In the United Kingdom, private schools or independent schools are fee-charging schools, some endowed and governed by a board of governors and some in private ownership. They are independent of many of the regulations and conditions that apply to state-funded schools. For example, the schools do not have to follow the National Curriculum, although many such schools do.

Historically the term "private school" referred to a school in private ownership, in contrast to an endowed school subject to a trust or of charitable status. Many of the older independent schools catering for the 13–18 age range in England and Wales are known as public schools, seven of which were the subject of the Public Schools Act 1868. The term "public school" meant they were then open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion (while in the United States and most other English-speaking countries "public school" refers to a publicly funded state school). Prep (preparatory) schools (also known as "private schools") educate younger children up to the age of 13 to prepare them for entry to the public schools and other secondary schools.

Some former grammar schools converted to a private fee-charging model following the 1965 Circular 10/65 and the subsequent cessation in 1975 of government funding support for direct grant grammar schools.

There are around 2,600 independent schools in the UK, which educate around 615,000 children, some 7 per cent of all British school-age children and 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16. In addition to charging tuition fees, they may also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and charitable status. Some of these schools (1,300) are members of the Independent Schools Council. In 2021, the average annual cost for private schooling was £15,191 for day schools and £36,000 for boarding schools.

The Independent Schools Yearbook has been published annually since 1986.  This was a name change of a publication that started in 1889 as The Public Schools Yearbook.

Origins

Some independent schools are particularly old, such as The King's School, Canterbury (founded 597), The King's School, Rochester (founded 604), St Peter's School, York (founded c. 627), Sherborne School (founded 705), Wells Cathedral School (founded 909), Warwick School (c. 914), King's Ely (c. 970) and St Albans School (948). These schools were founded by the church and were under its complete dominion. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries the first schools independent of the church were founded. Winchester (1382) and Oswestry (1407) were the first of their kind (although they had a strong Christian religious ethos) and such early "free grammar schools" founded by wealthy benefactors paved the way for the establishment of the modern "public school". These were typically established for male students from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds. English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself, irrespective of poverty.

The transformation of free charitable foundations into institutions which sometimes charge fees came about readily: the foundation would only afford minimal facilities, so that further fees might be charged to lodge, clothe and otherwise maintain the scholars, to the private profit of the trustees or headmaster. Also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few students could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. Some schools still keep their foundation students in a separate house from other pupils, or distinguish them in other ways.

After a time, such fees eclipsed the original charitable income, and the original endowment would become a minor part of the school's finances. By 2022 senior boarding schools were charging fees of over £40,000 per annum. Most of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, and bursaries are available to students on a means test basis. Christ's Hospital in Horsham is an example: a large proportion of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors.

Victorian expansion

The educational reforms of the 19th century were particularly important. Reformers included Thomas Arnold at Rugby, and then Samuel Butler and later Benjamin Kennedy at Shrewsbury; the first of these emphasised team spirit and "muscular Christianity" and the latter the importance of scholarship and competitive examinations. Edward Thring of Uppingham School introduced major reforms, focusing on the importance of the individual and of competition, as well as the need for a "total curriculum" with academia, music, sport and drama being central to education. Most public schools developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, and came to play an important role in the development of the Victorian social elite. Under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes.

They were schools for the gentlemanly elite of Victorian politics, armed forces and colonial government. Often, successful businessmen would send their sons to a public school as a mark of participation in the elite. Much of the discipline was in the hands of senior pupils (usually known as prefects); this was not just a way to reduce staffing costs, but was also seen as vital preparation for the senior pupils' later roles in public or military service. More recently heads of public schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in maintaining discipline.

To an extent, the public school system influenced the school systems of the British Empire, and recognisably "public" schools can be found in many Commonwealth countries.

20th and 21st centuries

Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the direct grant grammar schools. The Direct Grant Grammar Schools (Cessation of Grant) Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result, 119 of these schools became independent.

Pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the mid-1970s recession. At the same time participation at all secondary schools grew dramatically, so that the share of the independent sector fell from a little under 8 per cent in 1964 to reach a low of 5.7 per cent in 1978. Both these trends were reversed during the 1980s, and the share of the independent schools reached 7.5 per cent by 1991. The changes since 1990 have been less dramatic: the share fell to 6.9 per cent by 1996 before increasing very slightly after 2000 to reach 7.2 per cent in 2012. By 2015, the figure fell back to 6.9 per cent, with the absolute number of pupils attending independent schools falling everywhere in England apart from in the South East.

England and Wales
In 2011 there were more than 2,500 private schools in the UK educating some 628,000 children, comprising over 6.5 per cent of UK children, and more than 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16. In England the schools account for a slightly higher percentage than in the UK as a whole. According to a 2010 study by Ryan & Sibetia, "the proportion of pupils attending independent schools in England is currently 7.2 per cent (considering full-time pupils only)".

Most of the larger private schools are either full or partial boarding schools, although many have now become predominantly day schools. By contrast there are only a few dozen state boarding schools. Boarding-school traditions give a distinctive character to British private education, even in the case of day-pupils.

A high proportion of private schools, particularly the larger and older institutions, have charitable status.
Inspections in England
The Independent Schools Council (ISC), through seven affiliated organisations, represents 1,300 schools that together educate over 80 per cent of the pupils in the UK private sector. Those schools in England which are members of the affiliated organisations of the ISC are inspected by the Independent Schools Inspectorate under a framework approved by the Government's Department for Education (DfE). Private schools not affiliated to the ISC in England are inspected by Ofsted. Private schools accredited to the ISC in Scotland and Wales and Northern Ireland or others in England out with the inspectorial bodies listed above are inspected through the national inspectorates in each country.

Scotland

Private schools in Scotland educate about 31,000 children and often referred to as private schools. Although many of the Scottish private schools are members of the ISC they are also represented by the Scottish Council of Independent Schools, recognised by the Scottish Parliament as the body representing private schools in Scotland. Unlike England, all Scottish private schools are subject to the same regime of inspections by Education Scotland as local authority schools and they have to register with the Learning Directorate. The nine largest Scottish private schools, with 1,000 or more pupils, are George Watson's College, Hutcheson's Grammar School, Robert Gordon's College, George Heriot's School, St Aloysius' College, The Glasgow Academy, Dollar Academy, the High School of Glasgow and the High School of Dundee.

In Scotland, it was common for children destined for private schools to receive their primary education at a local school. This arose because of Scotland's long tradition of state-funded education, which was spearheaded by the Church of Scotland from the seventeenth century, long before such education was common in England. Private prep schools only became more widespread in Scotland from the late 19th century (usually attached to an existing secondary private school, though exceptions such as Craigclowan Preparatory School and Cargilfield Preparatory School do exist), though they are still much less prevalent than in England. In modern times many secondary pupils in Scotland's private schools will have fed in from the school's own fee-paying primary school, therefore there is considerable competition facing pupils from state primary schools who seek to enter a private school at secondary stage, via entrance examinations.

Selection
Private schools, like state grammar schools, are free to select their pupils, subject to general legislation against discrimination. The principal forms of selection are financial, in that the pupil's family must be able to pay the school fees, and academic, the latter determined via interview and examination. Credit may also be given for musical, sporting or other talent. Entrance to some schools may be orientated to pupils whose parents practise a particular religion, or schools may require pupils to attend religious services.

Only a small minority of parents can afford school fees averaging (as of 2021) over £36,000 per annum for boarding pupils and £15,000 for day pupils, with additional costs for uniform, equipment and extra-curricular activities. Scholarships and means-tested bursaries to assist the education of the less well-off are usually awarded by a process which combines academic and other criteria.

Private schools are generally academically selective, using the competitive Common Entrance Examination at ages 11+ or 13+. Schools often offer scholarships to attract abler pupils (which improves their average results); the standard sometimes approaches the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) intended for age 16. Poorly-performing pupils may be required to leave, and following GCSE results can be replaced in the sixth form by a new infusion of high-performing sixth-form-only pupils, which may distort apparent results. On the other hand, pupils performing poorly cannot legally be excluded from a state school solely for poor performance.

Conditions
Private schools, as compared with maintained schools, generally have more individual teaching; much lower pupil-teacher ratios at around 9:1; longer teaching hours (sometimes including Saturday morning teaching) and homework (known as prep); though they have shorter terms. They also have more time for organised extra-curricular activities.

As boarding schools are fully responsible for their pupils throughout term-time, pastoral care is an essential part of boarding education, and many such schools have their own distinctive ethos, including social aspirations, manners and accents, associated with their own school traditions. Many former pupils aspire to send their own children to their old schools over successive generations. Most offer sporting, musical, dramatic and art facilities, sometimes with extra charges.

Educational achievement is generally very good. Independent school pupils are four times more likely to attain an A* at GCSE than their non-selective state sector counterparts, and twice as likely to attain an A grade at A-level. A much higher proportion go to university. Some schools specialise in particular strengths, whether academic, although this is not as common as it is in the state sector.

Independent schools can set their own discipline regime, with much greater freedom to exclude children, primarily exercised in the wider interests of the school. In England and Wales there are no requirements for teaching staff to have Qualified Teacher Status or to be registered with the General Teaching Council. In Scotland a teaching qualification and registration with the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS) is mandatory for all teaching positions.

Economic impact
In 2014 the Independent Schools Council commissioned a report to highlight the impact that private schools have on the British economy. The report calculated that private schools support an £11.7 billion contribution to gross value added (GVA) in Britain.

Criticisms
Private schools are often criticised for being elitist, and seen as lying outside the spirit of the state system. Many of the best-known public schools are extremely expensive, and many have entry criteria geared towards those who have been at private "feeder" preparatory schools. The Thatcher government introduced the Assisted Places Scheme in England and Wales in 1980, whereby the state paid the school fees for those pupils capable of gaining a place but unable to afford the fees. This was essentially a response to the decision of the previous Labour government in the mid-1970s to remove government funding of direct grant grammar schools, most of which then became private schools; some Assisted Places pupils went to the former direct-grant schools such as Manchester Grammar School. The scheme was terminated by the Labour government in 1997, and since then the private sector has moved to increase its own means-tested bursaries.

