A Musen-Almanach ("Muses' Almanac") was a kind of literary annual, popular in Germany from 1770 into the mid-19th century. They were modelled on the Almanach des Muses published in Paris from 1765.

Development in the 1770s
The first example was Johann Christian Dieterich's Göttinger Musenalmanach (GMA) of 1770. It was promoted by the mathematician Abraham Gotthelf Kästner, and published by Heinrich Christian Boie (in partnership with Friedrich Wilhelm Gotter). As a literary outlet for students at the University of Göttingen, it received contributions from Johann Heinrich Voss, Ludwig Christoph Heinrich Hölty, Johann Martin Miller and his relative Gottlob Dietrich Miller, Johann Friedrich Hahn, Johann Thomas Ludwig Wehrs, Johann Anton Leisewitz, and others. In 1774 Boie made Voss editor, but Voss soon left for Hamburg and started a competing almanac; in spring 1775, he was replaced by Leopold Friedrich Günther Goeckingk; he was joined the next year by Gottfried August Bürger, who became sole editor in 1779. After Bürger's death in 1795 he was replaced by Karl Reinhard.

A semi-pirated imitation by Engelhard Benjamin Schwickert, Leipziger Almanach der deutschen Musen, simultaneously appeared in Leipzig. Despite including nineteen stolen items, it was on sale before the GMA. The editor was Christian Heinrich Schmid, and in subsequent years it would include the work of Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim and Karl Wilhelm Ramler. From 1776 it was titled Leipziger Musen-Almanach, and from 1782 Benjamin took over as editor.

The third almanac to appear was that of the Johann Heinrich Voss previously mentioned, the Hamburger Musenalmanach. The first issue of 1776 lost money, and Voss transferred management to Carl Ernst Bohn, but continued to edit, with the help (from 1779 to 1786) of Goeckingk.

In Vienna in 1777, the Wienerischer Musenalmanach (or Wiener Musen-Almanach from 1786) appeared. The editor was Joseph Franz von Ratschky, and he was joined by Aloys Blumauer in 1781, and later by Gottlieb von Leon and Martin Joseph Prandstätter. The last issue appeared in 1796.

Schiller's Musenalmanach

Other similar almanacs were less successful, including Friedrich Schiller's Anthologie (1782) which only appeared once. His second attempt was Musen-Almanach (1796–1800) which is the most famous example in the entire genre, because of the contributors: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Johann Gottfried Herder, Ludwig Tieck, Friedrich Hölderlin and August Wilhelm Schlegel.

Inspired by his example, there followed Musenalmanache by August Wilhelm Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck (Tübingen 1802), by Johann Bernhard Vermehren (Leipzig 1802 and Jena 1803), the Musenalmanach by Adelbert von Chamisso and Karl August Varnhagen von Ense (1804–1806), the Poetische Taschenbuch of Friedrich Schlegel (Berlin 1805–1806) and the Musenalmanach edited by Leo von Seckendorf (Regensburg 1807–1808).

Mass marketing, and Taschenbücher
The heyday of the almanac was perhaps the 1820s, during which decade they gradually began to appear in England in an etiolated form as literary annuals. In 1823, a writer in the European Magazine of London commented:

In Germany, the most popular species of work is what is called their Almanacs. The booksellers are generally concerned in such speculations, and there is scarce a toilette on which one or several of them are not to be found. Such works contain the coups d'essai of swarms of maiden authors, and with the ephemeral and lighter pieces of writers whose reputation is established. Some of these Almanacs are of a more serious and useful character, and the whole of them are generally bound with taste and fancy, and are ornamented with elegant engravings.

The Musen-Almanach was gradually superseded by the Taschenbuch ("pocket book") and by the literary magazine as we know it today — some still bearing the word Musenalmanach in their titles. However, short-lived annuals of the same kind continued to appear as late as the 1860s.

Notes

Bibliography
 Carl Christian Redlich: Versuch eines Chiffernlexikons zu den Göttinger, Voßischen, Schillerschen und Schlegel-Tieckschen Musenalmanachen. Meißner, Hamburg 1875
 Hans Köhring: Bibliographie der Almanache, Kalender und Taschenbücher für die Zeit von ca. 1750 bis 1860. Self-published, Hamburg 1929. Reprinted Bad Karlshafen 1987.
 York-Gothart Mix: Kalender? Ey wie viel Kalender!. Literarische Almanache zwischen Rokoko und Klassizismus. HAB, Wolfenbüttel 1986, .
 York-Gothart Mix: Die deutschen Musen-Almanache des 18.Jahrhunderts. Beck, München 1987.
 York-Gothart Mix: Populäre Almanache im frühmodernen Europa. De Gruyter, Berlin 2002. .
 Maria Gräfin Lanckoronska, Arthur Rümann: Geschichte der deutschen Taschenbücher und Almanache aus der klassisch-romantischen Zeit. H. Th. Wenner, Osnabrück 1985.

External links

 Digitalisat des Wienerischen Musenalmanachs auf das Jahr 1777
 Inhaltsverzeichnis deutscher Almanache (1770–1850)

1770 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Annual magazines published in Germany
Defunct literary magazines published in Germany
German-language magazines
Magazines established in 1770
Magazines established in 1796

Musen-Almanach


Redwood Heights is a primarily middle-class and highly diverse residential neighborhood in the hills of East Oakland, California. It is centered on Redwood Road, which was once a logging road. Redwood Road is the designation for 35th Avenue, starting about one mile north of MacArthur Boulevard between Victor Avenue and the Warren Freeway (California State Route 13). It lies at an elevation of 476 feet (145 m).

Redwood Heights Elementary School and the recreation center serve as the heart of the community. The recreation center also serves as an after-school daycare for the school and nearby area. Another feature of the neighborhood is Avenue Terrace Park, also known as Jordan Park, located at Jordan Road and Bennett Place.

The homes in Redwood Heights primarily originated between the 1920s and 1950s, showcasing a wide range of architectural styles. These styles include craftsman, "storybook," and ranch designs.

Redwood Heights has the important distinction of being one of Oakland's most ethnically diverse neighborhoods with a primarily middle-class population. The 2010 Census reflects the primary zip code (94619) for the neighborhood as having about 23,200 residents, with Caucasians making up about 29.9% of the population, African Americans 26.2%, Asians 22%, and Latinos 16.1%, with other races forming the remaining 5.8%.

History
1820s
Before 1820, the native peoples in the area were probably the Jalquin-Irgen people. A bench in Leona Canyon behind Merritt College acknowledges them and their descendants. These California Native Americans saw themselves inextricably bound to the living world. They were free of such concepts as "land ownership" and "natural resources." What's more, they would have seen a person isolated from the community as having as much meaning as a "finger severed from a hand." The first non-native culture to touch this world were the Spanish-Californios whose vast land grant, Peralta, is the name of the creek that meanders under and through the streets on the west side of Redwood Road.

1840s
When the US took California from the Mexicans in the Mexican–American War in 1848, the Peralta family fought in court to keep their lands, represented by a Yankee lawyer who promised to help them.
Meanwhile, more than one hundred men in nine lumber mills logged the giant redwoods above what is now Skyline Boulevard. The majestic redwoods reached so high that they could be seen shipside from the bay. Working by hand, it took two men perched on a board wedged in a notch in the trunk a whole day of hacking away at one giant to send it crashing to the forest floor. One felled ancient - estimated to be over a thousand years old - measured 33.5 feet in diameter. The loggers then stripped the redwood of its branches, prized for its resistance to rot and insects, and split it into boards by drilling holes and stuffing them with dynamite. Teams of oxen lugged the lumber down the roads - including a Redwood Road which was so narrow that many years later, every Sunday, according to one reminiscence, at least one Model T belonging to a picnicker would spin its wheels off the edge.

1860s
By 1860, the forest was stripped.

