The London and North Eastern Railway LNER Gresley Classes A1 and A3 locomotives represented two distinct stages in the history of the British  "Pacific" steam locomotives designed by Nigel Gresley. They were designed for main line passenger services and later express passenger services, initially on the Great Northern Railway (GNR), a constituent company of the London and North Eastern Railway after the amalgamation of 1923, for which they became a standard design. The change in class designation to A3 reflected the fitting to the same chassis of a higher pressure boiler with a greater superheating surface and a small reduction in cylinder diameter, leading to an increase in locomotive weight. Eventually all of the A1 locomotives were rebuilt, most to A3 specifications, but no. 4470 was completely rebuilt as Class A1/1.

The names for the locomotives came from a variety of sources. The first, Great Northern, was named after its parent company. Others were given the names of high-ranking railway officials, but most were given the names of famous racehorses. One was named after the company's most famous long-distance passenger train, the Flying Scotsman. Flying Scotsman is the sole member of the class to be preserved.

Design features and construction history

Class A1: Great Northern genesis

The new Pacific locomotives were built at the Doncaster "Plant" in 1922 to the design of Nigel Gresley, who had become Chief mechanical engineer of the GNR in 1911. The intention was to produce an engine able to handle, without assistance, mainline express services that were reaching the limits of the capacity of the Ivatt large-boilered Atlantics.

Gresley's initial Pacific project of 1915 was for an elongated version of the Ivatt Atlantic design with four cylinders. Finally realising that he was in a design impasse, he took as a model the new American Pennsylvania Railroad class K4 Pacific of 1914. This in turn had been updated from a series of prototypes scientifically developed in 1910 under Francis J. Cole, Alco's Chief Consulting Engineer at Schenectady and the Pennsylvania's K29 Alco prototype of 1911, also designed by Cole. Descriptions of those locomotives appeared in the British technical press at the time and gave Gresley the elements necessary to design a thoroughly up-to-date locomotive.

The first two GNR Pacifics, 1470 Great Northern and 1471 Sir Frederick Banbury  were introduced in 1922. The Great Northern board ordered a further ten '1470-class' locomotives, which were under construction at Doncaster at the time of the formation of the LNER in 1923. This included the future sole surviving member of the class, 4472 Flying Scotsman, then nameless and numbered 1472

In line with the philosophy behind Cole's Alco prototypes, the Gresley Pacifics were built to the maximum limits of the LNER loading gauge with a large boiler and wide firebox giving a large grate area.  The firebox was set low and rested on the trailing carrying axle. However, unlike the Pennsylvania K4, the firebox was not of the flat-topped Belpaire variety, but a round-topped one that was in line with Great Northern tradition. Features in common with the American types were the downward profile towards the back of the firebox and the boiler tapering towards the front. Heat transfer and the flow of gases were helped by use of a combustion chamber extending forward from the firebox space into the boiler barrel, along with a boiler tube length limited to , features inherited from the K4 type but not present on the earlier Cole Prototypes. The boiler pressure was rated at .

The 1470-class Pacific was the third Great Northern locomotive type to incorporate Gresley's universal 3-cylinder layout. All three cylinders drove the middle coupled axle. The outside cranks were set at 120°, with the inside crank displaced by about 7 degrees to allow for the 1:8 inclination of the inside cylinder, this slight deviation from even spacing being a suggestion by Harold Holcroft of the SECR which enabled the outside cylinders to be perfectly horizontal. Gresley conjugated valve gear derived the motion of the inside valve spindle from the two outside valve spindles: this eliminated an inaccessible middle set of valve gear between the frames. A feature of the K4 that had soon been abandoned by the Pennsylvania Railroad was an unusual three-bar version of the Laird slide-bar. However, Gresley adopted this type of slide-bar for all his locomotives and it was later taken up by Bulleid for his Pacifics and by Riddles for the British Railways standard designs.

LNER period
The Great Northern Railway was incorporated into the newly formed LNER as a result of the 1923 Grouping. Gresley was appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the new company, which was the second largest of the "Big Four" railway companies in Britain. Realising the need for standardisation, Gresley adopted his GNR Pacific design as the standard express passenger locomotive for the LNER main line, designating it 'A1' within the LNER locomotive classification system. The choice was made after comparative trials with an equivalent North Eastern Railway Pacific, classified 'A2'. Between 1923 and 1925, 51 A1 locomotives were built; twenty by the North British Locomotive Company, and the remainder by Doncaster Works. However, Gresley's Pacifics had been designed to work within the bounds of the Great Northern Railway, meaning maximum distances of less than 200 miles (322 km). After the grouping, the locomotives were required to have a far greater operating range.

Early improvements
In 1924, number 4472 Flying Scotsman, renumbered and named for the occasion, was displayed at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley along with the first member of the Great Western Railway (GWR) Castle Class, number 4073 Caerphilly Castle. The latter weighed  less than the Pacific, but was claimed to be the most powerful locomotive in Britain with a tractive effort rated at .

In the following months, the two railway companies ran comparative exchange trials between the two types from which the Great Western emerged triumphant with 4079 Pendennis Castle. The LNER learned valuable lessons from the trials which resulted in a series of modifications carried out from 1926 on number 4477 Gay Crusader. Changes to the valve gear included increased lap and longer travel, in accordance with Great Western practice; this allowed fuller exploitation of the expansive properties of steam and reduced back pressure from the exhaust, transforming performance and economy; the economies in coal and water consumption achieved were such that the 180 psi Pacifics could undertake long-distance non-stop runs that had previously been impossible. There followed a complete redesign of the valve gear, which was applied to 2555 Centenary in 1927, with the rest of the class being modified in due course. Locomotives with modified valve gear had a slightly raised running plate over the cylinders in order to give room for the longer combination lever necessary for the longer valve travel. Another modification was made in 1927 when number 4480 Enterprise was fitted with a  boiler. This was closely followed by two other locomotives which also incorporated variations in the cylinder diameter and superheater size for comparative purposes. This led Gresley to make a radical departure from Churchward practice by increasing the number of large tubes containing superheating elements, hence increasing the superheater surface area in contact with the hot gases, thus raising steam temperature. The presence of the larger superheater could be recognised from the square covers on either side of the smokebox, a feature that the locomotives retained throughout the rest of their existence.

At the 1925 British Empire Exhibition, Flying Scotsman was again exhibited; but this time, the GWR sent Pendennis Castle.

Class A3
The outcome of the various experiments and modifications made to the A1s in the late 1920s was a new Class A3 "Super Pacific", the first example of which was number 2743 Felstead. This locomotive appeared in August 1928 with 220 psi (1.52 MPa) boiler, 19-inch (483 mm) cylinders, increased superheat, long-travel valves, improved lubrication and modified weight distribution. Another new development was the changeover from right- to left-hand drive, less convenient for a right-handed fireman, but more so for sighting signals, resulting in the modification of all earlier locomotives.

Twenty-seven A3s were built from new, until 1935, with little variation except for a new type of boiler with a "banjo dome", an oval steam collector that was placed on top of the rear boiler ring. The first banjo dome was hidden beneath the casing of Cock o' the North of 1934; it was subsequently used in the A4 streamliners. The last nine A3 Pacifics were constructed with the device in 1935, and it became a standard fitting on all LNER large, wide-firebox boilers that were applied to new locomotives until 1949, except for a short period while Edward Thompson was CME. The banjo dome was one of the Gresley features he disliked. It was also applied to replacement boilers on the A3s.

Although all of the original Class A1 locomotives were eventually rebuilt to Class A3 specifications, it was a drawn-out process that lasted until 1949; 60068 Sir Visto was the last locomotive to be converted. The changeover to left-hand drive took longer, and continued into the Fifties.

Further experiments
Despite having settled on a new standard type, Gresley continued to experiment on individual locomotives, in one of which experiments ACFI feedwater heaters were installed in A1 2576 The White Knight and A3 2580 Shotover. However, on the Pacifics the increase in efficiency was deemed insufficient and the apparatus was eventually removed. In 1935, number 2544 Lemberg received Trofimoff piston valves of an ingenious design with automatically varying steam passages.

A3s 2747 Coronach and  2751 Humorist were subjected to smoke deflection trials following an accident  on the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS) due to poor visibility; this included the modification of the upper smokebox area surrounding the chimney. Originally the whole smokebox wrapper was retained in order to form an air duct, with the exit behind the chimney, but this was found ineffective. The next stage, at least with 2751, was to cut off the top part of the wrapper, but retaining the sloping plate that directed air flow upwards, and therefore lifting the smoke above the locomotive. The original chimney was replaced by a double stove-pipe variety, and miniature deflector plates were added on either side, angled to concentrate the air flow when the locomotive was on the move.

Smoke-lifting devices were not a priority with the normal single-chimney Pacifics. However, with its double chimney and subsequent fitting of a double Kylchap exhaust in 1937, Humorist continued to pose a problem in this regard and always had small wings on either side of the chimney. Finally, in the 1950s, it acquired the Peppercorn-type of deflector plates.

Tenders

The original A1s were coupled to a traditional Great Northern type of tender with coal rails of a design that can be traced back to Stirling days. The A1-variant was a much-enlarged eight-wheel version carrying  of coal and  of water. In 1928, a new special type of tender body was built for the new non-stop Flying Scotsman train. This tender had a corridor connection and an access tunnel through the water tank. It was of a more modern design with high side sheets curved in at the top and had a coal capacity of . In order to be able to pack an extra ton of coal, a single coal rail was provided on this particular series, but was later deemed unnecessary. Ten of these corridor tenders were built, and a non-corridor version of similar design followed with 8-ton coal capacity and no coal rail. Further series of both types had disc wheels instead of the previous spoked variety.

Operational details

Pre-war performance
The early A1 Pacifics were a match for the performances demanded of them in the early 1920s. They were certainly able to take loads single-handed that were beyond the capacity of their Atlantic predecessors as was shown in a test run made by No. 1471 Sir Frederick Banbury when it took a 20-coach train weighing  over the  from London to Grantham at an average speed of . However this was at the cost of heavy coal consumption, and general performance was well below the ultimate potential of the design. This was largely due to a regression from the earlier 3-cylinder 2-6-0 design, which was the first to have the standard Gresley conjugated motion combined with long valve travel. However, practical problems were experienced with components quickly suffering from premature wear, especially in the main bearing of the large 2:1 lever which had not yet been fitted with the very necessary ball race; excessive 'play' led to so much over-travel of the middle valve, that it began to hit the end-covers. In order to prevent this, when applying the gear to the Pacifics, Gresley fell back on the expedient of shortening valve travel even though that choked the exhaust at speed, was responsible for the heavy coal consumption, and negated most of the advantages gained by the locomotive's revolutionary design. However, by incorporating the Great Western-inspired valve modifications, the economies in coal and water consumption achieved were such that the 180 psi Pacifics could undertake long-distance non-stop runs that were previously impossible.

