John (Ioane) Kaneiakama Papa ʻĪʻī (1800–1870) was a 19th-century educator, politician and historian in the Kingdom of Hawaii.

Life
ʻĪʻī was born 1800, in the month of Hilinehu, which he calculated to be August 3, in later life. He was born near the Hanaloa fishpond in Kūmelewai, Waipiʻo, ʻEwa, Oʻahu. His mother was Kalaikāne Wanaoʻa Pahulemu while he is considered to have two fathers (a tradition called poʻolua), either Kuaʻena Mālamaʻekeʻeke or Kaiwikokoʻole, although ʻĪʻī claimed the former as his father because he did not resemble Kaiwikokoʻole.
His family belonged to the Luluka branch of the Luahine line, hereditary kahu (caretaker) to the chiefs of Hawaii. His cousin was Daniel Papa ʻĪʻī.

ʻĪʻī was raised under the traditional kapu system and trained from childhood for a life of service to the high chiefs. At the age of ten he was taken to Honolulu by his uncle Papa ʻĪʻī, a kahu of Kamehameha I, to become a companion and personal attendant to Prince Liholiho, who became King Kamehameha II in 1819. ʻĪʻī was close to Liholiho during the young heir's instruction in the conduct of government and ancient religious rites. His master died in 1823 in England.

After Liholiho's death, ʻĪʻī continued to serve the rulers of Hawai'i and including being kahu for Victoria Kamāmalu and hānai father of Mary Polly Paʻaʻāina. ʻĪʻī and his wife Sarai Hiwauli were selected to be kahu of the students at the Chiefs' Children's School in 1840. Throughout his life he was in constant contact with the political, religious, and social concerns of the court, as well as the common people. ʻĪʻī was among the first Hawaiians to study reading and writing with the missionaries, yet although he adopted Christian teachings, he retained a profound love and respect for the culture of his ancestors.

ʻĪʻī served as a general superintendent of Oʻahu schools and was an influential member in the court of Kamehameha III. In 1842, he was appointed by the king to the Treasury Board. He served as a member of the Privy Council 1845–1859 and in 1846 was appointed to the Board of Land Commissioners. ʻĪʻī served in the House of Nobles from 1841 to 1870. In 1852, he represented the House of Nobles in the drafting of the Constitution and became the Speaker of the House of Nobles. He served as a member of the House of Representatives during the session of 1855. He served from 1848 as a superior court judge, and from 1852 to 1864 as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Kingdom. ʻĪʻī died of scarlet fever on May 2, 1870, at Mililani, his residence in Honolulu.

Legacy

He left a first-hand account chronicle from 1866 until his death in a series of articles in the Hawaiian language newspaper Ka Nupepa Ku'oko'a. These were translated by Mary Kawena Pukui and published in 1959 as "Fragments of Hawaiian History", which describes life through his personal experiences under Kamehameha, and descriptions of the pattern of Hawaiian culture during a period of great significance in the history of the Hawaiian Kingdom. A second edition was edited by Dorothy Barrère and published in 1983.

His first marriage in 1822 was to Sarai Hiwauli, the widow of Haʻaloʻu, a chief executed for adultery with one of Kamehameha II's wives. She died without surviving issue in 1856. His second marriage was to Kamaka, on July 9, 1857. Kamaka died between 1857 and 1861 and was buried with Sarai and a daughter either belonging to her or Sarai. He remarried for a third time to nineteen-year-old Maleka (Martha) Kaʻapā at Hilo, on July 30 or August 1, 1861; she died of consumption a month afterward. On January 1, 1862, he married for final time to Maraea (Malaea) Kamaunauikea Kapuahi.
By this marriage, he had his only surviving child, Irene Haʻaloʻu Kahalelauko-a-Kamāmalu ʻĪʻī, born on October 1, 1869. On September 30, 1886, Irene married Charles Augustus Brown and had sons George ʻĪʻī Brown (1887–1946), and Francis Hyde ʻĪʻī Brown (1892–1976); a daughter, Bernice Kamamalu (1894-1895), died young; a second daughter Rose Kaouinuiokalani (1895-1972) married Arthur Lewis Davis and had two sons. Irene divorced Brown in 1898 and married Carl Sheldon Holloway on June 27, 1901. She died on August 26, 1922. From his grandson, ʻĪʻī has many descendants including Kenneth Francis Brown.

The lands that John ʻĪʻī had been awarded were put into a trust called the John ʻĪʻī Estate, Limited, which was the subject of a lawsuit due to ambiguity in the original will.

References

References

Further reading

1800 births
1870 deaths
Hawaiian nobility
Hawaiian Kingdom politicians
Hawaiian Kingdom judges
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Nobles
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom Privy Council
Members of the Hawaiian Kingdom House of Representatives
Historians of Hawaii
Justices of the Hawaii Supreme Court
Deaths from streptococcus infection
Burials at Oahu Cemetery

John Papa ʻĪʻī


Auto racing (also known as car racing, motor racing, or automobile racing) is a motorsport involving the racing of automobiles for competition.

Auto racing has existed since the invention of the automobile. Races of various sorts were organised, with the first recorded as early as 1867. Many of the earliest events were effectively reliability trials, aimed at proving these new machines were a practical mode of transport, but soon became an important way for automobile makers to demonstrate their machines. By the 1930s, specialist racing cars had developed.

There are now numerous different categories, each with different rules and regulations.

History

The first prearranged match race of two self-powered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 4:30 A.M. on August 30, 1867, between Ashton-under-Lyne and Old Trafford, England, a distance of . It was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton.

Internal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasoline-fueled automobiles. The first organized contest was on April 28, 1887, by the chief editor of Paris publication , Monsieur Fossier. It ran  from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne.

On July 22, 1894, the Parisian magazine  organized what is considered to be the world's first motoring competition, from Paris to Rouen. One hundred and two competitors paid a 10-franc entrance fee.

The first American automobile race is generally held to be the Thanksgiving Day Chicago Times-Herald race of November 28, 1895. Press coverage of the event first aroused significant American interest in the automobile.

The Targa Florio was an open road endurance automobile race held in the mountains of Sicily, Italy near the island's capital of Palermo. Founded in 1906, it was the oldest sports car racing event, part of the World Sportscar Championship between 1955 and 1973.

The oldest surviving sports car racing event is the 24 Hours of Le Mans, begun in 1923. It is run by the Automobile Club of the West (ACO). Team Ferrari won the race in 2023.

With auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city, in France or elsewhere in Europe.

Aspendale Racecourse, in Australia, was the world's first purpose-built motor racing circuit, opening in January 1906. The pear-shaped track was close to a mile in length, with slightly banked curves and a gravel surface of crushed cement.

Brooklands, in Surrey, England, was the first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing venue, opening in June 1907. It featured a  concrete track with high-speed banked corners.

One of the oldest existing purpose-built automobile racing circuits in the United States, still in use, is the  Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. It is the largest capacity sports venue of any variety worldwide, with a top capacity of some 257,000+ seated spectators.

NASCAR was founded by Bill France Sr. on February 21, 1948, with the help of several other drivers of the time. The first NASCAR "Strictly Stock" race ever was held on June 19, 1949, at Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S..

From 1962, sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars, with the  (FIA) replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers.

From 1962 through 2003, NASCAR's premier series was called the Winston Cup Series, sponsored by R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company cigarette brand Winston. The changes that resulted from RJR's involvement, as well as the reduction of the schedule from 56 to 34 races a year, established 1972 as the beginning of NASCAR's "modern era".

The IMSA GT Series evolved into the American Le Mans Series, which ran its first season in 1998. The European races eventually became the closely related European Le Mans Series, both of which mix prototypes and GTs.

 (TC) is a popular touring car racing series in Argentina, and one of the oldest car racing series still active in the world. The first TC competition took place in 1931 with 12 races, each in a different province. Future Formula One star Juan Manuel Fangio (Chevrolet) won the 1940 and 1941 editions of the TC. It was during this time that the series' Chevrolet-Ford rivalry began, with Ford acquiring most of its historical victories.

Over the last few years, auto racing has seen a transformative shift, echoing past pivots. The industry, much like the cars it champions, has had to navigate through the hairpin turns of a global pandemic and a persistent chip shortage, each threatening to derail production schedules. At the same time, a new course is being charted towards an electric future, a dramatic change in direction that's challenging the old guard of gasoline engines. There is also a growing number of events for electric racing cars, such as the Formula E,the Eco Grand Prix or the Electric GT Championship.

Categories

Open-wheel racing

In single-seater (open-wheel) racing, the wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. The two most popular varieties of open-wheel road racing are Formula One and the IndyCar Series. In Europe and Asia, open-wheeled racing is commonly referred to as 'Formula', with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the 'Formula' terminology is not followed (with the exception of F1). The sport is usually arranged to follow an international format (such as F1), a regional format (such as the Formula 3 Euro Series), and/or a domestic, or country-specific, format (such as the German Formula 3 championship, or the British Formula Ford).

F1 is a worldwide series that runs only street circuit and race tracks. These cars are heavily based on technology and their aerodynamics. The speed record was set in 2005 by Juan Pablo Montoya hitting 373 km/h (232 mph). Some of the most prominent races are the Monaco Grand Prix, the Italian Grand Prix, and the British Grand Prix. The season ends with the crowning of the World Championship for drivers and constructors.

In the United States, the most popular series is the IndyCar Series. The cars have traditionally been similar to, though less technologically sophisticated than, F1 cars, with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs. While these cars are not as technologically advanced, they are faster, mainly because they compete on oval race tracks, being able to average a lap at 388 km/h (241 mph). The series' biggest race is the Indianapolis 500, which is commonly referred to as "The Greatest Spectacle in Racing" due to being the longest continuously run race and having the largest crowd for a single-day sporting event (350,000+).

