Żyrardów  is a town and former industrial hub in central Poland with approximately 41,400 inhabitants (2006). It is the capital of Żyrardów County situated in the Masovian Voivodeship (since 1999); previously, it was in Skierniewice Voivodeship (1975–1998)  west of Warsaw. Żyrardów, initially a textile settlement, was named after French engineer and inventor Philippe de Girard, who worked in the area.

History

Origins
A textile factory founded by the Łubieński brothers opened in the village of Ruda Guzowska in 1833. One of the directors of the factory was French inventor Philippe de Girard (from Lourmarin). The village developed during the 19th century into a significant textile mill town in Poland. In honour of Girard, Ruda Guzowska was renamed Żyrardów, a toponym derived of the polonised spelling of Girard's name.

Labour movement
The terrible working conditions and inequality of the cotton mills and textile industry in Żyrardów during the late 19th century, which was in Congress Poland (part of the Russian Empire) at the time, led to a massive strike started by the female workers employed there in 1883. This event is one of the largest and most important events in the early history of the Polish workers' movement, which focused on fighting against the colonial oppressors as well as liberating the workers of partitioned Poland. The upheavals in Żyrardów were the largest protest in Poland up until the Łódź insurrection of the 1905 Revolution. They remain an essential element of Polish working class history, with various forms of media dedicated to them as well as street reenactments performed annually since 2004.

World War II and later
With the onset of dawn on September 12, 1939, units of the 8th German army launched an attack on Żyrardów. After several hours of fierce defence of the town, the Polish army had to leave their positions and start delaying actions towards Wiskitki, Guzów, Szymanów, and Paprotnia. In 1941, the Germans transported local Jews into the Warsaw ghetto.

The town museum is nowadays located in the former palace of owner of factory K. Dittrich. A sign near the entrance to the little city states that it was the only town in Europe entirely set up for a factory. The city was named one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments (Pomnik historii), as designated 17 January, 2012. Its listing is maintained by the National Heritage Board of Poland.

Monuments

Most of Żyrardów's monuments are located in the manufacturing area which dates from the 19th and early 20th centuries. It is widely believed that Żyrardów's textile settlement is the only complete 19th-century urban industrial complex to be preserved in Europe.

Education
 Szkoła Mistrzostwa Sportowego w Kolarstwie
 Wyższa Szkoła Rozwoju Lokalnego
 Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Stefana Żeromskiego
 Zespół Szkół Publicznych nr. 7 im. Henryka Sienkiewicza w Żyrardowie

Sport
Since 1923 Żyrardów has a football club named Żyrardowianka Żyrardów (formerly Włókniarz Żyrardów), which in 2015/2016 played in the Polish IV League.

Notable people
 Feliks Łubieński (1758–1848), landowner who gave the estate and his blessing to his sons to build the very first textile factory
 Henryk Łubieński (1793–1883), banker and industrialist, son of Felix
 Feliks Sobański (1833–1913), philanthropist who donated land for the church
 Paweł Hulka-Laskowski (1881–1946), a writer, translator and social activist
 Leszek Miller (born 1946), former Prime Minister of Poland, started his professional life as electrician in a local textile factory
 Piotr Nowakowski (born 1987), volleyball player, double World Champion
 Gosia Rdest (born 1993), a racing driver who competed in the W Series

International relations

Twin towns — Sister cities
Żyrardów is twinned with:
  Tangshan, China
  Delchevo, North Macedonia
  Lourmarin, France
  Siero, Spain
  Tryavna, Bulgaria

References

External links

 Official Site of Żyrardów
 A web page of the history of Żyrardów (in Polish)
 Current Population
 Memorial Book of Zyrardow, Amshinov and Viskit
 Jewish Community in Żyrardów on Virtual Shtetl

Cities and towns in Masovian Voivodeship
Żyrardów County
Populated places established in 1833
Holocaust locations in Poland
1833 establishments in Poland

Żyrardów


ACMS may refer to:
 The Adventist Church Management system, the system for managing adventists church members
 Advanced Combat Man System, the Singapore Armed Forces Future Soldier project
 Aircraft Condition Monitoring System
 Allianze University College of Medical Sciences, located in Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. It specialises in medicine and Allied Health Sciences education
 The Alternative Comedy Memorial Society, a British comedy night for alternative and experimental work
 American Center for Mongolian Studies, an American Overseas Research Center (AORC) in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, and Philadelphia, PA
 American College of Mohs Surgery
 Anne Chesnutt Middle School in Fayetteville, North Carolina
 Antelope Crossing Middle School in Antelope, California
 Application Control Management System, a transaction processing management software for computers running the OpenVMS operating system
 Arbor Creek Middle School in Carrollton, Texas
 Army College of Medical Sciences, New Delhi
 Automatic channel memory system is a system in which a video system such as VCR could search and memorize broadcasting system automatically
 Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences
 Atlanta Charter Middle School in Atlanta, Georgia
 Australian Clay Minerals Society, an Australian scientific society for studying of clay minerals and allied substance
 Australian Computer Museum Society Inc, an Australian charitable institution dedicated to the preservation of computing history within Australia and abroad

ACMS


The Sheboygan Indian Mound Park is a public park in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. Its main attraction is 18 Indian burial mounds distributed over 15 acres. The Kletzien Mound Group, located within the park, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1981. While the park is operated by the City of Sheboygan, it is surrounded by the Town of Wilson in a residential neighborhood. The park is protected under the Wisconsin Burial Sites Preservation Law.

