mathematically almost identical to Yamaha's frequency modulation synthesis, although implemented slightly differently in order to avoid patent infringement.

After the release of the Casio SK-1 in 1985, gradually PCM sample-based tone generators became dominant in Casio's keyboards line. After the 1990s, most Casio keyboards utilized PCM tone generator or its variants.

Some early 1980s models in the PT series of keyboards, such as the PT-30, PT-50, PT-80 and PT-82, were not marketed under the Casiotone name. The name was revived again later for models such as the PT-87 (which is basically the same as the PT-82) which was again sold as Casiotone.

ROM packs

Some models sold from 1983 onwards included a cartridge bay to accept Casio ROM Packs which contained sheet music in a digital format. The keyboards could play the notes automatically, or (with the exception of the PT-50) illuminate LEDs above each key to teach the user how to play the song. Most keyboards came with one ROM Pack as standard, but a large number of additional packs, covering a wide range of musical genres, were available to purchase separately. The last ROM Pack model was the CT-840, which came out in 1990.

Users
The low cost and abundance of Casiotone keyboards made them fairly common fixtures in garage rock bands. Musicians and bands known to use Casiotone keyboards include Alexis Taylor of Hot Chip, TG Miller of Black Camaro, Dan Deacon, Lettie, Maurizio Arcieri of Krisma, Kevin Parker of Tame Impala, Turnstyle, Trio, Ozma, Hedluv, and Chiara Lee of Father Murphy.

Relaunch
In 2019, Casio relaunched the series with three new Casiotone keyboards.

See also

List of Casio keyboards
Casio CZ synthesizer
 Casio SD Synthesizers

References

External links

A vst emulator of the VL-1 for PC

Electronic musical instruments
Casio brands
Casio musical instruments

Casiotone


Richard Lindsey Batten FRCS (29 September 1920 – 29 December 1997) was an English orthopaedic surgeon. He established the first blood bank in Nigeria, and introduced in Britain the AO technique for internal fixation of fractures. He  taught orthopaedics at the Birmingham General Hospital, and was the first editor of the scientific trauma journal Injury

Early life

Richard was born 29 September 1920 in London, the son of Ellen Mary (Molly) Batten (née Turnbull) and Doctor Lindsey Willett Batten – the only family practitioner to have then been elected to the Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians. Richard attended Westminster School singing in the choir at the coronation of King George VI. He then studied medicine at Trinity College in Cambridge University and at the Westminster Hospital in London.

Army WWII medical career

Entering the British army in 1944 as a medical officer, his three-week training included learning to ride a motor bicycle. He served in Italy and Yugoslavia. He wrote that "I was not courageous enough to be a conscientious objector, although my feelings were in that direction." Later he became a British forces medical officer in Venice: he bought a traditional sandolo boat to row himself to visit the sick, keeping the boat on the Grand Canal in front of Venice's Europa Hotel where he was billeted. His work included medical support for the many Italian pregnant brides of British soldiers.

Hereford Hospital

In the late 1940s he worked at Hereford hospital. He fell off his motor bike, concussed himself (crash helmets were little used then), and lost his sense of taste and smell.  As an orthopaedic surgeon, he operated on many motor-bike riders after accidents and so campaigned vigorously for the use of crash helmets. He wrote to the then young Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, recounting his accident and hospital experience, suggesting Prince Philip promote the use of crash helmets – Prince Philip soon advocated them at a suitable function, and helmets were in wide use in Britain in two years.

Nigeria

In 1955, he established the trauma and orthopaedic service while working at the new University College Hospital in Ibadan, Nigeria. He there pioneered the use of Kuschner nails to fix femoral shaft fractures, and established Nigeria's first blood bank. His older two children were born in Nigeria.

Swiss AO technique

Richard returned to Britain in 1961 to be a Consultant Orthopaedic and Trauma surgeon at the West Bromwich Hospital. In 1965 he took sabbatical leave to work in Chur, Switzerland with Professor Martin Allgöwer who in the early 1960s had pioneered a new internal fixation technique for fractures. Richard introduced to Britain this AO technique developed by the AO Foundation (the Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteosynthesefragen). Convinced that this technique was a major advance in fracture management, he spread the technique throughout the UK via his orthopaedic registrars.