The other major international single-seater racing series is Formula 2 (formerly known as Formula 3000 and GP2 Series). Regional series include Super Formula and Formula V6 Asia (specifically in Asia), Formula Renault 3.5 (also known as the World Series by Renault, succession series of World Series by Nissan), Formula Three, Formula Palmer Audi and Formula Atlantic. In 2009, the FIA Formula Two Championship brought about the revival of the F2 series. Domestic, or country-specific, series include Formula Three and Formula Renault, with the leading introductory series being Formula Ford.

Single-seater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers. There exist many amateur racing clubs. In the UK, the major club series are the Monoposto Racing Club, BRSCC F3 (Formerly ClubF3, formerly ARP F3), Formula Vee and Club Formula Ford. Each series caters to a section of the market, with some primarily providing low-cost racing, while others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series (BRSCC F3).

There are other categories of single-seater racing, including kart racing, which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts. Formula Ford represents the most popular first open-wheel category for up-and-coming drivers stepping up from karts. The series is still the preferred option, as it has introduced an aero package and slicks, allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer to F1. The Star Mazda Series is another entry-level series.

Students at colleges and universities can also take part in single-seater racing through the Formula SAE competition, which involves designing and building a single-seater car in a multidisciplinary team and racing it at the competition. This also develops other soft skills, such as teamwork, while promoting motorsport and engineering.

The world's first all-female Formula racing team was created in 2006. The group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines and formed for an MTV reality pilot, which was shot at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca.

In December 2005, the FIA gave approval to Superleague Formula racing, which debuted in 2008, whereby the racing teams are owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as A.C. Milan and Liverpool F.C.

After 25 years away from the sport, former Formula 2 champion Jonathan Palmer reopened the F2 category again; most drivers have graduated from the Formula Palmer Audi series. The category is officially registered as the FIA Formula Two championship. Most rounds have two races and are support races to the FIA World Touring Car Championship.

Touring car racing

Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production-derived four-seat race cars. The lesser use of aerodynamics means following cars have a much easier time passing than in open-wheel racing. It often features full-contact racing with subtle bumping and nudging due to the small speed differentials and large grids.

The major touring car championships conducted worldwide are the Supercars Championship (Australia), British Touring Car Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), World Touring Car Championship and the World Touring Car Cup. The European Touring Car Cup is a one-day event open to Super 2000 specification touring cars from Europe's many national championships.

The Sports Car Club of America's SPEED World Challenge Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America. America's historic Trans-Am Series is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The National Auto Sport Association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory-derived vehicles on various local circuits.

Sports car racing

In sports car racing, production-derived versions of two-seat sports cars, also known as grand tourers (GTs), and purpose-built sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits. The premier championship series of sports car racing is the FIA World Endurance Championship. The main series for GT car racing is the GT World Challenge Europe, divided into two separate championships: the GT World Challenge Europe Sprint Cup and the GT World Challenge Europe Endurance Cup. This series has formed after the folding of the various FIA GT championships.

Other major GT championships include the GT World Challenge America, GT World Challenge Asia, Super GT, and the International GT Open. There are minor regional and national GT series using mainly GT4 and GT3 cars featuring both amateur and professional drivers.

Sports prototypes, unlike GT cars, do not rely on road-legal cars as a base. They are closed-wheel and often closed-cockpit purpose-built race cars intended mainly for endurance racing. They have much lower weight and more downforce compared to GT cars, making them much faster. They are raced in the 24 hours of Le Mans (held annually since 1923) and in the (European) Le Mans series, Asian Le Mans Series and the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. These cars are referred to as LMP (Le Mans prototype) cars with LMP1 being run mainly by manufacturers and the slightly less powerful LMP2 cars run by privateer teams. All three Le Mans Series run GT cars in addition to Le Mans Prototypes; these cars have different restrictions than the FIA GT cars.

Another prototype and GT racing championship exists in the United States; the Grand-Am, which began in 2000, sanctions its own endurance series, the Rolex Sports Car Series, which consists of slower and lower-cost race cars compared to LMP and FIA GT cars. The Rolex Sports Car Series and American Le Mans Series announced a merger between the two series forming the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship starting in 2014.

These races are often conducted over long distances, at least , and cars are driven by teams of two or more drivers, switching every few hours. Due to the performance difference between production-based sports cars and purpose-built sports prototypes, one race usually involves several racing classes, each fighting for its own championship.

Famous sports car races include the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Rolex 24 at Daytona, 24 Hours of Spa-Franchorchamps, the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen, and the  Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta. There is also the 24 Hours of the Nürburgring on the infamous Nordschleife track and the Dubai 24 Hour, which is aimed at GT3 and below cars with a mixture of professional and pro-am drivers.

Production-car racing

Production-car racing, otherwise known as "showroom stock" in the US, is an economical and rules-restricted version of touring-car racing, mainly used to restrict costs. Numerous production racing categories are based on particular makes of cars.

Most series, with a few exceptions, follow the Group N regulation. There are several different series that are run all over the world, most notably, Japan's Super Taikyu and IMSA's Firehawk Series, which ran in the 1980s and 1990s all over the United States.

Stock car racing

In North America, stock car racing is the most popular form of auto racing. Primarily raced on oval tracks, stock cars vaguely resemble production cars, but are in fact purpose-built racing machines that are built to tight specifications and, together with touring cars, also called Silhouette racing cars.

The largest stock car racing governing body is NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing). NASCAR's premier series is the NASCAR Cup Series, its most famous races being the Daytona 500, the Southern 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and the Brickyard 400. NASCAR also runs several feeder series, including the Xfinity Series and Gander RV & Outdoors Truck Series (a pickup truck racing series). The series conduct races across the entire continental United States. The NASCAR Pinty's Series conducts races across Canada and the NASCAR PEAK Mexico Series conducts races across Mexico.

NASCAR also governs several smaller regional series, such as the Whelen Modified Tour. Modified cars are best described as open-wheel cars. Modified cars have no parts related to the stock vehicle for which they are named after. A number of modified cars display a "manufacturer's" logo and "vehicle name", yet use components produced by another automobile manufacturer.

There are also other stock car governing bodies, most notably the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA).

In the UK, British Stock car racing is also referred to as "Short Circuit Racing". UK Stock car racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 1960s and 1970s. Events take place on shale or tarmac tracks – usually around 1/4 mile long. There are around 35 tracks in the UK and upwards of 7000 active drivers. The sport is split into three basic divisions – distinguished by the rules regarding car contact during racing. The most famous championship are the BriSCA F1 Stock Cars.

Full-contact formulas include Bangers, Bombers, and Rookie Bangers – and racing features Demolition Derbies, Figure of Eight, and Oval Racing.

Semi Contact Formulas include BriSCA F1, F2, and Superstox – where bumpers are used tactically.

Non-contact formulas include National Hot Rods, Stock Rods, and Lightning Rods.

One-make racing

One-make, or single marque, championships often employ production-based cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturer's range. There are numerous notable one-make formulae from various countries and regions, some of which – such as the Porsche Supercup and, previously, IROC – have fostered many distinct national championships. Single marque series are often found at the club level, to which the production-based cars, limited modifications, and close parity in performance are very well suited. Some of the better-known single-make series are the Mini 7 Championship (Europe's longest-running one-make championship), the Radical European Masters, John Cooper Mini Challenge, Clio Cup, Ginettas, Caterhams, BMWs, and MX5s. There are also single-chassis single seater formulae, such as Formula Renault and Formula BMW, usually as "feeder" series for "senior" race formula (in the fashion of farm teams).

Drag racing

In drag racing, the objective is to complete a given straight-line distance, from a standing start, ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane. This distance is traditionally , though  has become popular since the 1990s. The vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time, depending on the class of racing. Vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built dragster. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. Average street cars cover the  mile in 12 to 16 seconds, whereas a top fuel dragster takes 4.5 seconds or less, reaching speeds of up to . Drag racing was organized as a sport by Wally Parks in the early 1950s through the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA). The NHRA was formed to discourage street racing.

When launching, a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 3.4 g (33 m/s2), and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4 g (39 m/s2), more than the Space Shuttle experiences. A top fuel car can be heard over  away and can generate a reading from 1.5 to 3.9 on the Richter scale.

Drag racing is two cars head-to-head, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index (a lowest e.t. allowed), and cars running under (quicker than) their index "break out" and lose. The slowest cars, bracket racers, are also handicapped, but rather than an index, they use a dial-in.

Off-road racing

In off-road racing, various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous Baja 1000. Another format for off-road racing happens on closed-course short course tracks such as Crandon International Off-Road Raceway. In the 1980s and 1990s, the short course was extended to racing inside stadiums in the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group; this format was revived by Robby Gordon in 2013 with his Stadium Super Trucks series.

In Europe, "offroad" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the Paris-Dakar, Master Rallye or European "bajas" are called "cross-country rallies".

Kart racing

The modern kart was invented by Art Ingels, a fabricator at the Indianapolis-car manufacturer Kurtis-Kraft, in Southern California in 1956. Ingels took a small chainsaw engine and mounted it to a simple tube-frame chassis weighing less than 100 lb. Ingels, and everyone else who drove the kart, were startled at its performance capabilities. The sport soon blossomed in Southern California, and quickly spread around the world. Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, kart racing, or karting, can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fully-fledged international sport in its own right. A large proportion of professional racing drivers began in karts, often from a very young age, such as Michael Schumacher and Fernando Alonso. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably Wayne Rainey, who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to race, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide.

Despite their diminutive size, karts of the most powerful class, superkart (assuming a weight of 205 kg (452 lb), and a power output of 100 hp (75 kW)), can have a power-to-weight ratio (including the driver) of 490 hp/tonne (0.22 hp/lb). Without the driver, this figure doubles, to almost 980 hp/tonne (0.44 hp/lb).

Historical racing

Historic motorsport or vintage motorsport uses vehicles limited to a particular era. Only safety precautions are modernized in these hobbyist races. A historical event can be of various types of motorsport disciplines, from road racing to rallying. Because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyist-oriented, reducing corporate sponsorship. The only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing. A historical event can be of a number of different motorsport disciplines.