The former classics-based curriculum was also criticised for not providing skills in sciences or engineering, but was perhaps in response to the requirement of classics for entry to Oxbridge until the early 1960s, as well as a hangover from centuries ago when only Latin and Greek were taught at many public schools. It was Martin Wiener's opposition to this tendency which inspired his 1981 book English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit: 1850–1980. It became a huge influence on the Thatcher government's opposition to old-school gentlemanly Toryism. According to a 2010 report from the Department for Education, private school pupils have "the highest rates of achieving grades A or B in A-level maths and sciences" compared to grammar, specialist and mainstream state schools, and pupils at private schools account for a disproportionate number of the total number of A-levels in maths and sciences.

Some parents complain that their rights and their children's are compromised by vague and one-sided contracts which allow Heads to use discretionary powers unfairly, such as in expulsion on non-disciplinary grounds. They believe private schools have not embraced the principles of natural justice as adopted by the state sector, and private law as applied to Higher Education. This belief is reinforced by the fact that the legal rights of pupils are governed by a private contract, as opposed to rights implemented by the national government. For instance, a pupil seeking admission to a state school that is rejected is legally entitled to appeal, whereas at a private school admissions are at the discretion of the governing body of the school.

In 2006, pupils at fee-paying schools made up 43 per cent of those selected for places at Oxford University and 38 per cent of those granted places at Cambridge University (although such pupils represent only 18 per cent of the 16 years old plus school population).

Charitable status

A major area of debate in recent years has centred around the continuing charitable status of private schools, which means they are not charged business rates by local councils, amongst other benefits. This is estimated to save the schools about £200 per pupil and to cost the Exchequer about £100 million in tax breaks, assuming that an increase in fees would not result in any transfer of pupils from private to maintained sector.

Since the Charities Act was passed in November 2006, charitable status is based on an organisation providing a "public benefit", as judged by the Charity Commission. In 2008, the Charity Commission published guidance, including guidance on public benefit and fee charging, setting out issues to be considered by charities charging high fees that many people could not afford. The Independent Schools Council was granted permission by the High Court to bring a judicial review of the Charity Commission's public benefit guidance as it affected the private education sector. This was heard by the Upper Tribunal at the same time as a reference by the Attorney General asking the Tribunal to consider how the public benefit requirement should operate in relation to fee-charging charitable schools. The Upper Tribunal's decision, published on 14 October 2011, concluded that in all cases there must be more than de minimis or token benefit for the poor, but that trustees of a charitable private school should decide what was appropriate in their particular circumstances.

The Charity Commission accordingly published revised public benefit guidance in 2013.

In Scotland, under the Charities and Trustee Investment Act (Scotland), there is an entirely separate test of charitable status, overseen by the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator, which assesses the public benefit provided by each registered school charity.

Extra exam time

An investigation into official exam data by the BBC's Radio 4 Today programme, in 2017, showed that 20% of private school pupils were given extra time for their GCSE and A level exams, as compared with less than 12% of pupils in public sector schools. The most commonly given amount of extra exam time is 25%. Such 'exam access' arrangements are given for a range of disabilities and educational special needs such as dyslexia, dyspraxia and ADHD.

Types and degree classes
In 2002 Jeremy Smith and Robin Naylor of the University of Warwick conducted a study into the determinants of degree performance at UK universities. Their study confirmed that the internationally recognized phenomenon whereby "children from more advantaged class backgrounds have higher levels of educational attainment than children from less-advantaged class backgrounds" persists at university level in the United Kingdom.
The authors noted "a very well-determined and monotonically positive effect defined over Social Classes I to V" whereby, for both men and women, other things being equal, academic performance at university is better the more advantaged is the student's home background". but they also observed that a student educated at a private school was on average 6 per cent less likely to receive a first or an upper second class degree than a student from the same social class background, of the same gender, who had achieved the same A-level score at a state school. The averaged effect was described as very variable across the social class and A-level attainment of the candidates; it was "small and not strongly significant for students with high A-level scores" (i.e. for students at the more selective universities) and "statistically significant mostly for students from lower occupationally-ranked social-class backgrounds". Additionally, the study could not take into account the effect of a slightly different and more traditional subject mix studied by private students at university on university achievement. Despite these caveats, the paper attracted much press attention. The same study found wide variations between different independent schools, suggesting that students from a few of them were in fact significantly more likely to obtain the better degrees than state students of the same gender and class background having the same A-level score.

In 2011, a subsequent study led by Richard Partington at Cambridge University showed that A-level performance is "overwhelmingly" the best predictor for exam performance in the earlier years ("Part I") of the undergraduate degree at Cambridge. Partington's summary specified that "questions of school background and gender" ... "make only a marginal difference and the pattern – particularly in relation to school background – is in any case inconsistent."

A study commissioned by the Sutton Trust and published in 2010 focused mainly on the possible use of US-style SAT tests as a way of detecting a candidate's academic potential. Its findings confirmed those of the Smith & Naylor study in that it found that privately educated pupils who, despite their educational advantages, have only secured a poor A-level score, and who therefore attend less selective universities, do less well than state educated degree candidates with the same low A-level attainment. In addition, as discussed in the 2010 Buckingham report "HMC Schools: a quantitative analysis", because students from state schools tended to be admitted on lower A-level entry grades, relative to entry grades it could be claimed that these students had improved more. A countervailing finding of the Sutton Trust study was that for students of a given level of A-level attainment it is almost twice as difficult to get a first at the most selective universities than at those on the other end of the scale. Private sector schools regularly dominate the top of the A-level league tables, and their students are more likely to apply to the most selective universities; as a result private sector students are particularly well represented at these institutions, and therefore only the very ablest of them are likely to secure the best degrees.

In 2013 the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) published a study noting, amongst other things, that a greater percentage of students who had attended a private school prior to university achieved a first or upper second class degree compared with students from state schools. Out of a starting cohort of 24,360 candidates having attended a private school and 184,580 having attended a state school, 64.9 per cent of the former attained a first or upper second class degree, compared to 52.7 per cent of the latter. No statistical comparisons of the two groups (State vs Private) were reported, with or without controls for student characteristics such as entry qualifications, so no inferences can be drawn on the relative performance of the two groups. The stand-out finding of the study was that private school students achieved better in obtaining graduate jobs and study, even when student characteristics were allowed for (sex, ethnicity, school type, entry qualifications, area of study).

In 2015, the UK press widely reported the outcome of research suggesting that school-leavers from state schools that attained similar A level grades go on to achieve higher undergraduate degree classes than their private school counterparts. The quoted figures, based on the degree results of all students who graduated in 2013/14, suggested that 82 per cent of state school pupils got firsts or upper seconds compared with 73 per cent of those from private schools. Later, HEFCE admitted that it had made a transposition error, and that in fact, 73 per cent of state school graduates gained a first or upper second class degree compared with 82 per cent of private school graduates. This admission attracted far less publicity than the original erroneous assertion.

Across all English universities, state school students who scored two Bs and a C at A-level did on average eight per cent better at degree level than their privately educated counterparts. Two Bs and a C represents an entry tariff of 112, well below the average demanded by any of the UK's Russell Group universities.

See also
Armorial of UK schools
Education in the United Kingdom
List of direct grant grammar schools (list of schools that were part of the scheme, between 1945 and 1976)
List of English and Welsh endowed schools (19th century)
List of private schools in the United Kingdom
List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom
Private school fee fixing scandal
School and university in literature
Schools Class locomotives for a class of Southern Railway locomotives that were named after Public Schools in the early 1930s

Notes

External links

Education in the United Kingdom

School types

Private schools in the United Kingdom


The Waterloo Helmet (also known as the Waterloo Bridge Helmet) is a pre-Roman Celtic bronze ceremonial horned helmet with repoussé decoration in the La Tène style, dating to circa 150–50 BC, that was found in 1868 in the River Thames by Waterloo Bridge in London, England. It is now on display at the British Museum in London.

Discovery
The helmet was slugged from the bed of the River Thames close to Waterloo Bridge in 1868, and in March of the same year it was given on loan to the British Museum by Thames Conservancy. In 1988 its successor body, the Port of London Authority, donated the helmet to the British Museum.

Description
The main part of the helmet is constructed from two sheets of bronze, one forming the front and one the back of the helmet, that are riveted together at the sides and top. A separate crescent-shaped bronze piece is riveted to the bottom of the front sheet, and two conical bronze horns with terminal knobs are riveted to the top of the helmet.  A decorative strip with a row of rivets overlays the join between the front and back sheets, and goes around the base of the horns. At the end of the strip, on both sides of the helmet, is a ring fitting for a chin-strap or cheekpiece. There are a number of small holes around the bottom edge, which may have been used to attach a lining.

The helmet was decorated with six bronze studs, one of which is now missing, three on the front and three on the back. These have cross scores on them that suggest they were designed to hold red glass enamel studs, but these are no longer present.

There is also a repoussé decoration in the La Tène style on the front and back of the helmet. The design is similar to that on the Snettisham Great Torc.

Purpose
Being made from thin bronze sheets, the helmet would have been too fragile for use in battle, and so it was probably intended to be used for ceremonial or parade purposes. In this respect it is similar to Iron Age bronze shields that have been found, which would not have been effective against contemporary weapons and could only have been used for display purposes.  Alternatively, it has been suggested that the helmet is in any case too small for most adult males, and may have been worn by a wooden statue of a Celtic deity.

It is thought that the reason why the Waterloo Helmet and ceremonial bronze shields such as the Battersea Shield and Witham Shield were all found in rivers is that they were thrown into the river as votive offerings to the gods.

Importance

The Waterloo Helmet is one of only three Iron Age helmets found in England and also the only horned helmet dating to the Iron Age to have been found anywhere in Europe. However, there are several Iron Age depictions of people wearing horned helmets from elsewhere in Europe. There are some carvings of Gauls wearing horned helmets on the triumphal arch at Orange, France, dating to c.55 BC, but these are very different from the Waterloo Helmet. Whereas the Waterloo Helmet has straight, conical horns with a broad base that are stylised representations of animal horns, the helmets depicted on the carvings at Orange show realistic, curved bull's horns between which is placed an upright wheel. Similar to the depictions on the triumphal arch of Orange is the image of a leaping figure wearing a horned helmet and holding a wheel on the Gundestrup cauldron from Denmark, dating to the 1st century BC. This helmet is of a different shape from the Waterloo Helmet, and the horns are curved like those at Orange, but like the Waterloo Helmet the horns of the helmet are not sharply pointed, but are fitted with terminal knobs. An Iron Age bas-relief at Brague, near Antibes in France, also shows representations of people wearing horned helmets.