Birmingham General Hospital

From 1967 to 1983, he was a consultant orthopaedic and trauma surgeon and lecturer at Birmingham General Hospital. Earlier than most surgeons, he assisted his trainees in many operations – they  emerged particularly competent in AO fixation and Wagner leg lengthening techniques. In the early 1970s he sent his trainees to learn the new Charnley total hip replacement technique. Many of his trainees attended his retirement party when he was presented with a mounted Charnley hip replacement.

First editor of Injury journal

In 1969, he became the first editor of the journal Injury which introduced academic rigour to the management of traumatic injuries. He was editor until 1983 for some 58 editions.

The full journal title was originally Injury: The British Journal of Accident Surgery — later, as it had stronger international influence, it was changed to Injury: International Journal of the care of the Injured.

Married life, retirement, muscular dystrophy

He married Mary Longford in Hampstead, London on 18 December 1954, eventually retiring to Crockham Hill, near Edenbridge, Kent. They had three children Susan, Lindsey and Belinda.

For some 30 years Richard suffered from Myotonia Dystrophica. He died on 29 December 1997: his funeral was on 9 January 1998 in Tunbridge Wells.

References

1920 births
English surgeons
1997 deaths
20th-century English medical doctors
British expatriates in Nigeria
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Academic staff of the University of Ibadan
British Army personnel of World War II
20th-century surgeons

Richard Lindsey Batten


Barbara Harbach (born February 14, 1946)  is a composer, harpsichordist, organist and teacher.  Since 2004, she taught music at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. She founded Women in the Arts-St. Louis to highlight women's work and gain more performances for musicians and composers.

In 1989, Harbach founded the small Vivace Press, to publish music by underrepresented composers. In 1993 she was a co-founder of the journal, Women of Note Quarterly, and continues as its editor.

Early life and education
Born in Pennsylvania,  Harbach studied music, and harpsichord and organ performance at Penn State University, where she earned a BA. She earned an MMA at Yale and doctorate in composition from the Eastman School of Music.

She also studied at the Musikhochschule in Frankfurt, Germany with Helmut Walcha.

Career
Harbach was Professor of Music at Washington State University from 1991 to 1997, Visiting Professor of Music at University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh from 1997 to 2000, and Visiting Professor of Fine Arts at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point from 2000 to 2003. In 2004, she was named Professor of Music at the University of Missouri-St. Louis.

Harbach has made numerous recordings of organ and harpsichord music and is a nationally recognized keyboard performer. When reviewing one of her Bach recordings in its May/June 1988 issue, the American Record Guide said, "She deserves to be recognized as one of the eminent Bach players among organists of the present day, in both the United States and in Europe." In 1992, Keyboard Magazine ranked Harbach as second to Keith Jarrett as "Top Keyboard Artist" in the classical division.

Works
Her first published composition was Praise Him with the Trumpet (1977) for choir and organ. Her compositions have included works for symphony orchestra, string orchestra, organ, harpsichord, choir and chamber ensemble.  She has also arranged Baroque pieces for brass and organ.

She has written three symphonies: Veneration for Orchestra (first performed in 2004 at Wilmington College, Ohio), One of Ours – a Cather Symphony (commissioned by and first performed by the Central Wisconsin Symphony Orchestra) and Sinfonietta for string orchestra. Seven more symphonies were written. She didn't number her symphonies.
A State Divided - A Missouri Symphony, Gateway Festival Symphony, Jubilee Symphony, Night Soundings (6th), Celestial Symphony (9th) and Symphony for Ferguson (10th)

A recording of her music, The Music of Barbara Harbach, Vol. 1, received the following honors:
RECORDING OF THE YEAR 2008, Bob Briggs, MusicWeb International, January 2009;
CRITICS CHOICE 2008, American Record Guide, January / February 2009
MUSOC.ORG 2009, Classics of Contemporary Art Music, November 2009

In October 2009, Harbach's opera O Pioneers!, based upon the Willa Cather novel of the same name, received its world premiere at the University of Missouri-St. Louis.

Other activities
In 1989, Harbach founded Vivace Press, a music publishing company specializing in works by women and other traditionally under-represented composers.  She produces performing editions of 18th-century keyboard music.