1880s
In the 1880s, for a few heart-stopping days, Oakland thought it had the beginning of its own gold rush in what is now the Lincoln Square Shopping Center. But the finding proved to be pyrite or fool's gold.
More valuable to the community, however, was the vision of a writer-poet born Cincinnatus Miller, who renamed himself Joaquin—after Joaquin Murieta, the "Mexican Robin Hood," hero to the Californios and the most famous outlaw of the Gold Rush.
Joaquin Miller, who donned a John Muir-like beard and boots, not only single-handedly planted on the clear-cut hills 70,000 trees—many of them the unfortunately flammable eucalyptus—but willed to the public trust after his death his vast land holdings, preserving for the generations the open space five minutes from our homes. The park, threaded by walking trails that were probably first cut by loggers and horse ranchers, is a combination of Joaquin Miller's visionary industry. The second growth of the redwood forest, now in about its sixteenth decade, and said to be the oldest second-growth redwood forest in the West.

1900s
After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire, the refugees came streaming to our side of the bay—filling the Fruitvale District and venturing up the hill.

1920s
The neighborhood known today as Redwood Heights began as a subdivision in the 1920s called Avenue Terrace (the official name of Jordan Park). Oakland's growing downtown middle class was seeking new accommodations, and a 1925 advertisement called the new neighborhood "the Piedmont of East Oakland." The Oakland Tribune of the day extolled its "beautifully wooded hillsides...the pleasure in hiking and riding horseback...excellent climate...and...marine view." A house and the land it stood on sold for about $5,000. Two grocery stores, a hair salon, a drug store, a liquor store, and a shoe repair, served customers at Monterey and Redwood. However, sales literature of the time euphemistically suggested that no one but European-Americans need apply.
There were now streetcar lines and more neighbors. On today's Redwood Heights Elementary School site, Mr. DuBois owned a nursery where he grew cut flowers to sell to local florists.

1930s
Developers carved out more plots in the 1930s: the Sunset Manor subdivision on upper 35th and Victor and then Redwood Gardens at Redwood and Detroit. The initial development in the neighborhood was called Avenue Terrace, which can be identified by a notable rock/stone "obelisk" situated at the corner of 35th Ave and Victor. This obelisk likely served as a marker for the Avenue Terrace development.

In the 1930s, some neighborhood residents privately paid to install streets and sidewalks in front of their homes—each homeowner paying about $1,900 over the next ten years.

1940s
Several neighbors founded the Redwood Heights Improvement Association in 1944. "Improvement" was a veiled reference to segregation.

1950s
Post World War II, from about 1947 to 1964, Americans everywhere turned their tax monies to building highways—including Hwy 13, commissioned in 1947 and named for US Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren, and Hwy 580, completed in the 1960s and named for General Douglas MacArthur.

The removal in the 1950s of Oakland's streetcar lines (known as the Key System), the resulting dominance of car culture, the swiftness of transportation, and the increased density of housing stock have all dramatically changed the ecology and sociology of Redwood Heights.

1960s
Not until the powerful civil rights movement of the 1960s did the neighborhood literally open its doors to multiple cultures.

In the early 1960s, Developers completed the Lincoln Square Shopping Center for about $500,000 and the new Holy Names College.

There are several redwood trees on the school premises, and in 1963, one was planted in remembrance of John F Kennedy.

1970s
Herb and Ethel Sandal managed the Improvement Association almost single-handedly in the 1970s. They presided over the widening and straightening of Redwood Road—a project meant to deal with the traffic generated by the new housing development in the Crestmont Neighborhood on the west side of Redwood above Highway 13. The Sandals had themselves come of age in an era of open racism (the law against interracial marriage was not rescinded in California until 1949). They sweated through the taking of homes on the west side of Redwood Road through eminent domain. They fought the proposals for putting in their place apartment houses and multi-unit low-income housing—in favor of the small, neatly kept single-family homes which, ironically, for people who believed that "improvement" meant low-ethnic-diversity, immediately welcomed a host of new immigrant families whose contributions have helped make Redwood Heights the culturally intriguing place it is today.

1980s
After the 1989 earthquake, the city rebuilt the elementary school to meet the updated stringent safety standards.

Redwood Heights Improvement Association changed its name to the Redwood Heights Neighborhood Association in the 1980s when neighbors changed its purpose to support the elementary school and encourage the socializing that makes for a pleasant and safe way of life.

2010s
In 2015, the Redwood Heights Neighborhood Association changed its name to Redwood Heights Association, removing its geographical boundaries to serve as a nonprofit organization for all of Oakland. Its focus is on Bringing People Together, and it is dedicated to substantially improving the quality of life for Oakland residents by hosting community events and spearheading capital improvement projects.  Historical articles about the area are available on the Redwood Heights Association website.

References

External links
 Redwood Heights Association
Redwood Heights Recreation Center

Neighborhoods in Oakland, California

Redwood Heights, Oakland, California


Lake Yoa is the most famous, and second largest of the Lakes of Ounianga, a series of Lakes in Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region basin of northeastern Chad. It is  located in the Ounianga Kebir about 40 km west of Ounianga Sarir. These lakes are remnants of a much larger lake which occupied this basin during the African Humid period which lasted from approximately 15,000 to 5,500 years before present. There are currently 15 lakes in the basin with a total surface area of approximately  square.

Climate change
Lake Yoa recently became of interest in the study of global climate trends when a team headed by Stefan Kröpelin, of the University of Cologne, recovered a core of sediment from the bottom of the lake.  Because Lake Yoa has been in existence continuously since the Humid Period its waters have protected the sediments accumulated at the bottom from erosion and dispersal.  After analysis of the pollen preserved in the core, Kröpelin and his colleagues concluded that the shift from forest to desert in the area of Lake Yoa occurred gradually, with intervening periods of scrubland and grassland before the onset of full desert conditions.  This conclusion contrasts with work done by Peter deMenocal of Columbia University and colleagues, who in 2000 drilled a core of ocean sediment off the western coast of Mauritania.  Because of the dust levels in this core deMenocal and his co-authors concluded that desert conditions came on quickly, over a period of a few centuries.

The discrepancies between these two accounts are not surprising given the differences in the data examined.  The ocean core represents what is essentially a mass survey of the entire northern portion of the African land mass while the Lake Yoa data would survey more specifically conditions in the areas to the south and west of it, which supplied material to the prevailing trade winds of Holocene time before they crossed Lake Yoa.  It is possible both that, northern Africa became quickly and generally drier, and that, in specific areas the process of desertification moved through a series of more gradual ecological transitions. (Ranson, 2008). The second report also did not take into account the geographic distance Lake Yoa is from the Atlantic Ocean. A distance of over 2000 Kilometers.

References

Yoa

Lake Yoa


(also rendered shimpa) is a modern form of theater in Japan, usually featuring melodramatic stories, contrasted with the more traditional kabuki style. Taking its start in the 1880s, it later spread to cinema.

Art form
Theatre historians have characterized shinpa as a transitional movement, closely associated with the Meiji restoration, whose primary rationale was the rejection of "old" values in favor of material that would appeal to a partially westernized urban middle class which still maintained some traditional habits of thought. Some of the innovations associated with shinpa included shortened performance times, the re-introduction of female performers to the stage, the abolition of teahouses that had previously controlled ticket sales, and the frequent adaptation of western classics, such as the plays of Shakespeare and The Count of Monte Cristo. It eventually earned the name shinpa (literally meaning "new school") to contrast it from kyūha ("old school" or kabuki) due its more contemporary and realistic stories. Social and political struggles became new dramatic subjects, as did patriotic events. Aesthetically, shinpa performances distinguished themselves by darkened auditoriums, orchestra areas and scenery changes, and elaborate stage lighting.

History
The roots of shinpa can be traced to a form of agitation propaganda theater in the 1880s promoted by Liberal Party members Sadanori Sudō and Otojirō Kawakami. After the dissolution of the Liberal Party in 1884, Sudō became a founding member of the Dainippon geigeki kyōfūkai ("Great Japan society for the reformation of theatre") as a means of an opposition against the conservative government, but its impact was only modest. Kawakami formed his own theatre troupe in 1891 and celebrated his biggest success with the patriotic play Kawakami Otojirō semchi kenbunki ("Kawakami Otojirō reports from the battlefield"), which thematised Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War. Beginning in 1903, Kawakami and his wife Yakko Sada, who both had previously appeared on stage in Europe, introduced plays by Shakespeare, Maurice Maeterlinck and Victorien Sardou to Japanese audiences.