The first and most spectacular outcome occurred in 1928, when the Pacifics were called upon daily to work the Flying Scotsman train non-stop over the  between London and Edinburgh. Initially three A1s and two A3s took turns on this service. The modifications also gave the A1 locomotives greater speed potential, and the proof of this came in 1933 when a high-speed 3-car diesel railcar service had been mooted. As this would have provided limited accommodation for passengers, it was proposed to use steam traction at similar service speeds with six carriages. A trial return run between London and Leeds was made with modified A1 locomotive number 4472, Flying Scotsman; on the return trip with 6 coaches weighing  it attained  just outside  in Lincolnshire for just over . There were earlier claims to this speed, notably by the Great Western locomotive 3440 City of Truro, but this 1933 run is generally considered to be the first reliably recorded instance. On a later trial run to Newcastle upon Tyne and back in 1935, A3 number 2750 Papyrus reached  hauling  at the same spot, maintaining a speed above  for 12.5 consecutive miles (20.1 km), the world record for a non-streamlined locomotive, shared with a French Chapelon Pacific.

Wartime service
Along with all the Gresley 3-cylinder types, the Pacifics suffered from low wartime maintenance standards, conditions for which they had not been designed. Following Gresley's sudden death in 1941 Edward Thompson took over and following the end of hostilities in 1945 Thompson made a  request to his works staff that a locomotive be selected for rebuild, the first of Gresley's A1 Pacifics, Great Northern was selected and became the LNER Class A1/1 specification with divided drive and separate valve gear for the inside cylinder.  Thompson intended to rebuild to this configuration all the Gresley A1s that had not been converted to A3 standard; in the meantime the remaining Gresley A1s were reclassified as A10s.  The rebuilding of these locomotives as A1/1 never happened.  Instead, the conversion to A3 standard continued.  The A1/1 was at first classified as A1, and reclassified as A1/1 when Arthur Peppercorn  designed and constructed his own Class A1s in 1947 this class owing a great deal to the work of Thompson in showing the improvements that could be made on availability and maintenance costs when compared to the Gresley set up of conjugated valve gear instead of 3 sets.

Post-war recovery and nationalisation

The Gresley 3-cylinder drive arrangement continued to bring a number of practical problems, the root of which was probably the need for the inside cylinder to be steeply inclined in order to give space for the inside connecting rod to clear the leading coupled axle; at the same time, the inside valve spindle had to be parallel with the outside ones from which it derived its motion. This problem had been overcome by what Holcroft called a "twist in the ports" (the passages that carried steam in and out of the cylinders). A consequence was that the length of these passages was greater than that generally recommended, increasing "dead space", and this was combined with a shorter exhaust passage. The net result would be rather different working conditions in the middle cylinder from those on the outside. A contributing problem was that any elongation of the outside valve spindles was multiplied by the conjugated valve gear. Although this had been anticipated at the design stage, the overall consequence was that the inside cylinder had a tendency to give more power than the other two as speed increased, leading to the overloading of the inside connecting rod bearings, especially the big-end which was liable to overheat and fail. Various experiments were tried over the years to cure this chronic ailment, and it was only towards the end of the steam era that a real solution was found in Great Western methods of lubrication and manufacture for the big-end bearing. Other problems persisted, such as a stiff, insensitive regulator and overall design flaws that hampered maintenance.

In spite of all this and the introduction of more recent Pacifics, in the middle of the 1950s Gresley types continued to have a quasi-monopoly of East Coast Main Line express passenger services, and as the Sixties approached they went through yet another series of improvements comparable to those of the 1920s. The most significant of these was the fitting of the French double Kylchap exhaust system, which was entirely due to the persistence from 1956 of P. N. Townend, Assistant District Motive Power Superintendent at King's Cross locomotive shed. These modifications greatly reduced exhaust back pressure, making the locomotives more economical and free-running, and also kept the firetubes clean, reducing turn-around time, so much so that they were able to fit into the more intensive diesel locomotive workings. The Kylchap arrangement was already being universally applied to the A4 streamlined Pacifics, though with the non-streamlined A3 locomotives, the soft exhaust would cause the smoke and steam to drift into the driver's forward vision. The solution came in the form of narrow German-style smoke deflectors, which somewhat changed the appearance of the A3 locomotives in their latter days.

Withdrawal

The prototype locomotive, number 60113 Great Northern, had been rebuilt by Edward Thompson into a virtually new design. The first to be withdrawn was 60104 Solario in 1959.  Otherwise the class remained intact until 1961, and was still operating on express passenger work. The last class member to be withdrawn by British Railways was number 60052, Prince Palatine in January 1966. 60103 Flying Scotsman was withdrawn in 1963, and has since been preserved at the National Railway Museum in York.

Accidents and incidents
On 10 May 1926, during the General Strike, locomotive No. 2565 Merry Hampton was hauling an express passenger train which was deliberately derailed by striking miners south of , Northumberland.
On 10 December 1937, no. 2744 Grand Parade was destroyed in the Castlecary rail accident when it ran into the rear of a standing train in snowy conditions, the other train being hauled by LNER Class D29 4-4-0 No. 9896 Dandie Dinmont. The driver and fireman survived with minor injuries although the locomotive and tender were buried under the four following coaches. 35 other passengers and railway crew were killed in the accident.  As Class A3 locomotives were still in production at the time, a replacement was built with the same name and number.
 On 9 August 1947, locomotive No. 50 Persimmon was hauling a passenger train that was run into by another at  due to a signalman's error. Twenty-one people were killed and 188 were injured.
 On 26 October 1947, locomotive No. 66 Merry Hampton was hauling an express passenger train which was derailed at , Northumberland due to excessive speed through a crossover. Twenty-eight people were killed and 65 were injured.
On 19 February 1949, a freight train became divided at , London. The rear portion was able to run back and cross from the down slow line to the down fast line due to a signalman's error. Locomotive No. 60107 Royal Lancer was hauling a parcels passenger train that collided with the wagons.
On 14 July 1951, locomotive 60058 Blair Athol was hauling the 'West Riding' express near Huntingdon when two of its coaches caught fire. Twenty-two people were injured, but all the passengers and crew escaped with no fatalities.
On 14 November 1951, locomotive 60100 Spearmint ran away on the 1 in 44 Cowlairs incline approaching Glasgow Queen Street Station. A defective repair on a vacuum pipe had left the engine without brakes. The engine, which was scheduled to work the afternoon departure to Leeds, collided with the stock for the same train which was being shunted across the station, the dining-car crew were injured in the collision.
On 5 August 1957, locomotive No. 60036 Colombo was hauling a passenger train when it crashed into the buffers at  station.
On 15 December 1961, an empty coaching stock train was in a rear-end collision with a freight train at Conington, Huntingdonshire. Locomotive No. 60078 Night Hawk was hauling a freight train that ran into the wreckage. A third freight train then ran into the wreckage.
On 29 September 2023, locomotive No. 60103 Flying Scotsman was involved in a slow speed rear-end collision with the Belmond Royal Scotsman ahead of a 100th year anniversary tour run at the Strathspey Railway in Aviemore, Highland. 5 people were injured with two being hospitalised, however both the locomotive and the Royal Scot suffered no superficial damage. The final two days of its stint at the Strathspey Railway were postponed while the RAIB investigated the cause of the accident.

Preservation

The sole surviving member of the A3s and A1s is 4472 (60103) Flying Scotsman. The locomotive was withdrawn from service with British Railways in 1963 and after being saved from scrap it was sold for preservation to Alan Pegler. After overhaul, Scotsman worked a number of railtours, including a non-stop London–Edinburgh run in 1968, the final year of steam traction on British Railways.

After a much-publicised appeal in 2004, Flying Scotsman was purchased by the National Railway Museum in York and is now part of the National Collection.

A spare A3 boiler that was fitted to 60041 Salmon Trout and 60097 Humorist, but mainly on Salmon Trout survives at National Railway Museum's National Collection. Cylinder parts from Salmon Trout purchased by Alan Pegler still exist to this day, they are a part of Flying Scotsman.

Models

Model railway companies Tri-ang, and later Hornby, have produced 'OO'-scale models of both the Gresley A1's and A3's almost continuously since the 1960s. In the 2000s, Hornby also produced live steam examples, re-using the chassis from the initial LNER Class A4 models. Trix and later Liliput made both loco drive and tender drive versions in 'OO' gauge. Although now owned by Bachmann, the models have never been resurrected. Other manufacturers have produced models in other scales, such as Minitrix, Graham Farish, and Dapol (N-gauge) and Bassett-Lowke (O-gauge).

See also

 List of LNER Class A1/A3 locomotives

Footnotes

References

  A commentary on the world of The Railway Series

  No Publication date, but certainly around 1935/6

External links

 LNER Encyclopedia Page covering the history and development of the LNER A1/A3 Pacifics

A3
4-6-2 locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1922
Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain
NBL locomotives
2′C1′ h3 locomotives
Passenger locomotives
Three-cylinder steam locomotives
Great Northern Railway (Great Britain) locomotives

LNER Gresley Classes A1 and A3


The letters of last resort are four identically worded handwritten letters from the prime minister of the United Kingdom to the commanding officers of the four British ballistic missile submarines. They contain orders on what action to take if an enemy nuclear strike has destroyed the British government, and has killed or otherwise incapacitated both the prime minister and their designated "second person" of responsibility, typically a high-ranking member of the Cabinet such as the deputy prime minister or the first secretary of state. If the orders are carried out, the action taken could be the last official act of His Majesty's Government.

If the letters are not used during the term of the prime minister who wrote them, they are destroyed unopened after that person leaves office, so that their content remains unknown to anyone except the issuer.

Process
A new prime minister writes a set of letters immediately after taking office and being told by the chief of the Defence Staff "precisely what damage a Trident missile could cause". The documents are then delivered to the submarines in sealed envelopes, and the previous prime minister's letters are destroyed without being opened.

In the event of the deaths of both the prime minister and the designated alternative decision-maker as a result of a nuclear strike, the commander(s) of any nuclear submarine(s) on patrol at the time would use a series of checks to ascertain whether the letters of last resort must be opened.