Some of the most famous events include the Goodwood Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival in Britain and Monterey Historic in the United States. Championships range from "grass root" Austin Seven racing to the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix Championship for classic Formula One chassis. While there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing, this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and less competitive in its approach.

Other categories

Use of flags

In many types of auto races, particularly those held on closed courses, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of the track and to communicate instructions to competitors. While individual series have different rules, and the flags have changed from the first years (e.g., red used to start a race), these are generally accepted.

Accidents

The worst accident in racing history is the 1955 Le Mans disaster, where more than 80 people died, including the French driver Pierre Levegh.

Racing-car setup

In auto racing, the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle to optimize its behaviour (performance, handling, reliability, etc.). Adjustments can occur in suspensions, brakes, transmissions, engines, tires, and many others.

Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics and airflow play big roles in the setup of a race car. Aerodynamic downforce improves the race car's handling by lowering the center of gravity and distributing the weight of the car equally on each tire. Once this is achieved, fuel consumption decreases and the forces against the car are significantly lowered. Many aerodynamic experiments are conducted in wind tunnels, to simulate real-life situations while measuring the various drag forces on the car. These "Rolling roads" produce many wind situations and direct air flow at certain speeds and angles. When a diffuser is installed under the car, the amount of drag force is significantly lowered, and the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle is positively adjusted. Wings and canards channel the airflow in the most efficient way to get the least amount of drag from the car. It is experimentally proven that downforce is gained and the vehicle's handling is considerably changed when aerodynamic wings on the front and rear of the vehicle are installed.

Suspension
Suspension plays a huge part in giving the race car the ability to be driven optimally. Shocks are mounted vertically or horizontally to prevent the body from rolling in the corners. The suspension is important because it makes the car stable and easier to control and keeps the tires on the road when driving on uneven terrain. It works in three different ways including vertically, longitudinally, and laterally to control movement when racing on various tracks.

Tyres
Tyres called R-Compounds are commonly used in motorsports for high amounts of traction. The soft rubber allows them to expand when they are heated up, making more surface area on the pavement, therefore producing the most traction. These types of tyres do not have grooves on them. Tyre pressure is dependent on the temperature of the tyre and track when racing. Each time a driver pulls into the pits, the tyre pressure and temperature should be tested for optimal performance. When the tyres get too hot they will swell or inflate and need to be deflated to the correct pressure. When the tyres are not warmed up they will not perform as well.

Brakes
Brakes on a race car are imperative in slowing and stopping the car at precise times and wear quickly depending on the road or track on which the car is being raced, how many laps are being run, track conditions due to weather, and how many caution runs require more braking. There are three variables to consider in racing: brake pedal displacement, brake pedal force, and vehicle deceleration. Various combinations of these variables work together to determine the stiffness, sensitivity, and pedal force of the brakes. When using the brakes effectively, the driver must go through a buildup phase and end with a modulating phase. These phases include attaining maximum deceleration and modulating the brake pressure. Brake performance is measured in bite and consistency. Bite happens when the driver first applies the brakes and they have not warmed up to the correct temperature to operate efficiently. Consistency is measured in how consistent the friction is during the entire time of braking. These two measurements determine the wear of the brakes.

Engine
The race car's engine needs a considerable amount of air to produce maximum power. The air intake manifold sucks the air from scoops on the hood and front bumper and feeds it into the engine. Many engine modifications to increase horsepower and efficiency are commonly used in many racing-sanctioning bodies. Engines are tuned on a machine called a dynamometer, which is commonly known in the racing world as a DYNO. The car is driven onto the DYNO and many gauges and sensors are hooked up to the car that are controlled by an online program to test force, torque, or power. Through the testing, the car's engine maps can be changed to get the most horsepower and ultimately speed out of the vehicle.

Racing drivers

Racing drivers, at the highest levels, are usually paid by the team, or by sponsors, and can command very substantial salaries.

Contrary to what may be popularly assumed, racing drivers as a group do not have unusually better reflexes or peripheral response time. During repeated physiological (and psychological) evaluations of professional racing drivers, the two characteristics that stand out are racers' near-obsessive need to control their surroundings (the psychological aspect), and an unusual ability to process fast-moving information (physiological). In this, researchers have noted a strong correlation between racers' psychological profiles and those of fighter pilots. In tests comparing racers to members of the general public, the greater the complexity of the information processing matrix, the greater the speed gap between racers and the public.

Due partly to the performance capabilities of modern racing cars, racing drivers require a high level of fitness, focus, and the ability to concentrate at high levels for long periods in an inherently difficult environment. Racing drivers mainly complain about pains in the lumbar, shoulder, and neck regions.

Racing drivers experience extremely large g-forces because formula cars and sports prototypes generate more downforce and are able to corner at significantly higher speeds. Formula 1 drivers routinely experience g-loadings in excess of 4.5 g.

See also

 Outline of auto racing
 List of auto racing tracks
 Motorcycle racing
 Race track
 List of auto racing films
 Racing video game

References

External links

 Sanctioning bodies
 Motorsports UK Association
 American Le Mans Series (ALMS)
 Indy Racing League (IRL)
 Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)
 Grand American Road Racing Association
 International Conference of Sports Car Clubs (ICSCC)
 International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)
 International Motor Sports Association (IMSA)
 National Auto Sport Association
 National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR)
 National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)
 No Prep Racing
 SCORE International Off-Road Racing
 Sports Car Club of America (SCCA)
 United States Auto Club (USAC)
 Formula One (F1)
 Confederation of Australian Motorsport (CAMS)
 Best In The Desert Off-Road Racing

Auto racing


The Three Linguistic Spaces  (Tres Espacios Lingüísticos in Spanish, Trois Espaces linguistiques in French, Três Espaços Linguísticos in Portuguese, acronym: TEL) is a structure for cooperation between the Francophone, or French-speaking world, the Hispanophone or Spanish-speaking world, and the Lusophone, or Portuguese-speaking world. It is led by the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) and the  International Organisation of La Francophonie (OIF).

References

Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Romance languages
Community of Portuguese Language Countries

Three Linguistic Spaces


The 2012 Eastern Michigan Eagles football team represented Eastern Michigan University in the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season. They were led by fourth year head coach Ron English and played their home games at Rynearson Stadium. They are a member of the West Division of the Mid-American Conference. They finished the season 2–10, 1–7 in MAC play to finish in last place in the West Division.

Schedule

Source: Schedule

Game summaries

@ Ball State

Illinois State

@ Purdue

@ Michigan State

Kent State

Toledo

Army

@ Bowling Green

@ Ohio

Central Michigan

@ Western Michigan

Northern Illinois

References

Eastern Michigan
Eastern Michigan Eagles football seasons
Eastern Michigan Eagles football


Ian Gooderson is a senior lecturer in the Defence Studies Department of King's College London. He teaches and publishes on twentieth-century military and strategic studies, especially air power.

Gooderson gained his MA and PhD degrees from the Department of War Studies at King's College London before joining the teaching staff at RAF Henlow in 1997 where he taught air power history on junior and intermediate courses from 1997 until 2000. Earlier, between 1988 and 1996, he had been a Research Associate within the Department of War Studies, specialising in Air Power and contracted to work with the Centre for Defence Analysis. This involved working on projects analysing various aspects of air power.

His best known work is: Air Power at the Battlefront (1998) , which explains and assesses Allied close air support in the latter part of the Second World War. Among Gooderson's many peer reviewed articles is: "Doctrine from the Crucible: The British Air-Land Experience in the Second World War." Air Power Review Vol. 9 No. 2 (Autumn 2006), pp. 1–13.

Notes

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Alumni of King's College London
Academics of King's College London
British military writers
Air force historians
British military historians

Ian Gooderson


Stamp River Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia, Canada. The 327-hectare park is located 14 km north of Port Alberni on Vancouver Island. There are 23 camping spaces and 2 km of trails within the park along the Stamp River, named for Edward Stamp, a sawmill pioneer in the Alberni Valley.

The park features rapids and a waterfall as well as a substantial fish ladder constructed by Fisheries and Oceans Canada which allows half a million coho, sockeye and chinook salmon to pass upriver during the annual run from August to December. Spawning for these species takes place in the upper reaches of the river and in Great Central Lake. During the salmon run season, there is a greater prevalence of black bears in the area, attracted by the abundance of fish in the river.

Notes

External links

Alberni Valley
Provincial parks of British Columbia
Protected areas established in 1997
1997 establishments in British Columbia

Stamp River Provincial Park


Sahelanthropus tchadensis is a fossil hominid. From evidence at the fossil site in Chad in the African Sahel, it is thought to have lived about 7 million years ago.

The split of the line into humans and chimpanzees (known as human-chimpanzee divergence) probably happened between 6.3 and 5.4 million years ago. This can be seen from genetic data. Because the fossil is older than this spilt, its status is unclear. The first fossil found is known as Toumaï today.

Fossils
Some fossils, a cranium (skull), five pieces of jaw, and some teeth, make up a head that has features that are like both modern and primitive humans. The braincase is only 340 cm³ to 360 cm³ in volume, about the same as chimpanzees. It is much less than the human volume of about 1350 cm³.

The teeth and structure of the face are very different from Homo sapiens. The cranium found is damaged, it is very distorted, so no 3D computer reconstruction has been made. There are no bones other than parts of the skull. It is unknown if Sahelanthropus tchadensis was bipedal (walked on two legs). The placement of the foramen magnum suggests they were, though. Its canine wear is similar to other Miocene apes.

Relationship to modern humans and great apes
Sahelanthropus may be an ancestor of both humans and chimpanzees; no consensus has been reached yet by the scientific community. The difficulty is caused by its "mosaic of primitive and derived features". Probably it lived in semi-open woodland and savannah, rather than the rainforest of present-day apes.