As a theatrical form, shinpa was most successful in the early 1900s as the works of novelists such as Kyōka Izumi, Kōyō Ozaki, and Roka Tokutomi were adapted for the stage. Notable groups were the Seibikan, the Seibidan, the Isamiengeki and the Hongōza, and actors like Yōhō Ii, Minoru Takada and Rokurō Kitamura grew to fame and shaped the new movement. Although only short-lived, the Seibidan troupe was successful with a more conservative form that was closer to kabuki than to the later shingeki ("new drama") because of its continued use of onnagata and off-stage music.

On the stage, shinpa was less successful after the Taishō era, but playwrights such as Matsutarō Kawaguchi, actresses like Yaeko Mizutani and actors like Kitamura and Shōtarō Hanayagi helped keep the form alive. Shinpa also had an influence on modern Korean theater through the shinp'a (신파) genre.

Spread to cinema
With the introduction of cinema in Japan, shinpa became one of the first film genres in opposition again to kyūha films, as many films were based on shinpa plays. Some shinpa stage actors like Masao Inoue were heavily involved in film, and a form called rensageki ("chain drama") appeared which mixed film (for exterior scenes) and theater on stage. With the rise of the reformist Pure Film Movement in the 1910s, which strongly criticized shinpa films for their melodramatic tales of women suffering from the strictures of class and social prejudice, films about contemporary subjects eventually were called gendaigeki in opposition to historical jidaigeki by the 1920s, even though shinpa stories continued to be made into films for decades to come.

See also
 Theatre of Japan
 Cinema of Japan

Notes

External links
 Gekidan Shinpa official page (in Japanese)

Theatrical genres
Theatre in Japan
History of film of Japan
Film genres

Shinpa


The Apple Loops Utility software was a small companion utility for Soundtrack Pro, GarageBand, Logic Express, and Logic Pro, all made by Apple Inc. that allowed users to create loops of audio that could be time-stretched.  Audio files converted to Apple Loops via Apple Loops Utility could also be tagged with their publishing (Author, Comments tagged at the same time, a process known but it would convert the latter to AIFF when saved with tagging information).

The most recent version available without purchasing the aforementioned software was 3.0.1, which was available from Apple's Developer Web site. Version 1.4, which was the first  version of the software, was available with Logic Pro or Express 7.2. It allowed multiple files to have multiple tags added to them, and it also allowed content merging to occur with Logic Audio Express. Only version 1.4 and beyond worked natively with Intel Macs. Version 1.3.1 appeared to allow edits to be made and file information to be saved, but none of the essential tagging information could be retained on an Intel Mac. Version 3.0.1, the last one released, fully supported Intel Macs up to macOS Sierra 10.12.6.

External links and references
 Apple Loops Utility (DMG)
 Apple Loops Utility SDK 3.0.1 (DMG)

Loops Utility
Audio editors
MacOS multimedia software

Apple Loops Utility


Roger Mayweather (April 24, 1961 – March 17, 2020) was an American professional boxer and trainer. He was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Mayweather competed from 1981 to 1999, and until 2020, had worked as a boxing trainer. He was a two-weight world champion, having held the WBA and lineal super featherweight titles from 1983 to 1984, and the WBC light welterweight title from 1987 to 1989.

He held the IBO light welterweight title in 1994, and the IBO welterweight title from 1994 to 1995.

Roger was a part of the Mayweather boxing family: his brothers are Floyd Mayweather Sr. and Jeff Mayweather, and his nephew is Floyd Mayweather Jr. Roger was Mayweather Jr.'s trainer from 2000 to 2012.

Mayweather died on March 17, 2020 in Las Vegas, Nevada from diabetes-related problems, aged 58.

References

1961 births
2020 deaths
Deaths from diabetes
African-American boxers
Sportspeople from Grand Rapids, Michigan

Roger Mayweather


The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study (ADCS) was founded at University of California San Diego in 1991 and coordinates clinical trials of candidate treatments for Alzheimer's disease.  It is funded by the National Institutes of Health as well as companies that develop drugs.  As of 2008, 75 research sites in the United States and Canada were part of the consortium. Leon Thal served as director until February 2007, when he died;  Paul Aisen was recruited to succeed him.   In 2006, the NIH awarded $52 million to ADCS to fund 6 years of further clinical trials.

In 2013 Eli Lilly committed to spending $76.6 million on clinical trials through the center.

The center has coordinated important clinical trials on AD drugs like  solanezumab.

Aisen left UCSD in 2015 because he was unhappy with the level of support that UCSD was providing him and due to USC's offer.  UCSD and USC ended up in litigation over control of the ADCS and its research data, which at that time involved six ongoing clinical trials and data collected on thousands of clinical trial subjects.  Part of the dispute arose because Aisen's lab had uploaded the data from the ADCS onto Amazon Cloud servers and would not give the passwords to UCSD officials. Some aspects of data management were temporarily settled in 2016; as of 2017 the litigation was ongoing. The lawsuit was settled in 2019.

References

Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study


Liu Zhen  (; 3 March 1915 – 20 August 1992), or Liu You'an (刘幼安), was a general in the Chinese People's Liberation Army.

Biography

Early life
Tang was born into a poor peasant household in Xiaogan County, Hubei Province. As a youth, he joined the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army in 1930. He participated in guerrilla warfare against Nationalist Forces during the 3rd Encirclement Campaign. He joined the Chinese Communist Party in August 1932. In 1933, he was transferred into the 25th Red Army. As the political commissar for the 224th Regiment of the 75th Division of the Army, he participated in the assault of Changlinggang and attacking Taihu County.

Following the Long March in November 1933, he was appointed as the joint political commissar (with Han Xianchu) for the 225th Regiment. The regiment scored various victories and Tang suffered multiple wounds during battle. In 1936 he was enrolled into the Counter-Japanese Military and Political University and later made the political commissar for the 75th Division.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War
Following the outbreak of war, the 75th Division was reorganized to become part of the 115th Division in the Eighth Route Army, participating in the Battle of Pingxingguan. Tang was also appointed as the Director of the Division's Political Department. He led forces to flank Japanese forces who were encroached in Taiyuan.

Following the New Fourth Army Incident, Tang was named the Commander of the 10th Brigade under the reformed Fourth Army. The Brigade would later be reorganized into the 3rd Division. In September 1942 he held various commands, such as being the Huaihai Army Division Commander, deputy secretary of the CPC Northern Region, Huaihai prefecture's party secretary. He participated in counter-offensives against the Imperial Japanese Army in Northern China.

Formation of the PRC
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, he participated in the Guangxi Campaign. During the Korean War, he was appointed Air Force Commander of the Chinese People's Volunteers.

References

1915 births
1992 deaths
Chinese revolutionaries
People of the Chinese Civil War
People from Xiaogan
People's Liberation Army generals from Hubei
Victims of the Cultural Revolution

Liu Zhen (PRC)


The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 or AMAAA was a law passed by the UK government, the latest in a series of Ancient Monument Acts legislating to protect the archaeological heritage of England and Wales, and Scotland.  Northern Ireland has its own legislation.

Section 61(12) defines sites that warrant protection due to their being of national importance as 'ancient monuments'. These can be either scheduled monuments or "any other monument which in the opinion of the Secretary of State is of public interest by reason of the historic, architectural, traditional, artistic or archaeological interest attaching to it". If an ancient monument is scheduled then it gains additional legal protection.

A monument is defined as:

Damage to a scheduled monument is a criminal offence and any works taking place within one require scheduled monument consent from the Secretary of State.

The Act also provides for taking ancient monuments into the care of the Secretary of State – the concept of 'guardianship' where an ancient monument remains in private ownership but the monument is cared for and (usually) opened to the public by the relevant national heritage body.