In 1967 Julilly House Kohler organized and led a campaign to preserve the historic Indian mounds which resulted in the site being designated as a county park. In 1968 Kohler was the registered agent for the incorporation of the Sheboygan Indian Mound Park Association, Inc.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sheboygan County, Wisconsin

References

Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin
Mounds in Wisconsin
Native American history of Wisconsin
Protected areas of Sheboygan County, Wisconsin
Tourist attractions in Sheboygan County, Wisconsin
National Register of Historic Places in Sheboygan County, Wisconsin

Sheboygan Indian Mound Park


Eurasianism (, yevraziystvo) is a socio-political movement in Russia that emerged in the early 20th century which states that Russia does not belong in the "European" or "Asian" categories but instead to the geopolitical concept of Eurasia governed by the "Russian world" (), forming an ostensibly standalone Russian civilization. Historically, the Russian Empire was Euro-centric and generally considered a European/Western power.

The first Eurasianists were mostly émigrés, pacifists, and their vision of the future had features of romanticism and utopianism. The goal of the Eurasianists was the unification of the main Christian churches under the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church. A key feature of Eurasianism is the rejection of Russian ethnic nationalism; which seeks a pan-Slavic state. The Eurasianists strongly opposed the territorial fragmentation of the Russian Imperial state that had followed in the wake of the revolution and civil war, and they used their geo-historical theories to insist on the necessity of the geopolitical reconstruction of the Russian state as a unified Eurasian great power. Unlike many of the white Russians, the Eurasianists rejected attempts for Tsarist restoration.

To enable their return, Eurasianist émigrés became supportive of the Bolshevik Revolution, but not its stated goals of building communism. Many viewed the Soviet Union as a stepping stone on the path of creating a new national identity that would reflect Russia's geopolitical situation. Eurasianist support for the Soviet Union began in the 1920s during the Stalinist era, which witnessed the emergence of a distinct socialist nationalism through CPSU's enforcement of "Socialism in One Country" policy. Despite this, all organized Eurasianist activities in the Soviet Union were ended during the Great Purges of 1936–1938. After the Second World War, Joseph Stalin's efforts to empower an Eastern Bloc of socialist countries opposed to the Western capitalist camp were seen by Eurasianist remnants as compatible with their own ideology.

The Eurasian movement underwent a major resurgence after the collapse of the Soviet Union during the 1990s, and has been mirrored by Turanism in Turkic and Finnic nations. Modern Eurasianists have coalesced around three prominent ideological currents: the neo-Eurasian movement of Aleksandr Dugin, Eurasian communism of the Russian Communist Party led by Gennedy Zyuganov, and a state-sanctioned Eurasianism that advances Russian geo-political interests. Eurasianism has been officially endorsed in Russia's 2023 Foreign Policy Concept approved by Vladimir Putin, which defines Russia as a "Eurasian and Euro-Pacific" civilizational-state closely aligned with China, the Islamic World and rest of the Global South, seeking to replace Western hegemony by a "Greater Eurasian Partnership".

Early 20th century

Origins

The origins of Eurasianism were in the 19th century, when the Russian Empire was involved in constant wars with European powers to its west. Many philosophers, intellectuals and strategists were alienated from Europe and felt Europeanization was a threat to Russia's national identity. Russian poet Fyodor Dostoevsky famously said in 1881: "In Europe we were Tatars, but in Asia too we are Europeans." In the aftermath of events like the Crimean War and the 1878 Berlin Treaty, widely decried as a national humiliation in Russia, a new breed of monarchist elites who advocated eastward expansion, known as vostochniki (Orientalizers), emerged. Many of the vostochniki began emphasizing their "Asianness" to defend the Russian Empire from what they viewed as "intellectual colonization" from the Romano-Germanic cultures of Western Europe. Czarist vostochniki like the philosopher Konstantin Leontov self-identified as a "Turanian" rather than Slavic, signalling a general Eurasianist cultural shift. Even Pan-Slavic intellectuals began stating their predisposition towards Asia against Europe, Islam above Roman Catholicism and Buddhism, and Turks over the Latins. However, the terminology deployed by the vostochniki had mostly remained ambiguous, with their ideas not attaining a structural ideological character, and served within the frame of Russian imperial interests. The ideas of the monarchist vostochniki would, however, become the precursor to the Eurasianist movement that emerged in the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution and advocated the formation of a nation-state.