Despite the depictions of horned helmets on the triumphal arch of Orange and elsewhere, the Waterloo Helmet remains the only known example of an actual horned helmet from this period, and other Iron Age helmets that have been found, such as the Canterbury helmet and the Meyrick Helmet from northern Britain, are hornless. Nevertheless, influenced by the iconic features of the Waterloo Helmet, modern artistic interpretations of Iron Age people tend to show them wearing horned helmets, which has led Miranda Aldhouse-Green, professor of archaeology at Cardiff University, to comment that it is "unfortunate that it has found such a firm place in many popular reconstructions of British warriors".

Gallery of reconstructions

See also
Canterbury helmet
Battersea shield
Wandsworth Shield
Witham Shield

References

External links
 Horned helmet at the British Museum

Ancient helmets
Archaeological artefacts from the River Thames
Iron Age Britain
Prehistoric objects in the British Museum
1868 archaeological discoveries
Individual helmets
Ancient Celtic metalwork

Waterloo Helmet


Numidia was the ancient kingdom of the Numidians in northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes up Algeria, but later expanding across what is today known as Tunisia and Libya. The polity was originally divided between the Massylii in the east and the Masaesyli in the west. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), Masinissa, king of the Massylii, defeated Syphax of the Masaesyli to unify Numidia into the first Berber state in present-day Algeria. The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later alternated between being a Roman province and a Roman client state.

Numidia, at its largest extent, was bordered by Mauretania to the west, at the Moulouya River, Africa Proconsularis to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Sahara to the south.

History

Independence

The Greek historians referred to these peoples as "Νομάδες" (i.e. Nomads), which by Latin interpretation became "Numidae" (but cf. also the correct use of Nomades). Historian Gabriel Camps, however, disputes this claim, favoring instead an African origin for the term.

The name appears first in Polybius (second century BC) to indicate the peoples and territory west of Carthage including the entire north of Algeria as far as the river Mulucha (Muluya), about  west of Oran.

The Numidians were composed of two great tribal groups: the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west. During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under their king Gala, were allied with Carthage, while the western Masaesyli, under king Syphax, were allied with Rome. The Kingdom of Masaesyli under Syphax extended from the Moulouya river to Oued Rhumel.

However, in 206 BC, the new king of the eastern Massylii, Masinissa, allied himself with Rome, and Syphax of the Masaesyli switched his allegiance to the Carthaginian side. At the end of the war, Numidia was under the rule of Masinissa of the Massylii. At the time of his death in 148 BC, Masinissa's territory extended from the Moulouya to the boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also southeast as far as Cyrenaica to the gulf of Sirte, so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage (Appian, Punica, 106) except towards the sea. Furthermore, after the capture of Syphax the king of the Masaessyli (West Algeria) with his capital based in Siga  and after losing Siga had relocated to a temporary capital in Tinga, Bokkar, had become a vassal of Massinissa. . Massinissa had also penetrated as far south beyond the Atlas to the Gaetuli and Fezzan was part of his domain.

After the death of the long-lived Masinissa around 148 BC, he was succeeded by his son Micipsa. When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sons Hiempsal I and Adherbal and Masinissa's illegitimate grandson, Jugurtha, who was very popular among the Numidians. Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa. Jugurtha had Hiempsal killed, which led to open war with Adherbal.

Agriculture
The Numidian kingdom was very famous for its agricultural yield; besides lettuce, beans, and other grains already consumed by Berbers since the dawn of time, Numidia was very productive when it came to its famously high-quality wheat, very similar to the wheat farmed along the banks of the Egyptian Nile. According to Roman historian Pliny the elder:

In 179 BC, King Masinissa of Numidia received a golden crown from the inhabitants of Delos, as he had offered them a shipload of grain. A statue of Masinissa was erected in Delos in his honor, with an inscription by a native from Rhodes. His sons, too, had statues erected on the island of Delos; the King of Bithynia, Nicomedes, had also dedicated a statue to Masinissa. By 143 AD, the export of olive oil from Numidia rivaled its grain export throughout the Roman Empire.

In 200 BC, the Roman Army stationed in Macedonia received 17,508 hectoliters of Numidian wheat; in 198 BC, the Roman Army in Greece was sent, once again, the same amount of wheat. In 191 BC, Rome received 26,262 hectoliters of wheat and 21,885 hectoliters of barley; Greece, the same year, received 43,770 hectoliters of wheat and 26,262 hectoliters of barley. Then, in 171 BC, the Roman army in Macedonia received 87,540 hectoliters of wheat.

In total Rome received:
 in 200 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat and 10,500 tonnes of barley.
 in 198 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat.
 in 191 BC: 56,000 tonnes of wheat and 28,900 tonnes of barley.
 in 170 BC: 70,000 tonnes of wheat.

These numbers only represent a fraction from the reserves of the kingdom of Massinissa. His contributions to the Romans in 170 BC appear to be only a fraction of the kingdom's total production, as he was upset by Rome's decision to pay for the provided wheat that year. Massinissa hadn't laid his hands yet on the fertile lands of the Emporia (North West Ancient Libya) nor the great plains full of fertile soil yet; generally, barley was his kingdom's main produce, as they grew barley in light, mountainous and hilly soil which is suitable for its cultivation.

War with Rome

By 112 BC, Jugurtha resumed his war with Adherbal. He incurred the wrath of Rome in the process by killing some Roman businessmen who were aiding Adherbal. After a brief war with Rome, Jugurtha surrendered and received a highly favourable peace treaty, which raised suspicions of bribery once more. The local Roman commander was summoned to Rome to face corruption charges brought by his political rival Gaius Memmius. Jugurtha was also forced to come to Rome to testify against the Roman commander, where Jugurtha was completely discredited once his violent and ruthless past became widely known, and after he had been suspected of murdering a Numidian rival.

War broke out between Numidia and the Roman Republic and several legions were dispatched to North Africa under the command of the Consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus. The war dragged out into a long and seemingly endless campaign as the Romans tried to defeat Jugurtha decisively. Frustrated at the apparent lack of action, Metellus' lieutenant Gaius Marius returned to Rome to seek election as Consul. Marius was elected, and then returned to Numidia to take control of the war. He sent his Quaestor Sulla to neighbouring Mauretania in order to eliminate their support for Jugurtha. With the help of Bocchus I of Mauretania, Sulla captured Jugurtha and brought the war to a conclusive end. Jugurtha was brought to Rome in chains and was placed in the Tullianum.

Jugurtha was executed by the Romans in 104 BC, after being paraded through the streets in Gaius Marius' Triumph.

Divided kingdom
After the death of Jugurtha, the far-west of Numidia was added to the lands of Bocchus I, King of Mauretania. A rump kingdom continued to be governed by native princes. It appears that, on the death of King Gauda in 88 BC, the kingdom was divided into a larger, eastern land and a smaller, western kingdom (roughly the Petite Kabylie). The kings of the east minted coins, while no known coins of the western kings survive. The western kings may have been vassals of the eastern.

The civil war between Caesar and Pompey brought an end to independent Numidia in 46 BC. The western kingdom between the Sava (Oued Soummam) and Ampsaga (Oued-el-Kebir) rivers passed to Bocchus II, while the eastern kingdom became a Roman province. The remainder of the western kingdom plus the city of Cirta, which may have belonged to either kingdom, became briefly an autonomous principality under Publius Sittius. Between 44 and 40 BC, the old western kingdom was once again under a Numidian king, Arabio, who killed Sittius and took his place. He involved himself in Rome's civil wars and was himself killed.

Roman provinces

Eastern Numidia was annexed in 46 BC to create a new Roman province, Africa Nova. Western Numidia was also annexed as part of the province Africa Nova after the death of its last king, Arabio, in 40 BC, and subsequently the province (except of Western Numidia) was united with province Africa Vetus by Emperor Augustus in 25 BC, to create the new province Africa Proconsularis. During the brief period (30–25 BC) Juba II (son of Juba I) ruled as a client king of Numidia on the territory of former province Africa Nova.

In AD 40, the western portion of Africa Proconsularis, including its legionary garrison, was placed under an imperial legatus, and in effect became a separate province of Numidia, though the legatus of Numidia remained nominally subordinate to the proconsul of Africa until AD 203. In 193 AD, under Septimius Severus, Numidia was separated from Africa Proconsularis, and governed by an imperial procurator.

In the reorganization of the empire by Diocletian, Numidia was divided in two provinces: the north became Numidia Cirtensis, with capital at Cirta, while the south, which included the Aurès Mountains and was threatened by raids, became Numidia Militiana, "Military Numidia", with capital at the legionary base of Lambaesis.

Subsequently Emperor Constantine the Great reunited the two provinces into a single one, administered from Cirta, which was now renamed Constantina (modern Constantine) in his honour. Its governor was raised to the rank of consularis in 320, and the province remained one of the six provinces of the Diocese of Africa until the invasion of the Vandals in 428, which began its slow decay, accompanied by desertification. It was restored to Roman rule after the Vandalic War, when it became part of the new Praetorian prefecture of Africa.

Architecture

The term "Royal Numidian Architecture" was coined for the monuments that were constructed by the Numidian kings. These monuments consist of tombs, tumuli and sanctuaries. Some examples of these structures are the mausoleum of Thugga, the tomb of Beni Rhenane, a tomb at Henchur Burgu in Djerba as well as two tumulus tombs known as the Madghacen and the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania. There are also altars that were built at Simitthus and Kbor Klib. All of these monuments were built within the area ruled by Massinissa and his descendants.