The Act (in Part II) also introduced the concept of areas of archaeological importance (AAI), city centres of historic significance which receive limited further protection by forcing developers to permit archaeological access prior to building work starting.  As of 2004 only five city centres, all in England, have been designated AAIs (Canterbury, Chester, Exeter, Hereford and York). Part II of the Act was never commenced in Scotland.

As the provisions in AAIs are limited compared with the requirements that can be made of developers through the NPPF, and formerly its predecessors in PPS5 and PPG16, AAIs have fallen out of use.

The law is administered in England by Historic England and the Department of Culture, Media and Sport, in Scotland by Historic Environment Scotland and in Wales by Cadw.

See also
Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882
Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900
Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1910
Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913
Ancient Monuments Act 1931

References

External links

Historic Scotland Website – a page about Ancient Monuments of Scotland, which also includes a downloadable copy of the Act.

United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1979
Archaeology of England
Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning England and Wales
Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning Scotland
Archaeology of Scotland
Archaeology of Wales
Archaeology law
Conservation in the United Kingdom


Plastic colorants are chemical compounds used to color plastic. Those compounds come in a form of dyes and pigments. The type of a colorant is chosen based on the type of a polymeric resin, that needs to be colored.  Dyes are usually used with polycarbonates, polystyrene and acrylic polymers. Pigments are better suited for use with polyolefins.

The colorant must satisfy various constraints, for example, the compound must be chemically compatible with the base resin, be a suitable match with a color standard (see e.g. International Color Consortium), be chemically stable, which in this case means being able to survive the stresses and processing temperature (heat stability) in the fabrication process and be durable enough to match the life duration of the product.

The parameters of the compound vary with a desired effect, which may include the final product being pearlescent, metallic, fluorescent, phosphorescent, thermochromic or photochromic.

The exact chemical formula will furthermore depend on the type of application: general purpose, food contact item, toy, package subject to CONEG, etc.

Different methods for delivering colorants in molding plastics include masterbatches (concentrates), a method which involves a concentrate being separated into resin,  cube blends ("salt & pepper mixes" - dry blending) which are natural polymers, already sprayed into natural polymers, surface coating, and precolored resins, which involve using precolored materials to make manufacturing cheaper.

Examples

See also
Liquid color
Vinyl dye
Fuel dyes

References

Plastics additives
Dyes
Pigments

Plastic colorant


Forquilhinha is a municipality in the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina. In 2020, it had a population of 27,211 inhabitants. It covers an area of 184,557 km² at an altitude of 42 meters above sea level. It is the native town of cardinal Paulo Evaristo Arns and his sister Zilda Arns.

The city is served by Diomício Freitas Airport.

References

Municipalities in Santa Catarina (state)

Forquilhinha


A camera is an optical instrument used to capture and store images and videos, either digitally via an electronic image sensor, or chemically via a light-sensitive material such as photographic film. As a pivotal technology in the fields of photography and videography, cameras have played a significant role in the progression of visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and scientific research. The invention of the camera dates back to the 19th century and has since evolved with advancements in technology, leading to a vast array of types and models in the 21st century.

Cameras function through a combination of various mechanical components and principles. These include exposure control, which regulates the amount of light reaching the sensor or film; the lens, which focuses the light; the viewfinder, which allows the user to preview the scene; and the film or sensor, which captures the image.

Several types of cameras exist, each suited to specific uses and offering unique capabilities. Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras provide real-time, exact imaging through the lens. Large-format and medium-format cameras offer higher image resolution and are often used in professional and artistic photography. Compact cameras, known for their portability and simplicity, are popular in consumer photography. Rangefinder cameras, with separate viewing and imaging systems, were historically widely used in photojournalism. Motion picture cameras are specialized for filming cinematic content, while digital cameras, which became prevalent in the late 20th and early 21st century, use electronic sensors to capture and store images.

The rapid development of smartphone camera technology in the 21st century has blurred the lines between dedicated cameras and multifunctional devices, profoundly influencing how society creates, shares, and consumes visual content.

History

19th century
Beginning with the use of the camera obscura and transitioning to complex photographic cameras, the evolution of the technology in the 19th century was driven by pioneers like Thomas Wedgwood, Nicéphore Niépce, and Henry Talbot. First using the camera obscura for chemical experiments, they ultimately created cameras specifically for chemical photography, and later reduced the camera's size and optimized lens configurations.

The introduction of the daguerreotype process in 1839 facilitated commercial camera manufacturing, with various producers contributing diverse designs. As camera manufacturing became a specialized trade in the 1850s, designs and sizes were standardized.

The latter half of the century witnessed the advent of dry plates and roll-film, prompting a shift towards smaller and more cost-effective cameras, epitomized by the original Kodak camera, first produced in 1888. This period also saw significant advancements in lens technology and the emergence of color photography, leading to a surge in camera ownership.

20th century
The first half of the 20th century saw continued miniaturization and the integration of new manufacturing materials. After World War I, Germany took the lead in camera development, spearheading industry consolidation and producing precision-made cameras. The industry saw significant product launches such as the Leica camera and the Contax, which were enabled by advancements in film and lens designs. Additionally, there was a marked increase in accessibility to cinematography for amateurs with Eastman Kodak's production of the first 16-mm and 8-mm reversal safety films. The World War II era saw a focus on the development of specialized aerial reconnaissance and instrument-recording equipment, even as the overall pace of non-military camera innovation slowed.

In the second half of the century, Japanese manufacturers in particular advanced camera technology. From the introduction of the affordable Ricohflex III TLR in 1952 to the first 35mm SLR with automatic exposure, the Olympus AutoEye in 1960, new designs and features continuously emerged. Electronics became integral to camera design in the 1970s, evident in models like Polaroid's SX-70 and Canon's AE-1.

Transition to digital photography marked the late 20th century, culminating in digital camera sales surpassing film cameras in the United States by 2003. In contrast, the film camera industry in the UK, Western Europe, and the USA declined during this period, while manufacturing continued in the USSR, German Democratic Republic, and China, often mimicking Western designs.

21st century
The 21st century witnessed the mass adoption of digital cameras and significant improvements in sensor technology. A major revolution came with the incorporation of cameras into smartphones, making photography a commonplace activity. The century also marked the rise of computational photography, using algorithms and AI to greatly enhance image quality. Features like low-light and HDR photography, optical image stabilization, and depth-sensing became common in smartphone cameras.

Mechanics

Most cameras capture light from the visible spectrum, while specialized cameras capture other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared.

All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light enters the camera.

Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded, along with means to adjust various combinations of focus, aperture and shutter speed.

Exposure control

Aperture

Light enters the camera through an aperture, an opening adjusted by overlapping plates called the aperture ring. Typically located in the lens, this opening can be widened or narrowed to alter the amount of light that strikes the film or sensor.  The size of the aperture can be set manually, by rotating the lens or adjusting a dial or automatically based on readings from an internal light meter.

As the aperture is adjusted, the opening expands and contracts in increments called f-stops. The smaller the f-stop, the more light is allowed to enter the lens, increasing the exposure. Typically, f-stops range from 1.4 to 32 in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32. The light entering the camera is halved with each increasing increment.

The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus so the background is blurry while the foreground is in focus. This depth of field increases as the aperture closes. A narrow aperture results in a high depth of field, meaning that objects at many different distances from the camera will appear to be in focus. What is acceptably in focus is determined by the circle of confusion, the photographic technique, the equipment in use and the degree of magnification expected of the final image.

Shutter

The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the amount of light entering the camera. The shutter determines the duration that the light-sensitive surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light enters the camera and exposes the film or sensor to light, and then the shutter closes.

There are two types of mechanical shutters: the leaf-type shutter and the focal-plane shutter. The leaf-type uses a circular iris diaphragm maintained under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly opens and closes when the shutter is released.
More commonly, a focal-plane shutter is used. This shutter operates close to the film plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening that passes across the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an opening that is pulled across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane shutter is typically used in single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, since covering the film (rather than blocking the light passing through the lens) allows the photographer to view the image through the lens at all times, except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera, as many SLRs have interchangeable lenses.