Emergence

Eurasianism is a political movement with origins in the Russian émigré community in the 1920s who had fled Russia in the aftermath of the Bolshevik revolution, the Russian civil war and witnessed the socio-political turbulence of the Interwar period. The movement posited that Russian civilization does not belong in the "European" or "Asian" categories and constituted a separate "third continent within the Old World". As anti-monarchists and proponents of an authoritarian republic, Eurasianists praised many aspects of the October Revolution, and they portrayed the Bolshevik movement as a necessary reaction to the rapid modernization of Russian society. Eurasianism was based on a combination of Third-Worldism, resistance to Westernization, championing what it views as the "cultural superiority" of the East over the Western World and defined Eurasia in geographical terms, shared by peoples of Russian-Turkic heritage.

Stalin's "Socialism in one country" policy served as a vindication of Soviet Union in the eyes of many Eurasian activists. These Eurasianists criticized the anti-Bolshevik activities of organizations such as ROVS, believing that the émigré community's energies would be better focused on preparing for this hoped for process of evolution. In turn, their opponents among the emigres argued that the Eurasianists were calling for a compromise with and even support of the Soviet regime, while justifying its ruthless policies (such as the persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church and demolition of churches) as mere "transitory problems" that were inevitable results of the revolutionary process. A communist Eurasianist faction led by Pyotr Suvchinsky gained traction during the 1920s, which began denouncing the anti-Soviet critics as "bourgeois".

The key leaders of the Eurasianists were Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, , Pyotr Suvchinsky, D.S. Mirsky, Konstantin Chkheidze, Pyotr Arapov, Lev Karsavin, and Sergei Efron. Philosopher Georges Florovsky was initially a supporter, but backed out of the organization claiming it "raises the right questions", but "poses the wrong answers". Nikolai Berdyaev wrote that he may have influenced the Eurasianists' acceptance of the Bolshevik Revolution as a fact, but he noted that a number of key Eurasianist tenets were completely alien and hostile to him: they did not love freedom as he did, they were statists, they were hostile to Western culture in a way Berdyaev was not, and they accepted Orthodoxy in a perfunctory manner.

In October 1925 a congress was held in Prague with the intention of creating a seminar. One of the participants was Vladimir Nikolaevich Ilyin (1890-1974), a philosopher, theologian and composer from Kyiv and not related to Ivan A. Ilyin who has been presented in the literature by various authors as belonging to the group.

Several members of the Eurasianists were affected by the Soviet provocational TREST operation, which had set up a fake meeting of Eurasianists in Russia that was attended by the Eurasianist leader P.N. Savitsky in 1926 (an earlier series of trips were also made two years earlier by Eurasianist member P. Arapov). The uncovering of the TREST as a Soviet provocation caused a serious morale blow to the Eurasianists and discredited their public image.

In the late 1920s, Eurasianists polarized and became divided in to two groups, the left Eurasianists, who were becoming increasingly pro-Soviet and pro-communist  and the classic right Eurasianists, who remained staunchly anti-communist and anti-Soviet. After the emergence of "left Eurasianism" in Paris, where some of the movement's leaders became pro-Soviet, Trubetzkoy who was a staunch anti-communist heavily criticised them and eventually broke with the Eurasianist movement. The Eurasianists faded quickly from the Russian émigré community. By 1929, the Eurasianists had ceased publishing their periodical. Several organizations similar in spirit to the Eurasianists sprung up in the émigré community at around the same time, such as the pro-Monarchist Mladorossi and the Smenovekhovtsi.

During the mid 1930s, representatives of the Eurasianist movement who had settled in the Soviet Union were suppressed during the Stalinist purges and émigré Eurasianists had mostly scattered throughout Europe. By 1938, all organized Eurasianist movement had ceased to exist.

Early proponents of Eurasianist themes in the West argued that control of the Eurasian heartland was the key to geopolitical dominance. It influenced Oswald Spengler, as well as various far-right extremists. These included the American white nationalist and neo-Nazi Francis Parker Yockey, the Belgian Nazi collaborator Jean-François Thiriart and interwar German National Bolsheviks.

Greater Russia

The political-cultural concept espoused by some in Russia is sometimes called the "Greater Russia" and is described as a political aspiration of pan-Russian nationalists and irredentists to retake the territories of the other republics of the former Soviet Union, territory of the former Russian Empire, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, and amalgamate them into a single Russian state. Alexander Rutskoy, the vice president of Russia from 1991 to 1993, asserted irredentist claims to Narva in Estonia, Crimea in Ukraine, and Ust-Kamenogorsk in Kazakhstan, among other territories.

Before war broke out between Russia and Georgia in 2008, Russian political theorist Aleksandr Dugin visited South Ossetia and predicted: "Our troops will occupy the Georgian capital Tbilisi, the entire country, and perhaps even Ukraine and the Crimean Peninsula, which is historically part of Russia, anyway." Former South Ossetian president Eduard Kokoity is a Eurasianist and argues that South Ossetia has never left the Russian Empire and should be part of Russia.

In March 2022 American journalist Michael Hirsh wrote that Russian President Vladimir Putin is a messianic Russian nationalist and a Eurasianist "whose constant invocation of history going back to Kievan Rus, however specious, is the best explanation for his view that Ukraine must be part of Russia's sphere of influence".

