The Uttarakhand Fire and Emergency Services is the public service department of the Government of Uttarakhand whose function is to fire fighting and emergency serices in Uttarakhand. It is responsible for the provision of fire protection and life safety as well as responding to building collapses, drownings, gas leakage, oil spillage, road and rail accidents, bird and animal rescues, fallen trees and taking appropriate action during natural disasters. The department has now 46 Fire stations consisting of nearly 1400 executive personnel and nearly 98 ministerial staff. The Headquarters the department is situated at Dehradun.

History
Uttarakhand Fire department came into existence with the formation of Uttarakhand state i.e. on 9 November 2000. Earlier it has 22 fire stations.
Today, Uttarakhand Fire and Emergency service has 34 fire station and 12 fire units including 4 fire stations and 1 fire unit dedicated to industrial area.

Organization structure
The head of the Department is the Director General (D.G.) who is the rank of the D.G.P., I.P.S. rank and under him there is a Inspector General who is the rank of the I.G., I.P.S. and Deputy Inspector General who is the rank of the D.I.G., I.P.S. and at the Headquarters, and a Deputy Director (Technical) at the Uttarakhand Fire and Emergency Services Headquarters, Dehradun. There are 13 districts, located in Almora, Bageshwar, Chamoli, Champawat, Dehradun, Haridwar, Nainital, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal, Udham Singh Nagar and Uttarkashi where Chief Fire Officers are in charge. Each district has a Chief Fire Office and under each Chief Fire Officer there are Fire Stations where a Station Officer as the station in charge.

At each station, in addition to Fire Station Officer there are Fire Station Second Officer, Leading Firemen, Fire Service Driver, and Firemen.

Hierarchy
Officers

 Director General of Police (DGP) (IPS)
 Inspector General of Police (IG) (IPS) - Fire and Emergency Services
 Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG) (IPS) - Fire and Emergency Services
 Deputy Director Technical - Fire and Emergency Services

Sub-ordinates

 Fire Station Officer (FSO)
 Fire Station Second Officer (FSSO)
 Leading Fireman (LFM) and Fire Service Driver (FsDVR)
 Fireman (FM)

Mission

 To protect people's life & property from fire and other accidents.
 To protect our community from all possible hazards by providing progressive high quality emergency services and preventive measures.
 To carry out effective and timely fire fighting, rescue and life saving operations and Disaster Management activities and thereby ensure maximum performance and render remarkable service to the public.
 Develop well organized and trained Fire & Rescue Services so that human resources of the department measure up to multiple challenges of a Fire & Rescue Service.

Vision

 Dedicated and best community focused Fire & Rescue Services ensuring a safe and secure environment for all.
 To honor the trust of the society by demonstrating commitment to deliver professional Fire Fighting & Rescue Services activities with compassion, respect and utmost courtesy.
 To ensure community safety by creating basic awareness regarding fire safety, life safety and Disaster Management among the people and thereby mitigate the fire loss and improve effective and timely rescue and life saving activities.
 Minimize the response time in urban and rural areas by increasing the number of Fire & Rescue Stations and mobility profile of the Department.

Services

 24 hour emergency support
 Consultation in case of fire and life safety
 Fire safety Certificate
 Public awareness program/Mock drills
 Fire safety to all sensitive places of state
 Fire safety in all VIP/VVIP program
 Training programs
 Disaster search, rescue and relief work

References

Official website - Uttarakhand Fire and Emergency Services

Organizations based in Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand Fire and Emergency Services


Yaroslav's Court (, Yaroslavovo Dvorishche) was the princely compound in the city of Novgorod the Great. Today it is roughly the area around the Trade Mart, the St. Nicholas Cathedral, the Church of St. Procopius, and the Church of the Myrrh-bearing Women. The Trade Mart renovated and heavily modified in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is all that is left of the princely palace itself. The prince also had a compound called the Riurik's Court (Riurikovo Gorodishche) south of the marketside of the city.

Yaroslav's Court is named after Yaroslav the Wise who, while prince of Novgorod in 988–1015, built a palace there. The Novgorodian veche often met in front of Yaroslav's Court and in 1224 several pagan sorcerers were burned at the stake there.

According to the traditional scholarship, after the Novgorodians evicted Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich in 1136, Novgorod began electing their princes and forbade them from holding land in Novgorod. Yaroslav's Court then ceased to be a princely compound and the prince resided at Riurik's Court. Between 1113 and 1136, the Saint Nicholas Cathedral was built at the court. The cathedral is intact and is the second oldest building in Novgorod after the Saint Sophia Cathedral.

References

Novgorod Republic
Historic Monuments of Novgorod and Surroundings
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Novgorod Oblast
Museums in Novgorod Oblast

Yaroslav's Court


Linda Brown Buck (born January 29, 1947) is an American biologist best known for her work on the olfactory system. She was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with Richard Axel, for their work on olfactory receptors. She is currently on the faculty of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle.

Personal life
Linda B. Buck was born in Seattle, Washington on January 29, 1947. Her father was an electrical engineer who spent his time inventing and building different items in his spare time, while her mother was a homemaker who spent a majority of her free time solving word puzzles. Buck was the second of three children, all of them girls. Her father has Irish ancestry as well as ancestors dating back to the American revolution. Her mother is of Swedish ancestry. In 1994 Buck met Roger Brent, also a biologist. The two married in 2006.

Education
Buck received her B.S. in psychology and microbiology in 1975 from the University of Washington, Seattle.  She is the first female University of Washington alumnus to win the Nobel Prize. She was awarded her Ph.D. in immunology in 1980 under the direction of Professor Ellen Vitetta at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas.

Career and research
In 1980, Buck began postdoctoral research at Columbia University under Benvenuto Pernis (1980–1982).  In 1982, she joined the laboratory of Richard Axel, also at Columbia in the Institute of Cancer Research. After reading Sol Snyder's group research paper at Johns Hopkins University, Buck set out to map the olfactory process at the molecular level, tracing the travel of odors through the cells of the nose to the brain. Buck and Axel worked with rat genes in their research and identified a family of genes that code for more than 1000 odor receptors and published these findings in 1991. Later that year, Buck became an assistant professor in the Neurobiology Department at Harvard Medical School where she established her own lab. After finding how odors are detected by the nose, Buck published her findings in 1993 on how the inputs from different odor receptors are organized in the nose. Essentially, her primary research interest is on how pheromones and odors are detected in the nose and interpreted in the brain. She is a Full Member of the Basic Sciences Division at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, and an Affiliate Professor of Physiology and Biophysics at the University of Washington, Seattle.

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2004)
In her landmark paper published in 1991 with Richard Axel, Linda Buck discovered hundreds of genes code for the odorant sensors located in the olfactory neurons of our noses. Each receptor is a protein that changes when an odor attaches to the receptor, causing an electrical signal to be sent to the brain. Differences between odorant sensors mean that certain odors cause a signal to be released from a certain receptor. We are then able to interpret varying signals from our receptors as specific scents. To do this, Buck and Axel cloned olfactory receptors, showing that they belong to the family of G protein-coupled receptors.  By analyzing rat DNA, they estimated that there were approximately 1,000 different genes for olfactory receptors in the mammalian genome. This research opened the door to the genetic and molecular analysis of the mechanisms of olfaction. In their later work, Buck and Axel have shown that each olfactory receptor neuron remarkably only expresses one kind of olfactory receptor protein and that the input from all neurons expressing the same receptor is collected by a single dedicated glomerulus of the olfactory bulb.

Awards and honors
Buck was awarded the Takasago Award for Research in Olfaction (1992), Unilever Science Award (1996), R.H. Wright Award in Olfactory Research (1996), Lewis S. Rosenstiel Award for Distinguished Work in Basic Medical Research (1996), Perl/UNC Neuroscience Prize (2002), and Gairdner Foundation International Award (2003). In 2005, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Buck was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences in 2003 and the Institutes of Medicine in 2006. Buck has been a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2008. She also sits on the Selection Committee for Life Science and Medicine which chooses winners of the Shaw Prize.  In 2015, Buck was awarded an honorary doctorate by Harvard University and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS).