Another possibility is that Toumaï is related to both humans and chimpanzees, but is the ancestor of neither. Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford, the discoverers of Orrorin tugenensis, suggested that the features of S. tchadensis are consistent with a female proto-gorilla. Even if this claim is upheld, the find would still be significant, for at present few chimpanzee or gorilla ancestors have been found anywhere in Africa. Thus, if S. tchadensis is an ancestral relative of the chimpanzees (or gorillas), it represents the first known member of their lineage.

Furthermore, S. tchadensis does indicate that the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees is unlikely to resemble chimpanzees very much, as had been previously supposed by some paleontologists.

The fauna found at the site suggest an age of more than 6 million years, as these species were probably extinct already by that time.

Possiblility of much earlier split
One study has suggested a much earlier split between the line which led to modern apes, and the line which led to modern humans.
The complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecule of the baboon Papio hamadryas was sequenced and included in a molecular analysis of 24 complete mammalian mtDNAs. The aim of the study was to time the divergence between the Old World monkeys (Cercopithidae) and the Hominoidea. That divergence, at 30 million years ago (mya), was a reference point for the split between chimpanzee, and Homo at 5 mya.

In the later study by Arnason and colleagues, two independent nonprimate molecular references were used. These two references  suggested that the Cercopithecoidea/Hominoidea divergence took place >50 mya. Also, all hominoid divergences receive a much earlier dating. Thus, the estimated date of the divergence between Pan (chimpanzee) and Homo is 1013 mya and that between Gorilla and the Pan/Homo linage approximately 17 mya. The same datings were obtained in an analysis of clocklike evolving genes.

Related pages

 Human evolution

References

Other websites

 Sahelanthropus.com
 http://toumai.site.voila.fr/
 Fossil Hominids: Toumai
 National Geographic: skull fossil opens window into early period of human origins
 image of the skull (nature.com)
 New findings bolster case for ancient human ancestor

Hominins
Prehistoric Africa
Miocene

Sahelanthropus


The Topography of Terror (German: Topographie des Terrors) is a history museum in Berlin, Germany. It is both indoors and outdoors. More than one million people visit the museum each year. It is the most visited museum in Berlin.

History

1945-1990
The buildings that were the headquarters of the SS and Gestapo were destroyed in 1945. For several decades, these buildings were somewhat forgotten. The location was a dump site. East Germany built the Berlin Wall in 1961 that went along the Niederkirchnerstrasse. The site was in East Germany and next to the wall.

Dieter Hoffmann-Axthelm wrote about the importance of the site in 1978. However, the first exhibit on the destroyed buildings would only be in 1987. Excavators and researchers found a Gestapo prison cell, where prisoners had been tortured and killed. They decided to make a museum out of the site. They formed an exhibition in East Germany in 1989. After reunification, the city kept the part of the wall next to the site.

After Reunification
In 1992, further plans were to improve the site and create a building. There was an architectural competition, and Peter Zumthor won it. There was not enough money, so construction stopped. The city destroyed the structure and started a new building in 2004. The building design was by Ursula Wilms and the landscape by Heinz W. Hallmann. The building cost €20 million and took 2 years to build. The new museum opened in May of 2010.

Exhibitions
The museum shows the history of the Gestapo, SS, and Third Reich and their crimes. It includes the grounds of the former Main Office and headquarters of the Gestapo, SS and Reich Security. It is the central location where the Nazis planned most of their crimes including the Holocaust. The Berlin Wall is also part of the museum.

Permanent exhibitions

Indoor
The permanent indoor exhibition is "Topography of Terror: Gestapo, SS and Reich Security Main Office on Wilhelm- and Prinz-Albrecht-Straße". It contains photos, documents, videos, and audio about the institutions and their crimes. There are five parts to the exhibition. They include The National Socialist Takeover of Power (I); Institutions of Terror (SS and Police) (II); Terror, Persecution and Extermination on Reich Territory (III); SS and Reich Security Main Office in the Occupied Countries (IV); and The End of the War and the Postwar Era (V). There are maps of the layout of SS stations (Leitstellen) and the structure of the Concentration Camps.

Outdoor
The permanent exhibition outdoors is "Berlin 1933–1945: Between Propaganda and Terror". It tells how the National Socialists rose to power in Berlin and they changed the city. The main sections are Weimar Republic (I), Establishing the Führer's Dictatorship (II), Berlin and the "People's Community" (III), Wartime in Berlin 1939–1945 (IV); and Berlin and the Consequences of the Nazi Regime (V). There are documents, photos, and newspaper articles. Behind the glass, one can see ruins of buildings.

Visitors can take live tours or audio tours of the museum's historic site. It includes 15 stations with photos, documents, and 3-D graphics and provides an overview of the grounds.

Special exhibitions
Special temporary exhibits have been on different topics. They are including German occupation and resistance, Kristallnacht, Nazi ghettos and concentration camps, trials of the Nazis, the press and propaganda, labor policy and laws, the people's court, different stages of the war, and the Nazi's rise to power.

People
There have been exhibitions on people including Albert Speer, Adolf Eichmann, Fritz Bauer, Martin Luther,  and Hans Bayer.

People groups
There are several past exhibits for various people groups who suffered and died under the Nazis. Exhibitions included historians' research projects, historical documents, and archival photos.

Since 2010
Below is a partial list of special exhibitions since 2010:
 The Cold Eye. Final Pictures of Jewish Families from the Tarnów Ghetto. November 27, 2021, to April 18, 2022. The exhibition showed the work of two scholars who did a research project about East European Jews in 1941. They portrayed the family's stories and their deaths under the Nazis.
 Between Shade and Darkness. The Fate of the Jews of Luxembourg between 1940 and 194515th July to October 13, 2020
 Germany 1945 – The Last Months of the War May 19, 2020 to September 27, 2020
 The Persecution of the Jews in Photographs. The Netherlands 1940–1945 October 30 2019 to March 12 2020
 Warsaw Rising 1944 July 30 to October 26, 2014, July 26 to October 15 2019 Exhibition about Polish resisting German occupation.
 "Aktion Reinhardt" - They arrived at the Ghetto and went into the unknown July 4 to August 28, 2018 Exhibition about plan to muder Polish Jews.
 Repressed Memory. How West Berlin Dealt with Sites of Nazi Perpetrators November 10 to 29, 2017
 Mass Shootings. The Holocaust from the Baltic to the Black Sea 1941–1944 September 28, 2016 to March 17, 2017
 Stumbling Stones – Remembrance and Social Sculpture November 15, 2016 to February 19, 2017
 March Formations. The Nazi Party Rally Grounds in Nuremberg April 13 to August 28, 2016

 The Face of the Ghetto. Photos Taken by Jewish Photographers in the Litzmannstadt Ghetto, 1940–1944 June 23 to October 3, 2010; January 13 to March 28, 2016
 Registered, Persecuted, Annihilated. The Sick and the Disabled under National Socialism March 26 to July 20, 2014
 "Fire!" 75 Years after the Pogroms in November 1938 November 8, 2013 to March 2, 2014
 In memory of the children. Pediatricians and crimes against children in the Nazi period January 18 to May 20, 2012
 "In Plain Sight" – The Deportation of the Jews and the Auctioning of their Household Effects: Photographs from Lörrach, 1940 October 25, 2011 to January 8, 2012
 From the Sachsenburg to Sachsenhausen Pictures from the Photograph Album of a Concentration Camp Commandant October 20, 2010 – February 27, 2011

References

Museums in Berlin

Topography of Terror


The Lakelse Hot Springs, also known as the Mount Layton Hot Springs, are a group of hot springs in the Kalum-Kitimat valley of northern British Columbia, Canada, located  south of Terrace along Highway 37 on the eastern shore of Lakelse Lake. With a maximum temperature of 89 °C, the springs are the hottest in Canada.

The formation of the Lakese Hot Springs is interpreted to be water seeping through hot rocks in faults of the fault-bounded Kalum-Kitimat valley. These faults may also have been the source for the Tseax Cone eruption 250 years ago.

See also
List of hot springs
Volcanism of Canada
Volcanism of Western Canada

References

Hot springs of British Columbia

Lakelse Hot Springs


Nachman Bulman (1925-July 6, 2002) was an American rabbi associated with Orthodox Judaism. He was born to Rabbi Meir and Etil Bulman after a blessing from the Rebbe of Ger, Rabbi Avraham Mordechai Alter. He grew up on the Lower East Side, Manhattan, and was, for a brief period, part of the circle of the Rebbe of Modzitz, remaining close to the Rebbe until the latter's death.

He studied at Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (RIETS), where obtained his semicha ("rabbinical ordination"). Turning down offers from various communities because of inadequate standards, he eventually accepted a position in Danville, Virginia, which had a small Jewish community that he served for three years. Subsequently, he served as a synagogue rabbi and Jewish educator in number of cities in the United States for most of his life. In 1975, he moved to Israel and served as rabbi in Migdal HaEmek starting in 1979. During the last few years of his life he served as rabbi of the Nachliel Synagogue in Neve Yaakov, Jerusalem, where he resided at the time of his death.

Ideology and impact
Rabbi Bulman was a student of Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik at Yeshiva University where he received his rabbinic ordination. However, in terms of religious ideology, Bulman chose to follow and be identified with Agudath Israel of America, one of Haredi Judaism's largest movements. He referred to himself as a disciple of Rabbi Eliyahu Kitov. At a later stage in his life, Bulman sometimes dressed in the style typical of Gerrer Hasidim, even donning a spodik in his later years, on the Sabbath and holidays.

He was a popular teacher, lecturer, writer, translator of Hebrew language works into English, and builder of Jewish communities in both America and Israel.

In the late 1970s, he taught in Israel at Yeshivat Ohr Somayach in Jerusalem serving as its mashgiach ruchani and continued to serve in that capacity after he established a community in Migdal HaEmek. He was seen as a great visionary and was known for understanding modern political events through the lens of timeless Torah wisdom. Often he would compare the events of the weekly Haftorah with current events in his sermons.
He was also a great student of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch's teachings and would sometimes incorporate those teachings into his lectures.