Eurasianism as ideology
Drawing on historical, geographical, ethnographical, linguistic, cultural and religious studies, the Eurasianists suggested that the lands of the Russian Empire, and then of the Soviet Union, formed a natural unity. The first Eurasianists were mostly Émigrés, pacifists, and their vision of the future had features of romanticism and utopianism. The goal of the Eurasianists was the unification of the main Christian churches under the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church. According to French historian Marlene Laurelle, despite admiring aspects of European fascist movements, early Eurasianist intellectuals were repelled by their glorification of violence, militarism, extremism, racism, etc. However, Laurelle has portaryed Aleksandr Dugin's neo-Eurasianism as being very similar to the militant mentality of inter-war fascist movements in Europe.

A key feature of Eurasianism is the rejection of Russian ethnic nationalism; which seeks a pan-Slavic state. The Eurasianists strongly opposed the territorial fragmentation of the Russian Imperial state that had followed in the wake of the revolution and civil war, and they used their geo-historical theories to insist on the necessity of the geopolitical reconstruction of the Russian state as a unified Eurasian great power. Unlike many of the white Russians, the Eurasianists rejected all hope for a restoration of the monarchy. Aversion to democracy is an important characteristic of Eurasianism. Eurasianists considered ideocracy a good thing, provided that the ruling ideas were the right ones.
For David Lewis, there are a number of people who assert "an alternative topography, articulated in a series of spatial projects – the 'Russian World', 'Eurasian integration', 'Greater Eurasia' – which aims to carve out a space in opposition to the 'spacelessness' of Western-dominated global order. Influential Russian foreign policy thinkers view the emerging twenty-first-century international order as being constituted not by institutions of global governance, but by a few major political-economic regions, dominated by major powers, a return to the sphere-of-influence politics of the past. It is Russia's goal [say these thinkers] to assert its own central role as a great power, in just such a 'Great Space', that of Eurasia.

The head of the Russian Foreign Ministry's school for future diplomats, Igor Panarin, is a vocal Eurasianist, as is the head of the Faculty of World Economy and International Affairs at the Moscow Higher School of Economics, Sergey Karaganov. Academics such as Nataliia Narochnitskaia, Egor Kholmogorov, and Vadim Tsymburskii all espouse a messianic version of Eurasianism, and twin it with some form of Eastern Orthodox Church theology.

An exponent of neo-Eurasianism is the Russian political theorist Alexander Dugin, who initially followed the ideology of National Bolshevism. He brought into Eurasianism the idea of a "third position" (a combination of capitalism and socialism), geopolitics (Eurasianism as a tellurocracy, opposing the Atlantic Anglo-Saxon thalassocracy of the USA and NATO) and Stalinist Russian conservatism (the USSR as a major Eurasian power). In Dugin's works, Eurasian concepts and provisions are intertwined with the concepts of European New Right. Researchers note that in the formulation of philosophical problems and political projects, he significantly deviates from classical Eurasianism, which is presented in his numerous works very selectively, eclectically. In the neo-Eurasianism of Dugin's version, the Russian ethnos is considered "the most priority Eurasian ethnos", which must fulfill the civilizational mission of forming a Eurasian empire that will occupy the entire continent. The main threat is declared by the United States and the Anglo-Saxon world in general under a "neo-liberal" ideology he calls "Atlanticism". The most preferred form of government is a Russian fascist dictatorship and a totalitarian state with complete ideological control over society. In the 1990s, Dugin criticized Italian fascism and German Nazism as "not enough fascist", and accused China of anti-Russian subversion. In subsequent years he abandoned direct apology for fascism and prefers to speak from the positions of the conservative revolution and National Bolshevism, which, however, researchers also refer to varieties of fascism called the Fourth Position.

The Eurasia Movement is a National Bolshevik Russian political movement founded in 2001 by the political scientist Aleksandr Dugin.
The organization follows the neo-Eurasian ideology, which adopts an eclectic mixture of Russian patriotism, Orthodox faith, anti-modernism, and even some Bolshevik ideas. The organization opposes "American" values such as liberalism, capitalism, and modernism.

Criticism
Eurasianism has been criticized as an irredentist ideology rooted in "Russian exceptionalism" that attempts to maintain the Russian ethnic hegemony over non-Russian minorities living in modern Russia's spheres of influence through the creation of a new national mythos. Anti-Western orientation of Eurasianism has been weaponized in Putinist Russia to shut down any dissent from the official Kremlin line. Political scientist Anton Shekhovtsov defines Dugin's version of Neo-Eurasianism as "a form of a fascist ideology centred on the idea of revolutionising the Russian society and building a totalitarian, Russia-dominated Eurasian Empire that would challenge and eventually defeat its eternal adversary represented by the United States and its Atlanticist allies, thus bringing about a new 'golden age' of global political and cultural illiberalism".