Retractions
Buck retracted 3 papers, published in Nature (pub. 2001, retracted  2008), Science (pub 2006, retracted 2010) and Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (pub 2005, retracted 2010) due to falsification/fabrication of results by lead author and collaborator Zhihua Zou.

See also
 Timeline of women in science

References

External links

1947 births
Living people
American neuroscientists
Columbia University faculty
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
American Nobel laureates
University of Washington College of Arts and Sciences alumni
University of Washington faculty
Harvard University staff
Howard Hughes Medical Investigators
American women neuroscientists
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Scientists from Seattle
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center alumni
Women Nobel laureates
20th-century American women scientists
20th-century American biologists
Sloan Research Fellows
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Members of the National Academy of Medicine
21st-century American women scientists
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center people
Biologists from Washington (state)

Linda B. Buck


An organism () is any biological living system that functions as an individual life form. All organisms are composed of cells. The idea of organism is based on the concept of minimal functional unit of life. Three traits have been proposed to play the main role in qualification as an organism:

 noncompartmentability – structure that cannot be divided without its functionality loss,
 individuality – the entity has simultaneous holding of genetic uniqueness, genetic homogeneity and autonomy,
 distinctness – genetic information has to maintain open-system (a cell).

Organisms include multicellular animals, plants, and fungi; or unicellular microorganisms such as protists, bacteria, and archaea. All types of organisms are capable of reproduction, growth and development, maintenance, and some degree of response to stimuli. Most multicellular organisms differentiate into specialized tissues and organs during their development.

In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms from Earth was identified.

Etymology

The term "organism" (from Greek ὀργανισμός, organismos, from ὄργανον, organon, i.e. "instrument, implement, tool, organ of sense or apprehension") first appeared in the English language in 1703 and took on its current definition by 1834 (Oxford English Dictionary). It is directly related to the term "organization". There is a long tradition of defining organisms as self-organizing beings, going back at least to Immanuel Kant's 1790 Critique of Judgment.

Definitions

An organism may be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary definitions can be broad, using phrases such as "any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth and reproduction". Many definitions exclude viruses and possible synthetic non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the biochemical machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of many individuals working together as a single functional or social unit.

There has been controversy about the best way to define the organism, and from a philosophical point of view, whether such a definition is necessary. Problematic cases include colonial organisms: for instance, a colony of eusocial insects fulfils criteria such as adaptive organisation and germ-soma specialisation. If so, the same argument would include some mutualistic and sexual partnerships as organisms. If group selection occurs, then a group could be viewed as a superorganism, optimised by group adaptation. Another view is that attributes like autonomy, genetic homogeneity and genetic uniqueness should be examined separately rather than demanding that an organism should have all of them; if so, there are multiple dimensions to biological individuality, resulting in several types of organism.

Other views include the idea that an individual is distinguished by its immune response, separating self from foreign; that "anti-entropy", the ability to maintain order, is what distinguishes an organism; or that Shannon's information theory can be used to identify organisms as capable of self-maintaining their information content. Finally, it may be that the concept of the organism is inadequate in biology.

Viruses

Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction, growth or metabolism. Although viruses have a few enzymes and molecules like those in living organisms, they have no metabolism of their own; they cannot synthesize the organic compounds from which they are formed. In this sense, they are similar to inanimate matter. Viruses have their own genes, and they evolve. Thus, an argument that viruses should be classed as living organisms is their ability to undergo evolution and replicate through self-assembly. However, some scientists argue that viruses neither evolve nor self-reproduce. Instead, viruses are evolved by their host cells, meaning that there was co-evolution of viruses and host cells. If host cells did not exist, viral evolution would be impossible. As for reproduction, viruses rely on hosts' machinery to replicate. The discovery of viruses with genes coding for energy metabolism and protein synthesis fuelled the debate about whether viruses are living organisms, but the genes have a cellular origin. Most likely, they were acquired through horizontal gene transfer from viral hosts.

Ancestry

There is strong evidence from genetics that all organisms have a common ancestor. In particular, every living cell makes use of nucleic acids as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty amino acids as the building blocks for proteins. All organisms use the same genetic code (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to translate nucleic acid sequences into proteins. The universality of these traits strongly suggests common ancestry, because the selection of many of these traits seems arbitrary. Horizontal gene transfer makes it more difficult to study the last universal ancestor. However, the universal use of the same genetic code, same nucleotides, and same amino acids makes the existence of such an ancestor overwhelmingly likely. The first organisms were possibly anaerobic and thermophilic chemolithoautotrophs that evolved within inorganic compartments at geothermal environments.

The last universal common ancestor is the most recent organism from which all organisms now living on Earth descend. Thus, it is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth. The last universal common ancestor lived some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago, in the Paleoarchean era. In 2016, a set of 355 genes considered likely to derive directly from the last universal common ancestor was identified.

Human intervention

Modern biotechnology is challenging traditional concepts of organisms and species. Cloning is the process of creating a new multicellular organism, genetically identical to another, with the potential of creating entirely new species of organisms. Cloning is the subject of much ethical debate.

In 2008, the J. Craig Venter Institute assembled a synthetic bacterial genome, Mycoplasma genitalium, by using recombination in yeast of 25 overlapping DNA fragments in a single step. The use of yeast recombination greatly simplifies the assembly of large DNA molecules from both synthetic and natural fragments. Other companies, such as Synthetic Genomics, have already been formed to take advantage of the many commercial uses of custom designed genomes.

See also

 Earliest known life forms

References

External links

  aims to enumerate all known species.

Organisms

ceb:Organismo

Organism


Croydon Shire Hall is a heritage-listed town hall at Samwell Street, Croydon, Shire of Croydon, Queensland, Australia. It was built . It is also known as Croydon Shire Office and Croydon Town Hall. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 11 June 1996.

History
The Croydon Shire Hall, probably constructed , was purpose built as a municipal town hall.

In the early 1880s, Croydon Downs Station was established on Belmore Creek by partners, William Chalmers Browne and James and Walter Aldridge. Evidence of gold was discovered on the property soon after it was established. In 1885, the Aldridge Brothers and Browne located twenty payable lines of gold reef. When the partners reported the discovery in October 1885, a rush to the area began.

On 18 January 1886, Croydon was proclaimed a goldfield under the administration of the Queensland Mines Department. The town of Croydon was surveyed in 1886 and the survey plan shows an earlier building located on the Shire Hall block. Croydon Divisional Board was proclaimed in 1887, and in 1903 this became Croydon Shire Council, under the provisions of the 1902 Local Government Act. The arrival of the railway in 1891 and the discovery of gold in the district meant that by 1897 the area, including the town of Croydon, had the third highest population in North Queensland, after Townsville and Charters Towers. In 1892 a separate Croydon Municipal Council was established to administer the town of Croydon, and this became the Croydon Town Council in 1903. However, with the decline in the price of gold by 1900 and the resultant loss of population, the municipality of Croydon became part of Croydon Shire again in 1908. Mining came to a virtual stop by 1925 and from that time the town became the centre of a pastoral district.

It is likely that the Croydon Shire Hall dates from after the establishment of the municipality in 1892, rather than from the establishment of the divisional board, and photographic evidence reveals that the building was extant by 1897. Local tradition records that the rear of the Shire Hall was extended in 1929 or 1930 when the back "hall like" back portion of Edgerton's Jewellery Shop, Croydon was added to the Shire Hall after the shop front was damaged during a cyclone.

The hall has been the social centre of the town and district from the early days of settlement. Early photographs indicate that the hall was the location of community celebrations such as Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1897 and the celebration which took place after the relief of Mafeking during the Boer War in 1900.