In 1993, Harbach and Jonathan Yordy founded the journal, Women of Note Quarterly, and shared editing responsibilities. She continues as editor.

In 2004, Harbach founded Women in the Arts-St. Louis, devoted to creating more opportunities for audiences to see and hear women composers and other artists, as well as encouraging education and recognition of women artists.

Honors
In 2002, Harbach received an honorary doctorate of music degree from Wilmington College of Ohio.
2006 for her work on Women in the Arts-St. Louis, she received the Arts Education Award from the Missouri Arts Council; the Missouri Citizen for the Arts Award; the Yellow rose Award from the Zonta International Club of St. Louis; and the UM-St. Louis College of Fine Arts and Communication, Faculty Excellence Award
2007 she was awarded the Hellenic Spirit Foundation Award.

References

External links
"Barbara Harbach", International Alliance for Women in Music Journal, 2006, including discography and list of publications
"Barbara Harbach", UMSL faculty home page
Barbara Harbach – honorary doctorate, UMSL press release

American harpsichordists
American women classical composers
American classical composers
Penn State College of Arts and Architecture alumni
Yale School of Music alumni
Eastman School of Music alumni
Washington State University faculty
American classical organists
Living people
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Barbara Harbach


Grendel is a 1971 novel by the American author John Gardner. It is a retelling of part of the Old English poem Beowulf from the perspective of the antagonist, Grendel. In the novel, Grendel is portrayed as an antihero. The novel deals with finding meaning in the world, the power of literature and myth, and the nature of good and evil.

In a 1973 interview, Gardner said, "In Grendel I wanted to go through the main ideas of Western civilization – which seemed to me to be about ... twelve? – and go through them in the voice of the monster, with the story already taken care of, with the various philosophical attitudes (though with Sartre in particular), and see what I could do, see if I could break out." On another occasion, he noted that he "us[ed] Grendel to represent Sartre's philosophical position" and that "a lot of Grendel is borrowed from sections of Sartre's Being and Nothingness".

Grendel has become one of Gardner's best-known and best-reviewed works. Several editions of the novel contain pen and ink line drawings of Grendel's head, by Emil Antonucci. Ten years after publication, the novel was adapted into the 1981 animated film Grendel Grendel Grendel.

Background
The basic plot derives from Beowulf, a heroic poem of unknown authorship written in Old English and preserved in a manuscript dating from around AD 1000. The poem deals with the heroic exploits of the Geat warrior Beowulf, who battles three antagonists: Grendel, Grendel's mother and, later in life, an unnamed dragon. Gardner's retelling, however, presents the story from the existentialist view of Grendel, exploring the history of the characters before Beowulf arrives. Beowulf himself plays a relatively small role in the novel, but he is still the only human hero that can match and kill Grendel. The dragon plays a minor part as an omniscient and bored character, whose wisdom is limited to telling Grendel "to seek out gold and sit on it"; his one action in the novel is to endow Grendel with the magic ability to withstand attacks by sword (a quality Gardner found in the original).

Gardner himself explained that his Grendel character is modeled on Jean-Paul Sartre, with whom Gardner claimed to have a love-hate relationship: "He's a horror intellectually, figuratively, and morally, but he's a wonderful writer and anything he says you believe, at least for the moment, because of the way he says it ... What happened in Grendel was that I got the idea of presenting the Beowulf monster as Jean-Paul Sartre, and everything that Grendel says Sartre in one mood or another has said."

Plot

In the opening scene, Grendel briefly fights with a ram when frustrated with its stupidity. He then mockingly asks the sky why animals lack sense and dignity; the sky does not reply, adding to his frustration. Grendel then passes through his cave and encounters his mute mother before venturing out into the night where he attacks Hrothgar's mead hall, called "Hart" in Grendel. Later, Grendel reminisces about his early experiences in life, beginning with his childhood days of exploring the caves inhabited by him, his mother and other creatures with whom he is unable to speak. He goes on to recount an experience from his childhood, in which he found himself painfully wedged in a tree and threatened by humans, only to be saved by his mother.