After leaving Migdal HaEmek, Bulman again taught at Ohr Sameyach and resided nearby in Maalot Dafna.  In 1996 he founded a Beis Midrash, Nachlas Tzvi, in Telzstone, named after the writings of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch.  He strove to teach immigrants and others how to function within Israeli Haredi society without losing their individual identities.  During the final three years of his life he lived in Neve Yaakov, a northern neighborhood of Jerusalem, where he founded Bais Medrash Nachliel, and where Kollel Nachmani was established in his memory.

He translated Rabbi Eliyahu Kitov's Hebrew books The Book of Our Heritage, Jew and His Home and Rite and Reason to English. His name was often written as Nathan Bulman in English.

References

External links
Pages & catalogue of downloadable work dedicated to Rabbi Bulman

1925 births
2002 deaths
People from the Lower East Side
Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary semikhah recipients
Rabbis of Ohr Somayach
American Orthodox rabbis
Israeli Orthodox rabbis
Burials at Har HaMenuchot
20th-century American rabbis
People from Neve Yaakov
21st-century American rabbis

Nachman Bulman


The Society for Military History is a United States–based international organization of scholars who research, write, and teach military history of all time periods and places. It includes naval history, air power history, and studies of technology, ideas, and homefronts.  It publishes the quarterly refereed The Journal of Military History.

Activities
The society was established in 1933 as the American Military History Foundation, renamed in 1939 to the American Military Institute, and renamed again in 1990 to the Society for Military History. It has over 2,300 members, including many prominent scholars, soldiers, and citizens interested in military history. Membership is open to anyone and includes a subscription to the journal.

The Society also sponsors sessions on military topics at the annual Northern Great Plains History Conference.

Annual meetings

The Society typically holds a meeting in the first half of every year.

Recent meetings have been held in the following locations:

Current and past presidents
 Gregory J. W. Urwin (President as of 2004)
 Dennis Showalter
 Carol Reardon
 Theodore Ropp
 Brian McAllister Linn
 Jeffrey Grey
 Roy K. Flint

Prizes

Samuel Eliot Morison Prize

The Samuel Eliot Morison Prize recognizes not any one specific achievement, but a body of contributions in the field of military history, stretching over time and showing a range of scholarly work contributing significantly to the field. Recent winners include:
 Brian McAllister Linn, Texas A&M University, 2023
 Beth Bailey, University of Kansas, 2022
 Robert M. Citino, National WWII Museum, 2021
 Jon Tetsuro Sumida, University of Maryland, 2020.
 Brian Holden-Reid, King's College London, 2019
 Hew Strachan, University of St Andrews, 2018
 John A. Lynn II, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2017
 Conrad C. Crane, Army Heritage and Education Center, United States Army War College, 2016
 Joseph T. Glatthaar, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2015
 Rick Atkinson, Washington, DC, 2014
 Ira D. Gruber, Rice University, 2013
 Ronald H. Spector, The George Washington University, 2012
 Gerhard Weinberg, University of North Carolina, 2011
 Peter Maslowski, 2010
 Richard Kohn, 2009
 Jeremy Black, 2008
 James M. McPherson, 2007
 Robert A. Doughty, 2006
 Dennis Showalter, 2005
 Allan R. Millett, 2004
 Edward J. Drea, 2003
 John Shy, 2002
 Richard Overy, 2001
 David M. Glantz, 2000
 Geoffrey N. Parker, 1999
 Stephen E. Ambrose, 1998
 Robert M. Utley, 1997
 John Keegan, 1996
 Martin Blumenson, 1995
 Harold C. Deutsch, 1994
 Peter Paret, 1993
 Michael Howard, 1992
 I. B. Holley, Jr., and Theodore Ropp, 1991
 Edward M. Coffman, 1990
 Russell F. Weigley, 1989
 No Award, 1988
 Forrest C. Pogue, 1987
 Alvin D. Coox, 1986
 Robin Higham, 1985

Distinguished Book Awards
The Society's Distinguished Book Awards recognize the best books written in English on military history, broadly conceived.

2022
 Thomas A. Guglielmo, Divisions: A New History of Racism and Resistance in America's World War II Military, Oxford University Press
 Wendy Goldman and Donald Filtzer, Fortress Dark and Stern: The Soviet Home Front during World War II, Oxford University Press
 Ian Ona Johnson, Faustian Bargain: The Soviet–German Partnership and the Origins of the Second World War, Oxford University Press
 Michael S. Nieberg, When France Fell: The Vichy Crisis and the Fate of the Anglo-American Alliance, Harvard University Press
 Ruth Scurr, Napoleon, A Life Told in Gardens and Shadows, Penguin Random House
 Karen Hagemann, Stefan Dudink and Sonya O. Rose, editors, Oxford Handbook of Gender, War and the Western World Since 1600, Oxford University Press.

2021
 Donald F. Johnson, Occupied America: British Military Rule and the Experience of Revolution,University of Pennsylvania Press, 2021.
 Alexander Mikaberidze, The Napoleonic Wars: A Global History, Oxford University Press, 2020.
 Daniel Whittingham, Charles E. Callwell and the British Way in Warfare, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
 Aaron Sheehan-Dean, ed., The Cambridge History of the American Civil War, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
 Meighen McCrae, Coalition Strategy and the End of the First World War, Cambridge University Press, 2019.
 Alexander Watson, The Fortress: The Siege of Przemysl and the Making of Europe's Bloodlands, Basic Books, 2020

2020
 Monica Kim, NYU, The Interrogation Rooms of the Korean War: The Untold History, Princeton University Press, 2019.
 Geoffrey Robinson, UCLA, The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66, Princeton University Press, 2018.
 Stephen Brumwell, Turncoat: Benedict Arnold and the Crisis of American Liberty, Yale University Press, 2018.
 Kelly DeVries, Loyola University, and Michael Livingston, The Citadel, eds., Medieval Warfare: A Reader, University of Toronto Press, 2019.
 Thomas Dodman, Columbia University, What Nostalgia Was: War, Empire, and the Time of a Deadly Emotion, University of Chicago Press, 2019.

2019
 A. Wilson Greene, A Campaign of Giants: The Battle for Petersburg Volume 1: From the Crossing of the James to the Crater (Civil War America), University of North Carolina Press, 2018
 Peter Guardino, The Dead March: A History of the Mexican-American War, Harvard University Press, 2018.
 Gonzalo M. Quintero Saravia, Bernardo de Gálvez: Spanish Hero of the American Revolution, University of North Carolina Press, 2018.
 Richard P. Tucker, Tait Keller, J. R. McNeill, and Martin Schmid, editors, Environmental Histories of the First World War, Cambridge University Press, 2018.

2018
 Christopher Phillips, The Rivers Ran Backward: The Civil War and the Remaking of the American Middle Border
 Ilya Berkovich, Motivation in War: The Experience of Common Soldiers in Old-Regime Europe
 Steven L. Ossad, Omar Nelson Bradley: America's GI General
 Paul R. Bartrop and Michael Dickerman, The Holocaust: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection, (4 vols.)

2017
 Mark Edward Lender and Garry Wheeler Stone, Fatal Sunday: George Washington, the Monmouth Campaign, and the Politics of Battle
 Tonio Andrade, The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
 Laila Parsons, The Commander: Fawzi al-Qawuqji and the Fight for Arab Independence, 1914–1948
 Michael Livingston and Kelly DeVries, editors. The Battle of Crécy: A Casebook

2016
 David L. Preston, Braddock's Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution
 Pierre Razoux, The Iran-Iraq War
 Paul Robinson, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich: Supreme Commander of the Russian Army
 David T. Zabecki, editor. Germany at War: 400 Years of Military History

2015
 Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire
 Alexander Watson, Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary at War, 1914–1918
 Michael V. Leggiere, Blucher: Scourge of Napoleon

2014
 Samuel J. Watson, Jackson's Sword: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1810–1821 and Peacekeepers and Conquerors: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1821–1846
 Geoffrey Parker, War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century
 George W. Gawrych, The Young Ataturk: From Ottoman Soldier to Statesman of Turkey
 Spencer C. Tucker, editor, American Civil War: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection

2013
 Richard S. Faulkner, School of Hard Knocks: Combat Leadership in the American Expeditionary Forces
 Robert M. Citino, The Wehrmacht Retreats: Fighting a Lost War, 1943
 Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin's General: The Life of Georgy Zhukov
 Clayton R. Newell and Charles R. Shrader, Of Duty Well and Faithfully Done: A History of the Regular Army in the Civil War

2012
 John Sloan Brown, Kevlar Legions: The Transformation of the U.S. Army, 1989–2005
 Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven (eds.), The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945
 Mungo Melvin, Manstein: Hitler's Greatest General
 Steven E. Clay, US Army Order of Battle 1919–1941 (4 vols.)

2011
 Chad L. Williams, Torchbearers of Democracy: African American Soldiers in the World War I Era
 Peter H. Wilson, The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy
 John MacFarlane, Triquet's Cross: A Study of Military Heroism
 Clifford J. Rogers, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology

2010
 Daniel E. Sutherland, A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War
 Edward J. Drea, Japan's Imperial Army: Its Rise and Fall, 1853–1945
 J.P. Harris, Douglas Haig and the First World War
 Spencer C. Tucker, ed. The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars

2009
 Ingo Trauschweizer, The Cold War U.S. Army: Building Deterrence for Limited War.
 Jamel Ostwald, Vauban Under Siege: Engineering Efficiency and Martial Vigor in the War of the Spanish Succession.
 Andy Wiest, Vietnam's Forgotten Army: Heroism and Betrayal in the ARVN.
 Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, eds. The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare.

2008
 Jon Latimer, 1812: War with America
 John Lawrence Tone, War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898
 Martha Hannah, Your Death Would Be Mine: Paul and Marie Pireaud in the Great War.
 Spencer C. Tucker, ed. The Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social and Military History

2007
 John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814.
 Robert A. Doughty, Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War.
 Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus.
 Peter Karsten, ed. Encyclopedia of War and American Society. 3 vols.