According to Peter Hennessy's book The Secret State: Whitehall and the Cold War, 1945 to 1970, the process by which a  commander would determine if the British government continues to function includes, amongst other checks, establishing whether BBC Radio 4 continues broadcasting.

In 1983, the procedure for Polaris submarines was to open the envelopes if there was an evident nuclear attack, or if all UK naval broadcasts had ceased for four hours.

Options
While the contents of these letters are secret, according to the December 2008 BBC Radio 4 documentary The Human Button, there were four known options given to the prime minister to include in the letters. The prime minister might instruct the submarine commander to:
 retaliate with nuclear weapons;
 not retaliate;
 use their own judgement; or,
 place the submarine under an allied country's command, if possible. The documentary mentions Australia and the United States.

The Guardian reported in 2016 that the options are said to include: "Put yourself under the command of the United States, if it is still there", "Go to Australia", "Retaliate", or "Use your own judgement". The actual option chosen remains known only to the writer of the letter.

Fiction
David Greig's 2012 play The Letter of Last Resort deals with the consequences and paradoxes of the letters. The play was first staged in February 2012 as a part of a cycle of plays on "The Bomb" at the Tricycle Theatre in London, directed by Nicolas Kent, with Belinda Lang playing the role of the incoming prime minister and Simon Chandler, her advisor. The production was also seen at the Traverse Theatre in Edinburgh, for the Edinburgh Fringe later the same year. The following year it was broadcast on BBC Radio 4, with the same cast, first transmitted on 1 June 2013.

The KGB's attempts to obtain the contents of the letters of last resort are part of the plot of the BBC Cold War spy drama The Game (2014).

See also
 Dead Hand
 Dead man's switch
 Fail-deadly
 Mutual assured destruction
 Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom § Nuclear weapons control
 Operation Looking Glass
 Samson Option
 Trident nuclear programme

Footnotes

References

External links

 Radio archive:

Cabinet Office (United Kingdom)
Emergency management in the United Kingdom
Letters (message)
United Kingdom nuclear command and control
Nuclear strategy
Nuclear secrecy

Letters of last resort


Nairobi Arboretum is located along state house road in the area of Kilimani, Nairobi, Kenya. It was founded in 1907 by Mr. Batiscombe in a bid to try out new forestry trees.  It was later gazetted as a national reserve in 1932 by the government and issuance of a title deed was later conducted by the commissioner of lands to the government in 1996.

References

External links
Official website

Nairobi
Parks in Kenya
Forests of Kenya
Arboreta

Nairobi Arboretum


Robert Archambeau (born 1968) is a poet and literary critic  whose works include the books Citation Suite, Home and Variations Laureates and Heretics, The Poet Resigns: Poetry in a Difficult World, The Kafka Sutra and Inventions of a Barbarous Age: Poetry from Conceptualism to Rhyme. He has also edited a number of works, including Word Play Place: Essays on the Poetry of John Matthias, The &NOW Awards: The Best Innovative Writing, and Letters of Blood: English Writings of Göran Printz-Påhlson. Along with John Matthias he is the co-author of Revolutions: A Collaboration, a collection of prose and poetry with images by the artist Jean Dibble.

Son of Canadian ceramic artist, Robert Archambeau, Robert Archambeau was born in Providence, Rhode Island and raised in Winnipeg, Manitoba. He teaches English as a professor at Lake Forest College near Chicago.

His recent work explores the social context of the history of poetics: he has been called "our smartest poetic sociologist" in the scholarly journal Contemporary Literature.

In 2001, he ran an election on the POETICS list as a protest against the appointment of Billy Collins as Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress.  Anselm Hollo was elected to the honorary position.

He has received grants and awards from the Academy of American Poets, the Illinois Arts Council, and the Swedish Academy. He is a poetry editor of  The Fortnightly Review.

Slate magazine listed his book The Poet Resigns as one of the most underrated books of 2013.

Along with R.S. Gwynn he chairs the Poets' Prize committee.

Notes and references

External links
 Samizdat Blog
 The Argotist Online: Robert Archambeau Interview
 Critical Margins interview with Robert Archambeau
 Salt Publishing Author Page
 Poetry Foundation Biography
 Poetry Foundation Biography
 University of ND Press: Laureates and Heretics
 Open Book: Letters of Blood
 Robert Archambeau at Ohio University Press
 Review of Home and Variations in the Notre Dame Review
 Review of Home and Variations in PN Review
 Review of Laureates and Heretics in PN Review
 Review of Laureates and Heretics in Contemporary Literature
 The Anti-Laureate Announcement

1968 births
American literary critics
Poets from Rhode Island
Lake Forest College faculty
Living people
21st-century American poets

Robert Archambeau (poet)


In-yer-face theatre is a term used to describe a confrontational style and sensibility of drama that emerged in Great Britain in the 1990s. This term was borrowed by British theatre critic Aleks Sierz as the title of his book, In-Yer-Face Theatre: British Drama Today, first published by Faber and Faber in March 2001.

An adjunct faculty member in Boston University's London graduate journalism programme, and co-editor of TheatreVoice, Sierz uses in-yer-face theatre to describe work by young playwrights who present vulgar, shocking, and confrontational material on stage as a means of involving and affecting their audiences.

Etymology

With respect to "in-your-face", Aleks Sierz wrote:

Sierz has been mistakenly cited as coining the term "In-yer-face theatre", saying that "Although I certainly was the first to describe, celebrate and theorise this kind of new writing, which emerged decisively in the mid-1990s, I certainly did not invent the phrase." In his piece "A brief history of in-yer-face theatre" Sierz outlines a number of instances where the phrase was used directly or indirectly by others prior to him popularising the label.

In 1994 Paul Taylor in his review of Philip Ridley's Ghost from a Perfect Place described the violent girl gang in the play as "the in-yer-face castrating trio".

In response to Trainspotting being performed at the Bush Theatre, critic Charles Spencer wrote that "You may not like these in-your-face productions; but they are quite impossible to ignore." Later that year when the play transferred to the West End, The Times'''s Jeremy Kingston remarked that the previous two productions of the play had brought "actors within inches of the audience, and such in-yer-face realism".

During an interview in November 1995 the playwright Anthony Neilson remarked that "I think that in-your-face theatre is coming back — and that is good." Sierz has stated that "As far as I know, this seems to be the very first coinage of the term "in-your-face theatre"."

About a month after this interview the critic Ian Herbert started using the phrase "in-yer-face" in various columns of the publication Theatre Record, for which he was the editor. Sierz Remarked that Herbert "chose the more direct "in-yer-face" formulation over the more staid "in-your-face"". After Herbert's writings in Theatre Record the phrase began to be used by other critics and, according to Sierz, "By the time Mark Ravenhill's Shopping and Fucking opened at the Royal Court in October 1996, the expression was spreading rapidly".

Sierz has stated that "the idea of writing a book about in-yer-face theatre was originally Ian Herbert's" as he originally spoke about the concept to Peggy Butcher, who was the drama editor of Faber and Faber. Herbert also decided to name the book 'In-Yer-Face Theatre' and was asked by Butcher to write an outline for it. However, Herbert was unable to provide an outline, jokingly stating that "I realised that [writing] a book would mean actual work, something to which I am not accustomed." Sierz however states that Herbert "was too busy to embark on a book" due to his many work commitments. As a result Herbert pulled out of writing the book and told Butcher that it should be written by Sierz instead because his "interest in new writing at the time made [him] an obvious candidate for the job". Early during the development of the book Sierz considered renaming it to Cool Britannia but Sierz says that this was vetoed by Butcher "on the grounds that in a couple of years no one would have any respect for that label - and how right she was." Sierz finished writing the book in January 2000, and it was published by Faber and Faber in March 2001 under the title In-Yer-Face Theatre: British Drama Today.

History

Aleks Sierz's 'five mighty moments'

In his lecture entitled Blasted and After: New Writing in British Theatre Today Sierz cites "five mighty moments in the history of the 1990s" that shaped in-yer-face theatre. Outside of this lecture Sierz has gone into greater detail about the importance of these moments:

The influence of North American plays and Scottish theatre
Sierz first cites Ian Brown, artistic director of Edinburgh's Traverse Theatre, who during the late 1980s started looking "for provocative plays from Canada and America" to be staged at the theatre, namely those written by Brad Fraser and Tracy Letts. Brown described himself as "a risk-taker; I had a taste for doing plays that are a bit between-the-eyes: most London theatres didn't dare put on Brad Fraser['s plays] because of the explicit sex". Fraser has been hailed by director Dominic Dromgoole as "the early prophet, the John the Baptist of the brutalist school that flourished in the mid-nineties. A lot of tricks that tired by the end of the Nineties, the rimming, the sadism, the antibodies, the sexual frankness, the cool irony in the face of outrage, began with Fraser". Brown also developed "Scottish work with Scottish actors" such as the "provocative" 1992 play The Life of Stuff written by "local actor" Simon Donald. Sierz has said that Brown unknowingly was "opening the long road that led to Anthony Neilson, to Mark Ravenhill (who was influenced by the work of Canadian Brad Fraser) and to that 1990s youth anthem, Trainspotting".

Sierz also claims that Brown's programming was part of a broader "Scottish theatricality" that "kick-started" the in-yer-face theatre of London (such as Jeremey Weller's Edinburgh-based company the Grassmarket Project, which influenced the work of Sarah Kane) and that "Scottish playwriting [had] a profound effect […] on the in-yer-face sensibility".

Young British Artists and Philip Ridley
The second "mighty moment" that Sierz cites is Philip Ridley's play The Pitchfork Disney being performed at the Bush Theatre in 1991. Sierz has declared that The Pitchfork Disney "is not only a key play of the 90s; it is the key play of that decade... Its legend grew and grew until it became the pivotal influence on the generation of playwrights that followed. It is a foundation text; it separates then from now." Sierz goes on to write that the play "introduced a totally new sensibility into British theatre [that] signalled a fresh direction for contemporary playwrighting: one that eschewed realistic naturalism, political ideology and social commentary, and turned auditorium's into cauldron's of sensation", adding that the play was "an agenda setting work: the era of experiential theatre began here." The artistic director of the Bush Theatre, Dominic Dromgoole, wrote that The Pitchfork Disney "was one of the first plays to signal a new direction for new writing. No politics, no naturalism, no journalism, no issues. In its place, character, imagination, wit, sexuality, skin and the soul."