During Hrothgar's rise to power, a blind poet appears at the doors of Hart, whom Grendel calls "the Shaper". He orates a myth in which the ancient warrior Scyld Shefing seduces of Grendel. Though the story is fabricated, Grendel, listening from afar, is moved by it, and is frustrated by his emotional engagement with the Shaper's untrue stories.

When Grendel returns to his cave, he fails to communicate with his mother, leaving him feeling isolated. He floats down a subterranean river to a dragon's cave. The omniscient dragon discusses with Grendel the oratory power of the Shaper. The dragon and Grendel have a philosophical disagreement about the dragon's existential nihilism, and Grendel exits the cave angry and confused.

While listening to the Shaper, Grendel is spotted by sentries from Hart. In the fight that ensues, Grendel discovers that the dragon enchanted him, leaving him impervious to weapons. Realizing his power, he begins attacking Hart. Grendel is challenged by a thane named Unferth, whom Grendel simply mocks and refuses to fight. Grendel awakens a few days later to realize that Unferth has followed him to his cave in an act of heroic desperation. Grendel continues to mock Unferth until the thane faints from exhaustion, then takes him back to Hart to live out his days in frustrated mediocrity, thereby depriving him of the heroic death which he desired.

In the second year of his conflict with the humans of Hart, Grendel notes that his raids have destroyed the esteem of Hrothgar, allowing a rival noble named Hygmod to gain power. Fearing deposition, Hrothgar assembles an army to attack Hygmod and his people, the Helmings. Instead of a fight, Hygmod offers his sister Wealtheow to Hrothgar as a wife after a series of negotiations. The beauty of Wealtheow moves Grendel as the Shaper had once before, impeding the monster from attacking Hart. Eventually, Grendel decides to kill Wealtheow, since she threatens the ideas explained by the dragon. Upon capturing her, he realizes that killing her and not killing her would be equally meaningless acts, and he retreats, knowing that by not killing Wealtheow, he has once again confounded the logic of humanity and religion.

Later, Grendel watches as Hrothgar's nephew Hrothulf develops, through dialogue with a peasant named Red Horse, his understanding of the two classes in Danish society: thegns and peasants. Red Horse incites in Hrothulf a revolutionary spirit.

Grendel watches a religious ceremony and is approached by an old priest named Ork, who thinks that Grendel is their main deity, the Destroyer, and engages him in conversation. When three other priests approach and chastise Ork, Grendel flees, overwhelmed with a vague dread.

Watching the Danes, Grendel hears a woman predict the coming of an illustrious thegn and then witnesses the death of the Shaper. Returning to his cave, his mother seems agitated. She manages to make one unusual unintelligible word, which Grendel discounts, and then goes to the Shaper's funeral. Later, in the cave, he wakes up with his mother still making word-like noises, and once again feels a terrible foreboding.

Grendel reveals that fifteen travellers have come to Denmark from overseas. The visitors, who reveal themselves to be Geats ruled by Hygelac, have an uneasy relationship with the Danes. Upon their arrival, Grendel notices the firm nature of their leader, Beowulf, and the fact that his lips do not move in accordance with his words, and sees a great lust for violence in Beowulf's eyes, indicating to Grendel that he is insane.

At nightfall, Grendel attacks. When he believes that all the men are sleeping, he breaks into the hall and eats one man. The second man he grabs turns out to be an alert Beowulf. They wrestle furiously, during which Beowulf appears to become a flaming, dragon-like figure and repeats many of the ideas that the dragon espoused to Grendel. Beowulf rips off Grendel's arm, causing the monster to flee. Grendel proceeds to toss himself into an abyss (whether or not Grendel jumps is left up to the perception of the reader), and dies wondering if what he is feeling is joy.

Characters
Gardner includes all featured characters from the original poem in his novel, but greatly changes many roles. Beowulf himself, for example, appears only in the last portion of the novel and has little dialogue or interaction with other characters. The author also introduces a handful of incidental minor characters.