A digital camera may use a mechanical or electronic shutter, the latter of which is common in smartphone cameras. Electronic shutters either record data from the entire sensor simultaneously (a global shutter) or record the data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter). In movie cameras, a rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancement of each frame of film.

The duration for which the shutter is open is called the shutter speed or exposure time. Typical exposure times can range from one second to 1/1,000 of a second, though longer and shorter durations are not uncommon. In the early stages of photography, exposures were often several minutes long. These long exposure times often resulted in blurry images, as a single object is recorded in multiple places across a single image for the duration of the exposure. To prevent this, shorter exposure times can be used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-moving action and eliminate motion blur. However, shorter exposure times require more light to produce a properly exposed image, so shortening the exposure time is not always possible.

Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two settings determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is recorded during the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the exposure times and aperture settings so that if the exposure time is lengthened one step, but the aperture opening is also narrowed one step, then the amount of light that contacts the film or sensor is the same.

Light meter

In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter. Taken through the lens (called  metering), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive semiconductors. They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's microprocessor. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure.

Light meters typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering—weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering).

Lens

A camera lens is an assembly of multiple optical elements, typically made from high-quality glass. Its primary function is to focus light onto a camera's film or digital sensor, thereby producing an image. This process significantly influences image quality, the overall appearance of the photo, and which parts of the scene are brought into focus.

A camera lens is constructed from a series of lens elements, small pieces of glass arranged to form an image accurately on the light-sensitive surface. Each element is designed to reduce optical aberrations, or distortions, such as chromatic aberration (a failure of the lens to focus all colors at the same point), vignetting (darkening of image corners), and distortion (bending or warping of the image). The degree of these distortions can vary depending on the subject of the photo.

The focal length of the lens, measured in millimeters, plays a critical role as it determines how much of the scene the camera can capture and how large the objects appear. Wide-angle lenses provide a broad view of the scene, while telephoto lenses capture a narrower view but magnify the objects. The focal length also influences the ease of taking clear pictures handheld, with longer lengths making it more challenging to avoid blur from small camera movements.

Two primary types of lenses include zoom and prime lenses. A zoom lens allows for changing its focal length within a certain range, providing the convenience of adjusting the scene capture without moving the camera or changing the lens. A prime lens, in contrast, has a fixed focal length. While less flexible, prime lenses often provide superior image quality, are typically lighter, and perform better in low light.

Focus involves adjusting the lens elements to sharpen the image of the subject at various distances. The focus is adjusted through the focus ring on the lens, which moves the lens elements closer or further from the sensor. Autofocus is a feature included in many lenses, which uses a motor within the lens to adjust the focus quickly and precisely based on the lens's detection of contrast or phase differences. This feature can be enabled or disabled using switches on the lens body.

Advanced lenses may include mechanical image stabilization systems that move lens elements or the image sensor itself to counteract camera shake, especially beneficial in low-light conditions or at slow shutter speeds. Lens hoods, filters, and caps are accessories used alongside a lens to enhance image quality, protect the lens, or achieve specific effects.

Viewfinder
The camera's viewfinder provides a real-time approximation of what will be captured by the sensor or film. It assists photographers in aligning, focusing, and adjusting the composition, lighting, and exposure of their shots, enhancing the accuracy of the final image.

Viewfinders fall into two primary categories: optical and electronic. Optical viewfinders, commonly found in Single-Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras, use a system of mirrors or prisms to reflect light from the lens to the viewfinder, providing a clear, real-time view of the scene. Electronic viewfinders, typical in mirrorless cameras, project an electronic image onto a small display, offering a wider range of information such as live exposure previews and histograms, albeit at the cost of potential lag and higher battery consumption. Specialized viewfinder systems exist for specific applications, like subminiature cameras for spying or underwater photography.

Parallax error, resulting from misalignment between the viewfinder and lens axes, can cause inaccurate representations of the subject's position. While negligible with distant subjects, this error becomes prominent with closer ones. Some viewfinders incorporate parallax-compensating devices to mitigate this issue.

Film and sensor
Image capture in a camera occurs when light strikes a light-sensitive surface: photographic film or a digital sensor. Housed within the camera body, the film or sensor records the light's pattern when the shutter is briefly opened to allow light to pass during the exposure.

Loading film into a film camera is a manual process. The film, typically housed in a cartridge, is loaded into a designated slot in the camera. One end of the film strip, the film leader, is manually threaded onto a take-up spool. Once the back of the camera is closed, the film advance lever or knob is used to ensure the film is correctly placed. The photographer then winds the film, either manually or automatically depending on the camera, to position a blank portion of the film in the path of the light. Each time a photo is taken, the film advance mechanism moves the exposed film out of the way, bringing a new, unexposed section of film into position for the next shot.

The film must be advanced after each shot to prevent double exposure — where the same section of film is exposed to light twice, resulting in overlapped images. Once all frames on the film roll have been exposed, the film is rewound back into the cartridge, ready to be removed from the camera for developing.

In digital cameras, sensors typically comprise Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) or Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) chips, both of which convert incoming light into electrical charges to form digital images. CCD sensors, though power-intensive, are recognized for their excellent light sensitivity and image quality. Conversely, CMOS sensors offer individual pixel readouts, leading to less power consumption and faster frame rates, with their image quality having improved significantly over time.

Digital cameras convert light into electronic data that can be directly processed and stored. The volume of data generated is dictated by the sensor's size and properties, necessitating storage media such as Compact Flash, Memory Sticks, and SD (Secure Digital) cards. Modern digital cameras typically feature a built-in monitor for immediate image review and adjustments. Digital images are also more readily handled and manipulated by computers, offering a significant advantage in terms of flexibility and post-processing potential over traditional film.

Camera accessories

Flash
A flash provides a short burst of bright light during exposure and is a commonly used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash systems use a battery-powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled tube to generate bright light for a very short time (1/1,000 of a second or less).

Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine the appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to the camera—typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot shoe) or through a cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the flash, and the camera's internal light meter can help determine the duration of the flash.

Additional flash equipment can include a light diffuser, mount and stand, reflector, soft box, trigger and cord.

Other accessories
Accessories for cameras are mainly used for care, protection, special effects, and functions.
 Lens hood: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also matte box).
 Lens cap: covers and protects the camera lens when not in use.
 Lens adapter: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was designed.
 Filter: allows artificial colors or changes light density.
 Lens extension tube: allows close focus in macro photography.
 Care and protection: including camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector.
 Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and more colorful screen, and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing guides, focus peaking, zebra stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an "RGB parade"), vectorscopes and false color to highlight areas of the image critical to the photographer.
 Tripod: primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a long exposure, and time-lapse photography.
 Microscope adapter: used to connect a camera to a microscope to photograph what the microscope is examining.
 Cable release: used to remotely control the shutter using a remote shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a cable. It can be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period, and it is also commonly used to prevent the camera shake from pressing the built-in camera shutter button.
 Dew shield: prevents moisture build-up on the lens.
 UV filter: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality.
 Battery and sometimes a charger.
Large format cameras use special equipment that includes a magnifier loupe, view finder, angle finder, and focusing rail/truck. Some professional SLRs can be provided with interchangeable finders for eye-level or waist-level focusing, focusing screens, eyecup, data backs, motor-drives for film transportation or external battery packs.

Primary types

Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera

In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror to redirect light from the lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away, allowing the exposure of the photographic medium, and instantly returns after the exposure is finished. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released. The Asahiflex II, released by Japanese company Asahi (Pentax) in 1954, was the world's first SLR camera with an instant return mirror.

In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of parallax which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats including sheet film 5x7" and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll, and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6, and 6x4.5 respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include Bronica, Graflex, Hasselblad, Seagull, Mamiya and Pentax. However, the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to digital SLR cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems.

Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and pentaprism to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent pellicle as in the Canon Pellix and others with a small periscope such as in the Corfield Periflex series.