In the 1960s the building became the official administration centre for Croydon Shire Council. It remained as the shire offices until 1991, when new offices were constructed across Samwell Street. Since that time the hall has again become a social centre for dances, concerts, hoy and pioneer morning teas. Long-term plans for the building are to turn it into a museum of mining and community history.

Description
The Croydon Shire Hall is a large, single-storeyed timber and galvanised iron building situated in Samwell Street, Croydon. It is one of a group of civic buildings that date to .

The hall is rectangular, with a square tower centrally located at the street frontage and a later rectangular addition on the western side. An imposing sense of grandeur is achieved by the bell capped tower with its tall flagpole, clockface and ornate cast iron balustrading.

Although the main body of the hall is of light hardwood construction with corrugated galvanised iron external sheeting, the tower and the front verandah are lined timber, as is the floor and stage at the rear of the interior.

A corrugated galvanised iron sheeted roof is supported on timber trusses and is hipped at the tower end and gabled at the rear; with a separate awning roof over the front verandah.

The ceiling of the hall is unlined, although the later additions are fully lined internally with hardboard sheeting.

The front verandah has been enlarged by removing part of the original wall lining along the east and west sides of the building, infilled with hardboard internally and metal ribbed sheeting externally and provided with a wrap around band of glass louvred windows. The western extension is constructed similarly, though without the narrow metal awning that shades the louvred windows at the front of the building.

At the front entry of the building, doors open either side to the office area within the enclosed verandah and a short passage leads through into the main body of the hall.

Above the passage is a projection booth, with an intact movie projector mounted on an open platform, which is situated directly beneath the tower. Access to the booth is through the office in the eastern verandah.

Externally, the building is shaded by trees to the east and west and has two detached privies at the rear.

Two, apparently early, street lamps are located on the footpath in front of the shire hall. The footpath is finished with early stone pitched gutters.

Heritage listing
Croydon Shire Hall was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 11 June 1996 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

Croydon Shire Hall is significant as one of a group of late 19th-century regional government buildings that illustrate the unprecedented era of prosperity that followed the discovery of gold in the Croydon region. The building also illustrates the establishment of Croydon as a major regional centre during the latter part of the 19th century.

The building demonstrates a continuous association of local government administration with this site for over a century.

The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.

In its relatively unchanged state the hall demonstrates the principal characteristics of a regional shire hall in North West Queensland.

The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.

The Croydon Shire Hall, through its distinctive design and its location in a street of late 19th-century timber government buildings, is an aesthetically pleasing building valued by the Croydon community.

The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.

In its role as a shire hall the building has been a focal point for civic and social events since its construction.

References

Attribution

External links

Queensland Heritage Register
Croydon, Queensland
Town halls in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register

Croydon Shire Hall


Marmosops is a genus of Neotropical opossums of the family Didelphidae. The genus was originally treated as a subgenus from the genus Marmosa rather than having their own classification. This was changed in 1989 by Gardner and Crieghton, who officially separated the group and made them their own genus. The mix-up between to genera Marmosa and Marmosops was common due to the similar appearances including size and other external features.  However, the two groups differ significantly in their integument and in the arrangement of their skull and dentition. The dentition is similar in morphology between the two groups, with the exception of the deciduous lower third premolar varying from one genus to the next. The similarity between the two continues to cause the genus Marmosops to be frequently misidentified due to the lack of knowledge regarding the species along with the overlooked traits that help separate them from other opossums. The Marmosops are also commonly confused with the genus Gracilinanus, but this is quickly ruled out by a large number of differing characteristics. These differences include the arrangement of their digits, caudal (anatomical term) scales, and the central hair on the scales changing from a three hairs per follicle to many more. This causes the hair of the Gracilinanus to be thicker and has also found to be heavily pigmented. The last group commonly confused with Marmosops is known as the genus Thylamys. These animals have a contrasting dorsal body pelage and the taxa are actually quite different.

Taxonomy

The genus Marmosops includes the following species:
 Bishop's slender opossum (M. bishopi)
 Narrow-headed slender opossum (M. cracens)
 Creighton's slender opossum (M. creightoni)
 Dorothy's slender opossum (M. dorothea)
 Dusky slender opossum (M. fuscatus)
 Handley's slender opossum (M. handleyi)
 Tschudi's slender opossum (M. impavidus)
 Gray slender opossum (M. incanus)
 Panama slender opossum (M. invictus)
 Junin slender opossum (M. juninensis)
 Neblina slender opossum (M. neblina)
 White-bellied slender opossum (M. noctivagus)
 Spectacled slender opossum (M. ocellatus)
 Delicate slender opossum (M. parvidens)
 Brazilian slender opossum (M. paulensis)
 Pinheiro's slender opossum (M. pinheiroi)

General traits
The Marmosops tend to be nocturnal, small marsupials and have been found to live on the ground. Many females of the M. paulensis species are known to be extremely territorial with a strong defense of their food, especially while in the presence of their young. The genus Marmosops is frequently misidentified and lumped into groups containing other species. As of today, Marmosops are currently recognized as a distinct taxon with 36 taxa: 14 valid species and 22 subspecies. The species within the genus differ slightly, but not enough to be classified as separate genera. Some of the species are also nicknamed by appearance, with the M. paulensis known as the slender opossum, the M. noctivagus recognized as the largest species and the M. bishopi the smallest of the genus.

Habitat
The main habitat for the Marmosops is found between the Neotropical humid forests ranging from Panama to the South of Brazil and sometimes in Bolivia as well. The Marmosops prefer to live on the grounds of forests, staying away from high branches of trees. They often hide in the dense understory with high plant coverage surrounding them. They are highly influenced by rain and predation, with migration occurring more often during certain seasons. The genus is never found to live up in a canopy (biology) or in the trees, but instead typically prefer more accessible habitats where it is easier to hide. There is not much known regarding the habitat of the genus due to their migration patterns and unique preferences.

Diet
The diet of Marmosops includes, but is not limited to fruit, arthropods, flowers and small vertebrates. They also will eat insects, arachnids, and gastropods depending on the species and time of the year. Their diet seems to change with the seasons, with more diversity in food preference shown in the drier seasons. Each species has a slightly different diet depending on their habitat and what is available in that area.

Reproduction
Most of the Marmosops carry their offspring in utero and feed them through the process of lactation. There is a high reproduction rate in the months of September through March for M. paulensis, with more mating occurring when there is a larger food supply. For this species, death occurred after every mating event was completed. This ensured that there was no more than one mating event for each animal that reproduced. Successful breeding depends on the presence of females, and many may have multiple mating partners in order to produce more offspring if they do not die after one event. The M. paulensis species have higher breeding rates when the length of day is longer and there is more fruit available to eat. Semelparity also was found to occur in this species, but is hypothesized to occur only due to phylogenic constraints. It seems as though there is synchrony of the females for the species due to swollen nipples around the time of breeding. The M. incanus have also been found to exhibit semelparity with a distinct breeding season between the months of October through December. For the breeding season, it is more beneficial for the females to be larger in order to produce larger litters, yielding higher breeding success over the smaller sized females. When looking at milk production and food supply for the genus, there was a strong correlation found between the two as well. In times where there was more food, there was more milk produced by the females. As far as the males, they seem to generally disappear after the mating event while the females remain in the area until their young are done weaning. This pattern leads to the generations being replaced every breeding season due to mortality of the adults. Overall, there is not much known about the reproductive patterns of the other species due to the little knowledge collected on the genus as a whole. There is a lack of pouch.