2006
 H. P. Willmott, The Battle of Leyte Gulf: The Last Fleet Action
 George Satterfield, Princes, Posts and Partisans: The Army of Louis XIV and Partisan Warfare in the Netherlands (1673–1678)
 Steven E. Woodworth and Kenneth J. Winkle, Atlas of the Civil War
 Colin White, ed., Horatio Nelson, The New Letters

2005
 Edward M. Coffman, The Regulars: The American Army, 1898–1941
 Robert M. Citino, Blitzkrieg to Desert Storm: The Evolution of Operational Warfare
 James T. Controvich, United States Army Unit and Organizational Histories: A Bibliography

2004
 George C. Rable, Fredericksburg! Fredericksburg!
 Terry Copp, Fields of Fire: The Canadians in Normandy
 Joshua Brown, ed., A Good Idea of Hell: Letters from a Chasseur a Pied
 Michael J. Crawford, ed., The Naval War of 1812: A Documentary History: Volume III 1814–1815

2003
 Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943
 Hew Strachan, The First World War. Volume I: To Arms
 Stuart Hills, By Tank Into Normandy: A Memoir of the Campaign in North-West Europe From D-Day to VE Day
 David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds., Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political and Military History (3 vol)

2002
 Mark Stoler, Allies and Adversaries: The Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Grand Alliances, and U.S. Strategy in World War II
 Ronald H. Spector, At War At Sea: Sailors and Naval Combat in the Twentieth Century
 Robert H. Ferrell, editor, for William S. Triplet, A Youth in the Meuse-Argonne, A Colonel in the Armored Divisions, and In the Philippines and Okinawa

2001
 Geoffrey P. Megargee (2000): Inside Hitler's High Command (2000)

See also
 Military history of the United States
 Naval history

References

External links
 SMH website

Historical societies of the United States
Organizations established in 1933

Society for Military History


The Naitional Emblem o Afghanistan haes appeared in some form on the Banner o Afghanistan syne the inception o that naition. The maist notable absence wis durin the 1980s when a Communist regime ruled the naition, an in the late 1990s, durin the rule o the Taliban.

The latest incarnation o the coat o airms haes the addit inscription o the shahadah in Arabic at the tap. Below it is the image o a mosque wi a mehrab that is facin Mecca wi a prayer mat inside. Attacht tae the mosque are twa banners, taken tae staund for banners o Afghanistan. Beneath the mosque is an inscription that states the name o the naition. Aroind the mosque is a garland.

The emblem o Afghanistan bears the Islamic calendar year 1298 (1919 in the Gregorian calendar), the year Afghanistan gained unthirldom frae the Breetish Empire.

Historical

See an aa
Banner o Afghanistan

Freemit airtins

 Afghanistan Naitional Emblem

Naitional seembols o Afghanistan
Afghanistan

Emblem o Afghanistan


Bright Orange for the Shroud (1965) is a sixth novel in the Travis McGee series by John D. MacDonald. The plot follows McGee as he attempts to salvage the money of friend Arthur Wilkinson after the man is defrauded in a semi-legal confidence scheme involving a land deal.

Plot
While enjoying another installment of his "retirement," Travis McGee is visited by Arthur Wilkinson, who had briefly been part of McGee's circle before leaving to get married. Wilkinson is in terrible physical condition, and collapses as he reaches McGee's boat. With the help of Chookie, who dated Wilkinson for a time, McGee learns that Wilkinson has been bankrupted by a land development scheme in which the partners kept demanding greater and greater shares until Wilkinson's bank account was empty and he was heavily in debt to his friends. He also endured a savage beating from the gang's muscle, a rustic psychopath named Boone Waxwell, and was twice jailed and disgraced on fraudulent charges arranged by the gang.

After spending several weeks nursing Arthur back to health, McGee scouts out the lower-level conspirators and forms a guarded friendship with Vivian Crane, whose husband's law practice has been ruined by rumors of his participation in the scam. McGee also pays a visit to Waxwell at his backwoods home, and barely manages to get away whole after besting Waxwell in a vicious brawl.

McGee determines that the only money remaining from Wilkinson's inheritance is the remainder of Waxwell's share, which is buried in jars around Waxwell's house. Before he can execute the plan, however, Waxwell gets the drop on him outside Vivian Crane's house and leaves him in the back of his car. McGee manages to crawl to a hiding place, where he overhears Waxwell raping Vivian. Waxwell flees the scene when he discovers McGee is missing. McGee goes into the house and finds Vivian has committed suicide with a pistol after killing her husband, who lay in a drunken stupor during her rape. McGee alters the crime scene to create the impression that Waxwell killed both Vivian and her husband, then phones in an anonymous report to the police.

Waxwell, now the target of a statewide manhunt, flees into the swamps. McGee recovers a substantial amount of money from Waxwell's hiding places. Waxwell, by chance, boards the houseboat and holds them at bay with a gun. After a long, tense period in which it becomes likely that Waxwell plans to kill them all after getting clear of the dragnet, the three manage to get the gun away from Waxwell, who accidentally impales himself on a cypress stump while jumping clear of the houseboat. The three leave his body to be discovered by searchers while McGee recovers a last portion of cash from Waxwell's belongings. McGee plans the money as a wedding gift for Chookie and Wilkinson.

Themes
As with all of the Travis McGee novels, the title includes a color that is referenced in the narrative. This book's title refers to the orange bathrobe Vivian Crane puts on before killing herself. McGee comments that this color is not appropriate for death because it is so lifelike.

References

1965 American novels
Novels about rape
Travis McGee (novel series)

Bright Orange for the Shroud


In the United States, government shutdowns occur when funding legislation required to finance the federal government is not enacted before the next fiscal year begins. In a shutdown, the federal government curtails agency activities and services, ceases non-essential operations, furloughs non-essential workers, and retains only essential employees in departments that protect human life or property. Shutdowns can also disrupt state, territorial, and local levels of government.

Funding gaps began to lead to shutdowns in 1980, when Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti issued a legal opinion requiring it. This opinion was not consistently adhered to through the 1980s, but since 1990 all funding gaps lasting longer than a few hours have led to a shutdown. As of September 2023, ten funding shutdowns have led to federal employees being furloughed.

The most significant shutdowns have included the 21-day shutdown of 1995–1996, during the Bill Clinton administration, over opposition to major spending cuts; the 16-day shutdown in 2013, during the Barack Obama administration, caused by a dispute over implementation of the Affordable Care Act (ACA); and the longest, the 35-day shutdown of 2018–2019, during the Donald Trump administration, caused by a dispute over funding an expansion of barriers on the U.S.–Mexico border.

Shutdowns disrupt government services and programs; they close national parks and institutions. They reduce government revenue because fees are lost while at least some furloughed employees receive back pay. They reduce economic growth. During the 2013 shutdown, Standard & Poor's, the financial ratings agency, said on October 16 that the shutdown had "to date taken $24 billion out of the economy", and "shaved at least 0.6 percent off annualized fourth-quarter 2013 GDP growth".

Federal government

Overview
Under the separation of powers created by the United States Constitution, the appropriation and control of government funds for the United States is the sole responsibility of the United States Congress. Congress begins this process through proposing an appropriation bill aimed at determining the levels of spending for each federal department and government program. The finalized version of the bill is then voted upon by both the House of Representatives and the Senate. After it passes both chambers, it proceeds to the President of the United States to sign the bill into law.

Government shutdowns tend to occur when there is a disagreement over budget allocations before the existing cycle ends. Such disagreements can come from the president – through vetoing any finalized appropriation bills they receive – or from one or both chambers of Congress, often from the political party that has control over that chamber. A shutdown can be temporarily avoided through the enactment of a continuing resolution (CR), which can extend funding for the government for a set period, during which time negotiations can be made to supply an appropriation bill that all involved parties of the political deadlock on spending can agree upon.

A CR can be blocked by the same parties if there are issues with the content of the resolution bill that either party has a disagreement upon, in which case a shutdown will inevitably occur if a CR cannot be passed by the House, Senate or president. Congress may, in rare cases attempt to override a presidential veto of an appropriation bill or CR. Such an act requires there to be majority support of two-thirds of both chambers.

Prior to the 1980s, many federal agencies continued to operate during shutdowns, while minimizing all nonessential operations and obligations, believing that Congress did not intend that agencies close down while waiting for the enactment of annual appropriations acts or temporary appropriations. However, Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti issued two opinions in 1980 and 1981, that more strictly interpreted the Antideficiency Act in the context of a funding gap, along with its exceptions. The opinions stated that, with some exceptions, the head of an agency could avoid violating the Act only by suspending the agency's operations until the enactment of an appropriation. In the absence of appropriations, exceptions would be allowed only when there is some reasonable and articulable connection between the function to be performed and the safety of human life or the protection of property. However, even after the Civiletti opinions, not all funding gaps led to shutdowns. Of the nine funding gaps between 1980 and 1990, only four led to furloughs.

Shutdowns of the type experienced by the United States are nearly impossible in other forms of government:

 Under the parliamentary systems used in most European and Asian nations, stalemates within the government are much less likely, as the executive head of government (i.e. the prime minister) must be a member of the legislature majority, and must maintain the approval of the legislature to remain in power (confidence and supply).  Typically a legislature is suspended if a budget fails to pass (loss of supply), and the head of government must resign. Then the head of state may either appoint another member of legislature who can garner majority support, or dissolve the legislature and conduct fresh general elections.
 In other presidential systems, the executive branch typically has the authority to keep the government functioning even without an approved budget.

Effects

While government shutdowns prior to the 1995–1996 shutdowns had very mild effects, a full federal government shutdown causes a large number of civilian federal employees to be furloughed. During a government shutdown, furloughed government employees are prohibited from even checking their e-mail from home. To enforce this prohibition, many agencies require employees to return their government-issued electronic devices for the duration of the shutdown.