Ridley started writing the play during the 1980s while he was an art student at St Martin's School of Art, with the play evolving out of a series of performance art monologues he had created in his final year of study.Ridley, P., & Sierz, A. (2009). 'Putting a New Lens on the World': The Art of Theatrical Alchemy. New Theatre Quarterly, 25(2), 109-117. doi:10.1017/S0266464X09000207 Ridley identifies himself as a contemporary of the Young British Artists (also known as the YBAs). These artists are regarded to have started with Damien Hirst's exhibition Freeze in 1988 and have been described by Sierz as "the in-yer-face provocateurs of the art scene [whose] 1997 Sensation exhibition was an immensely influential example of that 1990s sensibility". Ridley has claimed that he knew "most of the people that went on to be in the controversial Sensation show". Although Ridley's early plays were produced years before this exhibition, he states that his plays share the same "sensibility" as Sensation, particularly in the plays' use of imagery. Sierz in part attributes Ridley's originality as a playwright from him training at an art school instead of attending a drama school or a theatre's 'new writing programme'. Sierz therefore feels that the history of new writing during the 1990s should not start with The Royal Court Theatre, but "perhaps, more accurately" should look instead at "St Martin's College of Art and Goldsmiths College. Culturally, there's clearly a nexus between the YBAs, Cool Britannia and Brit Pop."

The murder of James Bulger

Another "mighty moment" that Sierz attributes to the development of in-yer-face theatre is the real-life murder of James Bulger, who was only two years old when he was abducted, tortured and killed by two ten-year-old boys in 1993. Sierz states that this was "arguably a key event" of 1990s culture.

In 2004 the playwright Mark Ravenhill gave a lecture entitled 'A Tear in the Fabric: the James Bulger Murder and New Theatre Writing in the 1990s'. In this lecture Ravenhill explained how the Bulger murder prompted him to make his "first attempt at writing a play". Ravenhill believes that the murder may have inspired other playwrights from the 1990s: "I wonder if I was alone? I doubt it. I wonder how many other people there were who started to write with that CCTV picture of the boy led away somewhere in their head? […] How many of the young British playwrights of the 1990s — the so-called in-yer-face playwrights — were driven, consciously or unconsciously, by that moment?"

Sierz also states that the murder "resulted in calls for the censorship of films, of television and of art works" because "in 1994 the judge in the boys' trial explained the murder by speculating that they had been exposed to a violent video, 'Child's Play 3', this created a media storm which, I would argue, is the cultural context for the media uproar over Blasted".

Stephen Daldry at The Royal Court Theatre

Sierz cites the programming by artistic director Stephen Daldry at The Royal Court Theatre as another "mighty moment" for in-yer-face-theatre. Sierz says that Daldry "not only enjoyed shocking people, but was skilled at getting funding for new projects", while being "Adept at playing the media, he not only programmed provocative plays, but defended them vigorously in public". Appointed as the theatre's artistic director in 1992, the first play that Daldry programmed was Weldon Rising by Phyllis Nagy, which Sierz states "sent a signal, influencing other young writers".

Sierz credits a turning-point for the theatre when Daldry remodelled his programming policy in 1994 from focusing on American work and "gay physical theatre to text-based drama [where] he decided to stage a large number of first-time dramatists". Daldry said that "From autumn 1994, the Court doubled its amount of new productions in the Theatre Upstairs and focussed on young writers". Daldry's first season of work by new writers in 1994-95 included a number of in-yer-face plays, such as Some Voices by Joe Penhall, Peaches by Nick Grosso and Ashes and Sand by Judy Upton.

Sierz notes "the key play" of this season being Blasted by Sarah Kane. Sierz says that "one of the lynchpin moments of the 1990s was the script meeting [at The Royal Court] that decided to stage Sarah Kane's Blasted. Although promoting new writing was a deliberate policy, this meeting might have chosen to pass on Blasted, and the history of the rest of the decade might have been so very different." When Blasted premiered some critics were so offended by the play's depiction of horrors (including physical violence, defecation, rape and cannibalism) that they contacted news outlets to voice their outrage. This caused a media frenzy which resulted in the play being at "the centre of the biggest scandal to theatre since Mary Whitehouse tried to close Howard Brenton's The Romans in Britain in 1981." Sierz says that "Within days after its opening […] Blasted became the most talked about play for years, the hottest show in town. Pretty soon, it became clear that it would be the most notorious play of the decade". Sierz also states that "the resulting media furore of the shocking content and unsettling form of the play put British new writing on the map", with the controversy becoming a "significant cultural moment" and that with Blasted "a new exciting sensibility arrived". While away on a fundraising trip to New-York Daldry was called back to England to appear on Newsnight and The World at One to defend the play amid the controversy. Sierz says that with this "Daldry realised his new role. When he defended [Kane], he was also defending himself and rediscovering the Court's mission. The noise of controversy told him that provocation was the right method: as well as bringing in new audiences, it renewed his sense of identity. As the Court rediscovered its roots as a controversial theatre, Daldry became the impresario of in-yer-face drama."

Other notable in-yer-face plays that The Royal Court programmed while Daldry was artistic director include Penetrator (1994) by Anthony Neilson, Mojo (1995) by Jez Butterworth, The Beauty Queen of Leenane (1996) by Martin McDonagh, Shopping and Fucking (1996) by Mark Ravenhill and The Censor (1997) by Anthony Neilson.

Martin Crimp's Attempts on Her Life
Sierz included Martin Crimp's play Attempts on her Life as one of the "mighty moments" in the development of in-yer-face theatre. Performed in 1997 at the Royal Court, Sierz described the premiere production as "an event that secured [Crimp]'s reputation as the most innovative, most exciting and most exportable playwright of his generation." Presented by Crimp as "seventeen scenarios for the theatre", the play has been cited as a pioneering work for its unconventional form and structure. Sierz has described the play as "a postmodernist extravaganza that could be read as a series of provocative suggestions for creating a new kind of theatre. The recipe was: subvert the idea of coherent character; turn scenes into flexible scenarios; substitute brief messages or poetic clusters for text; mix clever dialogue with brutal images; stage the show as an art installation. The playtext doesn't specify who says which lines, but Tim Albery's production brought out the acuity and humour of Crimp's writing, with its characteristic irony, and its pointed comments on the pointlessness of searching for a point." Sierz has called Attempts on Her Life "one of the most influential pieces of contemporary theatre" and has lauded the play as being "Crimp's masterpiece", "the best play of the [1990s]" and stated in 2005 that the play "has a good claim to be considered one of the very best British plays of the past 25 years".

Decline of in-yer-face theatre
Towards the end on the 1990s there were declining numbers of new in-yer-face plays being performed in Britain.

In January 1997 Stephen Daldry said that "When I first arrived [at the Royal Court] there were a lot of gay plays, then came violent plays like Mojo and Shopping and Fucking. I feel that trend is on the way out now."

Sierz credits three events, which for him "suggested that the tide was turning and that an era of confrontation had come to an end", signalling the decline of in-yer-face theatre:

The first is "the enormous success of Conor McPherson's The Weir", which premiered at The Theatre Upstairs at The Royal Court in 1997 before it "transferred to the West End for almost three years, then Broadway" with "its box-office success being crucial to the [Royal Court] theatre's fragile finances". Sierz has said that "[the play] – despite that unpleasant episode about paedophiles in one of the ghost stories and the emotionally fraught aspect of the final story about losing your child – has got a very redemptive feel which most 'in-yer-face' plays don't have" and that the play's "immense success suggest[ed] that the public's taste for shock has been superseded by a desire for a calmer aesthetic."

The next event that Sierz cites is "the failure of Irvine Welsh's shock-fest You'll Have Had Your Hole" which "received deservedly terrible reviews when it opened at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in 1998 and on its arrival in London in early February 1999".

The last key event Sierz cites is the death of Sarah Kane in February 1999 which he has referred to as "a convenient end point".

David Eldridge wrote that "Perhaps, 'in-yer-face' only really lasted from 1994 to 1997", likewise citing The Weir as "signalling a change of direction" and stating that "by the time Ben Elton was mocking the form in a novel [Inconceivable published in 1999] it was over."

Sierz has said that "After 1999, you still get individual plays that have that [in-yer-face] sensibility, but it's no longer the norm" as "By 2000, there were signs that the heady days of outrage were numbered". Sierz has said that by the time his book In-yer-face Theatre: British Drama Today was published in March 2001 "the brash phenomenon of in-yer-face theatre […] loses not only much of its intensity, but also becomes less central to the British New Writing scene." He therefore feels that his book "is inevitably something of a backward glance". However, Seirz says that "although by 2001 the new wave has broken, one of the reasons for this is that in-yer-face theatre has done its job — it has kicked down the door of complacency in the theatre, and, where it led, others have followed. In-yer-face writers give theatre the oxygen of publicity, and help inspire the diverse New Writing culture that has emerged since."

In 2004 Sierz hosted a debate on New Writing, which featured the playwrights Mark Ravenhill, Simon Stephens and Richard Bean as panellists. An audience member asked the panel if they thought that in-yer-face theatre "was now no longer at the forefront" of new writing. Bean responded by saying "I think it's quite true that things have moved on". He explained how it no longer is seen as shocking or cutting edge to have sex scenes in plays, stating that "I suppose there came a point where if you went to The Royal Court and somebody got their knob out and spat in their hand, and you think 'oh here we go again'". Sierz added to this comment by jokingly remarking how previously "there was a time in the 1990s that if you didn't see an anal rape on stage, you asked for your money back". Bean pointed out how his 2004 play Honeymoon Suite contained "two fucks and a wank" yet critics felt it was a "very commercial play" and thus wondered why it was "being put on on the main stages of The Royal Court?" Bean felt that this reaction from critics demonstrated how "obviously all that kind of gross behaviour is now perfectly acceptable" in plays. Stephens, who has tutored at The Royal Court's Young Writers' Programme, responded to the question by saying that: "It's fascinating now giving copies of Blasted to a group of young writers in The Young Writers Programme, and they find it completely alien and completely tedious and completely disinteresting. […] They're responding to it with anger, which I find really bracing." He went on to say that he thought this anger towards the play was because "in the wake of [Blasted and] that initial rush of very strong [in-yer-face] plays, an awful lot of lesser plays were written by pale imitators so that images of anal rape became tedious and became kind of signatures. And I think they're maybe not distinguishing between the people who are original with those plays and their imitators, and they just find it a little bit gratuitous […] not gratuitous because it's offensive, but gratuitous because it's boring now."