Australian russologist Paul Dibb identifies Putin, supported by Panarin, Karaganov and Dugin, as having "begun to stress the geopolitics of what they call 'Eurasianism', which is an intellectual movement promoting an ideology of Russian–Asian greatness." In this context, a westernized Ukraine would be in the words of Karaganov "a spearhead aimed at the heart of Russia". Eurasianism would seem negatively to impact the Baltic countries, as well as Poland.

Igor Torbakov argued in June 2022 that "According to the Kremlin's geopolitical outlook, Russia could only successfully compete with the United States, China or the European Union if it acts as a leader of the regional bloc. Bringing Russia and its ex-Soviet neighbours into a closely integrated community of states, Russian strategists contend, would allow this Eurasian association to become one of the major centres of global and regional governance."

According to Clover, Eurasianism appeared to be all the rage in early 21st-century Russia. One commentator noted that during Putin's later years, it was "one of the best known and most frequently mentioned political movements of the period."

Pragmatic Eurasianism
Ideologically, President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev's speech in March 1994 at Moscow State University became the starting point for the implementation of a pragmatic Eurasianism. He proposed an integration paradigm that was fundamentally new at the time: to move towards a Eurasian Union based on economic integration and common defense. This vision has been later materialized in the Eurasian Economic Union and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Eurasianism in Nazarbayev's reading is seen as a system of foreign policy, economic ideas and priorities (as opposed to a philosophy). This type of Eurasianism is unequivocally open to the outside world.

Eurasian Economic Union

The Eurasian Economic Union was founded in January 2015, consisting of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and observer members Moldova, Uzbekistan and Cuba, all of them (except Cuba) being previous members of the Soviet Union. Members include states from both Europe and Asia; the union promotes political and economic cooperation among members.

Collective Security Treaty Organization

The Collective Security Treaty Organization is an intergovernmental military alliance that was signed on 15 May 1992. In 1992, six post-Soviet states belonging to the Commonwealth of Independent States – Russia, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan – signed the Collective Security Treaty (also referred to as the "Tashkent Pact" or "Tashkent Treaty"). Three other post-Soviet states – Azerbaijan, Belarus, and Georgia – signed the next year and the treaty took effect in 1994. Five years later, six of the nine – all but Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Uzbekistan – agreed to renew the treaty for five more years, and in 2002 those six agreed to create the Collective Security Treaty Organization as a military alliance. Uzbekistan rejoined the CSTO in 2006 but withdrew in 2012.

Eurasianist Foreign Policy Doctrine
Eursianist sentiments have been on the rise across Russian society since the ascent of Vladimir Putin in the country. In a poll conducted by Levada Center in 2021, 64% of Russian citizens identify Russia as a non-European country; while only 29% regarded Russia to be part of Europe.

In 2023, Russia adopted a Eurasianist, anti-Western foreign policy strategy in a document titled "The Concept of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation" approved by Vladimir Putin. The document defines Russia as a "unique country-civilization and a vast Eurasian and Euro-Pacific power" that seeks to create a "Greater Eurasian Partnership" by pursuing close relations with China, India, countries of the Islamic World and rest of the Global South (Latin America and Southern Africa). The policy identifies United States and other Anglo-Saxon countries as "the main inspirer, organizer and executor of the aggressive anti-Russian policy of the collective West" and seeks the end of geopolitical American dominance in the international scene. The document also adopts a neo-Soviet posture, positioning Russia as the successor state of USSR and calls for spreading "accurate information" about the "decisive contribution of the Soviet Union" in shaping the post-WWII international order and the United Nations.

Turkey

Since the late 1990s, Eurasianism has gained some following in Turkey among neo-nationalist (ulusalcı) circles. The most prominent figure who is associated with Dugin is Doğu Perinçek, the leader of the Patriotic Party (Vatan Partisi).

In literature
In the future time depicted in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty Four, the Soviet Union has mutated into Eurasia, one of the three superstates dominating the world.

Similarly, Robert Heinlein's story "Solution Unsatisfactory" depicts a future in which the Soviet Union would be transformed into "The Eurasian Union".

See also

 All-Russian nation
 Eurasian Economic Union
 Eurasian Observatory for Democracy and Elections
 Eurasia Party
 Eurasian Youth Union
 Intermediate Region
 Manifest destiny
 Proletarian internationalism
 Great Game
 Atlanticism
 Neo-Sovietism
 Nostalgia for the Soviet Union
 Rashism
 Russian irredentism
 Russian nationalism
 Conservatism in Russia
 Pan-nationalism
 Pan-Slavism
 Post-Soviet states
 Territorial evolution of Russia
 Belt and Road Initiative
 Lev Gumilyov
 Hungarian Turanism
 Pan-Turanism

References

Sources
The Mission of Russian Emigration, M.V. Nazarov. Moscow: Rodnik, 1994.
Russia Abroad: A comprehensive guide to Russian Emigration after 1917 also some Ustrialov's papers in the Library
The criticism towards the West and the future of Russia-Eurasia

Stefan Wiederkehr, Die eurasische Bewegung. Wissenschaft und Politik in der russischen Emigration der Zwischenkriegszeit und im postsowjetischen Russland (Köln u.a., Böhlau 2007) (Beiträge zur Geschichte Osteuropas, 39).