Species-specific information
The Marmosops noctivagus species have been involved in a big debate on which Genus they belong to. One study found them located in Columbia, which was previously an unknown location as far as Marmosops are concerned. They were identified by the chestnut brown hair on their back and white hair on their ventral side along with black facial features. They also have long tails with two different colors. The M. noctivagus also has a skull with a long nose and cranial openings between the squamosal and parietal bones. This is present in some of the animals and absent in others. The cranial openings under the squamosal bones, also known as fenestra (anatomy), are small and rounded. The dental arrangement for the species consists of large canine teeth but lack accessory cusps, correlating with the age and sex of the animal. These teeth are significantly smaller in the females. The Marmosops bishopi are another species of the genus Marmosops found in the western Brazilian Amazon rainforest and other areas of Peru and Bolivia. Marmosops incanus are another species in the genus that have a mask made of black fur around their eyes. Some other distinguishing characteristics include the third digit being longer than the second and the fourth along with an extremely long tail. They do not have a fenestra on the maxilla, but the fenestra cochlea is exposed  The Marmosops creightoni is a species that is medium in size with a coat that is almost completely dark with no clear distinction between the dorsal and ventral sides. This is the only species of the genus without the white markings on the underside. The chin fur is white and continues down to the throat along with  a black mask around the eyes. The skull consists of small orbits with long nasal bones and the infraorbital foramen is very large. This species has a fenestra between the maxilla and palatine bone, which are both long and narrow on each side. The palatine fenestra are rather small in size. The M. handleyi is one last species with very little known about it. However, rather recently there has been new information uncovered. The species is characterized by its woody dorsal fur, gray ventral fur and a rounded palatine fenestra. They are intermediately sized compared to the rest of the genus and have dark black facial masks. They were found to lack throat glands as well. They have white or light gray ears and the females are unique due to the odd rusty-red color of their mammary area with seven nipples located on the abdominal region.

References

External links
 "Gray Slender Mouse Opossum "
 "The Slender Opossum "

Marsupial genera
Opossums
Taxa named by Paul Matschie

Marmosops


Jeffrey C. Otah (born June 17, 1986) is a Nigerian American former American football offensive tackle. He was drafted by the Carolina Panthers in the first round of the 2008 NFL Draft.

Early years
Otah moved to The Bronx at the age of seven, then moved to New Castle, Delaware at the age of thirteen. He played high school football at William Penn High School in New Castle, Delaware.

Professional career

2008 NFL Draft
Coming in the 2008 NFL Draft Otah was considered by many scouts to be a top tackle prospect. The Carolina Panthers were reportedly very interested in him, evident by them sending head coach John Fox and General Manager Marty Hurney to his pro-day.

Carolina Panthers
Reports of the Panthers being interested in Otah proved to be well founded after the team made a trade with the Philadelphia Eagles to trade up and to select him. He was selected with the 19th pick in the first round. Jeff became an immediate starter at right tackle early in training camp. He started in 12 of the possible 16 games his first season missing 4 due to injury.

Otah started the 2010 season recovering from what was then thought to be relatively minor knee surgery performed in mid-August. But on 9 November, the Panthers placed Otah on injured reserve, ending his season without him ever taking the field.

Otah's knee problems persisted into the 2011 season, and he was placed on injured reserve again on 19 October 2011, after missing two of six games.

Otah was traded to the New York Jets for an undisclosed draft pick on July 23, 2012 contingent on his passing a physical for the team. After failing the initial test, the Jets placed Otah on the PUP/Active list on July 25. He had seven days to pass the test again or the trade would be nullified. On July 31, Otah failed his second physical thus voiding the trade and returning him to the Panthers. Otah was released by the Panthers two days later.

References

External links

Carolina Panthers Bio
Pittsburgh Panthers bio

1986 births
Living people
American football offensive tackles
American sportspeople of Nigerian descent
Carolina Panthers players
Nigerian players of American football
People from New Castle, Delaware
Sportspeople from New Castle County, Delaware
Pittsburgh Panthers football players
Players of American football from Delaware
Sportspeople from the Delaware Valley
William Penn High School (Delaware) alumni

Jeff Otah


Booza (, also called: Arabic ice cream) is an ice cream that is dense and elastic.  It is made with "sahlab (Arabic: سَحْلَب) or salep" with mastic, and its texture allows it to hold shapes and causes it to melt more slowly. this type is most common in the Eastern Mediteranean. There are ice cream sellers who show tourists where they grind the "mastic resin" with a mortar and pestle while singing and playing. The preparation of the ice cream is a real art when the sellers prepare ice cream in deep containers and when the texture becomes hard preparation is done with big  Mortar made of wood while drumming and playing on the ice cream until the ice cream is ready

Related pages
 Bakdash
 Dondurma

Other websites
 Recipe for Arabic Ice Cream

Mastic ice creams

Booza


William Hartwell Snyder, Jr. (30 August 1929 – 12 March 2008) was an American playwright and a longtime faculty member of the theatre department at the University of Tennessee at Martin. He is best known for his play The Days and Nights of BeeBee Fenstermaker.

Biography
Snyder attended Yale University's School of Drama where he earned a master of fine arts degree in playwrighting. While there the school mounted a production of his play A True And Special Friend in 1956 with a cast including Jonathan Frid.

In 1962 Snyder's play The Days and Nights of BeeBee Fenstermaker premiered Off-Broadway at the Sheridan Square Playhouse with Rose Gregorio in the title role and Robert Duvall as Bob Smith.  Received with critical praise, the play ran for a total of 304 performances. The work was later adapted by Snyder into two television films, one in English for British ATV drama with Patricia Neal as BeeBee and one in German for German television with Loni von Friedl in the title role. Also in 1962, Snyder produced Garson Kanin's play A Gift of Time for its debut on Broadway at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre where it ran for 94 performances. The cast notably included Olivia de Havilland, Henry Fonda, and Joseph Campanella; the latter of which garnered a Tony Award nomination for his performance in the play.

In 1964 Snyder joined the faculty at the University of Tennessee at Martin. He taught a variety of theatre subjects including acting, playwrighting, and directing during his thirty two years at the University. For most of his tenure at the University he was director of the UT Martin Vanguard Theatre; notably directing somewhere between 150-200 productions at the University during his career. In 1990 he was awarded the highest honor bestowed on faculty members by the University, the University of Tennessee National Alumni Association Distinguished Professor award. After his retirement in 1996 he moved to Oregon. He died twelve years later at the age of 78 due to complications from Alzheimer's disease.

References

External links

1930 births
2008 deaths
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
University of Tennessee at Martin faculty
David Geffen School of Drama at Yale University alumni
Writers from Oregon
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers

William Snyder (playwright)


The city of Plymouth, Devon, England is bounded by Dartmoor to the north, the Hamoaze to the west, the open expanse of water called Plymouth Sound to the south and the river Plym to the east.

The Cattewater is that stretch of water where the mouth of the river Plym merges with Plymouth Sound, just to the east of Sutton Pool. It is around this Pool that the manor of Sutton started, which grew to form the present day city. On the northern shore of this confluence of waters there was a rock outcrop, which it was claimed, had the appearance of a cat. This gave its name to this stretch of water and eventually the name of Cattedown to the adjoining wharves and commercial area. Apart from an occasional small oil tanker the area is now used mostly by fishing trawlers, yachts, and smaller pleasure craft. There is a water taxi across it from the Mayflower Steps on Plymouth Barbican to Mount Batten and also Oreston both on the southern bank.

The spelling 'Cattewater' is not old or consistent. Local sources and texts together with early maps and drawings refer to the opening of the estuary variously as Catwater, Cat Water and Catt Water. Internet search engines throw up other versions.

See also
Cattewater Wreck
Laira

References

External links

Geography of Plymouth, Devon

Cattewater


Woodlawn Cemetery is a cemetery located at 405 E. Main Street in Carbondale, which is known for hosting one of the first Memorial Day celebrations in the United States. The cemetery was established in 1854, two years before the incorporation of Carbondale. Over twenty Civil War soldiers, most of them Carbondale natives, were buried in the cemetery during the war. In April 1866, three Civil War veterans from Carbondale organized an event to honor the dead soldiers and decorate their gravesites; this event was one of the earliest observations of Memorial Day. The event included a speech by General John A. Logan, who in 1868 called for the national observance of Memorial Day as commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic.

The cemetery was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 19, 1985.