Grendel –  the main protagonist and self-described monster, given the narrator's voice in the novel.
Grendel's mother –  another antagonist from Beowulf who lives in an underwater cave with her son. Unlike her son, she is incapable of speech and holds no curiosity of the world outside her cave.
Beowulf  –  a Geatish hero who ultimately kills Grendel. He is never referred to by name in the novel. He is given qualities similar to the dragon.
Hrothgar –  warrior and king of the Danes.
The Shaper  – a blind harpist and storyteller in Hrothgar's court. He creates the Dane's image of Grendel as a threat by telling fictional stories.
The Shaper's assistant  – the young apprentice who replaces the Shaper upon his death.
Unferth –  a Scylding warrior who challenges but fails to defeat Grendel.
Wealtheow  – queen of the Danes and wife to Hrothgar.
Hrothulf – Hrothgar's orphaned nephew.
Freawaru –  Hrothgar's teenage daughter.
Hygmod – King of the Helmings and Wealtheow's brother.
The dragon  – an ancient, omniscient beast guarding a vast hoard of treasure to whom Grendel goes for advice. It possibly is a figment of Grendel's imagination. It is also possible the dragon was meant to be the same dragon that appeared in the epic  poem Beowulf as he does reference how he has foreseen his own death at the hands of a human, he also alludes that his death would be the end of his kind implying that he is the last dragon.
Red Horse – Hrothulf's elderly advisor.
Ork – an old and blind Scylding priest.

Portrayal of Grendel
The Pulitzer Prize winning author Jane Smiley suggests that Gardner uses Grendel as a metaphor for the necessity for a dark side to everything; where a hero is only as great as the villain he faces. Using Grendel's perspective to tell at least part of the story of Beowulf in more contemporary language allows the story to be seen in a new light not only in terms of the point of view but also brings it into the modern era.

Where Grendel is portrayed mainly as a physical creature in the original work, here a glimpse into his psyche is offered. Grendel lives in isolation and loneliness with his mother, who in her old age is unable to provide any real companionship to her child. As the only being of his kind, he has no one to relate to and feels the need to be understood or have some connection. Grendel has a complex relationship with the humans who hate and fear him. He feels that he is somehow related to humanity and despite his desire to eat them, he can be moved by them and their works. His long life grants him the ability to act as a witness to how their lives transpire and their behavior and logic bewilders him. He is cursed to a life of solitude, also being portrayed as having eternal life, which furthers his plight and loneliness as he can only fall in battle and he is immune to all human weapons. He is only freed from his tormented life through his encounter with Beowulf.

Film adaptations

An Australian-produced animated movie, Grendel Grendel Grendel, based on Gardner's novel, was released in 1981, in limited quantities on VHS. The film features the voice of Peter Ustinov as Grendel and, like the novel, is related from Grendel's point of view. It is animated, in color, and runs roughly 90 minutes. In 2004, the soundtrack to the film, by Bruce Smeaton, was released on the 1M1 Records label.

Reception

D. Keith Mano praised Grendel lavishly in The New York Times Book Review, writing, "John Gardner's Grendel is myth itself: permeated with revelation, with dark instincts, with swimming, riotous universals. The special profundity of Gardner's vision or visions is so thought-fertile that it shunts even his fine poet's prose to a second importance". Another Times reviewer, Richard Locke, declared the novel "an extraordinary achievement – very funny, original and deft, altogether lovable, poignant, rich with thought and feeling". Kirkus Reviews also reviewed Grendel favorably, saying, "Gardner demonstrates his agility at juggling metaphysical notions while telling a diverting tale."

The book was nominated for the 1972 Mythopoeic Award for best novel.

It was given special mention by Diana Athill in her memoir Stet, covering her decades as an editor with UK publisher André Deutsch. "Having to read Beowulf almost turned me against Oxford, so when a New York agent offered me this novel I could hardly bring myself to open it. If I hadn't, I would have missed a great pleasure – a really powerful feat of imagination."

Musical adaptations

Rock
In 1982, the British neo-progressive rock band Marillion recorded a 17-minute opus entitled "Grendel" that was based on the book. The song was initially released as a B-side to the 12-inch version of their first single, "Market Square Heroes" (now out of print). The song was also released on the compilation album B'Sides Themselves and the two-disc remastered version of their first album, Script for a Jester's Tear.

The American alternative rock band Sunny Day Real Estate recorded a song called "Grendel" that was based on the book and appeared on its 1994 first album, Diary.