Because of the size of the government workforce, the effects of a shutdown can be seen in macroeconomic data. For example, with payment delayed to 1.3 million workers, and 800,000 employees locked out, confidence in the job market decreased but recovered within a month of the 2013 shutdown, and GDP growth slowed 0.1–0.2%. Still, the loss of GDP from a shutdown is a bigger sum than it would cost to keep the government open.

However, the complete effects of a shutdown are often clouded by missing data that cannot be collected while specific government offices are closed.

Additionally, some effects of the shutdown are difficult to directly measure, and are thought to cause residual impacts in the months following a shutdown. Some examples include destroyed scientific studies, lack of investment, and deferred maintenance costs. The length of the 2018–2019 shutdown curtailed safety and law enforcement investigations, caused air travel delays as essential workers stopped showing up, shut down some facilities for Native Americans and tourists, and delayed regulatory approvals and immigration hearings for non-detainees.

The exact details of which government functions stop during a shutdown is determined by the Office of Management and Budget.

What stays open

 "Emergency personnel" continue to be employed, including the active duty (Title 10) military, federal law enforcement agents, doctors and nurses working in federal hospitals, and air traffic controllers.
 Members of Congress continue to be paid, because their pay cannot be altered except by direct law.
 Mail delivery is not affected as it is self-funded and the funds are not appropriated by Congress.
 Sometimes the Washington, D.C. municipal government remains open. For example, during the 2013 shutdown, the city remained open because mayor Vincent C. Gray declared the entire municipal government to be essential.

What is shut down

 For the Department of Defense, at least half of the civilian workforce, and the full-time, dual-status military technicians in the US National Guard and traditional Guardsmen (those on Title 32 status) are furloughed and not paid while the shutdown is in effect.
 Programs that are funded by laws other than annual appropriations acts (like Social Security) may also be affected by a funding gap, if program execution relies on activities that receive annually appropriated funding.

Arguments for and against

During the 2013 shutdown, the moral philosopher Peter Singer argued in Slate, that shutdowns were evidence that the U.S. Constitution's separation of powers constituted "a fundamental flaw."

In 2019, following the end of the 2018–19 shutdown, Michael Shindler argued in The American Conservative that shutdowns protect popular sovereignty. He writes, "No other political phenomena so forcefully and dramatically obliges the whole people to recognize that their ideological divisions have become so great that the exercise of their sovereignty has become virtually impossible," and "During a shutdown, the government, which is bound by elaborate mechanisms to the national will, becomes confused. For a moment, it seems as if the march of American history is at a standstill. There are only two means of moving forward: either government officials follow the will of something other than the nation or the nation engages in a momentous reconciliation of its will."

List of federal shutdowns

This list includes only major funding gaps which led to actual employee furloughs within federal departments of the US government. It does not include funding gaps that did not involve shutdowns of government departments, in which examples include: a brief funding gap in 1982, in which nonessential workers were told to report to work but to cancel meetings and not perform their ordinary duties; a three-day funding gap in November 1983 that did not disrupt government services; and a 9-hour funding gap in February 2018 that did not disrupt government services.

1980

On 1 May 1980, during the presidential term of Jimmy Carter, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was shut down for one day after Congress failed to pass an appropriations bill for the agency, due to going against his political beliefs and goals. Prior to the shutdown, a review had been made of the 1884 Antideficiency Act regarding Congressional approval of agency funding. Initial opinion on the subject had been that this did not require a government agency to be closed down in the wake of the expiration of their funding, before Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti overruled this opinion with his own on 25 April 1980, stating that a provision of this act stipulated to the contrary. Five days later, the FTC was shutdown after Congress delayed funding for the agency, in order to seek approval for an authorization bill to limit the agency's investigative and rule-making abilities, following criticism of the FTC's aggressive monitoring of the economy.

The 1980 shutdown was the first time a federal agency shut down due to a budget dispute. Around 1,600 federal workers for the FTC were furloughed as a result, and Federal Marshals deployed to some FTC facilities to enforce their closure. The shutdown ended after one day when Carter threatened to close down the entire US government if Congress did not pass spending bills by 1 October later that year. Economists of the time estimated that the 1-day shutdown of the FTC cost the government around $700,000, the majority of which was back-pay for the furloughed workers. In the aftermath of the shutdown, Civiletti issued a revised edition of his original opinion on 18 January 1981, detailing that shutdowns would still require agencies that protect human safety or property to continue operating if funding for them expired.

1981, 1984, and 1986

In 1981, 1984, and 1986, federal employees were furloughed during both presidential terms of Ronald Reagan. The deadlocks focused on disagreements by Reagan towards Congressional bills that went against his political beliefs and goals. The first shutdown took place on 23 November 1981, lasting for a day and placing 241,000 federal employees into furlough, after Reagan vetoed a proposed appropriation bill that contained a reduced set of spending cuts than he had proposed for select government departments. While the shutdown affected only a number of government departments, economists of the time believed that it cost taxpayers an estimated $80–90 million in back pay and other expenses over the entire day.

The second shutdown occurred on the afternoon of 4 October 1984, with 500,000 federal employees placed on furlough during this period, after Reagan mounted opposition towards the inclusion of a water projects package and a civil rights measure within the proposed appropriations bill that day. The shutdown covered around nine of the 13 appropriations bills that had not been passed at that point. Congress was forced to remove both of the opposed elements of the bill and include funding of the Nicaraguan Contras as a compromise to end the shutdown. Economists believed that the short period cost taxpayers an estimated $65 million in back pay.

A third shutdown occurred for an afternoon on October 17, 1986, in which 500,000 federal employees were furloughed, in order to pressure Congress to agree on a full-year omnibus appropriations bill more quickly.  All government agencies were affected by this shutdown.  It ended after Congress passed the omnibus appropriations bill later that day.  Economists estimated that this shutdown cost the U.S. government $62 million in lost work.

1990

The shutdown of 1990 occurred during the presidential term of George H. W. Bush and focused on a disagreement over several measures he proposed for the 1991 appropriations bill - the inclusion of major tax increases, despite Bush's campaign promise against any new taxes, and major cuts in spending towards benefit programs, including Medicare, to combat the deficit. On 5 October 1990, liberal Democrats and conservative Republicans, led by then House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich, opposed the initial appropriations package, with Bush vetoing the second resolution to the spending bill the following day on 6 October.

The shutdown lasted until 9 October, when Bush agreed to remove his proposed tax increases and reduce the amount of spending cuts, in return for Congress providing a concession on the amended bill to allow for increasing income tax on the wealthy. The effects of the deadlock were lessened due to the fact that the shutdown occurred across the Columbus Day weekend - 6 October to 8 October. 2,800 workers were furloughed over this period. The national parks and museums, such as the Smithsonian, were closed, and a handful of departments unable to function. The cost to the government for lost revenue and back wages was estimated at $2.57 million.

1995–1996

Between 1995 and 1996, the US government faced two shutdowns during the presidential term of Bill Clinton, who opposed proposed appropriation bills for 1996 by congressional Republicans, who had a majority in both chambers, and House Speaker Newt Gingrich. Both Gingrich and the majority of Congress sought to pass bills that would reduce government spending, much against Clinton's political objectives for 1996. Clinton objected to funding cuts affecting education, the environment, and public health. One proposed bill threatened to block a scheduled reduction he had planned towards premiums within Medicare. Both sides had differing opinions over the impact the proposed House bills would have over economic growth, medical inflation, and anticipated revenues, with Clinton vetoing the bills over amendments added to them by congressional Republicans, despite Gingrich threatening to refuse to raise the country's debt ceiling.

The first shutdown took place on 14 November 1995, after a CR issued on 1 October had expired, and meetings between Democrat and Republican leaders failed to end the deadlock. The effect of the deadlock led to the majority of government departments being closed down and 800,000 federal workers being furloughed as a result. Although the shutdown ended five days later on 19 November, the political friction between Clinton and Gingrich over the US budget remained unresolved. On 16 December 1995, after further spending bills failed to secure approval, a second shutdown took place. Although lasting 21 days, fewer departments were closed down, and around 284,000 federal workers were furloughed during this period. The shutdown was eventually ended on 6 January 1996, when White House and Congressional negotiators worked out a balanced budget agreement, which included approval towards modest spending cuts and tax increases.

Both shutdowns had a contrasting impact on the major political players in the deadlock. Gingrich's political career was harmed by the shutdowns, in part due to a comment he made during the deadlock that made it sound like his reasons for it were petty. Clinton's presidential term was improved by the shutdown and cited as part of the reason behind his successful re-election to the White House in 1996.

Some effects of the shutdowns included the government, tourism, and airline industry losing millions of dollars in revenue during this period, with disruptions made towards the processing of passports and visas, and work on medical research and toxic waste cleanup being halted.

2013

The shutdown of 2013 occurred during the second Obama term, focusing on a disagreement between Republican-led House of Representatives and the Democratic-led Senate towards the contents of the 2014 Continuing Appropriations Resolution bill, alongside other political issues. Congressional Republicans, encouraged by conservative senators such as Ted Cruz, and conservative groups such as Heritage Action, sought to include several measures to the bill in late 2013 that could delay funding for the 2013 Affordable Care Act (ACA) and thus allow time for changes to be made to the act. Both Obama and Democratic senators refused to agree to these measures, seeking instead for the bill to maintain government funding at then-current sequestration levels with no additional conditions.

The shutdown took place on 1 October 2013, as a result of an impasse over the contents of the bill, with the House unable to approve any CRs before this date. Democrats opposed further efforts by congressional Republicans, led by House Speaker John Boehner, to delay funding of the ACA, and rejected piecemeal Resolution bills proposed by them to resolve the shutdown. As Congress was at an impasse amidst rising concerns that the US would default on public debt, US senators - particularly then Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell and then Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid - negotiated a deal to end the deadlock.