Navy and trade
Numidia took over most of the famous Carthaginian ports which were one of the most important in the mediterranean, the famous Roman orator and historian Cicero tells us that the Numidian king had a war navy to protect his trade, in one story, the fleet of Massinissa sailed to Malta and confiscated large ivory elephant pillars from the temple of Juno and returned to Numidia and gave it as a prize to Massinissa. When the king knew about the origin of the gift, he prepared a nimble fleet of five ships and sent it back to where it came from. This funny story tells us that not only Massinissa had enough ships to perform tasks at will but also these fleets were functioning outside of African shorelines towards the central mediterranean.

Unlike the Carthaginians who closed trade in face of the Greeks to large parts of North africa, Massinissa opened trade with the Greek, Egyptian, Syrian as well as Italic merchants, Massinissa used to provide to the population of Rhodes Toja wood and Ivory, in Cirta multiple Rhodian amphorae from the 2nd century B.C were found in burial sites and one of them carries the inscription (Sodamos).

Major cities
Numidia  became highly romanized and was studded with numerous towns. The chief towns of Roman Numidia were: in the north, Cirta or modern Constantine, the capital, with its port Russicada (Modern Skikda); and Hippo Regius (near Bône), well known as the see of St. Augustine. To the south in the interior military roads led to Theveste (Tebessa) and Lambaesis (Lambessa) with extensive Roman remains, connected by military roads with Cirta and Hippo, respectively.

Lambaesis was the seat of the Legio III Augusta, and the most important strategic centre. It commanded the passes of the Aurès Mountains (Mons Aurasius), a mountain block that separated Numidia from the Gaetuli Berber tribes of the desert, and which was gradually occupied in its whole extent by the Romans under the Empire. Including these towns, there were altogether twenty that are known to have received at one time or another the title and status of Roman colonies; and in the 5th century, the Notitia Dignitatum enumerates no fewer than 123 sees whose bishops assembled at Carthage in 479.

Episcopal sees
See Numidia (Roman province)#Episcopal sees.

See also
 Africa (Roman province)
 List of Kings of Numidia
 Numidian cavalry
 Numidians
 Roman Libya
 Shawiya language

Explanatory notes

References

Further reading

1st-century BC disestablishments in the Roman Empire
1st-century BC disestablishments
200s BC establishments
202 BC
3rd-century BC establishments
Ancient Greek geography of North Africa
Berber dynasties
Countries in ancient Africa
Former kingdoms
Roman client kingdoms
States and territories established in the 3rd century BC

Numidia


William Tell (, ; ; ; ) is a folk hero of Switzerland.
According to the legend, Tell was an expert mountain climber and marksman with a crossbow who assassinated Albrecht Gessler, a tyrannical reeve of the Austrian dukes of the House of Habsburg positioned in Altdorf, in the canton of Uri. Tell's defiance and tyrannicide encouraged the population to open rebellion and a pact against the foreign rulers with neighbouring Schwyz and Unterwalden, marking the foundation of the Swiss Confederacy. Tell was considered the father of the Swiss Confederacy.

Set in the early 14th century (traditional date 1307, during the rule of Albert of Habsburg), the first written records of the legend date to the latter part of the 15th century, when the Swiss Confederacy was gaining military and political influence. Tell is a central figure in Swiss national historiography, along with Arnold von Winkelried, the hero of Sempach (1386). He was important as a symbol during the formative stage of modern Switzerland in the 19th century, known as the period of Restoration and Regeneration, as well as in the wider history of 18th- to 19th-century Europe as a symbol of resistance against aristocratic rule, especially in the Revolutions of 1848 against the House of Habsburg which had ruled Austria for centuries.

Legend

The first reference to Tell, as yet without a specified given name, appears in the White Book of Sarnen (German: Weisses Buch von Sarnen). This volume was written in c. 1474 by Hans Schriber,  state secretary (Landschreiber) Obwalden.
It mentions the Rütli oath (German: Rütlischwur) and names Tell as one of the conspirators of the Rütli, whose heroic tyrannicide triggered the Burgenbruch rebellion.

An equally early account of Tell is found in the Tellenlied, a song composed in the 1470s, with its oldest extant manuscript copy dating to 1501. The song begins with the Tell legend, which it presents as the origin of the Confederacy, calling Tell the "first confederate". The narrative includes Tell's apple shot, his preparation of a second arrow to shoot Gessler, and his escape, but it does not mention any assassination of Gessler.
The text then enumerates the cantons of the Confederacy, and says was expanded with "current events" during the course of the Burgundy Wars, ending with the death of Charles the Bold in 1477.

Aegidius Tschudi, writing c. 1570, presents an extended version of the legend. Still essentially based on  the account in the White Book, Tschudi adds further detail.
Tschudi is known to habitually have "fleshed out" his sources, so that all detail from Tschudi not found in the earlier accounts may be suspected of being Tschudi's invention.
Such additional detail includes Tell's given name Wilhelm, and his being a native of Bürglen, Uri in the Schächental,   the precise date of the apple-shot, given as  18 November 1307 as well as the account of Tell's death in 1354.

It is Tschudi's version that became influential in early modern Switzerland and entered public consciousness as the "William Tell" legend. According to Tschudi's account, William Tell was known as a strong man and an expert shot with the crossbow. In his time, the House of Habsburg emperors of Austria were seeking to dominate Uri, and Tell became one of the conspirators of Werner Stauffacher who vowed to resist Habsburg rule. Albrecht Gessler was the newly appointed Austrian Vogt of Altdorf, Switzerland. He raised a pole under the village lindentree, hung his hat on top of it, and demanded that all the townsfolk bow before it.

In Tschudi's account, on 18 November 1307, Tell visited Altdorf with his young son. He passed by the hat, but publicly refused to bow to it, and was consequently arrested. Gessler was intrigued by Tell's famed marksmanship, but resentful of his defiance, so he devised a cruel punishment. Tell and his son were both to be executed; however, he could redeem his life by shooting an apple off the head of his son Walter in a single attempt. Tell split the apple with a bolt from his crossbow. Gessler then noticed that Tell had removed two crossbow bolts from his quiver, so he asked why. Tell was reluctant to answer, but Gessler promised that he would not kill him; he replied that, had he killed his son, he would have killed Gessler with the second bolt. Gessler was furious and ordered Tell to be bound, saying that he had promised to spare his life, but would imprison him for the remainder of his life.

Tschudi's continues that Tell was being carried in Gessler's boat to the dungeon in the castle at Küssnacht when a storm broke on Lake Lucerne, and the guards were afraid that their boat would sink. They begged Gessler to remove Tell's shackles so that he could take the helm and save them. Gessler gave in, but Tell steered the boat to a rocky place and leaped out. The site is known in the "White Book" as the "Tellsplatte" ("Tell's slab"); it has been marked by a memorial chapel since the 16th century. Tell ran cross-country to Küssnacht with Gessler in pursuit. Tell assassinated him using the second crossbow bolt, along a stretch of the road cut through the rock between Immensee and Küssnacht, which is known as the Hohle Gasse. Tell's act sparked a rebellion, which led to the formation of the Old Swiss Confederacy. According to Tschudi, Tell fought again against Austria in the 1315 Battle of Morgarten. Tschudi also has an account of Tell's death in 1354, according to which he was killed trying to save a child from drowning in the Schächental River in Uri.

Early modern reception

Chronicles

There are a number of sources for the Tell legend later than the earliest account in the White Book of Sarnen but earlier than Tschudi's version of ca. 1570.

These include the account in the chronicle of Melchior Russ from Lucerne. Dated to 1482, this is an incoherent compilation of older writings, including the Song of the Founding of the Confederation, Conrad Justinger's Bernese Chronicle, and the Chronicle of the State of Bern (in German, Chronik der Stadt Bern).
Another early account is in Petermann Etterlin's Chronicle of the Swiss Confederation (German: Kronika von der loblichen Eydtgenossenschaft) of 1507, the earliest printed version of the Tell story.

The Chronicon Helveticum was compiled by Aegidius Tschudi of Glarus in the years leading up to his death in early 1572.
For more than 150 years, it existed only in manuscript form, before finally being edited in  1734–1736. Therefore, there is no clear "date of publication" of the chronicle, and its date of composition can only be given approximately, as "ca. 1570", or "before 1572". It is Tschudi's account of the legend, however, which became the major model for later writers, even prior to its edition in print in the 1730s,

Popular veneration

A widespread veneration of Tell, including sight-seeing excursions to the scenes of his deeds, can be ascertained for the early 16th century.
Heinrich Brennwald in the early 16th century mentions the chapel (Tellskapelle) on the site of Tell's leap from his captors' boat. Tschudi mentions a "holy cottage" (heilig hüslin) built on the site of Gessler's assassination. Peter Hagendorf, a soldier in the Thirty Years' War, mentions a visit to 'the chapel where William Tell escaped' in his diary.

The first recorded Tell play (Tellspiel), known as the Urner Tellspiel ("Tell Play of Uri"), was probably performed in the winter of either 1512 or 1513 in Altdorf.

The church of Bürglen had a bell dedicated to Tell from 1581, and a nearby chapel has a fresco dated to 1582 showing Tell's death in the Schächenbach.

The Three Tells
The Three Tells (die Drei Tellen, also die Drei Telle) were symbolic figures of the Swiss Peasant War of 1653. They expressed the hope of the subject population to repeat the success story of the rebellion against Habsburg in the early 14th century.

By the 18th century, the Drei Tellen had become associated with a sleeping hero legend. They were said to be asleep in a cave at the Rigi. The return of Tell in times of need was already foretold in the Tellenlied of 1653 and symbolically fulfilled in the impersonation of the Three Tells by costumed individuals, in one instance culminating in an actual assassination executed by these impersonators in historical costume.

Tell during the 16th century had become closely associated and eventually merged with the Rütlischwur legend, and the "Three Tells" represented the three conspirators or Eidgenossen Walter Fürst, Arnold von Melchtal and Werner Stauffacher.

In 1653, three men dressed in historical costume representing the Three Tells appeared in Schüpfheim. Other impersonations of the Three Tells also appeared in the Freie Ämter and in the Emmental.