Opera

On June 8, 2006, an opera based on the novel was premiered at the Los Angeles Opera. The score was composed by Elliot Goldenthal, with a libretto by Julie Taymor and J. D. McClatchy. Taymor also directed the piece. The part of Grendel was sung by the bass-baritone Eric Owens, the dragon by the mezzo-soprano Denyce Graves, the Shaper by the tenor Richard Croft, Wealtheow by the soprano Laura Claycomb and Unferth by the tenor Jay Hunter Morris. Beowulf, a dancing role, was performed by Desmond Richardson. The opera was produced in New York City during summer 2006 at the New York State Theater as part of the Lincoln Center Festival.

Explanatory notes

Citations

General and cited sources

External links

 An Index to John Gardner's Grendel

1971 American novels
1971 fantasy novels
Alfred A. Knopf books
American fantasy novels adapted into films
American philosophical novels
Novels based on Beowulf
Novels by John Gardner (American writer)
Novels set in the Dark Ages
Parallel literature
Postmodern novels

Grendel (novel)


Dirty rap (also known as porno rap, porn rap, sex rap, booty rap, or pornocore) is a subgenre of hip hop music that contains lyrical content revolving mainly around sexually explicit subjects.

The lyrics are often overtly explicit and graphic, sometimes to the point of being comical or offensive. Historically, dirty rap often contained a distinctly bass-driven sound, which arose from the popular Miami bass rap scene. However, dirty rap has recently been heavily influenced by Baltimore club, ghetto house, and ghettotech. Many dirty rap songs have been used as soundtracks to pornographic movies since the 2000s, replacing the traditional porn groove.

Late 1980s and early 1990s dirty rap
Though the genre had been around since at least the late 1970s, with Blowfly's Rapp Dirty, it was not until the 1980s, when Oakland rapper Too Short released the 1983 album Don't Stop Rappin' containing multiple dirty sex subjects, that sex became a central focus. Although the release did not see much attention outside of his hometown of Oakland, he would continue to use provocative and sexual lyrics throughout his career, gaining him six platinum albums and three gold. The controversial rap group 2 Live Crew brought "dirty rap" to the mainstream with their Miami bass debut 2 Live Crew Is What We Are. With the graphic sexual content of their X-rated party rhymes, 2 Live Crew garnered much negative publicity. However, it was not until their 1989 album, As Nasty as They Wanna Be, that dirty rap became a legitimate genre. After being attacked by conservative critics, censors, and attorneys, 2 Live Crew responded with the 1990 album Banned in the USA, a much more political and angry album.

2 Live Crew returned to their utterly pornographic roots with 1991's Sports Weekend: As Nasty as They Wanna Be, Pt. 2, which was lambasted by many critics as running the sexually deviant lyrics of As Nasty As They Wanna Be into the ground. From Sport's Weekend onward, the Crew continued to make dirty rap and party rap.

Various rappers followed with dirty rap in the wake of 2 Live Crew's popularity. The group Poison Clan became widely successful, as did the group Bytches With Problems. Salt-N-Pepa released several "dirty rap" songs in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Sir Mix-A-Lot's 1992 hit single "Baby Got Back" could arguably be considered within the dirty rap genre; however, the majority of Mix-A-Lot's work is not sexually explicit enough for him to be considered a true dirty rap artist. Similarly, the new jack swing hip hop group Wreckx-n-Effect scored a dirty rap hit with their 1992 single "Rump Shaker". The pimp rapper Too Short is also a notable contributor and beginner to dirty rap music since he began his first album in 1983, though his topics range from sex to the gangster lifestyle.

In the early 1990s, the Baltimore club scene first began gaining an identity separate from house music and mainstream hip hop. Baltimore club, or gutter music, often features sexually explicit lyrics, and has influenced many current dirty rappers. Both ghettotech and ghetto house (or "booty house") also evolved around the same time, and, to an even greater extent than Baltimore club, frequently contain pornographic and sexually explicit content, as exemplified by DJ Assault and DJ Funk, two artists who pioneered ghettotech and ghetto house, respectively.

White dirty rappers include the Russian group Malchishnik, active between 1989 and 1994 and known for their song "Seks-kontrol" ("Sex Control"), a diatribe against interracial sex.