References

Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Geography of Jackson County, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Jackson County, Illinois

Woodlawn Cemetery (Carbondale, Illinois)


Étienne Marc Quatremère (12 July 1782, Paris18 September 1857, Paris) was a French Orientalist.

Biography
Born into a Jansenist family, Étienne and his mother, who knew Latin, had to go into hiding in the countryside when his father, a clothing merchant made a member of the French nobility by king Louis XV of France with the mention by the king to continue in his trading and shop keeping however, was executed in 1793 during the French Revolution. Later he studied Arabic under Silvestre de Sacy, (1758–1838), a member of the French nobility since 1813 and the son of a public notary with Jewish roots, becoming later a rector at the University of Paris, in the School of Living Oriental Languages.

Employed in 1807 in the manuscript department of the imperial library, he passed to the chair of Greek in the university of Rouen in 1809, entered the Academy of Inscriptions in 1815, taught Hebrew and Aramaic in the Collège de France from 1819, and finally in 1838 became professor of Persian in the School of Living Oriental Languages, on the death of Silvestre de Sacy.

Quatremère's first work was Recherches ... sur la langue et la littérature de l'Egypte (1808), showing that the language of ancient Egypt must be sought in Coptic.

His Mémoires géographiques et historiques sur l'Égypte… sur quelques contrées voisines was published in 1811. This publication forced Jean-François Champollion, the famous decoder of the Rosetta stone, to publish, prematurely, an "Introduction" to his L'Égypte sous les pharaons. Since both works concern the Coptic names of Egyptian towns, and Champollion's was published later, Champollion was accused by some of plagiarism. In fact "neither he nor Quatremère had copied from one another, and very obvious differences of approach were apparent in their publications".

Quatremère edited and translated part of Al-Maqrizi's, (1364–1442), Arabic History of the Memaluke Sultans (2 vols., 1837–41), "not because he had all that much interest in the history of Mamluk Egypt, but rather because he was fascinated by the vocabulary of fifteenth-century Arabic and particularly in those lexicographic nuggets that had not been defined in the standard of Arabic dictionaries".

He published among other works Mémoires sur les Nabatéens (1835); a translation of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's, (1247–1318), Histoire des Mongols de la Perse (1836); Mémoire géographique et historique sur l'Egypte (1810); the text of Ibn Khaldun's (1332–1406)  Prolegomena; and a vast number of useful memoirs in the Journal asiatique. His numerous reviews in the Journal des savants are also worth mention.

Quatremère made great lexicographic collections in Oriental languages, fragments of which appear in the notes to his various works. His manuscript material for Syriac was utilized in Robert Payne Smith's Thesaurus; of the slips he collected for a projected Arabic, Persian and Turkish lexicon some account is given in the preface to Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes. They were acquired by the Munich Court Library in 1858 and are now being held by its successor, the Bavarian State Library.

A biographical notice by Barthélemy Sainte-Hilaire is prefixed to Quatremère's Mélanges d'histoire et de philologie orientale (1861).  Quatremère's grave is in the 32nd division of the Père Lachaise Cemetery of Paris.

Sources
 Lesley & Roy Adkins (2000). The Keys of Egypt. London: HarperCollins.
 Robert Graham Irwin (2006). For Lust of Knowing. London: Allen Lane.

References

1782 births
1857 deaths
Scientists from Paris
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Academic staff of the Collège de France
French orientalists
French Arabists
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences

Étienne Marc Quatremère


A pathosystem is a subsystem of an ecosystem and is defined by the phenomenon of parasitism. A plant pathosystem is one in which the host species is a plant. The parasite is any species in which the individual spends a significant part of its lifespan inhabiting one host individual and obtaining nutrients from it. The parasite may thus be an insect, mite, nematode, parasitic Angiosperm, fungus, bacterium, mycoplasma, virus or viroid. Other consumers, however, such as mammalian and avian herbivores, which graze populations of plants, are normally considered to be outside the conceptual boundaries of the plant pathosystem.

A host has the property of resistance to a parasite. And a parasite has the property of parasitic ability on a host. Parasitism is the interaction of these two properties. The main feature of the pathosystem concept is that it concerns parasitism, and it is not concerned with the study of either the host or parasite on its own. Another feature of the pathosystem concept is that the parasitism is studied in terms of populations, at the higher levels and in ecologic aspects of the system. The pathosystem concept is also multidisciplinary. It brings together various crop science disciplines such as entomology, nematology, plant pathology, and plant breeding. It also applies to wild populations and to agricultural, horticultural, and forest crops, and to tropical, subtropical, as well as both subsistence and commercial farming.

In a wild plant pathosystem, both the host and the parasite populations exhibit genetic diversity and genetic flexibility. Conversely, in a crop pathosystem, the host population normally exhibits genetic uniformity and genetic inflexibility (i.e., clones, pure lines, hybrid varieties), and the parasite population assumes a comparable uniformity. This distinction means that a wild pathosystem can respond to selection pressures, but that a crop pathosystem does not. It also means that a system of locking (see below) can function in a wild plant pathosystem but not in a crop pathosystem.

Pathosystem balance means that the parasite does not endanger the survival  of the host; and that the resistance in the host does not endanger the survival of the parasite. This is self-evident from the evolutionary survival of wild plant pathosystems, as systems, during periods of geological time.

The gene-for-gene relationship is an approximate botanical equivalent of antigens and antibodies in mammals. For each resistance  gene in the host, there is a corresponding, or matching, gene in the parasite. When the genes of the parasite match those of the host, the resistance does not operate.

There are two kinds of resistance to parasites in plants:

 Vertical resistance involves a gene-for-gene relationship. This kind of resistance is genetically controlled by single genes, although several such genes may be present in a single host or parasite individual. Vertical resistance is ephemeral resistance because it operates against some strains of the parasite but not others, depending on whether or not a match occurs. In agriculture, vertical resistance requires pedigree breeding and back-crossing. It has been the resistance of choice during the twentieth century.
 Horizontal resistance does not involve a gene-for-gene relationship. It is the resistance that invariably remains after vertical resistance has been matched. It is genetically controlled by polygenes and it is durable resistance as many ancient clones testify. Its use in agriculture  requires population breeding and recurrent mass selection.

Infection is the contact made by one parasite individual with one host individual for the purposes of parasitism. There are two kinds of infection:

 Allo-infection means that the parasite originates away from its host and has to travel to that host. The first infection of any individual host must be an allo-infection. Vertical resistance can control allo-infection only. It normally does this with a system of locking (see below) which reduces the proportion of allo-infections that are matching infections.

 Auto-infection means that the parasite originates on, or in, the host that it is infecting. Auto-infection and all the consequences of a matching allo-infection, can be controlled only by horizontal resistance. This is because the parasite individual reproduces asexually to produce a clone (or else reproduces sexually and quickly reaches homogeneity of matching individuals) and auto-infection is thus matching infection.

An epidemic is the growth of a parasite population which is made at the expense of the host population. There are two kinds of epidemic:

 Continuous epidemics have no break in the parasitism; they have no gene-for-gene relationships; they involve evergreen trees, and some perennial herbs.
 Discontinuous epidemics have regular breaks in the parasitism, due to an absence of host tissue during an adverse season, such as a temperate winter or tropical dry season; they often have a gene-for-gene relationship against some of their parasites; they involve annual plants, some perennial herbs, and the leaves and fruits of deciduous trees and shrubs.

Gene-for-gene relationship - the n/2 model

The n/2 model (pronounced either 'en over two' or 'half en') suggests the mode of operation of the gene-for-gene relationship in a wild plant pathosystem. It apparently functions as a system of locking in which every host and parasite individual has half of the genes in the gene-for-gene relationship (i.e., n/2 genes, where n is the total number of pairs of genes in that relationship). Each gene in the host is the equivalent of a tumbler in a mechanical lock, and each gene in the parasite is the equivalent of a notch on a mechanical key. Provided that each n/2 combination of genes occurs with an equal frequency, and with a random distribution, in both the host and parasite populations, the frequency of matching allo-infections will be reduced to the minimum. For example, with six pairs of genes, each host and parasite individual would have three genes, and there would be twenty different locks and keys; with a twelve-gene system, there would be 924 six-gene locks and keys. Given an equal frequency and a random distribution  of every lock and key, the frequency of matching allo-infection would be 1/20 and 1/924, respectively. These figures are obtained from the binomial expansion illustrated by Pascal's triangle.