Large-format camera

The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remained in use for high-quality photography and technical, architectural, and industrial photography. There are three common types: the view camera, with its monorail and field camera variants, and the press camera. They have extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking roll film and later digital backs are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focusing are done on view cameras by viewing a ground-glass screen which is replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only and are slow to use.

Plate camera

The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers were plate cameras, using sensitized glass plates. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by extendible bellows. There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (Autochrome Lumière). Many of these cameras had controls to raise, lower, and tilt the lens forwards or backward to control perspective.

Focusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because lens design only allowed rather small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint and most photographers had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focusing and composition to be carried out more quickly. When focus and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed, and a sensitized plate was put in its place protected by a dark slide. To make the exposure, the dark decline was carefully slid out and the shutter opened, and then closed and the dark fall replaced.

Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adapter sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted.

Medium-format camera

Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35 mm cameras. Typically these systems use 120 or 220 roll film. The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm; the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format.

Twin-lens reflex camera

Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses: one to form the image and one as a viewfinder. The lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focused using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances the view seen on the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances, however, parallax errors were encountered, and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.

Some TLRs had interchangeable lenses, but as these had to be paired lenses, they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 films; some used the smaller 127 films.

Compact cameras

Instant camera

After exposure, every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper 'sandwich' is distributed on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just needs to be removed and one gets a single original positive image with a fixed format. With some systems, it was also possible to create an instant image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70 system of Polaroid, in which a row of ten shots – engine driven – could be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as adapters for instant film use in medium- and large-format cameras.

Subminiature camera

Subminiature cameras were first produced in the twentieth century and use film significantly smaller than 35mm. The expensive 8×11mm Minox, the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive subminiatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality with these small film sizes was limited.

Folding camera

The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the baseplate to be hinged so that it could be folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and small models were dubbed vest pocket cameras. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs.

Box camera

Box cameras were introduced as budget-level cameras and had few if any controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens.

Rangefinder camera

As camera lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became more common, rangefinder cameras were introduced to make focusing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had interchangeable lenses, each lens requiring its range- and viewfinder linkages.

Rangefinder cameras were produced in half- and full-frame 35 mm and roll film (medium format).

Motion picture cameras

A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a still camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at a rate of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved.

Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However, these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in special effects work and many modern cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes.

A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a frame, through the use of an intermittent mechanism.

The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as 35mm film and this remained in use until the transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include 70 mm film and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format.

The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be handheld whilst some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation.

Professional video camera

A professional video camera (often called a television camera even though the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on film). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now also used for music videos, direct-to-video movies, corporate and educational videos, marriage videos, etc.

These cameras earlier used vacuum tubes and later electronic image sensors.

Camcorders

A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term "camcorder", the name on the package and manual is often "video camera recorder". Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term "camcorder" is used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and recording its primary function.

Digital camera

A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and videos and stores them for later reproduction. They typically use semiconductor image sensors. Most cameras sold today are digital, and they are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.

Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens of variable aperture to focus light onto an image pickup device. The aperture and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being captured or recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures & perform other elementary image editing.

Consumers adopted digital cameras in the 1990s. Professional video cameras transitioned to digital around the 2000s–2010s. Finally, movie cameras transitioned to digital in the 2010s.

The first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was developed by Kodak engineer Steven Sasson in 1975. He used a charge-coupled device (CCD) provided by Fairchild Semiconductor, which provided only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and white images onto a cassette tape.The images were then read from the cassette and viewed on a TV monitor. Later, cassette tapes were replaced by flash memory.

In 1986, Japanese company Nikon introduced an analog-recording electronic single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC.

The first full-frame digital SLR cameras were developed in Japan from around 2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax, the N Digital by Contax's Japanese R6D team, and the EOS-1Ds by Canon. Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography.

On most digital cameras a display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed.

Camera phone

In 2000, Sharp introduced the world's first digital camera phone, the J-SH04 J-Phone, in Japan. By the mid-2000s, higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera, and by the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had an integrated digital camera.

See also

 Camera matrix
 History of the camera
 Camera phone
 List of camera types
 List of digital camera brands

Footnotes

References

Further reading

External links

 How cameras works at How stuff works.

Cameras
Photography equipment
Optical devices

Camera


The APS Bank, successor of the Unione Cattolica San Giuseppe, is a Maltese bank established in 1910 by a Jesuit, Fr. Michael Vella and in 1948 the bank's ownership was transferred to the Archdiocese of Malta and Gozo.

The bank was incorporated into a private limited liability company in 1970 and granted a commercial licence in 1990. Since then it has kept expanding its operations in a number of different directions. Today it employs some 300 staff working in nine branches and agencies across Malta and Gozo. APS Bank holds two subsidiaries, namely APS Consult Ltd and APS Funds Sicav plc.

In October 2010, culminating its 100-year anniversary celebrations, the bank inaugurated a modern seven storey Head Office block in Swatar, Birkirkara. APS Bank is an active member of European Federation of Ethical and Alternative Banks (FEBEA).

History
The Lega dello Apostolato della Preghiera was set up on the initiative of the Jesuit Fr. Michele Vella, with the first meeting of the Committee held on 8 May 1910.  The main aims were the setting up of a number of initiatives, all with an underlying social nature, namely -
 A savings bank, intended  to help instil savings habits amongst the working classes ;
 A mutual benefit society ;
 A printing press ;
 A publication of Il-Habib,  a Maltese language periodical ;
 An evening school for the teaching of languages, music and crafts ;
 An emigration bureau to help Maltese citizens wishing to settle in other countries ;
 Schemes for the free provision of food, medicines and medical care to people in need ;
 A public lotto office ;
 A recreational club for members.

The savings bank was set up immediately as the Cassa di Risparmio dell'Apostolato della Preghiera, the Apostolate of Prayer Savings Bank – the acronym deriving from which would eventually become the Bank's name – APS.  The Bank accepted its first deposits on 7 December 1910, and in order to disseminate the Bank's ideals and principles, parish centres were set up in various towns and villages. Over the years, the profits from this Bank were utilised in order to implement and maintain the other social projects on the Lega's list of main aims.

Eventually, the Lega changed its name to Unione Cattolica San Giuseppe with the aim of being helping both in a spiritual and also in a practical manner, with the Bank becoming popularly known as Il-Bank ta' San Gużepp.

During its first thirty years of operation, the Bank registered steady progress with deposits increasing substantially. However, the Second World War hampered the Bank's activities, as the parish centres had to be closed.

After the war, the Committee transferred the Unione with all its branches, including the Bank, to the Archdiocese of Malta. This was effected by a private deed dated 18 November 1947. Although the Bank kept a very low profile, progress was maintained.  Along the years, the Bank contributed towards the implementation of various projects, such as the extension to Id-Dar tal-Kleru, and subsidies to various associations of a religious and cultural nature.

On 1 June 1970, APS Bank was incorporated as a private limited liability company with an initial authorised and issued share capital of 100,000 pounds. This enabled the Bank to widen its aims to increase its services. The Bank started operating as a commercial financial institution in 1991. It used monetary instruments with success to support depositors and borrowers, in particular mortgage holders, farmers and students. But it went further: its close contact with various economic sectors indicated the need for an institution to accelerate the restructuring process to face tougher competition from abroad. In response, the Bank set up APS Consult Ltd in 2006 to achieve this end.

In addition, the Bank set up APS Funds Sicav plc in 2008 both to diversify services and also to introduce the selling of ethical funds in the Maltese Islands. Ethical funds are subject to demand that is based on the inherent values of respective social groups. Their sale has to be preceded by the education of potential subscribers, whereby the specific differences between one such fund and another are clearly examined and explained.

The Bank also set up various branches and agencies, culminating in the new headquarters at Swatar, B'Kara in 2010.

See also

List of banks
List of banks in Malta

Notes

References

Banks of Malta
1910 establishments in Malta
Birkirkara
Banks established in 1910

APS Bank


The Archiepiscopal Palace of Braga (), is a Portuguese episcopal palace in civil parish of Braga (São José de São Lázaro e São João do Souto), in the municipality of the same name, in the northern district of Braga.