In an essay published in 2008, Sierz wrote that "Although some playwrights, such as Philip Ridley, debbie tucker green and Dennis Kelly, use some of the techniques of in-yer-face theatre, the general scene has moved on".

Critical categorisation

The process of appropriating and applying such a pre-existing phrase or concept to describe new theatrical works provides a critical means of "categorizing" or "labelling", and some critics have stated, "pigeonholing", or "domesticating" ("taming") them. The creation of in-yer-face theatre parallels the history of more-prevalently accepted literary-critical coinages by critics like Martin Esslin (Theatre of the Absurd), who extended the existential philosophical concept of the Absurd to drama and theatre in his 1961 book of that title, and Irving Wardle (Comedy of menace), who borrowed the phrase from the subtitle of The Lunatic View: A Comedy of Menace, by David Campton, in 1958 reviews of productions of Campton's play and of The Birthday Party, by Harold Pinter, applying Campton's subtitle to Pinter's work.Irving Wardle,  "The Birthday Party", Encore 5 (July–Aug. 1958): 39–40; rpt. in The Encore Reader: A Chronicle of the New Drama, ed. Charles Marowitz, Tom Milne, and Owen Hale (London: Methuen, 1965) 76–78 (reissued as: New Theatre Voices of the Fifties and Sixties [London: Eyre Methuen, 1981]); "Comedy of Menace", Encore 5 (Sept–Oct. 1958): 28–33; rpt. in The Encore Reader and New Theatre Voices 86–91.In-yer-face theatre has often been mistakenly categorised as being a 'movement' which Sierz has disputed:

2002 conference
"In-yer-face theatre" was debated at a two-day conference at the University of the West of England, held in 2002, at which Sierz was a keynote speaker. Sierz's own report on the conference is archived on his website.

In summarising the results of the conference, co-conveners Graham Saunders and Rebecca D'Monté observe that Sierz acknowledged that by 2002 "in-yer-face theatre" had already become an historical phenomenon (a trend of the past; hence, passé), going on to state:

Another conference report, published by Writernet, states: "to be shackled to a specific era or genre places a responsibility on a play and creates expectations before a reading or performance. In essence, it disrupts the artistic integrity through preconceived notions of a play because of a simplified label. Plays and playwrights risk being annexed or 'ghetto-ised' when given a superficial monolithic focus."Writernet adds: "This problem was reflected in number of papers from all over the world, which primarily explored the works of Sarah Kane and Mark Ravenhill through theoretical lenses of postmodernism, metaphysical theatre, Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty, and Lacan. Through no fault of the organizers – this was apparently an accurate reflection of the conference submissions."

Yet, this report observes also that, "In his own defense, Sierz stipulated that 'in-yer-face' was not a movement, but an 'arena' or 'a sensibility'," and that "In-yer-face theatre describes only a part of the body of works during the 1990s."  It notices, moreover, that Sierz "accepted the limitations of his book and the label, acknowledging it as both London-centric and limited in its scope."

Nevertheless, it cites "Max Stafford-Clark (founder of Out of Joint and Joint Stock theatre companies and ex-artistic director of the Royal Court Theatre and the Traverse in Edinburgh)," who, "when asked about plays in the 1990s," reportedly observed that "Everybody's looking at the same view, so the paintings are bound to have similarities."Quoting from an interview with Elaine Aston, in Caryl Churchill (Plymouth: Northcote House Publishers, 1997) 5.

Notable people
According to Sierz, "The big three of in-yer-face theatre are Sarah Kane, Mark Ravenhill and Anthony Neilson"; in listing 14 "Other hot shots" in "Who?" on his website, Sierz adds the following qualification: "Of course, some writers wrote one or two in-yer-face plays and then moved on.  Like all categories, this one can't hope to completely grasp the ever-changing reality of the explosive new writing scene."

Sources: Aleks Sierz and David Eldridge.

 Kate Ashfield (actress)
 Simon Block (playwright)
 Jez Butterworth (playwright)
 Stephen Daldry (artistic director of the Royal Court 1992 - 1998)
 David Eldridge (playwright)
 debbie tucker green (playwright)
 Nick Grosso (playwright)
 Alex Jones (playwright)
 Sarah Kane (playwright and director)
 Dennis Kelly (playwright)
 Tracy Letts (playwright)

 Patrick Marber (playwright and director)
 Martin McDonagh (playwright)
 Phyllis Nagy (playwright and director)
 Anthony Neilson (playwright, director and actor)
 Joe Penhall (playwright)
 Rebecca Prichard (playwright)
 Mark Ravenhill (playwright)
 Philip Ridley (playwright)
 Judy Upton (playwright)
 Naomi Wallace (playwright)
 Richard Zajdlic (playwright)

Gallery

Plays

Major works
 (1991) The Pitchfork Disney by Philip Ridley
 (1992) The Fastest Clock in the Universe by Philip Ridley
 (1993) The Treatment by Martin Crimp
 (1993) Killer Joe by Tracy Letts
 (1993) Penetrator by Anthony Neilson
 (1994) Ghost from a Perfect Place by Philip Ridley
 (1994) Butterfly Kiss by Phyllis Nagy
 (1994) Trainspotting by Harry Gibson, an adaptation from the eponymous novel by Irvine Welsh
 (1995) Blasted by Sarah Kane
 (1995) Mojo by Jez Butterworth
 (1996) Shopping and Fucking by Mark Ravenhill
 (1996) The Beauty Queen of Leenane by Martin McDonagh
 (1997) Attempts on Her Life by Martin Crimp
 (1997) The Censor by Anthony Neilson
 (1997) Closer by Patrick Marber
 (1998) Yard Girl by Rebecca Prichard
 (1998) Cleansed by Sarah Kane
 (1998) Real Classy Affair by Nick Grosso
 (2002) Stitching by Anthony Nielson
 (2005) Mercury Fur by Philip Ridley

Other plays

 Simon Donald – The Life of Stuff (1993)
 Simon Farquhar – Rainbow Kiss (2006)
 Kathryn O'Reilly – Screwed (2016)
 Mike Packer – tHe dYsFUnCKshOnalZ! (2007)
 Peter Rose – Snatch (1998)
 Penelope Skinner – Eigengrau (2010)
 Simon Stephens – Herons (2001)
 Ché Walker – Flesh Wound (2003)
 Irvine Welsh – You'll Have Had Your Hole (1998)

Cultural references

In David Eldridge's 1996 play  A Week With Tony the character of Nicholas says that "I got taken along to a play in Chelsea and I was quite shocked. All eye-gouging and buggery and not five minutes from the King's Road!" This is likely a reference to the play Blasted which was performed at the Royal Court, which is close to King's Road.

In Ben Elton's 1999 novel Inconceivable, a character says that they saw a play at The Royal Court called Fucking and Fucking and remarks "at the Royal Court they positively insist on having rude words in their [plays'] titles and anal sex by the end of scene one."

In Simon Gray's play Japes Michael Cartts, a middle-aged author, rages against a new kind of writing that he describes as "in your face".  After watching a new play by a young playwright, Cartts describes the stage characters as follows:

In the 2006 film Venus the elderly actor Maurice Russell takes the young woman Jessie to see a play at The Royal Court Theatre Upstairs. The play features a scene with three girls in their late-teens speaking to one another with explicit language. Although the published screenplay written by Hanif Kureishi featured swearing in this scene, the dialogue used in the film is more explicit, with a line delivered by one of the stage actors being changed from "silly cow" to "stupid cunt".

In-yer-face theatre is parodied in one episode of the mockumentary BBC Radio programme Incredible Women. In the episode Jeremey Front presents a fictional radio documentary about the controversial theatre maker Bella Hayman. Hayman, whose breakout play was Hysterectomy 5-9-1, is described as the "Les Enfant Terribles of British theatre" with "a reputation for staging the unstageable or what some would call the unwatchable" and is "famous for repulsing and occasionally hospitalising audiences". Jeremey attends a play of Hayman's called Razor F**K, which is described as a "site-specific, cross-platform, multi-media, immersive experience containing strong language and explicit violence". The play features two male actors who are naked, except for wearing buckets on their heads, being beaten by a woman in uniform wielding a bullwhip. The performance also has the naked actors crawling on a floor awash with stage blood and features a scene where the Chancellor of the Exchequer is castrated. The episode has Maureen Lipman playing herself as an actress appearing in an ill-fated West End revival of Noël Coward's Present Laughter, which Hayman re-stages with scenes of violence. Jeremey concludes the documentary saying that "there is no question that Bella Hayman is a visionary. One of our most innovative directors with tremendous style and a great eye. It's just a pity that eye has to be gouged out with a grapefruit spoon."

See also
 New Drama, a Russian theatre movement sometimes likened to In-yer-face theatre

Notes

References

Bibliography
Dromgoole, Dominic.  The Full Room: An A-Z of Contemporary Playwriting.  London: Methuen, 2002.  .
Eldridge, David.  "In-Yer-face and After".  Intellect 23.1 (Mar. 2003): 55–58.  (Abstract.)
Eyre, Richard and Nicholas Wright. Changing Stages: A View of British Theatre in the Twentieth Century.  London: Bloomsbury, 2001.  .
Gray, Simon.  Japes.  London: Nick Hern Books, 2001.  .
"In-Yer-Face? British Drama in the 1990s". University of the West of England, Bristol.  6–7 September 2002, Writernet 2003. Retrieved 9 June 2008.  (Conference report posted on writernet.co.uk, in both HTML and PDF versions).
"News 2002: Shocking Plays Have Academic Appeal."  Press release.  University of the West of England 30 August 2002. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
Saunders, Graham, and Rebecca D'Monté.  "Theatres Shock Therapy".  School of English, University of the West of England (UWE).  HERO (primary internet portal for academic research and higher education in the UK) September 2002. Retrieved 9 June 2008.  (Account of In-Yer-Face? British Drama in the 1990s, a two-day conference held at the St. Matthias Campus of the University of the West of England, in Bristol, England, on 6 and 7 September 2002.)
Sierz, Aleks. In-Yer-Face Theatre: British Drama Today.  London: Faber and Faber, 2001.  .
–––.  "Still In-Yer-Face? Towards a Critique and a Summation".  New Theatre Quart. 18.1 (2002): 17–24.  Published online by Cambridge University Press, journals.cambridge.org. Retrieved 9 June 2008.  (Abstract.  Subscription required for full access.)