External links
 The Fourth Political Theory – Eurasianism
 Evrazia
 Geopolitika.ru
 GraNews.info
 Eurasianist-Archive.com

Conservatism in Russia
International relations theory
National Bolshevism
National mysticism
Pan-European nationalism
Pan-Europeanism
Pan-nationalism
Politics of Russia
Russian philosophy
Spheres of influence
White Russian emigration

Eurasianism


The Castle of Melgaço is located in Vila parish, Melgaço municipality, Viana do Castelo district, in Portugal.

As the main defense of the crossing of the Alto Minho river to Galicia, it constitutes the most northern sentry point in Portugal from the twelfth century.

History

Medieval era
The construction of the castle dates back to 1170 by order of the first King of Portugal Afonso Henriques (1112–1185). He granted a Foral charter to the town at the same time, encouraging the development of the town.

Afonso III (1248–1279) granted to the village in 1258 a second Foral Charter, promising privileges to the town.

In 1361 the traffic between Portugal and Galicia was required to pass through Melgaço demonstrating its importance at the time.

In the context of the 1383-1385 Portuguese succession crisis, the village and its castle followed the northern region of Portugal by expressing loyalty to Beatriz. It fell into Spanish hands but in early 1387, then governed by a Spanish mayor, the town suffered the harassment of the Portuguese troops under the command of John I (1385–1433), resisting their take over for nearly two months.

In 1492, Melgaço was one of only five places along the Spanish-Portuguese border where the Sephardic Jews expelled from Spain could enter Portugal. Still under the reign of King Manuel I, village defenses and its castle layout are figured in the  Duarte de Armas (Book of Fortresses, c. 1509), made up of three towers and two gates.

Present day
It is classified as a National Monument by decree published on June 23, 1910, and the wall of the village been classified in the same way, with publication on February 19, 1926.

The intervention of the government, however, only came to be felt in the 1960s, keeping the construction characteristics of the set. Recently, with the development of the village's historic core recovery projects, the keep of the castle was reclassified as a museum center, exposing the testimonies obtained by archaeological research.

Architecture
The castle has plant in circular shape, unusual in the country, divided into three precincts. The walls, where they tear two doors are surmounted by prismatic battlements and reinforced by three towers, the main one being that is focused on the urban core, pentagonal section. The set is dominated by the keep. The keep has a square shaped plan, isolated in the center of the parade ground. Both she and the surrounding wall were fully rebuilt, inferring to its Romanesque feature only the design of this set: a solid square tower isolated in the center of the walled enclosure. The tower is divided internally into three floors, illuminated by some chinks. The crown is made by a shot in counter with battlements, now reclassified as lookout of the archaeological museum established in the tower dependencies. Regarding the doors, they are two: the main gate to the west, larger, go to the square of weapons, which opens a cistern, where he would find the commander's residence; and the betrayal door to the north, smaller. They remain part of the Barbican on the main door and towers that flanked one of the doors of the fence. Thanks to recent archaeological research, which laid bare significant stretches of gothic fence, we can now make the idea of the original design.

References

External links

Melgaco
Buildings and structures in Melgaço, Portugal
Melgaco
National monuments in Viana do Castelo District

Castle of Melgaço


John Kendall (born 1631) was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons  at various times between 1659 and 1685.

Kendall was the eldest surviving son of John Kendall of Treworgey and his wife Mary. He was baptised on 7 August 1631. In 1649, he entered Lincoln's Inn.  He was a commissioner for poor prisoners in 1653 and a J.P. for Cornwall from 1653 to July 1660. In 1657 he was a commissioner for assessment 1657.

In 1659, Kendall was elected Member of Parliament for East Looe in the Third Protectorate Parliament. He became a commissioner for assessment in January 1660, a commissioner for  militia in March 1660, and a lieutenant colonel of the militia in April 1660. Also in April 1660, he was elected MP for West Looe in the Convention Parliament. On the restoration, he lost his position as JP. He was a commissioner for assessment  from 1663 to 1680. In 1673 he became freeman of  West Looe 1672  and in 1678 freeman of East Looe. He stood unsuccessfully for parliament at East Looe  twice in 1679, but was elected MP for East Looe in 1681 and sat until 1685.  He was reinstated as a JP for Cornwall in June 1688 and was commissioner for assessment from 1689 to 1700.

Kendall was unmarried. He died some time after  July 1702.

References

1631 births
Year of death missing
Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for East Looe
Members of Lincoln's Inn
English MPs 1659
English MPs 1660
English MPs 1681

John Kendall (MP)


Heikru Hidongba or Heiku Hitongpa (literally, "gooseberry on the boat") is an annual socio-religious ceremony performed at the moat of the Sagolband Bijoy Gobinda in Imphal West district of Manipur. It is celebrated in the 11th lunar day of the "Langban" month of the Meitei calendar (Manipuri calendar). Its main event is a boat race in which there is a ceremonial installations of the gooseberry fruits on the race boat. The festival is a type of Hiyang Tannaba.