Contemporary dirty rap
Dirty rap was a popular subgenre into the 1990s and 2000s, particular in Southern hip hop. Luke Campbell of 2 Live Crew continued to produce dirty rap as a solo artist into the 2000s.

Kool Keith described the lyrical content of his 1997 album Sex Style as "pornocore". The album features Keith variously portraying himself as characters ranging from pimps to perverts. Keith also uses sexual metaphors to diss other rappers, many of which involve urolagnia. Kool Keith later appeared on the 2001 album Porn Again, a dirty rap or pornocore concept album by The Smut Peddlers. The Smut Peddlers consisted of Mr. Eon and DJ Mighty Mi from The High & Mighty and rapper Cage.

In 2001, Afroman released the comical rap single "Crazy Rap," a song in which he describes sexual activities such as anal intercourse in heavy detail.

Khia's 2002 hit single "My Neck, My Back (Lick It)" later achieved CHR status, being played on Top 40 radio.

The genre made a strong comeback in the Southern hip hop (or "Dirty South") scene starting in the late 1990s and peaking in about 2005 with two hit singles, Ying-Yang Twins' sexually explicit "Wait (The Whisper Song)", as well as David Banner's dirty single "Play", both produced by the "father of snap", Mr. Collipark. Southern rapper Plies has released several dirty rap singles, such as "Becky" and "Fucking or What". Most of Plies's work focuses on drugs and violence and he is not a full-time dirty artist, although almost all the singles released contained dirty rap.

Some examples of dirty rap by East Coast hip hop artists include Akinyele's "Put It in Your Mouth", The Notorious B.I.G.'s  "Nasty Girl", Lil' Kim's "Magic Stick", Bravehearts' "Oochie Wally", 50 Cent's "Candy Shop" and "Ayo Technology", featuring Justin Timberlake, which contains references to looking at porn and urges to perform in bisexual activities. Also notable is "Tush" by Ghostface Killah and Missy Elliott.

Lil Wayne was ranked one of the dirtiest rappers by Billboard in 2012.

Dirty rap saw another resurgence in the 2010s, particularly in the West Coast hip hop scene. 2014 saw the release of YG's song "Do It to Ya" featuring TeeFlii from the album My Krazy Life, produced by DJ Mustard. DJ Mustard also has the production credit of some of the other more recent dirty rap songs, including a single called "24 Hours" by TeeFlii.

Female artists such as Saweetie, Missy Elliott, Mia X, Lil' Kim, Latto, Flo Milli, Queen Pen, Azealia Banks, Cupcakke, Foxy Brown, Gangsta Boo, Shawnna, Khia, DSD, Riley Ried, Danger Zone,
Ms Roq, Remy Ma, Trina, Nicki Minaj, Cardi B, Doja Cat, City Girls, Sexyy Red, Brooke Candy, Amil, Miami-based Jacki-O, Heather Hunter, Erica Banks, Strings, Chyna Whyte, Gillette, H.W.A., and Megan Thee Stallion are prominent dirty rappers in the once male-dominated genre.

Cupcakke rose to fame in late 2015 with her single, "Deepthroat". The dirty music video amassed millions of views on YouTube as well as millions more through other video sharing sites such as WorldStarHipHop and Facebook.

Many indie rappers, such as Spank Rock, Bonde Do Role, Plastic Little, Peaches, Amanda Blank, and Yo Majesty, created an underground, electro funk or electroclash and dance-influenced version of dirty rap in the mid to late 2000s, dubbed electro-smut by Spin Magazine. These rappers are heavily influenced by the Baltimore Club and ghettotech scenes.

Megan Thee Stallion and Cardi B's 2020 dirty rap song "WAP" features heavy influence from two genres that have notably contributed to and influenced the "dirty rap" subgenre; the song features both a heavy bass sound reminiscent of Miami bass as well as a prominent sample from a Baltimore club song, specifically from the Baltimore club artist Frank Ski's 1993 single "Whores in This House".

Memphis rapper Moneybagg Yo has also been known to use dirty rap lyrics in many of his songs, many of which are deemed very explicit.

See also
 Dirty blues

References

Bibliography
 Chang, Jeff. Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation, Picador USA, 2006, .