The first impersonators of the Three Tells were Hans Zemp, Kaspar Unternährer of Schüpfheim and Ueli Dahinden of Hasle. They appeared at a number of important peasant conferences during the war, symbolizing the continuity of the present rebellion with the resistance movement against the Habsburg overlords at the origin of the Swiss Confederacy. Unternährer and Dahinden fled to the Entlebuch alps before the arrival of the troops of general Sebastian Peregrin Zwyers; Zemp escaped to the Alsace. After the suppression of the rebellion, the peasants voted for a tyrannicide, directly inspired by the Tell legend, attempting to kill the Lucerne Schultheiss Ulrich Dulliker.

Dahinden and Unternährer returned in their roles of Tells, joined by Hans Stadelmann replacing Zemp. In an ambush, they managed to injure Dulliker and killed a member of the Lucerne parliament, Caspar Studer. The assassination attempt — an exceptional act in the culture of the Old Swiss Confederacy — was widely recognized and welcomed among the peasant population, but its impact was not sufficient to rekindle the rebellion.

Even though it did not have any direct political effect, its symbolic value was considerable, placing the Lucerne authorities in the role of the tyrant (Habsburg and Gessler) and the peasant population in that of the freedom fighters (Tell). The Three Tells after the deed went to mass, still wearing their costumes, without being molested. Dahinden and Unternährer were eventually killed in October 1653 by Lucerne troops under Colonel Alphons von Sonnenberg. In July 1654, Zemp betrayed his successor Stadelmann in exchange for pardon and Stadelmann was executed on 15 July 1654.

The Three Tells appear in a 1672 comedy by Johann Caspar Weissenbach.
The "sleeping hero" version of the Three Tells legend was published in Deutsche Sagen by the Brothers Grimm in 1816 (no. 298). It is also the subject of Felicia Hemans's poem The Cavern of the Three Tells of 1824.

Modern reception

Throughout the long nineteenth century, and into the World War II period, Tell was perceived as a symbol of rebellion against tyranny both in Switzerland and in Europe.

Antoine-Marin Lemierre wrote a play inspired by Tell in 1766 and revived it in 1786. The success of this work established the association of Tell as a fighter against tyranny with the history of the French Revolution.
The French revolutionary fascination with Tell was reflected in Switzerland with the establishment of the Helvetic Republic. Tell became, as it were, the mascot of the short-lived republic, his figure being featured on its official seal. The French Navy also had a  named , which was captured by the British Royal Navy in 1800.

Benito Juarez, President of Mexico and national hero, chose the alias "Guillermo Tell" (the Spanish version of William Tell) when he joined the Freemasons; he picked this name because he liked and admired the story and character of Tell whom he considered a symbol of freedom and resistance.

Tschudi's Chronicon Helveticum continued to be taken at face value  as a historiographical source well into the 19th century,
so that Tschudi's version of the legend is not only used as a model in Friedrich Schiller's play William Tell (1804)
but is also reported in historiographical works of the time, including Johannes von Müller's History of the Swiss Confederation (German: Geschichte Schweizerischer Eidgenossenschaft, 1780).

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe learned of the Tell saga during his travels through Switzerland between 1775 and 1795. He obtained a copy of Tschudi's chronicles and considered writing a play about Tell, but ultimately gave the idea to his friend Friedrich von Schiller, who in 1803–04 wrote the play Wilhelm Tell, first performed on 17 March 1804, in Weimar.
Schiller's Tell is heavily inspired by the political events of the late 18th century, the French and American revolutions, in particular. Schiller's play was performed at Interlaken (the Tellspiele) in the summers of 1912 to 1914, 1931 to 1939 and every year since 1947. In 2004 it was first performed in Altdorf itself.

Gioachino Rossini used Schiller's play as the basis for his 1829 opera William Tell. The William Tell Overture is one of his best-known and most frequently imitated pieces of music; in the 20th century, the finale of the overture became the theme for the radio, television, and motion picture incarnations of The Lone Ranger, a fictional American frontier hero.

Around 1836 the first William Tell patterned playing cards were produced in Pest, Hungary. They were inspired by Schiller's play and made during tense relations with the ruling Habsburgs. The cards became popular throughout the Austrian Empire during the Revolution of 1848. Characters and scenes from the opera William Tell are recognisable on the court cards and Aces of William Tell cards, playing cards that were designed in Hungary around 1835. These cards are still the most common German-suited playing cards in that part of the world today. Characters from the play portrayed on the Obers and  Unters include: Hermann Geszler, Walter Fürst, Rudolf Harras and William Tell.

In 1858, the Swiss Colonization Society, a group of Swiss and German immigrants to the United States, founded its first (and only) planned city on the banks of the Ohio River in Perry County, Indiana. The town was originally dubbed Helvetia, but was quickly changed to Tell City to honor the legendary Swiss hero. The city became known for its manufacturing, especially of fine wood furniture. William Tell and symbols of an apple with an arrow through it are prominent in the town, which includes a bronze statue of Tell and his son, based on the one in Altdorf, Switzerland. The statue was erected on a fountain in front of city hall in 1974. Tell City High School uses these symbols in its crest or logo, and the sports teams are called "The Marksmen." The William Tell Overture is often played by the school's pep band at high school games. Each August since 1958, Tell City's centennial year, the town has held "Schweizer Fest," a community festival of entertainment, stage productions, historical presentations, carnival rides, beer garden, sporting events and class reunions, to honor its Swiss-German heritage. Many of the activities occur on the grounds of City Hall and Main Street, at the feet of the Tell statue.

John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Abraham Lincoln, was inspired by Tell. Lamenting the negative reaction to his action, Booth wrote in his journal on 21 April 1865 "with every man's hand against me, I am here in despair. And why; For doing what Brutus was honored for and what made Tell a Hero. And yet I for striking down a greater tyrant than they ever knew am looked upon as a common cutthroat."(He himself was shot to death, without standing trial, days later.)

Following a national competition, won by Richard Kissling, Altdorf in 1895 erected a monument to its hero. Kissling casts Tell as a peasant and man of the mountains, with strong features and muscular limbs. His powerful hand rests lovingly on the shoulder of little Walter, but the apple is not shown. The depiction is in marked contrast with that used by the Helvetic Republic, where Tell is shown as a landsknecht rather than a peasant, with a sword at his belt and a feathered hat, bending down to pick up his son who is still holding the apple.

The painting of Tell by Ferdinand Hodler (1897) became iconic. Tell is represented as facing the viewer, with his right hand raised, the left holding the crossbow. The representation was designed as part of a larger scene showing "Gessler's death", one of seven scenes created for the Swiss National Museum competition.
Hodler's depiction of Tell was often described as sacral, and compared to classical depictionons of God Father, Moses, John the Baptist, Jesus, or the Archangel Michael. In Tell's bearded face, Hodler combines self-portrait with allusion  the face of Christ.

The first film about Tell was made by French director Charles Pathé in 1900; only a short fragment survives.
A version of the legend was retold in P.G. Wodehouse's William Tell Told Again (1904), written in prose and verse with characteristic Wodehousian flair.
The design of the Federal 5 francs coin issued from 1922 features the bust of a generic "mountain shepherd" designed by Paul Burkard, but due to a similarity of the bust with Kissling's statue, in spite of the missing beard, it was immediately widely identified as Tell.

Adolf Hitler was enthusiastic about Schiller's play, quoting it in his Mein Kampf, and approving of a German/Swiss co-production of the play in which Hermann Göring's mistress Emmy Sonnemann appeared as Tell's wife. However, on 3 June 1941, Hitler had the play banned. The reason for the ban is not known, but may have been related to the failed assassination attempt on Hitler in 1938 by young Swiss Maurice Bavaud (executed on 14 May 1941, and later dubbed "a new William Tell" by Rolf Hochhuth), or the subversive nature of the play. Hitler is reported to have exclaimed at a banquet in 1942: "Why did Schiller have to immortalize that Swiss sniper!"

Charlie Chaplin parodies William Tell in his famous 1928 silent movie The Circus.
Salvador Dalí painted The Old Age of William Tell and William Tell and Gradiva in 1931, and The Enigma of William Tell in 1933.
Spanish playwright Alfonso Sastre re-worked the legend in 1955 in his "Guillermo Tell tiene los ojos tristes" (William Tell has sad eyes); it was not performed until the Franco regime in Spain ended.

In Switzerland, the importance of Tell had declined somewhat by the end of the 19th century, outside of Altdorf and Interlaken which established their tradition of performing Schiller's play in regular intervals in 1899 and 1912, respectively.
During the World Wars, Tell was again revived, somewhat artificially, as a national symbol.
For example, in 1923 the Swiss Post introduced horns for their coach service based on the overture of  Rossini's Tell opera,
and in 1931, the image of a crossbow was introduced as a logo indicating Swiss products. The Tell-Museum in Bürglen, Uri, opened in 1966.

After 1968, with ideological shift of academic mainstream from a liberal-radical to a deconstructivist leftist
outlook, Swiss historians were looking to dismantle the foundational legends of Swiss statehood as unhistorical national myth.
Max Frisch's "William Tell for Schools" (1971) deconstructs the legend by reversing the characters of the protagonists: Gessler is a well-meaning and patient administrator who is faced with the barbarism of a back-corner of the empire, while Tell is an irascible simpleton.
Tell still remains a popular figure in Swiss culture. According to a 2004 survey, a majority of Swiss believed that he actually existed.

Schweizer Helden ("Swiss Heroes", English title Unlikely Heroes) is a 2014 film  about the performance of a simplified version of Schiller's play by asylum seekers in Switzerland.

In the Manga Wolfsmund, a Japanese historical fantasy seinen manga series written and illustrated by Mitsuhisa Kuji. Published by Enterbrain, with eight volumes compiling the chapters released.The story of Wolfsmund is a retelling of the rebellion started William Tell. The story revolves around the oppression that took place in the Middle Ages in the middle cantons (states) of Switzerland.

In the 2019 Spanish comedy film The Little Switzerland, a Spanish town () discovers the tomb of Tell's son and tries to become a Swiss canton (), affecting a Swiss identity.