Their proposal, which won a Senate vote, approved an amended Resolution bill that would keep funding at sequestration levels, temporarily suspend the debt limit until 7 February 2014, and included a concession to congressional Republicans on the ACA by applying stricter income verification rules in regards to health insurance. Boehner eventually withdrew further objections and delaying attempts against the ACA upon the country being within hours of breaking its debt limit on 16 October 2013. Congress approved the bill for Obama's signature the following day.

The 16-day shutdown had considerable impact upon the United States: approximately 800,000 federal employees were put on furlough, while an additional 1.3 million had to report to work without any known payment dates during this period, costing the government millions in back pay; major government programmes concerning Native Americans, children, and domestic violence victims, alongside the legal processing of asylum and immigration cases, and sexual assault cases handled by the Office of Civil Rights, were badly disrupted by the shutdown; tourism was greatly impacted due to the closure of national parks and institutions during the shutdown and cost the government millions in lost revenue; and US economic growth was reduced during this period. In political circles, the shutdown had a negative impact on Republicans, as over half of Americans held Republicans accountable for the deadlock, in comparison to public opinion on the accountability of both the Democrats and Obama during this period.

January 2018

The shutdown of January 2018 was the first to occur during the presidential term of Donald Trump and was centered around a disagreement on the issue of immigration. By the start of October 2017, Congress had failed to approve an appropriation bill to fund the US government in 2018, and instead passed three CRs to keep federal agencies open until 19 January 2018. The failure to establish a permanent spending bill was due to Democratic senators insisting that any proposed House bill needed to include funding for the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) immigration policy and assurances against deportation for immigrants that fell under the DREAM Act. Republicans refused to pass such bills, citing that discussions on immigration and those individuals under DACA would not be held until mid-March of the following year.

A senate vote to extend the 2018 Continuing Appropriations Resolution on 19 January 2018, which had passed a congressional vote the previous day, failed to achieve a majority, after Democratic senators led a filibuster aimed at forcing Republicans to invoke a shorter duration of CR and thus invoke negotiations that could lead to extensions of the DACA policy. but failed to achieve a majority, as Democrats sought a shorter duration of CAR to force negotiations.

The shutdown took place on 20 January 2018, and led to approximately 692,000 federal workers being furloughed. An attempt by Democrats to protect the payment of military personnel during the deadlock was rejected by Republicans, after  Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell stated that funding had to be restored for the entire US government rather than for individual government branches. Despite the bill's failure, both sides engaged in negotiations that eventually culminated with a deal on a proposed stopgap measure to fund the government for four weeks - as part of the proposal, Democrats agreed to end their filibuster and approve the Republican's measure, in exchange for fresh talks on the DACA policy and DREAM Act within newly proposed Resolution bill. The measure was approved in the House and passed a Senate vote, effectively ending the shutdown on 23 January.

The impact of the shutdown was not as severe as in previous deadlocks - most government departments, such as the Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency, were able to continue their functions during the 3-day deadlock despite their workers needing back-pay in the aftermath, and only a third of National Parks in the United States were closed down. In the aftermath of the shutdown, the Senate debated on a bill for the 2018 Bipartisan Budget Act to provide 2-year funding for the military, and provide an extension to the Resolution to keep the government funded for another six weeks. However, the negotiations suffered delays that triggered the brief 9 February spending gap, though this merely lasted for nine hours, causing little disruption.

December 2018–January 2019

The shutdown of December 2018–January 2019 was the second to occur during the presidential term of Donald Trump, and was due to a disagreement over negotiations for Trump's wall along the Mexico–United States border. Trump sought to have the appropriation bill for 2019 include $5.7 billion in funding toward construction of the wall. Democrats viewed the wall as a waste of money and likely ineffective, and instead proposed bills that would fund improvements in existing border security measures. Trump initially backed down on demands for border wall funding, but reversed this decision on 20 December 2018 over pressure from supporters, refusing to sign any continuing resolution that did not include it.

The shutdown began on 22 December 2018, after Democrats refused to support a new continuing resolution in the Senate that included approximately $5 billion for the new border wall, and continued to block further attempts upon taking control of Congress on 3 January 2019 following the 2018 mid-term elections. Although he had support from several Republicans, including Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, Trump faced stiff opposition to border wall funding from House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer, with neither party able to break the political impasse through negotiations, rallying public support through televised addresses, offering proposals on alternative border security funding measures, or making concessions for a proposed appropriation bill with regards to the DACA policy.

The 35-day shutdown, the longest in US history after surpassing the 21-day shutdown of 1995–1996, led to 380,000 federal workers being furloughed, and an additional 420,000 workers were required to work without any known payment dates, forcing many to find other paid work or protest against the extended period of the deadlock. Sharp reductions had to be made on payments from the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, the Internal Revenue Service faced delays in processing around $140 billion worth of tax refunds, the FBI faced major disruptions to some of its investigations, staff shortages in the Transportation Security Administration caused airports to be closed down, and economic growth was reduced by billions of dollars.

The deadlock ended on 25 January 2019, when both chambers of Congress approved a plan to reopen the US government for 3 weeks, in order to facilitate negotiations for a suitable appropriation bill; Trump endorsed the plan amidst rising security and safety concerns. A source inside the White House told CNN that a "contributing catalyst" to the end of the shutdown was a significant number of absences of air traffic controllers, which caused significant flight delays and cancellations.

According to the Congressional Budget Office, the shutdown cost the government $3 billion in back pay for furloughed workers, plus $2 billion in lost tax revenues due to reduced tax evasion compliance activities by the Internal Revenue Service, and a smaller amount of lost fees such as for visits to national parks, for a total of about $5 billion.

2023
A shutdown was headed off in September 2023 when Congress led by Speaker Kevin McCarthy and Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer passed and President Joe Biden signed a short-term bill to keep the federal government open from the start of fiscal 2024 on October 1 until mid-November.

State and territorial governments

County governments

See also

 Loss of supply
 Budget crisis
 Deficit spending
 Cabinet crisis
 Constitutional crisis
 Gridlock (politics)
 Fiscal policy
 Generational accounting
 Lockout

U.S.
 Deficit hawk
 Taxation in the United States
 Fiscal policy of the United States
 National debt by U.S. presidential terms
 Starve the beast
 United States federal budget
 National debt of the United States
 Appropriations bill (United States)

References

External links
 Congressional Research Service: Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects
 Government Shutdown: A Closer Look

Government finances in the United States

Government shutdowns in the United States


In mathematics, order dual may refer to:

 Converse relation of a partial order is sometimes called its order dual. Also called its dual order or its transpose, inverse, opposite, or converse.
 Duality (order theory), duality principle for ordered sets
 Order dual (functional analysis), set of all differences of any two positive linear functionals on an ordered vector space

Order dual


The 1946 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Game took place on March 26, 1946 between the North Carolina Tar Heels and Oklahoma A&M Aggies at Madison Square Garden in New York City, New York. The match-up was the final one of the eighth consecutive NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship single-elimination tournament — commonly referred to as the NCAA Tournament — organized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and is used to crown a national champion for men's basketball at the Division I level.

The Aggie won their second consecutive NCAA Men's Basketball National Championship. Bob Kurland was named the NCAA basketball tournament Most Outstanding Player for his efforts throughout the tournament, an honor which he won in the previous year's tournament.

Background

North Carolina Tar Heels

The North Carolina Tar Heels, or White Phantoms, entered the season being coached by Ben Carnevale.

Oklahoma A&M Aggies

Coach Henry Iba and the Oklahoma A&M Aggies won the national championship game the previous season, where they defeated New York University by four points to claim the national title. The team returned most of the roster from the year before and the team was expected to be successful as the prior year. Sam Aubrey, a player who enlisted in 1943 and was deployed in World War II, returned to the team. Aubrey had sustained an injury during combat, but after intense rehab, he returned to the level of play he had been at before he left and was placed in the starting line up. The Aggies finished the regular season with a 28-2 record and won the Missouri Valley Conference. All five starters for the Aggies were named first team all-conference.

Media coverage

The media believed that the Aggies' chances of winning depended on the play of Bob Kurland, the nation's leading scorer. An Associated Press writer believed that if Kurland played like he had in the past eleven games, then the Aggies would be the first team to repeat as NCAA champions. Sportswriters believed that if McKinney – who was assigned to guard Kurland – could play well enough defense and Dillon make enough shots, the Tar Heels would have a chance at winning.

Broadcast

This was the first NCAA Tournament to have a game televised. The game was broadcast across only the greater New York area and reached close to 500,000 people.

Box score

Source:

References

Citations

Bibliography

NCAA Basketball Championship Game
NCAA Division I men's basketball championship games
North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball
Oklahoma State Cowboys basketball
Basketball in New York City
College sports in New York City
Sports competitions in New York City
NCAA Basketball Championship Game
NCAA Basketball Championship Game
1940s in Manhattan
Madison Square Garden

1946 NCAA basketball championship game


The Ingeborg Psalter  is a late 12th century illuminated psalter now housed in the  Musée Condé of Chantilly, France.

It was created about 1195 in northern France for Ingeborg of Denmark, wife of King Philip II of France. It is unknown who commissioned the Psalter for Ingeborg, but it may have been commissioned by either Stephen of Tournai or Eleanor, Countess of Vermandois. It is one of the most significant surviving examples of early Gothic painting.

The manuscript was prayerbook for private devotionals and contains a calendar, the 150 Psalms in Latin plus other liturgical texts. There are 200 extent folios. The text is written in an early Gothic minuscule.

External links

Link to the manuscript in its entirety on the IRHT website

 Jesse Tree: Ingeborg Psalter on "All About Mary" The University of Dayton's Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute (IMRI) is the world's largest repository of books, artwork and artifacts devoted to Mary, the mother of Christ, and a pontifical center of research and scholarship with a vast presence in cyberspace.

1190s books
12th-century illuminated psalters
Illuminated manuscripts of the Musée Condé

Ingeborg Psalter