History

The Bishopric of Bracara was founded in 388 by Paternus, who became the first bishop of Braga. Officially, the archbishopric of Braga was founded in 1071, turning D. Pedro its first archbishop. Between 1096 and 1112, Count D. Henrique and Countess D. Teresa were the masters of Braga, leading in 1112 to a letter donating the city to the archbishops, instituting an ecclesiastical fiefdom, that would last to the 18th century. D. Maurício Burdino became the first ecclesiastical master of Braga. On 27 May 1128, Archbishop D. Pai Mendes received a confirmation letter to expand church lands, along with the privilege to mint coin, in recompense for his support of D. Afonso Henriques' revolt against his mother, the Countess D. Teresa.

In 1327, D. Afonso IV invaded the jurisdiction of then-archbishop D. Gonçalo Pereira, grandfather of D. Nuno Álvares Pereira, nominating public notaries to the crown for Braga. The archbishop excommunicated and expelled these notaries from the city. This antagonism resulting from these acts never diminished, and in 1341, when regal authorities entered the new city, the archbishop excommunicated them as well. As a consequence, the Corregedor Afonso Domingues took the castle and municipal hall, which were much later returned to the archbishop by D. Afonso IV. It was following this antagonism that the construction of the primitive archiepiscopal palace was begun, by Archbishop D. Gonçalo Pereira in 1336.

In 1361, D. João de Cardaillac, began to use the title of Arcebispo Primaz das Hespanhas (Archbishop Primate of the Hispanias). In 1402, the archbishop, D. Martinho Afonso de Miranda, ceded jurisdiction of the city to the Crown, in exchange for land rents and other concessions. At that time regulations obliged farmers and craftsmen to support the repair of the palace. Between 1422 and 1436, Archbishop D. Fernando da Guerra, great-grandson of D. Pedro I and D. Inês de Castro, ordered the reconstruction and expansion of the archiepiscopal structure, with Gil Vasques (carpenter), Fernão Martins (master of public works) and João Gonçalves (stonemason) steering the build. By 1439, the tower was concluded.

In 1472, D. Afonso V restored to the archbishop D. Luís Pires, the temporary jurisdiction of Braga and its surroundings to the archbishopric, allowing the archbishops to use the title Senhores de Braga e Primazes das Hespanhas (Masters of Braga and Primates of Hispania). Yet, this détente was short lived; D. Fernão de Lima, a noble who lived in Braga, began a war with the Archbishop, resulting in various bloody skirmishes between the two factions. By 1478, the Duke of Braganza put an end to the battles between the Archbishop and Lima.

Between 1505 and 1532, Archbishop D. Diogo de Sousa ordered changes at the palace, including the erection of the Fonte dos Castelos, in the Largo do Paço, which lead to the 1545-1549 construction of the northern wing, by Archbishop D. Manuel de Sousa and the 1594 construction of the western wing in the Largo do Paço, by Archbishop D. Agostinho de Jesus.

In 1709, Archbishop D. Rodrigo de Moura Teles expanded the building, altering the facades of wings oriented to the Largo do Paço and erecting a chapel. Between 1740 and 1750, the Archbishop of D. José de Bragança, further expanded the palace, ordering the construction of the Baroque wing oriented to the municipal square. This was further enriched between 1758 and 1789, when Archbishop D. Gaspar de Bragança expanded the library, with a number of notable documents.

In the second half of the 19th century, D. Miguel and his cortege installed himself in the archiepiscopal palace, spending his time in Braga at the bullfights in the municipal square. By 1834, the archbishops were confined to the wing overlooking the eastern edge of the Largo do Paço, as the prefecture of Minho is installed in the building, with much later the Civil Governor of Minho and offices of other services. On 15 April 1866, there was a violent fire that destroyed the Baroque wing oriented towards the municipal square, in addition to the contents of the D. Gaspar de Bragança's library, gutting his collection. By 1871, the ruins of the wing were demolished and many of the stones collected.

By 1903, many of the facades exposed to the Largo do Paço were plastered and painted, with the walls constructed from wood and mortar. In 1911, the archbishops were expelled definitively from the episcopal palace, and the 8th infantry regiment, courts and municipal firefighters installed in the building. By order of the Comissão Central dos Bens Eclesiásticos (Central Commission for Ecclesiastical Property) on 18 November 1912, following the upheaval caused by the Republican revolution and schism with the church, many of the possessions of the clergy were sold off, including five fountains in the interior gardens (to the Brotherhood of Senhora do Parto for 10$00). On 28 March 1918, the building was ceded to the Ministério de Instrução Pública (Ministry of Public Instruction) and wing occupied by the archbishops was converted into the first Museum D. Diogo de Sousa. By 1920, Dr. Alberto Feio solicited the building to be adapted into a library and archive. The following year, though, the chapel of D. José Bragança was gutted by fire. The project to expand the episcopal palace was drawn up in 1922 for the new library and archive, even as the west wing was stilled occupied by the regimental garrison.

In 1930, the episcopal palace underwent profound public works to transform and remodel the building for its use as public library of Braga and district archive. The intention to demolish the eight buildings that surrounded the interior patio was advanced and reconstruction of the Baroque wing. By 1934, the public works were concluded the Baroque wing, under the direction of engineer Almeida Freira, and on 1 December the Public Library of Braga was inaugurated. Throughout 1936 various storms caused damage to the building, resulting in reconstruction projects in the following year, under the direction of Jorge Viana and Fernandes de Sá, that only be concluded in 1939. But, in 1941, a major storm caused damage to the building.

In 1943, the process to expropriation of the eight buildings for the construction of an ethnographic museum was interrupted with the death of engineer Duarte Pacheco. António Maria dos Santos da Cunha proposed the removal of the grades that encircled the Largo do Paço this year, but the project would not advance. The facade oriented to Largo D. João Peculiar was being restored in 1944, while the following year a chapel was demolished along the northeast, in order to expand the Rua Eça de Queirós. This became part of the 1946 project to re-landscape the Largo do Paço, that included the suppression of the grade that encircled the parcel.

Between 1947 and 1948, the library was under the control of the Ministério da Educação Nacional (Ministry of National Education). In 1947, there was an intention by the municipality to demolish the municipal market, located in the middle of the Praça do Munícipio, in order to open-up the Baroque wing of the palace and Municipal Hall.

Architect Francisco de Azeredo presented a project to re-landscape the municipal square in 1948, even as the following year the medieval episcopal square was still in construction and the process of selecting new furniture continued to evolve.

On 18 September 1948, a dispatch was issue to define a Special Protection Zone, by the Direção-Geral de Urbanização (Directorate-General for Urbanization).

New projects to re-arrange the Municipal Square initiated in 1950, which were later expanded with the 1955 construction of the Garden of Santa Bárbara. Around 14 July, the landscapers were authorized to remove the grading along the Largo do Paço and opening up the square to Rua do Souto. This task was only begun the following, with the execution of the demolition of the municipal market. In 1964, by municipal decision the five elements of the Fonte do Pelicano, which was encountered dismantled in the episcopal garden were moved to the Praça do Município and reconstructed.

In 1973, the Direcção-Geral de Construções Escolares (Directorate-General of School Construction) proceeded to adapt the central an eastern wings (oriented to the Largo da Praça for there use as installations of the University of Moinho's rectory. The wing destined for the Museu D. Diogo de Sousa and a majority of the dependencies were unoccupied, with only the first floor occupied by artisanal shop of the municipal tourist centre, the district courts and the second floor occupied by the Alliance Française and Instituto Minhoto de Estudos Regionais. But, by 1975, the library was integrated into the directorship of the University of Moinho and two years later the Museum D. Diogo de Sousa abandoned their spaces.

Architecture
The former court was constructed on an unleveled terrain in the historic centre of Braga. The building is addorsed to buildings along its eastern and western edge, with the cathedral of Braga and Church of the Misericórdia, to the southwest, and municipal hall and Fonte de Pelicano, to the west. In the northeast is the Garden of Santa Bárbara, on level ground, a geometric area delimited by shrubs and decorated with cedar topiaries. In the centre is an octagonal fountain, on four steps, with circular column surmounted by an image of Santa Barbara. Delimiting this patio are the ruins of a broken arcade pertaining to the medieval episcopal palace.