Other website
 :en:Heikru Hidongba

References

Meitei festivals

Heikru Hidongba


Kingston University London is a public research university located within the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames, in South West London, England. Its roots go back to the Kingston Technical Institute, founded in 1899. It received university status in 1992, before which the institution was known as Kingston Polytechnic.

Kingston has around 17,000 students and a turnover of £192 million. It has four campuses situated in Kingston and Roehampton. The university specialises in the arts, design, fashion, science, engineering, and business and is organised into four faculties: Kingston School of Art, Faculty of Business and Social Sciences (which combines Kingston Business School and the School of Law, Social and Behavioural Sciences), Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education and Faculty of Engineering, Computing and the Environment. The Kingston Business School is CNAA MBA degree approved. In 2017, the university won The Guardian University Award for teaching excellence.  Kingston is a member of the European University Association, the Association of Commonwealth Universities and University Alliance group.

The University's Town House building, which was opened in January 2020, has picked up two prestigious awards – The 2021 Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) Stirling Prize, given to the best new building in the UK, and the Mies van der Rohe architecture award for the best building in the EU in 2022.

In June 2021, Kingston launched its Future Skills campaign, highlighting the importance of skills for innovation and the vital role they play in driving a thriving UK economy. The results of their 2021 and 2022 surveys, conducted with support from YouGov and sampling more than 2,000 businesses and 1,000 students, demonstrated key attributes such as problem-solving, critical thinking, communication, adaptability and creativity remain among the core skills most valued by employers.

History
Kingston was founded as Kingston Technical Institute in 1899, it offered courses in chemistry, electrical wiring, construction and nursing. In 1917 Gipsy Hill College for teacher training opened, a predecessor of Kingston University. Gipsy Hill College was created by Belle Rennie and led by an Australian named Lillian Daphne de Lissa. In 1930 the Kingston School of Art separated from the Technical Institute, later to become Kingston College of Art in 1945. In 1946 Gipsy Hill College moved to Kingston Hill. In 1951, the first Penrhyn Road campus buildings opened. Kingston was recognised as a 'Regional College of Technology' by the Ministry of Education in 1957. In 1970, the College of Technology merged with the College of Art to become Kingston Polytechnic, offering 34 major courses, of which 17 were at degree level. In 1975, Kingston merged with the Gipsy Hill College of Education, incorporating the college's faculty into Kingston's Division of Educational Studies.

Kingston was granted university status under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. In 1993, Kingston opened the Roehampton Vale campus building and in 1995, Kingston acquired Dorich House.

Campuses and estate

Penrhyn Road

This is the main university campus located close to Kingston town centre. Students based here study: Arts and Social Sciences, Civil Engineering, Computing and Information Systems and Mathematics, Earth Sciences and Geography, Statistics, Biosciences, Pharmacy, Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, and Radiography. Development at this site has extended to the Learning Resources Centre. In 2015, the Union of Kingston Students, moved into the main building. Penrhyn Road also houses the refurbished Fitness Centre.

Town House
Kingston University's Town House building was opened in January 2020 and is located on the Penrhyn Road campus. The six-storey building was the first by Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) Gold Medal-winning firm Grafton Architects in the United Kingdom and is open to students, staff and the local community.

The building work was carried out by Hertfordshire-based Willmott Dixon. It features a three-floor academic library, archive, dance studios and a studio theatre. It incorporates a covered internal courtyard, two cafes and external balconies and walkways culminating in a rooftop garden with views across Kingston upon Thames and the River Thames.

Town House has been nominated for several awards, including two The Guardian University Awards, and a RIBA London Regional Award. In October 2021, Town House was announced as the winner of the 25th RIBA Stirling Prize. In 2022 it won the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture.

Kingston Hill

Kingston Hill mainly caters to Nursing (adult, child, mental health and learning disability), Education, Business, Music and Social Care. Before 1989, this campus was known as Gipsy Hill.

The Business School moved to a new building on the Kingston Hill Campus in 2012.

Knights Park

Located on Grange Road, the Knights Park campus is home to some of the students from Kingston School of Art (KSA) - architecture, art and design students. The campus is built on the northern banks of the Hogsmill River and opened in 1939.

A £29 million refurbishment of the Mill Street workshops, studios and reception area, was completed in March 2020 and includes a gallery, a social space and an art shop. The regeneration project was shortlisted for a Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) London Regional Award.

Roehampton Vale
The Roehampton Vale campus was opened in 1993 by Sir William Barlow, the president of the Royal Academy of Engineering. The site is located on Friars Avenue, on the outskirts of Kingston.
This campus is purpose-built and completely dedicated to the study of engineering (aerospace, automotive, motor vehicle and mechanical engineering).

Facilities on site include a wind tunnel, engineering workshops, a flight simulator, a range of vehicles, a Learjet 25 plane, several large 3D printers, plus automotive and aeronautical learning resources.