This system of locking cannot function in a crop pathosystem in which the host population has genetic uniformity. A crop pathosystem is usually the equivalent of every door in the town having the same lock, and every householder having the same key which fits every lock. A system of locking is ruined by uniformity, and this is exactly what we have achieved when protecting our genetically uniform crops with vertical resistance. It also explains why vertical resistance is temporary resistance in agriculture. This type of error is called sub-optimization and it results from working at too low a systems level. The system of locking is an emergent property that is observable only at the systems level of the pathosystem. Comparable biological emergents are the schooling of fish, and the flocking of birds, which cannot be observed at any systems level below that of the population. The n/2 model is also the most important hypothesis to emanate from the concept of the pathosystem. It can also be argued that the gene-for-gene relationship must function on a basis of heterogeneity in the wild pathosystem because the gross instability of the 'boom and bust' of modern plant breeding would have no evolutionary survival value.

A gene-for-gene relationship can evolve only in a discontinuous pathosystem. This is because it functions as a system of locking. A matching allo-infection is the equivalent of a lock being unlocked. With the end of the season, all matched (i.e., unlocked) host tissues disappear. With the onset of a new growing season, all discontinuous host tissue (e.g., new leaves of a deciduous tree, newly germinated annual seedlings, or newly emerged tissue of a perennial herb) is unmatched and each host individual has a vertical resistance that is functioning. This is the equivalent of re-locking. This alternation of matching and non-matching (or unlocking and re-locking) is an essential feature of any system of locking, and it is possible only in a discontinuous pathosystem. Conversely, in a continuous pathosystem just one matching allo-infection on each host individual is required for that individual to be parasitised for the rest of its life which, in the case of some evergreen trees, may endure for centuries. A gene-for-gene relationship is useless in such a pathosystem and, consequently, it will not evolve.

Crops that are derived from a continuous wild pathosystem (e.g., aroids, banana, cassava, citrus, cocoa, coconut, date palm, ginger, mango, oil palm, olive, papaya, pineapple, pyrethrum, sisal, sugarcane, sweet potato, tea, turmeric, vanilla, yams) have no gene-for-gene relationships, not withstanding a few erroneous reports to the contrary.

Horizontal resistance

Horizontal resistance is the resistance that invariably remains after a matching allo-infection has occurred. To postulate that horizontal resistance does not occur would be to postulate an absolute susceptibility. Such a level of  susceptibility is experimentally unproved, and is theoretically impossible. Horizontal resistance is polygenically inherited and it can be exhibited at any level between its minimum and its maximum. Its maximum level should provide a virtually complete control of a parasite under conditions of maximum epidemiological competence. Breeding for comprehensive horizontal resistance will require simultaneous quantitative improvements and will eventually control all the parasites that have epidemiological competence in a particular agro-ecosystem. (5). However, because epidemiological competence is so variable, a cultivar that is in balance with one agro-ecosystem, is likely to be unbalanced in another agro-ecosystem, having too much resistance to some parasites and too little to others.

Of particular importance is the concept of parasite interference, first defined by Vanderplank, who called it the cryptic error in field trials. Parasite interference does not affect the demonstration of  vertical resistance, but it can totally destroy the evidence for high levels of horizontal resistance. This factor, which has only recently been recognised, largely explains the almost total neglect of horizontal resistance during the twentieth century.

The greater the area of a uniform host population with a single vertical resistance, the more dangerous that resistance becomes. This is because of an increased selection pressure for the matching parasite, and an increased loss when the matching does occur. The greater the area of uniformity of vertical resistance, therefore, the greater the danger. Conversely, the greater the area of a uniform host population with high horizontal resistances, the more effective the horizontal resistance becomes. This is because parasite interference declines as the area of a horizontally resistant host population increases, and it is least when the entire crop of a region has a high level of  horizontal resistance in all of its cultivars. The greater the area of uniformity of horizontal resistance, therefore, the greater the security.

In breeding crop plants for horizontal resistance to their parasites, the disciplines of plant breeding, plant pathology, and crop entomology should be regarded as being amalgamated into a single discipline.

References

Phytopathology
Agronomy

Pathosystem


A police officer (also called a policeman or policewoman, a cop, an officer, or less commonly a constable) is a warranted law employee of a police force. In most countries, "police officer" is a generic term not specifying a particular rank. In some, the use of the rank "officer" is legally reserved for military personnel.

Police officers are generally charged with the apprehension of suspects and the prevention, detection, and reporting of crime, protection and assistance of the general public, and the maintenance of public order. Police officers may be sworn to an oath, and have the power to arrest people and detain them for a limited time, along with other duties and powers. Some officers are trained in special duties, such as counter-terrorism, surveillance, child protection, VIP protection, civil law enforcement, and investigation techniques into major crime including fraud, rape, murder, and drug trafficking. Although many police officers wear a corresponding uniform, some police officers are plain-clothed in order to pass themselves off as members of the public. In most countries police officers are given exemptions from certain laws to perform their duties. For example, an officer may use force if necessary to arrest or detain a person when it would ordinarily be assault. In some countries, officers can also violate traffic code to perform their duties.

Etymology
The word "police" comes from the Greek , meaning government, which came to mean its civil administration. The more general term for the function is law enforcement officer or peace officer. A sheriff is typically the top police officer of a county, with that word coming from the person enforcing law over a shire. A person who has been deputized to serve the function of the sheriff is referred to as the deputy.

Police officers are those empowered by government to enforce the laws it creates. In The Federalist collection of articles and essays, James Madison wrote: "If men were angels, no Government would be necessary". These words apply to those who serve government, including police. A common nickname for a police officer is "cop"; derived from the verb sense "to arrest", itself derived from "to grab". Thus, "someone who captures", a "copper", was shortened to just "cop". It may also find its origin in the Latin , brought to English via the Old French .

Duties and functions

The responsibilities of a police officer are varied, and may differ greatly from within one political context to another. Typical duties relate to keeping the peace, law enforcement, protection of people and property and the investigation of crimes. Officers are expected to respond to a variety of situations that may arise while they are on duty. Rules and guidelines dictate how an officer should behave within the community, and in many contexts, restrictions are placed on what the uniformed officer may wear. In some countries, rules and procedures dictate that a police officer is obliged to intervene in a criminal incident, even when off-duty. Police officers in nearly all countries retain their lawful powers while off duty.

In the majority of Western legal systems, the major role of the police is to maintain order, keeping the peace through surveillance of the public, and the subsequent reporting and apprehension of suspected violators of the law. They also function to discourage crimes through high-visibility policing, and most police forces have an investigative capability. Police have the legal authority to arrest and detain, usually granted by magistrates. Police officers also respond to calls for service, along with routine community policing.

Police are often used as an emergency service and may provide a public safety function at large gatherings, as well as in emergencies, disasters, search and rescue operations, and traffic collisions. To provide a prompt response in emergencies, the police often coordinate their operations with fire and emergency medical services. In some countries, individuals serve jointly as police officers as well as firefighters (creating the role of fire police). In many countries, there is a common emergency telephone number that allows the police, firefighters, or medical services to be summoned to an emergency. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom, have introduced command procedures for use in major emergencies or disorder. In the UK, The Gold Silver Bronze command structure is a system set up to improve communications between ground-based officers and the control room. Typically, a Bronze Commander would be a senior officer on the ground, coordinating the efforts in the center of the emergency, Silver Commanders would be positioned in an 'Incident Control Room' erected to improve better communications at the scene, and a Gold Commander would be in overall command in the Control Room.