Historicity debate

The historicity of William Tell has been subject to debate. François Guillimann, a statesman of Fribourg and later historian and advisor of the Habsburg Emperor Rudolf II, wrote to Melchior Goldast in 1607: "I followed popular belief by reporting certain details in my Swiss antiquities [published in 1598], but when I examine them closely the whole story seems to me to be pure fable."

In 1760, Simeon Uriel Freudenberger from Luzern anonymously published a tract arguing that the legend of Tell in all likelihood was based on the Danish saga of Palnatoki. A French edition of his book, written by Gottlieb Emanuel von Haller (Guillaume Tell, Fable danoise), was burnt in Altdorf.

The skeptical view of Tell's existence remained very unpopular, especially after the adoption of Tell as depicted in  Schiller's  1804 play as national hero in the nascent Swiss patriotism of the Restoration and Regeneration period of the Swiss Confederation. In the 1840s, Joseph Eutych Kopp (1793–1866) published skeptical reviews of the folkloristic aspects of the foundational legends of the Old Confederacy, causing "polemical debates" both within and outside of academia.
De Capitani (2013) cites the controversy surrounding  Kopp in the 1840s as the turning point after which doubts in Tell's historicity "could no longer be ignored".

From the second half of the 19th century, it has been largely undisputed among historians that there is no contemporary (14th-century) evidence for Tell as a historical individual, let alone for the apple-shot story.
Debate in the late 19th to 20th centuries mostly surrounded the extent of the "historical nucleus" in the chronistic traditions surrounding the early Confederacy.

The desire to defend the historicity of the Befreiungstradition ("liberation tradition") of Swiss history had a political component, as since the 17th century its celebration had become mostly confined to the Catholic cantons, so that the declaration of parts of the tradition as ahistorical was seen as an attack by the urban Protestant cantons on the rural Catholic cantons.
The decision, taken in 1891,  to make 1 August the Swiss National Day is to be seen in this context, an ostentative move away from the traditional Befreiungstradition and the celebration of the deed of Tell to the purely documentary evidence of the Federal Charter of 1291. In this context, Wilhelm Oechsli was commissioned by the federal government with publishing a "scientific account" of the foundational period of the Confederacy in order to defend the choice of 1291 over 1307 (the traditional date of Tell's deed and the Rütlischwur) as the foundational date of the Swiss state.
The canton of Uri, in defiant reaction to this decision taken at the federal level, erected the Tell Monument in Altdorf in 1895, with the date 1307 inscribed prominently on the base of the statue.

Later proposals for the identification of Tell as a historical individual, such as a 1986 publication deriving the name Tell from the placename Tellikon (modern Dällikon in the Canton of Zürich), are outside of the historiographical mainstream.

Comparative mythology

The Tell legend has been compared to a number of other myths or legends, specifically in Norse mythology, involving a magical marksman coming to the aid of a suppressed people under the sway of a tyrant.
The story of a great outlaw successfully shooting an apple from his child's head is an archetype present in the story of Egil in the Thidreks saga (associated with the god Ullr in Eddaic tradition) as well as in the stories of Adam Bell from England, Palnatoki from Denmark, and a story from Holstein.

Such parallels were pointed out as early as 1760 by Gottlieb Emanuel von Haller and the pastor Simeon Uriel Freudenberger in a book titled "William Tell, a Danish Fable" (German: Der Wilhelm Tell, ein dänisches Mährgen). This book offended Swiss citizens, and a copy of it was burnt publicly at the Altdorf square. Von Haller underwent a trial, but the authorities spared his life, as he made abject apologies.

Rochholz (1877) connects the similarity of the Tell legend to the stories of Egil and Palnatoki with the legends of a migration from Sweden to Switzerland during the Middle Ages. He also adduces parallels in folktales among the Finns and the Lapps (Sami). From pre-Christian Norse mythology, Rochholz compares Ullr, who bears the epithet of Boga-As ("bow-god"), Heimdall and also Odin himself, who according to the Gesta Danorum (Book 1, chapter 8.16) assisted Haddingus by shooting ten bolts from a crossbow in one shot, killing as many foes. Rochholz further compares Indo-European and oriental traditions and concludes (pp. 35–41) that the legend of the master marksman shooting an apple (or similar small target) was known outside the Germanic sphere (Germany, Scandinavia, England) and the adjacent regions (Finland and the Baltic) in India, Arabia, Persia and the Balkans (Serbia).

The Danish legend of Palnatoki, first attested in the twelfth-century Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus, is the earliest known parallel to the Tell legend. As with William Tell, Palnatoki is forced by the ruler (in this case King Harald Bluetooth) to shoot an apple off his son's head as proof of his marksmanship.
A striking similarity between William Tell and Palnatoki is that both heroes take more than one arrow out of their quiver. When asked why he pulled several arrows out of his quiver, Palnatoki, too, replies that if he had struck his son with the first arrow, he would have shot King Harald with the remaining two arrows.
According to Saxo, Palnatoki later joins Harald's son Swein Forkbeard in a rebellion and kills Harald with an arrow.

See also
 Arnold Winkelried, Swiss cultural hero
 Tell City, Indiana

Non-Swiss figures:
 Punker of Rohrbach
 Robin Hood
 Toni Bajada
 William Wallace

General:
 Historiography of Switzerland

Notes and references

Bibliography
Bergier, Jean-François. Wilhelm Tell: Realität und Mythos. München: Paul List Verlag, 1990.

Everdell, William R. "William Tell: The Failure of Kings in Switzerland," in The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
Fiske, John. Myths and Myth-Makers: Old Tales and Superstitions Interpreted by Comparative Mythology, 1877. Ch. 1: (On-line) Quotes Saxo Grammaticus, the ballad of William of Cloudeslee, and instances other independent occurrences.
Head, Randolph C. "William Tell and His Comrades: Association and Fraternity in the Propaganda of Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Switzerland." in The Journal of Modern History 67.3 (1995): 527–557.
Marabello, Thomas Quinn (2023). "The Origins of Democracy in Switzerland," Swiss American Historical Society Review, Vol. 59: No. 1. Page 95-97. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sahs_review/vol59/iss1/4
Rochholz, Ernst Ludwig, Tell und Gessler in Sage und Geschichte. Nach urkundlichen Quellen, Heilbronn, 1877 (online copy).
Salis, J.-R. v.: Ursprung, Gestalt, und Wirkung des schweizerischen Mythos von Tell, Bern, 1973.

External links

The Legend of William Tell by Markus Jud.
The birth of the Swiss Confederation.
Translation of Grimm's Saga No. 298 "The Three Tells"
Tell City, Indiana
Translation of Grimm's Saga No. 517 "Wilhelm Tell"
"The Contradiction"
Wilhelm Tell Festival, New Glarus
William Tell is a lie; Coopzeitung 28/2004, interview with historian Roger Sablonier, Zurich, translated
William Tell, Swissinfo special

14th century in the Old Swiss Confederacy
Fictional archers
Folk saints
Historiography of Switzerland
History of archery
Legendary Swiss people
Medieval Switzerland
People whose existence is disputed
Swiss male archers
Swiss Roman Catholics

William Tell


Balance may mean:

General terms
Balance in stereophonic sound
Balance (accounting)
Balance beam, gymnastics equipment
Balance disorder, a medical disorder
Balance (metaphysics), a desirable point between opposite forces
Balance wheel in a watch
Balancing or hard balancing in international relations
Engine balance
Tire balance
Equilibrioception, the sense of balance, or spacial equilibrium, in humans and animals
Homeostasis, a biological balance within a living organism
Media balance, media coverage of politics
Balance, a scale for weighing
Game balance, a concept in game design describing fairness or balance of power in a game

Specific terms
BALANCE Act {H.R. 1066}, Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations
Balance (animation), a 1989 Academy Award-winning short film
Ballance, a 2004 puzzle computer game
Balance (In Urdu: Mizan or ) is a comprehensive treatise on Islam written by Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, a Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar.
Balance Bar, a popular nutritional energy bar

Music
Balance (band), a 1980s pop/rock group
Balance (album), an album by Van Halen
Balance (Kim-Lian album), an album by Kim-Lian

Similar terms
Balanced line (electronics)
Rebalancing (investment), an action to bring investments in line with target asset allocation

Basic English 850 words

Balance


Tarasp Castle (, Romansh: Chastè da Tarasp) is a castle in Switzerland, near the former municipality of Tarasp (now Scuol), in Lower Engadin, Graubünden.  It is a Swiss heritage site of national significance.

History

Tarasp Castle was probably built in the 11th century or possibly as early as the 10th century.  The name comes from terra aspera or wild earth, which may refer to the new lands in the Inn river valley.  They had adopted the name of the castle by 1089 when Ulrich von Tarasp was mentioned in a papal mandate to the Bishop of Chur.  Around the same time the family founded Scuol Monastery, which later moved to Marienberg Abbey, as part of their program to carve out a barony in the formerly uninhabited high alpine valley.  At this time the castle consisted of a ring wall and a chapel with a bell tower that also served as a watch tower.

In 1160 Ulrich II donated his portion of the castle to the Bishop of Chur.  However, his nephew and co-owner Gerhard, with the support of the Count of Tyrol, seized the castle and drove out the bishop's troops in 1163.  The bishop, together with Ulrich von Tarasp and his cousin Egino von Matsch, besieged the castle and eventually forced Gerhard to compromise.  The castle became the bishop's, but Gerhard and his descendants would hold the castle as their fief.  If Gerhard died without an heir, the castle would revert to the bishop.  In 1170 Gerhard died a violent death, followed by the last male heir, Ulrich, in 1177.  The castle passed to the bishop while the Matsch family inherited the Abbey.  In 1200 the bishop appointed the Reichenberg family as his vogt or representative in Tarasp Castle.  In 1239 Swiker von Reichenberg, ignoring the bishop's claim, sold the castle to the castle to Albert of Tyrol.  Beginning in 1273 the Matsch family received Tarasp as vassals of Tyrol.