External links

Hip hop genres
Pornography by genre
African-American music

Dirty rap


Zygmunt Puławski (October 24, 1901 – March 21, 1931) was a Polish aircraft designer and pilot. He invented a gull-wing aircraft design, also known as "Puławski wing" and designed a series of Polish PZL fighters.

He was born in Lublin. In the summer of 1920, during the Soviet offensive in the Polish-Soviet War, he volunteered for a Boy Scout battalion. In late 1920 he commenced studies at Warsaw University of Technology. He was a member of the Aviation Section of the Students' Mechanical Club, where he constructed some gliders. He distinguished himself as a thorough and able student. In 1925 he graduated from the University, receiving the Engineer title, and left for practice in the Breguet works in France. After his return, he served in the national service, completing military aviation school in Bydgoszcz and becoming a pilot. From 1927 he became a main designer of the Central Aviation Workshops (CWL) at Słupecka Street in Warsaw, soon reorganized into the PZL (Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze - State Aviation Works).

To meet a requirement of the Polish military department, in 1928 Puławski designed a modern all-metal high-wing fighter with an inline engine, PZL P.1. For the P.1, he invented a gull-wing design, giving the pilot an excellent view from his cockpit.  The P.1 was flown in 1929 and met with great interest in the world. Its wing design became also known as "Puławski wing" or "Polish wing", and was later copied in some other designs in the world. The P.1 was not produced, in a favour of Puławski's next designs with a radial engine, preferred by the Polish Air Force. A development of the P/1 was the PZL P.6 with a radial engine, first flown in 1930. With a pilot Bolesław Orliński, it won a National Air Races in the USA. It was named the best fighter in the world by some of military press at that time. Its improved variant, PZL P.7, was produced for the Polish Air Force (150 made). In early 1931 Puławski designed another fighter development PZL P.8, returning to his favourite inline engine. In 1930, he was also ordered to start working upon the P.7 development, with a stronger engine and begun design work upon the PZL P.11 then.

Puławski also flew aircraft in the Warsaw Aeroclub. He died on March 21, 1931, in a crash of his newest amphibious flying boat PZL.12 in Warsaw, at the age of 29 (the plane fell due to strong wind, after take-off). After his death, the PZL P.11 project was finished by Wsiewołod Jakimiuk, becoming the main Polish fighter during the Invasion of Poland 1939. Additionally, a faster export model PZL P.24, based entirely on Puławski's construction features, was developed and sold to some countries.

Puławski was one of the most talented Polish designers. Partly due to his death, Puławski's fighters, most modern in the early 1930s, had not been replaced with modern successors before 1939, when they were already obsolete.

A list of Puławski's designs

See also

Stanisław Wigura
Jerzy Drzewiecki
Jerzy Dąbrowski
Kazimierz Pułaski (not to confuse names)

1901 births
1931 deaths
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents
Polish aerospace engineers
Polish aviators
20th-century Polish inventors
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1931
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Poland
Warsaw University of Technology alumni

Zygmunt Puławski


Jan Kubelík (July 5, 1880 – December 5, 1940) was a Czech violinist and composer

His father discovered his talent when he was five years old, and sent him to study with Karel Weber and Karel Ondříček. When he was eight, he began to study at the Prague Conservatory, and his professor was Otakar Ševčík. After 1898 he toured as a soloist and soon became known for his virtuosity, impeccable intonation and his full and noble tone.

He achieved great success with his debuts in Vienna and London, and toured in the USA for the first time in 1901. Later, in the 1901-02 season, Kubelik made his first appearance with the Royal Philharmonic Society of London. In 1902 he was awarded the Society's Gold Medal (succeeding Eugène Ysaÿe).

In 1903 he married Countess Anna Julie Marie Széll von Bessenyö, niece of the former Prime Minister of Hungary, Kálmán Széll. They had eight children together; among their children is the conductor and composer Rafael Kubelík.

Kubelík played a Stradivarius violin from 1715.

He died in Prague on December 5, 1940 at the age of 60.

References

1880 births
1940 deaths
Czech composers
20th-century composers
Violinists
Musicians from Prague

Jan Kubelík