External links
"'In Yer Face' Theatre" – A "Drama Guided Tour" at PeoplePlayUK: Drama History Online. Retrieved 1 May 2008.  [A feature of the official website for London's Theatre Museum: National Museum of the Performing Arts.  "Discover More" menu provides production photographs of specific plays with more information about them.]In-Yer-Face Theatre – Website of Aleks Sierz ("Aleks Sierz's in-yer-face theatre website"). Retrieved 1 May 2008.  (Includes hyperlinked Archive 2: Conference Reports''.)

 NEW WRITING SPECIAL - Audio recording of lecture given by Aleks Sierz entitled 'Blasted and After: New Writing in British Theatre Today' at a meeting of the Society for Theatre Research, at the Art Workers Guild, London on 16 February 2010.
British drama
British literary movements
Theatrical genres
2000s neologisms

In-yer-face theatre


Robert Powell (born 1932 in Benoit, Mississippi) is an American composer, organist, and choir director.

Powell earned a Bachelor of Music degree from Louisiana State University with a focus on organ and composition.  He studied with Alec Wyton at Union Theological Seminary in New York, and he was also Wyton's assistant at The Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine.  For three years (1965–1968), he served St. Paul's School (Concord, New Hampshire) as Director of Music.  Later, Powell was Director of Music and Organist of Christ Church (Episcopal) of Greenville, South Carolina from 1968 to 2003.  He has composed in nearly all genres common to church music, including anthems, service music, hymn concertatos, organ music, music for handbell choir, and large-scale oratorios.  Powell's conservative, neo-Romantic style stems from his practical approach to composition.  According to Powell himself, he writes for "choirs of twenty-five because that's what most choirs are.  When you come right down to it, most choirs are not of cathedral ability or size.   My pieces are all practical things and useful for specific occasions."  His publications appear in The Hymnal 1982 as well as in the catalogs of most of the significant American publishers of church music.  According to publisher GIA, Powell is "a composer whose output bridges denominational boundaries and who is able to serve the larger Church. He has made ecumenical sharing a reality–-and always with a genteel touch."  Powell is an active member of the Association of Anglican Musicians and is a Fellow of the American Guild of Organists.

References

External links
 GIA Publications' biography page for Robert Powell
 Selah Publishing's page for Robert Powell
 Augsburg Fortress Publishing's page for Robert Powell
 Paraclete Press's page for Robert Powell
 Ascención Recordings Artist Representation

American male composers
21st-century American composers
1932 births
Living people
People from Benoit, Mississippi
Composers for pipe organ
American organists
American male organists
21st-century American keyboardists
21st-century organists
21st-century American male musicians

Robert Powell (composer)


Donald Hopkins (born January 9, 1952) is an American former professional baseball player. An outfielder during his minor league baseball career, he was used almost exclusively as a pinch runner by the  American League West Division champion Oakland Athletics. He stood  tall and weighed , batted left-handed and threw right-handed.

Although a native of West Point, Mississippi, Hopkins attended Benton Harbor High School in Benton Harbor, Michigan where he  played baseball with Dave Machemer. and was signed as an undrafted free agent by the Montreal Expos in . A speedy baserunner, Hopkins stole over 40 bases four times in his minor league career, and was acquired the Athletics from Montreal just prior to the 1975 campaign. At the time, Oakland owner Charlie Finley — one of the early proponents of the designated hitter rule, adopted in the American League in  — was also advocating the creation of the "designated runner" in baseball, and he regularly employed fast players on his 25-man roster to specialize in pinch running. Hopkins fulfilled that role during the 1975 season. He appeared in 82 games, largely pinch-running for future Baseball Hall of Fame member and veteran Billy Williams, who was Oakland's designated hitter. Hopkins stole 21 bases and scored 25 runs, but had only eight plate appearances. He drew two bases on balls and collected one hit, a single, off the Detroit Tigers' Fernando Arroyo in a lopsided, 16–4 Oakland win on July 22.

Hopkins spent much of 1976 in the minor leagues, although he made three more pinch-running appearances for Oakland during September 1976. He retired after the 1977 minor-league season.

References

External links

1952 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
Baseball players from Michigan
Baseball players from Mississippi
Gulf Coast Expos players
Jamestown Expos players
Kinston Expos players
Major League Baseball outfielders
Memphis Blues players
Oakland Athletics players
Québec Carnavals players
San Jose Missions players
Tucson Toros players
Watertown Expos players
West Palm Beach Expos players
People from West Point, Mississippi
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Don Hopkins (baseball)


Tianjin () is a city in northern China. It has a population of 11,760,000. It has an area of . Built in 1403, Tianjin has been named by Yongle Emperor in memory of his success in occupying Ming capital Beijing through the harbor of Tianjin. It locates on the banks of the Hai River, west of Bohai Sea, south of Yanshan Mountains, east of Beijing. The distance between Tianjin and Beijing is 137 kilometers and it'll take you only half an hour to go from Tianjin to Beijing by the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway.

Tianjin is the birthplace of China's modern mechanical industry and textile industry. Since the beginning of the Open Door Policy, Tianjin has been built more than a dozen industrial zones, creating a lot Chinese famous brand like Flying Pigeon bicycles, Seagull brand watches. Now Tianjin gradually forms 6 industries of electronic information, automobile, metallurgical, chemical, biotechnology and modern medicine, new energy and environmental protection. Among Fortune 500 companies, more than 106 have invested in Tianjin. From 1994 to 2008, Tianjin's GDP rate increased 12.5% on average, entered the ranks of China's rapid development area.

Tianjin is the birthplace of the first university in China. In 1895, some officials established the first modern university in China – Peiyang University, the predecessor of Tianjin University. Nankai University in Tianjin is a famous university in China. The first Premier of the People's Republic of China Zhou Enlai graduates from Nankai University. Tianjin has 37 universities and has nearly 20 million students. Tianjin is one of the first nine-year compulsory education regions. The quality of workers is high. Tianjin has nearly one thousand scientific and technological research institutions, together with more than 600 thousand professionals in different fields. It has a large number of famous experts and scholars.

Tianjin is not far away from sea, so a lot of Tianjin cuisine is seafood. One of the most famous cuisine in Tianjin is The Four Great Stews, which refers actually to a very large number of stews, including chicken, duck, seafood, beef, and mutton. Tianjin also has several famous snack items. Goubuli is a traditional brand of Baozi (steamed buns with filling) that is famous throughout China. Guifaxiang is a traditional brand of mahua(twisted dough sticks). Erduoyan is a traditional brand of fried rice cakes.

Cities in China
4th-century BC establishments

Tianjin


El Grullo is a town and municipality, in Jalisco in central-western Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 157.2 km². It is named for a color, used for horses and grass, called grullo, used as the name of an Hacienda established there: "La Hacienda del Zacate Grullo".

As of 2005, the municipality had a total population of 21,825.

In recent years, the town of El Grullo has begun expanding and now has begun to construct suburban-style housing developments on the outer limits of the town. There have also been new points of interest adding in the town center such as an obelisk, a larger city hall, and accessible WiFi throughout the town center.  , there are about 30,000 residents living in the developing city limits.

References

Municipalities of Jalisco

El Grullo


The Asher Morton Farmstead is a farm located on Lower Terre Haute Road  south of Paris, Illinois. The farmstead was constructed circa 1860 by Asher Morton, an Ohioan who moved to the area in 1850. The farmhouse is an I-house, a vernacular style of house named for its popularity in the three Midwestern "I" states of Illinois, Indiana, and Iowa. The house features two rooms on each floor with a central hall and staircase, the typical floor plan of the "Classic" style of I-house; however, the house has three front bays, while Classic I-houses typically had five. The exterior design of the house is influenced by the Greek Revival and Gothic Revival styles. The farmstead also includes a summer kitchen and a barn, which were also built by Morton.

The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on February 29, 1996.

Notes

Buildings and structures in Edgar County, Illinois
Farms on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
I-houses in Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Edgar County, Illinois

Asher Morton Farmstead


Silent Cry is a British television crime thriller film, first broadcast on Channel 5 in 2003, that follows the story of a young girl named Rachel (Emily Woof), who is told that her new-born baby has died shortly after birth. Rachel, however, later begins to suspect that the baby may have in fact been abducted and sets about discovering the truth. The film was directed by Julian Richards and stars Woof, Douglas Henshall, Frank Finlay, Clive Russell, Kevin Whately and Craig Kelly. It was released on Region 1 DVD in the United States on 20 August 2013.

Internationally, the film was broadcast in Germany by ZDF under the title Albtraum ohne Ende, and in Eastern Europe and Latin America by HBO. The film was also released on DVD in Australia, Germany and Sweden; with the German adaptation re-titled Schrei in der Dunkelheit and the Swedish adaptation re-titled Allt Har Ett Pris. The film won the Gold Remi Award at the WorldFest-Houston International Film Festival in 2004, and Woof was also awarded the accolade of Best Actress at both the Love is Folly film festival in Bulgaria and the Bruxelles film festival in Belgium.

Synopsis
Rachel Stewart (Emily Woof) is devastated to learn her newborn has died shortly after birth, but a short while later, she begins to suspect the baby has been abducted. Certain that there's only one way to find out the truth, Rachel returns to the hospital. Here she encounters the menacing Dennis Betts (Clive Russell), and in an attempt to flee from him, she ís forced to hide in a car belonging to Daniel Stone (Douglas Henshall), a hospital porter. Initially reluctant to help, Daniel's conscience eventually gets the better of him. Rachel's world is further rocked by the death of her best friend Annie (Stephanie Buttle), and the discovery that Dennis Betts is actually a policeman, with his own very personal reasons for pursuing Rachel. As Rachel and Daniel race through London's nightscape, desperate to stay one step ahead of Betts, every discovery unleashes further hell, extending way beyond the disappearance of Rachel's baby. Their only solid lead seems to be Joanne (Sarah Cattle), a young prostitute, whose own baby provides a link. But with Betts systematically eliminating anyone in his way, a further web of conspiracy unfolds and Rachel and Daniel are led to her old family doctor, Robert Barrum (Frank Finlay).

Cast
 Emily Woof — Rachel Stewart
 Douglas Henshall — Daniel Stone
 Clive Russell — DS Dennis Betts
 Kevin Whately — Dr. Richard Herd
 Frank Finlay — Dr. Robert Barrum
 Craig Kelly — DC Robert Mosley
 Stephanie Buttle — Annie Cox
 Steve Sweeney — Jimmy Tibbs
 Roger Nott — Pat Towne
 Richard Lumsden — Tim Cox
 Tilly Vosburgh — Sarah Betts
 Sarah Cattle — Joanne Dreyer
 Tameka Empson — Hairdresser

References

External links

2002 films
2000s English-language films
2002 thriller films
British independent films
British thriller films
2002 independent films
2000s British films

Silent Cry (film)


The Khanzada   or Khan Zadeh are a cluster community of Muslim Rajputs found in the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. A notable community is the Khanzadas of Mewat, the descendants of Raja Nahar Khan, who are a sub-clan of Jadaun. They refer to themselves as Muslim Rajputs. After the Partition of India in 1947, many members of this community migrated to Pakistan.