Police are also responsible for reprimanding minor offenders by issuing citations which typically may result in the imposition of fines, particularly for violations of traffic law. Traffic enforcement is often, but not always, accomplished by police officers on police motorcycles—called motor officers, these officers refer to the motorcycles they ride on duty as simply motors. Police are also trained to assist persons in distress, such as motorists whose cars have broken down and people experiencing a medical emergency. Police are typically trained in basic first aid such as CPR.

Some park rangers are commissioned as law enforcement officers and carry out a law-enforcement role within national parks and other back-country wilderness and recreational areas, whereas military police perform law enforcement functions within the military.

Entry and promotion qualifications

In most countries, candidates for the police force must have completed some formal education. Increasing numbers of people joining the police possess tertiary education qualifications and in response to this, many police forces have developed a "fast-track" scheme whereby those with university degrees spend two to three years as a constable before receiving promotion to higher ranks, such as sergeants or inspectors. (Officers who work within investigative divisions or plainclothes are not necessarily of a higher rank but merely have different duties.) Police officers are also recruited from those with experience in the military or security services. In the United States, state laws may codify statewide qualification standards regarding age, education, criminal record, and training, but in other countries requirements are set by local police agencies. Generally, each police agency has different requirements.
Promotion is not automatic and usually requires the candidate to pass some kind of examination, interview board or other selection procedure. Although promotion normally includes an increase in salary, it also brings with it an increase in responsibility and for most, an increase in administrative paperwork. There is no stigma in shunning promotion, as experienced line patrol officers are highly regarded.

Dependent upon each agency, but generally after completing two years of service, officers may apply for specialist positions, such as detective, police dog handler, mounted police officer, motorcycle officer, water police officer, or firearms officer (in countries where police are not routinely armed).

In some countries, including Singapore, police ranks are supplemented through conscription, similar to national service in the military. Qualifications may thus be relaxed or enhanced depending on the target mix of conscripts. Conscripts face tougher physical requirements in areas such as eyesight, but minimum academic qualification requirements are less stringent. Some join as volunteers, again via differing qualification requirements.

Pay

In some societies, police officers are paid relatively well compared to other occupations; their pay depends on what rank they are within their police force and how many years they have served. In the United States, an average patrol officer's salary was $64,610 in 2021. In London, capital of the UK, a police officer's average basic salary in 2020 was £36,773 per annum. In the Netherlands, the average police officer working on the street is ranked in salary scale 6 to 9, €27,584 to €54,177 gross (€23,805 to €38,037 net) per year. Apart from these scales, there are higher functions which can increase an officer's salary.

In some towns of Fairfield County, Connecticut, Police officers have earned $178,000-$312,000 with overtime. Similar pay rates have made reports for New Jersey and Oakland, California police officers.

Occupational safety and health

There are numerous concerns affecting the safety and health of police officers, including occupational stress and death in the line of duty. On August 6, 2019, New Jersey Attorney General Gurbir Grewal announced the creation of the first U.S. state-wide program to support the mental health of police officers. The goal of the program is to train officers in emotional resiliency and to help destigmatize mental health problems.

Application of force

Individual cases

Almost universally, police officers are authorized to use force, up to and including deadly force, when acting in a law enforcement capacity. Although most law enforcement agencies follow some variant of the use of force continuum, where officers are only authorized to use the level of force required to match situational requirements, specific thresholds and responses vary between jurisdictions. While officers are trained to avoid excessive use of force, and may be held legally accountable for infractions, the variability of law enforcement and its dependence on human judgment have made the subject an area of controversy and research.

Accountability

In the performance of their duties, police officers may act unlawfully, either deliberately or as a result of errors in judgment. Police accountability efforts strive to protect citizens and their rights by ensuring legal and effective law enforcement conduct, while affording individual officers the required autonomy, protection, and discretion. As an example, the use of body-worn cameras has been shown to reduce both instances of misconduct and complaints against officers.

See also
Slave patrol
Peace officer
Military police
Provost (military police)
Field training officer
Internal affairs
Chief of police
Police tactical unit
Gypsy cop
List of slang terms for police officers

References

Bibliography

External links

 discoveringpolicing.org
Metropolitan Police history
 19th Century picture of a US Police Officer with 6 pointed badge star

Law enforcement occupations

Positions of authority

Police officer


Tel Baruch is a luxury neighborhood dating back to 1947, located on the northern side of the Yarkon River, in the northeast of Tel Aviv, Israel.{
  "type": "FeatureCollection",
  "features": [
    {
      "type": "Feature",
      "properties": {},
      "geometry": {
        "type": "Point",
        "coordinates": [
          34.81751918792725,
          32.12249072391715
        ]
      }
    }
  ]
}

The neighborhood
The neighborhood is divided into two parts:
 Tel Baruch - The old section of Tel Baruch, south of KKL-JNF Boulevard, was the first neighborhood built north of the Yarkon, founded in 1946. It was named after Mordechai (Marko) Yosef Baruch (1872-1899), a Zionist activist in Algeria, Bulgaria, Egypt and Italy. The first inhabitants of the neighborhood were immigrants from Turkey and Bulgaria, and were resettled in October 1947. In the first stage, 32 housing units were built in the neighborhood, and the neighborhood continued north of KKL-JNF Boulevard in 1949–1950. The elementary school of the poet Yehuda Alharizi was inaugurated in 1951. At the beginning of the Six-Day War, Tel Baruch was hit by an artillery shell from Qalqiliya.
 Tel Baruch North - The new part of the neighborhood was established in the late 90s. More than 70% of the construction in Tel Baruch North is the construction of saturated residential buildings of 4-8 floors, and the rest are villas. It has a shopping center called Mikado Center, a Naomi Shemer elementary school and a boarding school for children from families that can not grow them normatively. During the British Mandate there was a military camp.

The two parts of the neighbourhood are considered luxurious and combine large areas of public parks and woods, and a beach.

Notable residents
Ron Huldai
Galit Gutmann
Avi Gabbay

References

External links

Neighborhoods of Tel Aviv
Upper class

Tel Baruch


The 73rd Carnatic Infantry was an infantry regiment originally raised in 1776 as the 13th Carnatic Battalion (using drafts of men from the 4th, 7th and the 11th Carnatic Battalion) as part of the Presidency of Madras Army which was itself part of the Honourable East India Company Army.  The presidency armies, like the presidencies themselves, belonged to the East India Company until the Government of India Act 1858 (passed in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857) transferred all three presidencies to the direct authority of the British Crown.  In 1903 all three presidency armies were merged into the British Indian Army. The unit was transferred to the Indian Army upon Indian Independence.

History
The regiment's first action was in 1781, during the Battle of Sholinghur and the Battle of Seringapatam in the Second Anglo-Mysore War in 1781. They had to wait just over 100 years for their next action which was during the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.

During World War I, they remained in India on training and internal security duties attached to the 9th (Secunderabad) Division.

After World War I the Indian government reformed the army moving from single battalion regiments to multi battalion regiments. In 1922, the 73rd Carnatic Infantry became the 1st Battalion, 3rd Madras Regiment. After independence they were one of the regiments allocated to the Indian Army.

Present Day
Today the battalion is the 1st Battalion, Mechanised Infantry Regiment of the Indian Army.

Changes in designation
13th Carnatic Battalion - 1776
13th Madras Battalion - 1784
2nd Battalion, 3rd Madras Native Infantry - 1796
13th Madras Native Infantry - 1824
13th Madras Infantry - 1885
73rd Carnatic Infantry - 1903
1st Battalion, 3rd Madras Regiment - 1922
1st Battalion, the Madras Regiment - 1947
1st Battalion, the Mechanised Infantry Regiment - 1979

References

Sources

Moberly, F.J. (1923). Official History of the War: Mesopotamia Campaign, Imperial War Museum.