The Matsch family held Tarasp for about a century and a half.  When the lands of the Counts of Tyrol were inherited by the Dukes of Austria, the Matschs became Habsburg vassals.  In 1422 Frederick VII of Toggenburg inherited Tarasp through his wife Elisabeth von Matsch, but when he died in 1436, it returned to the Matsch family.  In 1464 Ulrich IX von Matsch sold the castle to Sigmund of Austria, which triggered an uprising in Lower Engadine.  While the Austrians were able to retain control over the region, relations remained tense between the castle and the locals.  When the Protestant Reformation was adopted in Engadine the situation became worse.  In 1548 and again in 1578 Protestant locals attacked and attempted to capture the castle.  Despite additional fortifications, in 1612 they successfully stormed and burned Tarasp.  A lightning strike in 1625 set the castle on fire again and killed the daughter of the Austrian representative in the castle.

Over the next centuries, Tarasp was occupied by a number of administrators, but remained under Austrian control.  By the 18th century Tarasp was the only Austrian territory in Switzerland.  Throughout this period, the castle was often expanded and renovated to its present appearance.  After the French invasion of Switzerland and the creation of the Helvetic Republic, in 1803 the castle was taken from the Austrians and given to the Republic.  A few months later, when the Republic collapsed, the castle was transferred to the newly created Canton of Graubünden.  After about 1815 the castle was abandoned and rapidly fell into ruin.

Initially the Canton planned to turn the castle into a prison, but eventually gave up the idea as too expensive and began looking for a buyer.  The von Planta family bought it in 1856, began repairing it and replaced the damaged roof.  In 1900 it was purchased by Dr. Lingner of Dresden, who restored the castle for a decade from 1906 to 1916.  After his death, Grand Duke Ernest Louis of Hesse inherited the castle from Lingner. It was turned into a museum in 1919.  In 2004 the von Hessen family announced that they wanted to sell the castle.  In 2008 the municipality of Tarasp agreed to investigate purchasing it and converting it into a cultural and tourist attraction.  In 2010 the Fundaziun Chastè da Tarasp was created to seek funding and administer the castle after it was purchased.  After the Foundation struggled to raise funding, in 2015 Swiss artist Not Vital announced that he would purchase the castle.  In March 2016 Not Vital acquired the castle for CHF 7.9 million.

Castle site

The first fortifications on the site were a ring wall and part of the chapel and its bell tower.  In the 13th century a large palas with  thick walls was built west of the chapel, becoming the center of the castle.  The residential wings probably were also built in the 13th century.  In the 16th and 17th centuries the castle was attacked several times and burned twice.  The residence wings in particular were rebuilt and renovated several times during those centuries.  The lower floors were given vaulted ceilings, new windows were cut through the rock walls and they were decorated in wood.

The chapel was integrated into the ring wall that surrounds the castle.  The apse was decorated with 12th century paintings, of which only fragments remain.  The interior was renovated in the 17th century.  The free standing bell tower was probably built as a combination church tower and watch tower.  It is five stories tall and crowned with a Baroque onion dome.

The zwinger (outer courtyard) and two half towers were probably built in the 16th century to protect the castle from attack.

The castle was renovated in 1714-15 and again in 1732.

The exterior walls are covered in white plaster and were decorated with coats of arms from the late 15th century.  These paintings were still visible in 1900 but have since faded.  However, a few were restored in recent restoration projects.

When Dr. Karl Lingner bought the castle in 1900, he undertook a complete restoration of the castle under the guidance of Professor Rudolf Rahn.  He placed a large organ, built by Jehmlich of Dresden, in the old armory.  He purchased furniture from noble houses scattered throughout Graubünden and Tyrol to furnish the castle.  However, he died unexpectedly on 5 June 1916 without ever living in the castle.

See also
 List of castles in Switzerland

References

External links

Official website
Story of the castle with photos
Tarasp Castle webpage on Switzerland's tourist office

Scuol
Museums in Graubünden
Castles in Graubünden
Cultural property of national significance in Graubünden
Historic house museums in Switzerland

Tarasp Castle


Uplifting trance (often synonymous with epic trance, energetic trance, anthem trance, emotional trance, or euphoric trance) is a broad subgenre of trance music. The name, which emerged in the wake of progressive trance in 1996, is derived from the feeling which listeners claim to get (often described as a "rush"). The genre is popular in the trance scene. Classical music strongly influenced the development of uplifting trance both in the 1990s and in the 2000s, with film music also considered influential.

Characteristics

In general, uplifting trance is a style much happier in tone than other trance genres (such as Goa). Instead of the darker tone of Goa, uplifting trance uses similar chord progressions as progressive trance, but tracks' chord progressions usually rest on a major chord, and the balance between major and minor chords in a progression will determine how "happy" or "sad" the progression sounds.

The genre features longer major chord progressions in all elements (lead synth, bass, and treble). It also contains extended breakdowns and relegation of arpeggiation (the melodic part of the song, usually consisting of "Saw Synths/Square Lead" type sounds) to the background while bringing wash effects to the fore (the harmonic element of the music, or "background fill", usually consisting of synth choir/voice/string chord progressions).

As a rule of thumb, trance beats in the range of 135–140 BPM. Uplifting trance very commonly employs side-chain compression, a modern production technique. It is commonly referred to as "ducking the kick", where the background strings/synths have their volume automated, creating a pulsing effect on the off-beat.

Current status
In the late 1990s, deejays Paul Oakenfold, Sasha & Digweed, and Paul van Dyk became known for their uplifting trance music. A decade later, uplifting trance re-established itself within the trance scene, played by such artists as 4 Strings, ATB, Ferry Corsten, Armin van Buuren, Dash Berlin, RAM, Tiësto and Above & Beyond.  John O'Callaghan, Daniel Kandi, Bryan Kearney, Andy Blueman, Aly & Fila, Sean Tyas and Super8 & Tab focused particularly on uplifting trance as their overriding genre. In addition, online radio stations such as Paris One and Afterhours.FM devoted airtime to uplifting trance. In September 2009, Afterhours.FM hosted "Uplift Day" that was exclusively dedicated to uplifting trance.

References

Trance genres

Uplifting trance


Marked for Death is a 1990 action movie. This movie is about a former DEA agent finding Jamaican drug dealers in his home town. Steven Seagal plays John Hatcher. Elizabeth Gracen plays Melissa Hatcher. Danielle Harris plays Tracey Hatcher.

This movie was released on October 5, 1990. It got mixed reviews from the critics. It got back almost $58 million at the box office.

Other websites

1990 action movies
1990 movies

Marked for Death


Victor Patrick Lucca (2 June 1920 – 11 August 2006) was an Australian professional boxer and referee.

Patrick was born to an oyster farmer and took up boxing in 1940 to earn money. He first fought under the name Alf Edwards, so that his mother would not know he was boxing. He won his first 18 bouts, 17 of them by knockout. He then lost to Tod Morgan via an unintentional foul, but won their next bout, along with the national lightweight title. He defended it two months later, again against Morgan, and in 1942 captured the Australian welterweight title. He kept the lightweight title until retirement in 1948, but relinquished the welterweight title in 1946.

After retiring Patrick had a long career as a referee. He also played himself in a boxing documentary Fighting Blood (1951 film). In 1986 he was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame as an athlete, and in 1996 upgraded to  "Legend of Australian Sport". In 1987 he was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia, and in 2003 inducted into the Australian National Boxing Hall of Fame.

References

1920 births
2006 deaths
Australian people of Italian descent
Australian male boxers
Lightweight boxers
Boxers from Sydney
Sportsmen from New South Wales

Vic Patrick


Anna Jacobson Schwartz (pronounced ; November 11, 1915 – June 21, 2012) was an American economist who worked at the National Bureau of Economic Research in New York City and a writer for The New York Times. Paul Krugman has said that Schwartz is "one of the world's greatest monetary scholars."

Schwartz collaborated with Nobel laureate Milton Friedman on A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960, which was published in 1963. This book placed the blame for the Great Depression at the door of the Federal Reserve System. Robert J. Shiller describes the book as the "most influential account" of the Great Depression. She was also president of the Western Economic Association International in 1988.

Schwartz was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 2013.

Early life and education
Schwartz was born Anna Jacobson on November 11, 1915, in New York City to Pauline (née Shainmark) and Hillel Jacobson. She graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Barnard College at 18 and gained her master's degree in economics from Columbia University in 1935, at 19. She started her career as a professional economist one year later.

In 1936, she married Isaac Schwartz, a financial officer and fellow Columbia University graduate, with whom she raised four children. Her first published paper was in the Review of Economics and Statistics (1940), in which she, along with Arthur Gayer and Isaiah Finkelstein, wrote British Share Prices, 1811–1850. She earned her Ph.D. from Columbia in 1964.

National Bureau of Economic Research
After briefly working for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (1936) and the Columbia University Social Science Research Council (1936–41); in 1941, she joined the staff of the National Bureau of Economic Research. She worked in the New York City office of that organization for the rest of her life. When she joined the National Bureau, it was engaged in the study of business cycles. In 1981 her role as the staff director of the U.S. Gold Commission brought her public recognition. Even after a broken hip and stroke in 2009, Schwartz remained an astute and thorough researcher. She was named a distinguished fellow of the American Economic Association (1993) and a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2007).

Though she held teaching positions for only a short part of her career, she developed younger scholars by her willingness to work with them and to share her approach (a scrupulous examination of the past) to understand history better and to draw lessons for the present.

Growth and Fluctuations in the British Economy
In collaboration with Arthur Gayer and Walt Whitman Rostow, she produced the monumental Growth and Fluctuations in the British Economy, 1790–1850: An Historical, Statistical, and Theoretical Study of Britain's Economic Development. It appeared in two volumes in 1953, having been delayed by the Second World War for a decade after it was completed. It is still highly regarded among economic scholars of the period. It was reprinted in 1975.

Gayer had died before the book's first appearance, but two other authors wrote a new introduction, which reviewed literature on the subject that had published since the original publication date. They admitted that there had developed what they called an "amicable divergence of view" about the interpretation of some of the facts that were set out in the book. In particular, Schwartz indicated that she had, in the light of recent theoretical and empirical research, revised her view of the importance of monetary policy and her interpretation of interest rate movements.