History and origin
The term khanzada originally applied to the Bachgoti Rajput family of the Rajahs of Hasanpur. They were said to have converted to Islam during the rule of Sher Shah Suri. This family claimed descent from Bariar Singh, a Bachgoti Rajput, who said to have emigrated from Sultanpur in the 13th century. The Bachgoti had started off as a clan of the Chauhan Rajputs of Mainpuri. Bariar Singh's grandson, Tilok Chand is said to have converted to Islam, and the family took the name khanzada.

Present circumstances
In northern Awadh, a region comprising roughly Barabanki District in south east to Lakhimpur Kheri District in the north west, the Khanzada have a followed a slightly different path, with a stronger identification with Islam. In a recent study of a Chauhan Khanzada village in Raisenghat Tehsil of Barabanki District, this particular community was seen to be strongly identifying with neighbouring Pathan communities, and there was increasingly intermarriage between the two groups. There economic condition in this region is also been affected, with a dwindling in the size of their farms, especially in Shravasti and Balrampur districts. Many are now, in fact, landless agricultural labourers.

The Khanzada, however have been badly affected by abolition of the zamindari system, with many now destitute. They still remain a land owning community, but those especially in Balrampur, Gonda and Bahraich are now simply agricultural labourers. The community are also divided on sectarian lines, with the majority being Sunni, while a minority, mainly the ex-taluqdar families being Shia. Like other Indian Muslims, there is growing movement towards orthodoxy, with many of their villages containing madrasas. The madrasas have also facilitated the growth of Urdu, with it beginning to replace the Awadhi dialect they traditionally spoke.

See also
 Bhatti Khanzada
 Khokhar Khanzada

References

Further reading

Khanzada
Rajput clans of Rajasthan
Rajput clans of Uttar Pradesh
Muhajir communities

Khanzada Rajputs


Ludwig Strümpell, after his ennoblement in 1870 von Strümpell (28 June 1812 – 18 May 1899), was a German philosopher and pedagogue.

Biography
Strümpell was born in Schöppenstedt in Lower Saxony, the son of a dyer. He studied philosophy at the University of Königsberg, where he was influenced by Johann Friedrich Herbart, and continued his studies at the University of Leipzig. In 1845, he became an associate professor of philosophy at the University of Dorpat (full professor, 1849), and after 1871 served as a professor at the University of Leipzig. He died in Leipzig in 1899 but was buried in his home town Schöppenstedt, which made him an honorary citizen (so far its only one).

He married Sophie, the sister of August Johann Gottfried Bielenstein (1826–1907), the distinguished Baltic German researcher of the Latvian language and culture, and had two children, Adolf and Emilie, the mother of the composer and paranormal researcher Emil Mattiesen

Works
He became known as a prominent representative of Herbart's philosophy and published Erläuterungen zu Herbarts Philosophie (Explanations of Herbart's philosophy, 1834), Die Hauptpunkte der Herbartschen Metaphysik kritisch beleuchtet (The main points of Herbart's metaphysics critically illustrated, 1840), Gedanken über Religion und religiöse Probleme (Thoughts on religion and religious problems, 1888), Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Metaphysik, Psychologie und Religionsphilosophie (Treatise on the history of metaphysics, psychology and the philosophy of religion, 1896), and Vermischte Abhandlungen aus der theoretischen und praktischen Philosophie (Miscellaneous treatise on topics from theoretical and practical philosophy, 1897).

References

External links

1812 births
1899 deaths
German philosophers
University of Königsberg alumni
Leipzig University alumni
Academic staff of Leipzig University
People from Wolfenbüttel (district)
German male writers

Ludwig Strümpell


David Anthony Campbell (born 2 June 1965 in Eglington, Northern Ireland) is a former Northern Ireland international footballer who played in the midfield position.

Born in Eglinton, just outside Derry, Campbell's playing career took off at local intermediate side, Oxford United Stars FC. From there he moved on to Nottingham Forest as an apprentice in June 1981, picking up Northern Ireland youth caps along the way, before signing professional forms at the City Ground in June 1983.

At Forest, Campbell's route to a regular first team midfield spot was always going to be difficult, especially with young English talent such as Neil Webb and Steve Hodge also battling to establish themselves. As it was, Campbell did admirably to break into the Forest team for the second half of the 1985–86 season, enjoying a run of 27 consecutive Division One appearances through to the following season.

It was Campbell's impressive First Division form that prompted Billy Bingham to call him up as Northern Ireland searched for the right squad mix to take to the 1986 World Cup finals in Mexico. Campbell made his international bow as a sub in the pre-World Cup warm-up game with Morocco, and did enough to earn a place in the finals' squad. His first start for Northern Ireland was against Brazil at the finals, but he could do little to prevent a 3–0 defeat in the Guadalajara sun.

On returning from Mexico, Campbell's continued good form brought him impressive press, his skills on the ball allowing him to twist and turn his way into the opposition's penalty area. Here though lay the problem, once in these dangerous positions he would often lose the plot, blasting wildly goalwards, or fluffing the easy pass, and Brian Clough took the decision to drop him. In February 1987 Campbell was loaned to Forest's Third Division neighbours, Notts County, where he regained his confidence for another attack on the Forest first eleven. Indeed, the following season began brightly with Campbell forcing his way back into the team, but it was clear that Clough still was not confident in the youngster, and he was sold to Charlton Athletic for £75,000 in October 1987.

On the international front, Campbell continued as a regular, playing in every one of Northern Ireland's Euro 1988 qualification matches. By the end of the campaign though, Billy Bingham was looking for more reliable players who would suit his preferred style of play, and Campbell found himself making way for the likes of Michael O'Neill and Kevin Wilson. He made his final international appearances as substitute in the friendlies against Greece and Poland early in 1988.

From then on, Campbell's career as a wandering professional began. A loan spell with Plymouth Argyle in March 1989 was a cut short to allow a £75,000 move to Bradford City. He lasted a year-and-a-half in Yorkshire before returning home to Derry City FC on loan in December 1990 making 5 appearances, and then to Shamrock Rovers a month later  – a move that later became permanent. He made his Rovers debut in a 4–0 win home win against Cork City on 20 January 1991. Whilst with Rovers, Campbell played for the League of Ireland XI in a 2–0 defeat by the Irish League at Tolka Park in November 1991. After 6 goals in 42 appearances, the last against St. Pats in the FAI Cup on 16 February 1992, Campbell had a loan spell with Cliftonville FC (February 1992), non-contract spells at Rotherham (November 1992) and West Bromwich Albion (February 1993), an injury ravaged year with Burnley FC (from March 1993) and a brief loan spell at Lincoln (February 1994). In March 1994 Ronnie McFaul brought Campbell to Portadown FC as they pushed, ultimately unsuccessfully, for a domestic double, eventually finishing Irish League runners-up to Linfield FC and losing in the Irish Cup semi-final to Bangor FC.

A new beginning seemed on the horizon when Campbell was signed on a non-contract basis by Kenny Swain for Wigan Athletic in August 1994, but with Swain dismissed with just a month of the season gone, Campbell found himself released in October after just seven games. He signed for Cambridge United to the end of the season the following January, and made his debut against Brentford. It proved to be a miserable game, with Cambridge losing 6–0 (it had been scoreless at half-time), and Campbell suffering a broken leg which forced his retirement as a professional footballer.

He later moved into the area of running summer soccer schools for youngsters throughout the UK.

External links
Campbell on Northern Ireland's Footballing Greats

1965 births
Living people
Men's association football midfielders
Association footballers from County Londonderry
Men's association footballers from Northern Ireland
Expatriate men's association footballers from Northern Ireland
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Notts County F.C. players
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
Plymouth Argyle F.C. players
Bradford City A.F.C. players
Derry City F.C. players
Shamrock Rovers F.C. players
Rotherham United F.C. players
West Bromwich Albion F.C. players
Burnley F.C. players
Lincoln City F.C. players
Portadown F.C. players
NIFL Premiership players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Cambridge United F.C. players
Northern Ireland men's international footballers
1986 FIFA World Cup players
League of Ireland players
Expatriate men's association footballers in the Republic of Ireland
English Football League players
League of Ireland XI players

David Campbell (footballer)


A grow light or plant light is an artificial light source, generally an electric light. It is designed to make plant growth faster by creating an electromagnetic spectrum. It is like photosynthesis.  Grow lights are used in areas where there is either no naturally occurring light.

Light

Grow light


Flux-corrected transport (FCT) is a conservative shock-capturing scheme for solving Euler equations and other hyperbolic equations which occur in gas dynamics, aerodynamics, and magnetohydrodynamics. It is especially useful for solving problems involving shock or contact discontinuities. An FCT algorithm consists of two stages, a transport stage and a flux-corrected anti-diffusion stage. The numerical errors introduced in the first stage (i.e., the transport stage) are corrected in the anti-diffusion stage.

References
 Jay P. Boris and David L. Book, "Flux-corrected transport, I: SHASTA, a fluid transport algorithm that works", J. Comput. Phys. 11, pp. 38 (1973).

External links

Fully multidimensional flux-corrected transport algorithms for fluids

See also
 Computational fluid dynamics
 Computational magnetohydrodynamics
 Shock capturing methods
 Volume of fluid method

Computational fluid dynamics

Flux-corrected transport


The technical crew, often abbreviated to the "tech crew" or simply the "crew" (individually often known as "techies", "techs", or "technicians"), are the people employed behind the scenes ("backstage") to control all the technical aspects of creating a concert, play, musical, opera or other live performance. The technical crew can consist of only a few individuals, or be divided up into a multitude of positions depending on the scale and needs of a particular production.

The roles, composition and number of workers in a tech crew can change significantly depending on the nature of an event, and often evolves as the production does. In a small scale production, the technical crew might consist of a single person, operating the lights and controlling the volume of the sounds and music. In a large scale productions, the technical crew can consist of dozens of different departments and may run into the hundreds of individuals. Each department has their own specific job that pertains to their area of expertise, but they are all part of the technical crew.