British Indian Army infantry regiments
Honourable East India Company regiments
Military history of the Madras Presidency
Military units and formations established in 1776
Military units and formations disestablished in 1922

73rd Carnatic Infantry


Maurice Percy Ashley  (4 September 1907 – 26 September 1994) was a British historian of the 17th Century and editor of The Listener. He published over thirty books, of which his Financial and Commercial Policy Under the Commonwealth Protectorate (1934) achieved wide academic influence, while his biographies Cromwell (1937) and General Monck (1976) received particular praise.

Background and education
Ashley was educated at St Paul's School and New College, Oxford, where he won the Stanhope Essay Prize (1928, 'Republicanism in the reign of Charles II') and the Gladstone Memorial (1930, 'The rise of Latitudinarianism in the Church of England'), and achieved first-class honours in Modern History in 1929. He went on to take a DPhil, studying under David Ogg, and it was his doctoral thesis that became Financial and Commercial Policy Under the Commonwealth Protectorate. Ashley's father worked as an official at the Board of Trade.

Career
In 1929 he was appointed literary assistant to Winston Churchill, who had just begun work on his biography Marlborough: His Life and Times. Ashley provided Churchill with original material from archives in Britain and Europe, earning £300 a year for this half-time employment. Although he was unimpressed by Ashley's socialistic views, Churchill praised his "competence and industry as an historical investigator". Ashley later wrote Churchill as Historian (1968), a perceptive analysis of Churchill's methods.

Ashley's career as a journalist began when he joined the staff of the Manchester Guardian as a leader writer in 1933, moving to The Times in 1937 as a foreign sub-editor. He continued to write, publishing Oliver Cromwell: the Conservative Dictator in 1937 and his own short book on Marlborough in 1939.  He was briefly editor of Britain Today in 1939-40 but in 1940 enlisted in the Grenadier Guards, later being transferred to the Intelligence Corps. By 1945 he had achieved the rank of major.

After World War II, he joined the BBC's weekly publication, The Listener, as Deputy Editor and was appointed Editor in 1958, in which job he remained until retiring in 1967. He broadened the range of the journal, which had been a vehicle for the text of selected broadcasts and criticism of radio and then television programmes. Under Ashley, The Listener'''s book reviews played a leading role in killing off the 19th-century tradition of anonymous reviewing.

Among a number of books, Ashley's publications in this period included his The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell (1957), a substantial revision of his earlier view of Cromwell, and The Glorious Revolution of 1688 (1966).  After retiring from The Listener, the rate of his publications increased, helped by a two-year research fellowship at Loughborough University.  This period saw the publication of his studies of Charles II, James II, Prince Rupert, and his General Monck (1977), regarded as one of his best books. His last book, The Battle of Naseby and the Fall of King Charles I'' (1992), appeared when he was 85.

He died on 26 September 1994 and was buried in a family grave in Highgate Cemetery.

Awards
Ashley was awarded a CBE in 1978 and a DLitt from Oxford in 1979. He was President of the Cromwell Association from 1961 to 1977.

Personal life
He married twice, first in 1935 to Phyllis Mary Griffiths, with whom he had a son and a daughter, and second in 1988 to Patricia Entract.

References

20th-century British writers
1994 deaths
1907 births
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Academics of Loughborough University
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at St Paul's School, London
Alumni of New College, Oxford

Maurice Ashley (historian)


Yamaguchi 1st district (山口[県第]1区, Yamaguchi[-ken dai-]ikku) is a single-member electoral district for the House of Representatives, the lower house of the National Diet of Japan. It is located in Yamaguchi and covers the prefectural capital Yamaguchi (without the former town of Atō), parts of the city of Shūnan (the area of former municipalities Tokuyama city, Shinnan'yō city, Kano town) and the city of Hōfu. As of September 2012, 359,151 eligible voters were resident in the district.

Before the electoral reform of the 1990s, the area had been part of the five-member Yamaguchi 2nd district which covered roughly the Eastern half of the prefecture and had been the former district of LDP presidents Nobusuke Kishi and Eisaku Satō. Another representative from the pre-reform 2nd district for the LDP was former four-term Tokuyama city mayor Sakahiko Kōmura. When Kōmura retired, his fourth son Masahiko won a seat in the district in 1980 and defended it in all pre-reform elections. After the electoral reform, Masahiko Kōmura took over the new single-member 1st district for the LDP. The main opposition NFP and the newly founded DPJ did not even nominate candidates in the first post-reform election of 1996, his only challengers were a Communist and an unaffiliated independent. In subsequent elections, the enlarged/"New" DPJ did nominate candidates; but Kōmura held onto the seat by large margins, even in the countrywide DPJ victory of 2009. The district remains – like two other of Yamaguchi's districts – an unbroken "conservative kingdom" (hoshu ōkoku). In the 2017 election Masahiko Kōmura retired, his eldest son Masahiro extended the streak with a two-thirds majority in his first election.

Kōmura was a minister in several cabinets in the 1990s and 2000s (Murayama, Obuchi, Mori II, Fukuda, Abe I). From 2000 to 2012, Kōmura led the Banchō Seisaku Kenkyūjo (previously Kōmoto faction, now Ōshima faction), one of the smaller, but well-established factions of the LDP that traces its roots to the centrist Reform Party and the pre-war Constitutional Democratic Party. In 2012, LDP president Shinzō Abe (Machimura faction, also from Yamaguchi) nominated him to succeed fellow faction member Tadamori Ōshima as vice president of the party.

List of representatives

Recent results

Note:

References

Districts in Yamaguchi Prefecture
Districts of the House of Representatives (Japan)
Politics of Yamaguchi Prefecture
Constituencies established in 1994
1994 establishments in Japan
Yamaguchi (city)
Shūnan, Yamaguchi
Hōfu, Yamaguchi

Yamaguchi 1st district


2011 UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship (qualifying round) will be the first round of qualifications for the Final Tournament of UEFA U-17 Championship 2011.

The qualifying round will be played between September 17 and November 1, 2010.  The 52 teams were divided into 13 groups of four teams, with each group being contested as a mini-tournament, hosted by one of the group's teams.  After all matches have been played, the 13 group winners and 13 group runners-up will advance to the Elite round.

Alongside the 26 winner and runner-up teams, the two best third-placed teams also qualify. These are determined after considering only their results against their group's top two teams, and applying the following criteria in this order:
Higher number of points obtained in these matches;
Superior goal difference from these matches;
Higher number of goals scored in these matches;
Fair-play conduct of the teams in all group matches in the qualifying round;
Drawing of lots.

The host team of each group's mini-tournament are indicated in italics in the tables below.

Group 1

Local time is UTC+2.

Group 2

Group 3

Local time is UTC+4.

Group 4

Local time is UTC+2.

Group 5

Local time is UTC+1.

Group 6

Local time is UTC+3.

Group 7

Iceland ranked ahead of Turkey on head-to-head result

Local time is UTC.

Group 8

Local time is UTC+3.

Group 9

Local time is UTC+3.

Group 10

Local time is UTC+2.

Group 11

Local time is UTC+2.

Group 12

Local time is UTC+2.

Group 13

Local time is UTC+2.

Ranking of 3rd placed teams
Counting results against group winners and runners-up. Top 2 advanced to the Elite Round.

References

UEFA.com

External links
 UEFA website

Qualification
UEFA European Under-17 Championship qualification

2011 UEFA European Under-17 Championship qualifying round


Derrick Gordon Tomlinson (born 31 January 1941) is a former Australian politician.

Tomlinson was born at Subiaco and was a university lecturer before entering politics.

Career
He was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Council for East Metropolitan Region in 1989 for the Liberal Party. In 1990 he was appointed Shadow Minister for Justice, moving to Housing in May 1992. In June 1993 he became Deputy Chairman of Committees, serving until early 2001 when he returned to the front bench as Shadow Minister for Community Services and Indigenous Affairs. He retired from politics in 2005.

References

1941 births
Living people
Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Western Australia
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
21st-century Australian politicians

Derrick Tomlinson