Research with Friedman
Years before her first book was reprinted, another economist had joined what might be called the Schwartz team of co-authors. Prompted by Arthur F. Burns, then at Columbia University and the National Bureau who would subsequently be Chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve System, she and Milton Friedman teamed up to examine the role of money in the business cycle. Their first publication was A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960, which hypothesized that changes in monetary policy have had large effects on the economy, and it laid a large portion of the blame for the Great Depression at the door of the Federal Reserve System.

The book was published in 1963, along with the equally famous article, "Money and Business Cycles", which as with her first paper was published in the Review of Economics and Statistics. They also wrote the books Monetary Statistics of the United States (1970) and Monetary Trends in the United States and the United Kingdom: Their Relation to Income, Prices, and Interest Rates, 1867–1975 (1982).

The Depression-related chapter of A Monetary History was titled "The Great Contraction" and was republished as a separate book in 1965. Some editions include an appendix in which the authors got an endorsement from an unlikely source at an event in their honor when Ben Bernanke made this statement:

"Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve. I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right. We did it. We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it again."

Financial regulation
She changed her opinion on financial regulation. Economists, bankers, and policymakers have long been concerned with the stability of the financial system. In a series of studies in the 1970s and 1980s, Schwartz emphasized that price level stability is essential for financial system stability.

Drawing on evidence from over two centuries, she demonstrated that business failures do not have major consequences for the economy if their effects are prevented from spreading through the financial system. Individual institutions should also be allowed to fail, not supported with taxpayers' money. In 1981, she gained public recognition for her role as staff director of the U.S. Gold Commission.

Other areas of work
There have been other areas of her work including the international transmission of inflation and of business cycles, the role of government in monetary policy, measuring the output of banks, and the behavior of interest rates, on deflation, on monetary standards. In an interview with Barrons in 2008, Schwartz said interventions such as injecting liquidity into markets and reacting to the credit crisis with ad hoc programs were not the answer. She has also done work outside of the United States. Some years ago, the Department of Banking and Finance at City University, London, England, started a research project on the monetary history of the United Kingdom. For many years, she was an adviser to that project. She commented on papers, suggested lines of approach, came and spoke to students and at academic conferences where the work was discussed.

Later work
From 2002 to 2003, she served as president of the International Atlantic Economic Society. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2007. After 2007, she concentrated her efforts on researching U.S. official intervention in the foreign exchange market using Federal Reserve data from 1962.

She continued commenting on economic affairs until the financial crisis of the first decade of the 21st century, and criticized the government's response to it, such as Ben Bernanke's support for bailouts and persistently-low interest rates. She also addressed a critique of Friedman by Krugman. In addition, she wrote 9 books in her career, and published over 100 academic articles or comments.

Personal life
She died on June 21, 2012, in her home in Manhattan, New York, aged 96. Her husband Isaac predeceased her in 1999; they had been married for over 60 years. She was survived by four children (Jonathan, Joel, Naomi Pasachoff and Paula Berggren) as well as seven grandchildren and six great-grandchildren.

Her son-in-law was astronomer Jay Pasachoff.

Honorary degrees
 University of Florida (1987)
 Stonehill College, Massachusetts (1989)
 Iona College (1992)
 Rutgers University (1998)
 Emory University (2000); City University of New York Graduate Center (2000)
 Williams College (2002)
 Loyola University Chicago, 2003
 City University Business School, London (2006)

Books
 Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 (with Milton Friedman), 1963
 Monetary Statistics of the United States: Estimates, Sources, Methods (with Milton Friedman), 1970
 Growth and Fluctuations in the British Economy, 1790–1850: An Historical, Statistical, and Theoretical Study of Britain's Economic Development (with Arthur Gayer and Walt Whitman Rostow), 1953
 Money in Historical Perspective (with an introduction by Michael D. Bordo and Milton Friedman), 1987

References

Further reading

External links

 Monetarism Defiant, City Journal, Spring 2009
 Major works of Anna J. Schwartz
 Schwartz's CV at the National Bureau of Economic Research
 Essay on A Monetary History of the United States
 The Great Depression and the Friedman-Schwartz Hypothesis
 "What Is the Money Supply", by Anna J. Schwartz. Concise Encyclopedia of Economics on Econlib 2008

1915 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American Jews
Economists from New York (state)
American women economists
Monetarists
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Barnard College alumni
American economics writers
Writers from Manhattan
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association
National Bureau of Economic Research
Brooklyn College faculty
21st-century American Jews
20th-century American women
21st-century American women
New York University faculty

Anna Schwartz


Criophthona trileuca is a moth in the family Crambidae. It is found in Australia, where it has been recorded from Western Australia.

The wingspan is about 12 mm. The forewings are pale fuscous with three moderately thick waved dark fuscous transverse fasciae, as well as a small a snow-white spot near the base and a well-defined similar spot on the middle of the first fascia and a third similar spot on the middle of the second fascia. There is a fine dentate line along the termen. The hindwings are pale fuscous with a dark fuscous waved line from beneath the costa at three-fourths to the anal angle. There is a small fuscous mark on the inner margin at two-thirds and a line along the termen.

References

Moths described in 1903
Spilomelinae

Criophthona trileuca


The Colophon, subtitled A Book Collectors' Quarterly or A quarterly for booklovers, was a limited edition quarterly periodical begun late in 1929 and continuing in various guises until 1950. It was the brainchild of Elmer Adler (1884–1962), founder of Pynson Printers of New York City. His idea was that various printers around the world would be willing to contribute their time and expertise to produce signatures (articles) using their own choice of papers, typography and illustration. These articles would then be bound together in boards by Pynson Printers and marketed to 2,000 subscribers.

Content
Some articles comment on a current or historical issue related to printing, publishing or art. Other articles were themselves intended to be an example of printing or a work of art. As each article or item was normally a short section produced by a different designer and printer, a typical issue included a range of styles, papers, and typography, often using unusual or experimental approaches not widely seen in longer or mainstream printed items.

Each issue would also include an original piece of graphic art, some signed by the artist, many produced by using etching, lithography, or engraving. Some of these are rare and valuable; as a result, some copies of the bound volumes have been vandalized to remove the prints.

Editorial board
Adler gathered around him an editorial board of John T. Winterich, Alfred Stanford and F.B. Adams, Jr. and contributing editors including Rockwell Kent, W. A. Dwiggins, Frederic Goudy, Dard Hunter, Bruce Rogers, A. Edward Newton and many others who were well known in the book world. It was their responsibility to provide not only editorial expertise but articles (and in the case of Rockwell Kent, The Colophon logos and colophons).

Publication history
Beginning in early 1930, this "adventure in enthusiasm", as Adler called it, was greeted with public enthusiasm as well, requiring a waiting list for subscriptions. However, it soon ran into difficulty as the Depression made the then costly subscription price of $15 per year difficult for many. By 1935, only 1,700 subscribers could be found. Nonetheless, the quality of The Colophon remained unsurpassed—through the good will of printers, authors and artists—as well as with the help of a number of anonymous financial gifts. From 1935 to 1938, The Colophon entered a new phase with less lofty production values (at a price of $6<Notice given to subscribers which was included in the last two issues of the original 'The Colophon'. per year), before returning to a higher level of quality in 1939 with the 'New Graphic Series'. Starting again in 1948, the name The New Colophon: A Book Collectors' Quarterly was used by Philip Duschnes and the quarterly was entirely printed by the Anthoensen Press of Portland, Maine, continuing publication until 1950 in a fourth and final format.

Contributors
Many of the writers of the day, such as Sherwood Anderson and Edith Wharton, wrote autobiographical articles about their first books and many artists now famous, such as Paul Landacre, Gustave Baumann, Howard Cook, and Emil Ganso, provided original prints.

Issues

Issues of The Colophon and the principal related publications (48 volumes) were:

 Original Series (20): Vol. 1, part 1 (Feb. 1930) - v. 5, part 20 (Mar. 1935), quarto. Parts 1-4 issued to 2,000 subscribers; 5–12, to 3,000 subscribers; 13–16, to 2,500 subscribers; pt. 17–20 to 1,700 subscribers.
 Index, the Colophon, 1930–1935; with a history of the quarterly by John T. Winterich
 New Series (12): Vol. 1, no. 1 (Summer 1935) - v. 3, no. 4 (Autumn 1938), octavo
 The Annual of Bookmaking (1): 1938, quarto
 New Graphic Series (4): Vol. 1, no. 1 (Mar. 1939) - v. 1, no. 4 (Feb. 1940), quarto
 The New Colophon (9): Vol. 1, pt. 1 (Jan. 1948)- v. 3 (1950); v. 1-2 also pts. 1-8 [New York, N.Y. : Duschnes Crawford], quarto
 Index 1936 - 1950; An Index to The Colophon, New Series . . . . by Keller, Dean H. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1968. 139 pp. Boards. Covers the three series of The Colophon published after the conclusion of the original series: New Series, New Graphic Series, and the New Colophon.

Cover artists
Here is a list of the cover artists through 1935:

 Edward A. Wilson Part 1 1930 February
 Joseph Sinel Part 2 1930 May
 Gustave Jensen Part 3 1930 September
 Donald McKay Part 4 1930 December
 W. A. Dwiggins Part 5 1931 March
 T.M Cleland Part 6 1931 June
 Leroy Appleton Part 7 1931 September
 Frank McIntosh Part 8 1931 December
 Edward A. Wilson Part 9 1932 February
 Boris Artzybasheff Part 10 1932 May
 T.M. Cleland Part 11 1932 September
 Ervine A. Metzl Part 12 1932 December
 John Atherton Part 13 1933 February
 Marie Lawson Part 14 1933 June
 Jack Tinker part 15 1933 October
 Louis Bouché Part 16 1934 March
 Carl Noell part 17 1934 June
 Farle A. Drewry Part 18 1934 September
 Kirk C. Wilkinson Part 19 1934 December
 Frederic W. Goudy Part 20 1935 March

References

External links
 An online archive at Carnegie Mellon University Library's site has images of many of the pages.
 A search-able index for this periodical artistarchive.com

Book design
Hobby magazines published in the United States
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1929
Magazines disestablished in 1950
Magazines published in Maine
Quarterly magazines published in the United States
Mass media in Portland, Maine

The Colophon, A Book Collectors' Quarterly