Job categories

The technical crew on a performance fall into different categories based on area of expertise and responsibilities.  The most common categories (those encountered on the largest variety of productions) include: Stage Manager, Production Manager, Rigging, Lighting, Sound, and Technical Directors. Each of these departments have sub-categories, often breaking down tasks in more detail.

Responsibilities
Theatre technical crew have significant responsibilities in regards to ensuring that a production runs smoothly. A Stage Manager has to give the cue to the Audio Engineer and Lighting Technician, signal the performers when they are on, ensure that the stage is all set and safe for the performance, etc.

The nature of most productions result in the technical crew being on-site for significant periods of time; both leading up to and after a performance.

Identifying the technical crew
Most often, though not exclusively, members of the technical crew will be wearing black or similarly dark-coloured clothing in order to be fairly inconspicuous, so that they are not particularly distracting to the audience in the carrying out of their routines and tasks. Occasionally, larger scale or touring productions will provide clothing branded with the name and/or date of the production.

See also
Film crew
International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees
Stage management

Entertainment occupations
Mass media occupations
Stagecraft
Stage crew
Theatrical occupations

Technical crew


Procter & Gamble (P&G) is an American corporation. The company is in downtown Cincinnati, Ohio. It was founded in 1837 by William Procter and James Gamble. It mostly has a wide range of cleaning products and hygienic products.

Before selling Pringles to Kellogg's, P&G's products also included food and drink.

Products produced by P&G include Crest, Ivory soaps, Tide laundry detergent and Prell shampoo. In the 1880s, they created Ivory soap, a product that floats in water.

In April 1985, the moon & stars symbol was removed from its packaging, because its stars resembled "666", the Satan symbol.

In January 2005, P&G announced they were buying Gillette, a company known for making razors and razor blades for shaving. P&G used to make Duracell batteries. The company makes Braun products and Oral-B toothbrushes.

P&G got out of the food business in 2012 when they sold Pringles to the Kellogg's food company. P&G had also sold Jif peanut butter, Crisco shortening and Folgers' coffee.

Procter and Gamble produced and sponsored the first serial dramas during the 1930s. Because of P&G being known for detergents, these serial dramas started being called soap operas. With television in the 1950s and 1960s, soap operas, such as Guiding Light, went from the radio to CBS television. The last P&G produced show, As the World Turns, left television in 2010. The only soap opera partially produced by P&G remaining on air is The Young and the Restless on CBS. From May 1964 to June 1999, P&G produced and sponsored Another World on the NBC network.

References

Companies based in Ohio
 1837 establishments
Pharmaceutical companies of the United States
American soap operas
Cincinnati

Procter & Gamble


Discography is the study and listing of sound recordings. The word comes from the word "disc", which is the most commonly used term for describing the format used most for sound recordings in the 20th century, and the -graph suffix meaning something written.

A listing of all recordings of a musician or singer is usually called their "discography". Discographies may also be created based on a particular musical genre or record label, for example, so that all artists in a genre, or that have contracts with a certain label, are listed together.

The term "discography" became popular in the 1930s by collectors of jazz records. Jazz fans did research and self-published discographies about when jazz records were made and what musicians were on the records, as record companies did not commonly include that information on/with the records at that time.

Related pages
Audio engineering

References

Other websites
"Magnificent Obsession: The Discographers" article by Jerry Atkins

Discography


Oyako Day is a day for parents and children in Japan to take photographs together as part of a lifelong series by photographer Bruce Osborn that explores cultural change across generations. The series has welcomed parents and children from all segments of society including, Kabuki actors, punk musicians, policemen, Buddhist monks, and porno actresses. In addition to the photo session, there are several activities including concerts, exhibitions, and contests to promote this day that celebrates the bond between parents and children. Founded in 2003 by Bruce Osborn and his wife Yoshiko, the day has since been held annually on the fourth Sunday of July, following the tradition of Mother's Day on the second Sunday of May and Father's Day on the third Sunday of June.

Background
The name "Oyako" means "parent and child" in Japanese and was originally the name Bruce Osborn gave to a series of photographs he had been working on since 1982. "In the process of photographing hundreds of parents and children it has become my life's work," says Bruce. The idea for this series came to him when he was assigned to photograph punk musicians for a magazine just before the birth of his first child, at a time when he was preoccupied with thoughts of becoming a father. These thoughts converged with the assignment to create the first Oyako photo shoot where he decided to photograph the rockers with their parents to bring forth the differences in lifestyle and fashion between generations. "It was the coincidence of being asked to photograph punks and being an expectant father that gave birth to the idea of Oyako," Bruce Osborn stated in an interview with Olympus.

To his surprise and delight, these pictures transcended the scope of his assignment and touched on the deeper subject of family relations. By focusing on this core relationship over 1,000 photo-shoots, he has been able to chronicle the changes Japanese society has undergone over more than twenty-five years. With years already invested in the project, in 2003 Bruce and his wife decided to take the series to the next level by using the concept of a public photo shoot to start a day where people would put their attention on parent-child relationships.

In an interview with Olympus in 2006  Bruce shares the insights he's gained through Oyako Day:
 "I've discovered just how beautiful the Japanese parent-child relationship is. It's a bit of an oversimplification, but I think parent-child relationships in the West are more animal-like, emphasizing being strong and independent, where in Japan this relationship is more plant-like and gets intertwined like roots. I think people in other countries could benefit by learning more about Japanese culture and its special parent-child relationship. The parent-child bond is the basis of all human relations, and the world would be a better, more peaceful, place if families got on well with each other. But it takes more than just words to get this message across."

Participation in Oyako Day Super Photo Session
To participate in Oyako Day, hopeful families must send a snapshot of their family, with names and occupations, and a brief note about why they want to attend. Bruce Osborn will take photos of only one hundred of the applicant families. Each participating family will receive one free print.

Photo contest
A few months before Oyako Day each year there is a photo contest for the most unforgettable family photo on a particular theme that changes yearly. The winning photos will be selected by Bruce Osborn and Oyako Committee members, and will be introduced in Mainichi Newspaper on Oyako Day and displayed on Oyako Day website at a later date.

In past years prizes have included gifts from Oyako Day sponsors like photography equipment, skin care sets, desktop printers, traditional Japanese wrapping cloth, and photography books signed by Bruce Osborn.

Essay contest
Alongside the photo contest there is an essay contest during the same time frame prior to Oyako Day. The essay is open to any topic about your family and is to be 500–1000 words. Winning essays will be selected by Oyako Committee members and will be announced in Mainichi Newspaper on Oyako Day and on Oyako Day website at a later date.
In past years prizes have included gifts from Oyako Day sponsors like photography equipment, skin care sets, desktop printers, traditional Japanese wrapping cloth, and photography books signed by Bruce Osborn.

Oyako Day Exhibitions
The photographs from Oyako Day have been exhibited at the 21st Century Museum of Modern Art, Yamanashi Museum of Art, and Aichi Children's Center, among others.

Publications featuring photographs from Oyako Day
OYAKO, An Ode to Parents and Children book, published in 2018 by Sora Books. This collection was a Tokyo International Foto Gold Award winner for Bruce in 2018.

Photographs from Oyako Day appear in the book Oyako, published by INKS inc. This book is a collection of photographs over a 16-year span of time, featuring 168 parents and children. (Text in Japanese and English).

Gomen Nasai is a book written by Mary Yamada and photographed by Bruce Osborn. This book contains interviews and photos with 20 Oyako (sets of parents and children). The parents and children discuss past actions that they would like to apologize to each other for. (Text in Japanese).

Kazoku is a collection of photographs by Bruce Osborn taken in the same style as Oyako but including all family members, not just the parents and child. (Text in Japanese).

References

Festivals in Japan

Oyako Day


Fitz Henry Warren (January 11, 1816 – June 1878) was a politician and a Union Army general during the American Civil War.

Early life and career
Warren was born in Brimfield, Massachusetts. In August 1844, he moved to Burlington in the Iowa Territory where he was a journalist and editorial contributor for the Burlington Hawkeye." He was an early political activist in the Whig Party. He was reported to have been the first to propose the nomination of General Zachary Taylor for President.  He was a delegate to the National Whig Convention in 1848.

Upon the subsequent inauguration of President Taylor in 1849, Fitz Henry Warren was appointed First Assistant Postmaster General. After the death of Taylor, Warren resigned his position in protest of President Millard Fillmore's support of the Fugitive Slave Law. With the growing support of Anti-Slavery Whigs, Fitz Henry Warren was made secretary of the Whig Party National Executive Committee.

Warren was chairman of the Des Moines County delegation to the convention of 1856 that organized the Republican Party and nominated John C. Frémont as the first Republican presidential candidate.

Civil War
In 1861 he was one of the chief editorial writers on the New York Tribune and the author of the controversial "On to Richmond" articles after the First Battle of Bull Run.

He returned to Iowa following First Bull Run and, as Colonel, helped to raise the 1st Regiment Iowa Volunteer Cavalry. On July 18, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Warren to the grade of brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from July 16, 1862, with a command in the army in Missouri under Major General Samuel R. Curtis.

In 1863 General Warren was the leading candidate before the Republican State Convention for Governor of Iowa, but by a combination of the supporters of other candidates, Warren was defeated. On February 21, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Warren for appointment to the grade of brevet major general of volunteers, to rank from August 24, 1865, and the United States Senate confirmed the appointment on April 26, 1866. Warren was mustered out of the volunteers on August 24, 1865.

Postbellum career
In 1866 Warren was elected to the Iowa State Senate.  After serving one session, he was appointed by President Andrew Johnson as the United States Minister to Guatemala where he served two years, until 1869. He served as a presidential elector on the Democratic ticket in 1872.

He died at his native Brimfield, Massachusetts, June 21, 1878 and is buried in Brimfield Cemetery Brimfield, Massachusetts.

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Union)

Notes

References
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 History of Iowa, Vol. IV, 1903.
 Iowa, Its History and Tradition'', Vol. III, 1804-1926.
iagenweb.org biography of Warren
Attribution

External links

1816 births
1878 deaths
American columnists
Iowa state senators
Union Army generals
People of Iowa in the American Civil War
Ambassadors of the United States to Guatemala
People from Brimfield, Massachusetts
Politicians from Burlington, Iowa
Iowa Whigs
19th-century American politicians
United States Postal Service people
Iowa Republicans
New-York Tribune people
Iowa Democrats
1872 United States presidential electors
19th-century American diplomats
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
19th-century American male writers
Military personnel from Massachusetts

Fitz Henry Warren