The Palace is a set of three different buildings with distinct characteristics and time periods. The irregular building is asymmetrical composition, consisting of three bodies, that are also irregularly designed and constructed in different epochs, that are addorsed and interconnected. The medieval corp is associated with a rectangular garden patio oriented towards the Garden of Santa Bárbara, addorsed to the southern 15th century "U"-shaped wing and rectangular square, known as the Largo do Paço. At the junction of these in the west, is designated the Baroque Wing, oriented to the Largo do Município. This body is the most formal, with a three-register symmetrical structure with recessed central body and lateral wings. All unique buildings are of varying heights and covered in different roofing materials.

Southern wing

The South wing, defining the Paço Square, is composed of various buildings from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Access to the complex occurs across the 15th century body, consisting of a two- to three-register structure on a slight terrain, constructed of granite, except for the portion oriented to the encircled Largo D. João Peculiar (which is plastered and white-washed). The facades of the buildings are decorated in cornices and marked by several vertical rectangular vains. The facades to the Largo do Paço, with wings covered in grated-windows and surmounted by rectangular cornices on the first register and more simple rectangular windows on the second floor, with guardrails. The central wing with principal entranceway is flanked by pilasters, crowned by ornate pinnacle and surmounted by the coat-of-arms of Archbishop D. Rodrigo Moura Teles.

The eastern wing includes two panels of walls separated by colossal Roman-like pilasters. On the left is a doorway flanked by pilasters and decorated by a coat-of-arms in the timpany, between lateral windows, also flanked by pilasters. To the right, there are two porticos flanked identical windows one framed by pilasters, crowned by inscription and coat-of-arms, and the other framed and decorated. This wing is to the south (towards Rua do Souto) with identical inscription, but with windows between registers and window in the mezzanine.

The western wing, with gallery is supported by colonnade and recumbent windows with coat-of-arms of Archbishop D. Agostinho de Jesus in the centre. This wing to the south, oriented towards the Largo D. João Peculiar at the corner, in the last register, closed balcony, crowned by pinnacles, supported by great balcão fechado, em empena coroada por pináculos, suportado por grandes corbels and windows.

In the Largo do Paço is a central fountain, known as the Fonte dos Castelos, a polygonal structure with twelve steps, poly-lobed tank, and a column with sculptured hexagonal and six fountains. The ornate fountain includes a secondary tank sculpted in the form of interconnected castles linked by wall surrounding a pinnacle carved as a three register tower, surmounted by a statue crowned with armillary sphere topped by patriarchal cross.

Eastern wing
The Eastern wing (facing the Santa Barbara Garden is of Gothic style and dates to the 14th and 15th centuries.

Western wing
The Western wing (facing the Municipio Square) was built in the 18th century in the Portuguese Northern Baroque style.

References

Notes

Sources

Palaces in Portugal
Episcopal palaces
Buildings and structures in Braga

Episcopal Palace, Braga


Ken Daniels (born ) is a Canadian sportscaster.  Currently the play-by-play announcer for the Detroit Red Wings of the NHL on Bally Sports Detroit, entering his 25th season as the voice of the Red Wings, he is best known as a sportscaster with CBC Sports, having worked for the network from 1985 until 1997, the year he joined the Red Wings.  Daniels now lives in Birmingham, Michigan.

Biography

Early life and career
Daniels grew up influencing the game of hockey, not just calling it. He was a hockey official on the ice from the age of 11 until the end of his college career. He was involved with the Greater Toronto Hockey League and put himself through college doing up to four games a night. After graduating from York University in Toronto, Daniels began his radio career in Oshawa and moved to CJCL out of Toronto in 1980, covering both the political beat and general news.  He dabbled in sports and kicked off his play-by-play career with the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1988. He would remain with that radio station, which later became Canada's first all-sports radio station, THE FAN, for another nine seasons.

CBC Sports
While continuing with his radio job, Daniels appeared on television in 1985, with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, and by 1990, became a reporter.host for Hockey Night in Canada.  In February 1992, Daniels was the main game host, which included appearances with Don Cherry on "Coach's Corner", while Ron MacLean was in Albertville, France covering the Winter Olympics. Meanwhile, Dick Irvin Jr. hosted the Montreal broadcasts. In 1994, Daniels began doing play-by-play for HNIC, usually for games in Western Canada.

While working for CBC, Daniels' diverse sports experience included hosting stints for CBC Sports Weekend and the Champ Car/Indy-Car World Series, as well as Formula One Grand Prix coverage and Toronto Blue Jays baseball.  Daniels' broadcast résumé also includes two Olympic games. He covered both the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, and 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, where he could be heard during cycling, baseball, canoeing, kayaking, tennis and judo.

Daniels' Olympic experience landed him a role as the "Olympic host" in the NBC Movie of the Week: On Thin Ice - The Tai Babilonia Story. He also appeared in a film with Tony Danza, The Philadelphia Phenomenon, and was a play-by-play voice for the CBS/CTV television program Due South.

Detroit Red Wings
For the 1997–98 NHL season, Daniels was lured away from CBC to take over play-by-play for the Detroit Red Wings and teamed up with color commentator Mickey Redmond.

On December 12, 2006 Daniels broadcast a game between the Red Wings and the Ottawa Senators from ice-level between the benches, while color commentator Redmond remained in the booth. This was the first time a U.S. local station had attempted this type of broadcast. Daniels received a Michigan EMMY Award for this broadcast at the 29th Annual Michigan EMMY Awards on June 16, 2007 in Detroit.

On June 4, 2008, Daniels filled-in for regular Detroit radio broadcast announcer Ken Kal for Game 6 of the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals between the Red Wings and the Pittsburgh Penguins. Kal was suffering from laryngitis and thus, was unable to call the game. The Red Wings had a 3–2 lead in the series and won the game, and the cup. With 45 seconds left in the game, Daniels took off the headset and handed the game over to Kal, saying, "I don't care if you can't talk, you have to bring it home". Kal called the final 10 seconds, and was able to make the call "...The Detroit Red Wings are the 2008 Stanley Cup Champions!"

Daniels also became a regular announcer for Versus during the 2011 NHL Stanley Cup Playoffs. Daniels is an occasional play-by-play announcer for NBC Sports on NHL games as well as Big Ten Hockey as broadcast by Fox Sports Detroit.

Daniels is a longtime active member of Detroit Sports Media (formerly Detroit Sports Broadcasters Association), founded in 1948 by pioneer Tigers announcer Ty Tyson. Daniels won the Ty Tyson Award for Excellence in Sports Broadcasting from DSM in an on-ice ceremony Sept. 30, 2011 at Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, prior to a Red Wings game.

Daniels' book "If These Walls Could Talk: Detroit Red Wings" (Triumph Books) was released in October 2017.

References

External links
Interview with Toronto Mike on Toronto Mike'd

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Canadian television sportscasters
College hockey announcers in the United States
Cycling announcers
Detroit Red Wings announcers
Regional Emmy Award winners
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Motorsport announcers
National Hockey League broadcasters
Olympic Games broadcasters
Ice hockey people from Toronto
Tennis commentators
Toronto Blue Jays announcers
Toronto Maple Leafs announcers
York University alumni

Ken Daniels


Edgard Victor Achille Charles Varèse, whose name was also spelled Edgar Varèse (December 22, 1883 – November 6, 1965), was a French composer who spent the greater part of his career in the United States.

Varèse's music has an emphasis on timbre and rhythm. He made up the term "organized sound." This phrase means that some timbres and rhythms can be grouped together. Although his finished works only last about three hours, he has been thought as an influence by many big composers of the late 20th century. His use of new instruments and electronic resources led to his being known as the "Father of Electronic Music" while Henry Miller described him as "The stratospheric Colossus of Sound".

References

1883 births
1965 deaths
20th-century French composers

Edgard Varèse