Reg Bailey Theatre Complex
Former church converted into the Kingston Drama students' base, the Reg Bailey has two theatres with lighting and sound equipment, three rehearsal rooms and a costume room while its annexed Surrey Club is for Dance students. The Reg Bailey has been home to such alumni members as Ben Barnes, Sam Chan, Mandy Takhar, Alphonsia Emmanuel, Jessie Cave, Laura Harling and Trevor Eve.

Tolworth Court Sports Ground
The university's 55-acre sports ground houses twelve football pitches, two rugby pitches, three cricket squares, one American football pitch, one lacrosse pitch, two netball courts and three tennis courts.

Other locations
Additional to the four main campuses is an administration building: Hind Court on London Road which was home to the office of the Vice-Chancellor until 2018 when they moved to Holmwood House.

Furthermore, art and design studies students from Kingston School of Art are based at River House, on the High Street in Kingston town centre.

Organisation
Teaching and research are organised in four faculties.

Kingston School of Art
Kingston School of Art (KSA) was established as part of Kingston Technical Institute founded in 1899. The School of Art separated from the Technical College in 1930 and left Kingston Hall Road to move to Knights Park in 1939. It became Kingston College of Art in 1945 and merged back with the Technical College to form Kingston Polytechnic in 1970. The Polytechnic later became Kingston University in 1992, under which the school was known as the Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture (FADA) until 2017 when it reverted to its historic name.
Kingston School of Art delivers undergraduate and postgraduate programmes of study across three schools:

Faculty of Business and Social Sciences
The Faculty of Business and Social Sciences combines Kingston Business School and the School of Law, Social and Behavioural Sciences.

Kingston Business School (KBS) can be traced back to the 1960s. In 1985, the CNAA approved the school's Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree and the following year KBS moved to Kingston Hill Campus. The Business School is divided into four departments:

Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education
The Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education was founded in August 2022 and contains courses including nursing, midwifery, social work and teacher training education. The faculty also contains life sciences and chemistry and pharmacy courses, which were previously part of Kingston's former Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing – now the Faculty of Engineering, Computing and the Environment.

The new Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education was established after a formal partnership between Kingston University and St George's, University of London (SGUL) was mutually terminated in July 2022 after 26 years of working together training the next generation of healthcare workers, social workers and teachers. The faculty is based at the University's Kingston Hill and Penrhyn Road campuses in Kingston upon Thames.

Faculty of Engineering, Computing and the Environment
The Faculty of Engineering, Computing and the Environment was founded in August 2022 and contains courses including mechanical, civil and aerospace engineering, computing, cyber security, quantity surveying and geography.  The faculty is based at the University's Penrhyn Road and Roehampton Vale campuses.

Galleries and museums
The Stanley Picker Gallery is the Faculty's exhibition space which is now used to present a variety of research-based projects, fellowships and exhibitions. In 2003, the Stanley Picker Gallery gave birth to Transitstation, which was created/curated by Stanley Picker Fellow Dagmar Glausnitzer-Smith, and former gallery curator Charles Ryder. In 2003, the Director of Foundation Studies in Art and Design, Paul Stafford, converted a run-down public convenience in Kingston town centre into the Toilet Gallery.

Kingston University runs Dorich House Museum  which houses a huge collection of sculptor Dora Gordine's work, and fine examples of Russian Imperial art and furniture. Dorich House is also used as a meeting and conference venue.

Research
The Kingston School of Art runs a number of research centres:
Contemporary Art Research Centre ("CARC"), a Research Centre within the Department of Fine Art
Colour Design Research Centre
Screen Design Research Centre
Modern Interiors Research Design
Sustainable Design Research Centre
Centre for the Contemporary Visual & Material Culture
Curating Contemporary Design Research Group
Real Estate Research Group
Fashion Industry Research Centre
Fire, Explosion and Fluid Dynamics (FEFD)
Centre for Research in Modern European Philosophy (CRMEP)

Academic profile

Rankings and reputation
The Guardian placed Kingston 45th out of 128 surveyed universities. The Times/The Sunday Times Guide placed it at no. 92 (Good University Guide, 2022). In 2018, Kingston was ranked 1st out of 121 institutions for its graphic design and product design courses by The Guardian in 2017. In 2017, Kingston University won The Guardian University Award for teaching excellence. Kingston is ranked as one of the top 40 universities in the UK by The Guardian University Guide 2020, ranked in the top 250 in the world for Business & Economics by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2019 and ranked in the top 140 Global MBA rank according to "QS World University Rankings" (2020)

Student life

Union of Kingston Students
The Union of Kingston Students (UKS), formerly Kingston University Students' Union (KUSU), and in the 1990s KUGOS (Kingston University Guild of Students') is a charitable organisation representing the student body and aiming to provide services and activities beneficial to the student experience. It is a student union in the meaning of the term given in the Education Act 1994, and whilst independent of the university is funded by a block grant from it.

Halls of residence
The university has six halls of residence. Chancellors' and Walkden are based at the Kingston Hill campus. Middle Mill is adjacent to the Knights Park campus, while Clayhill and Seething Wells are on opposite sides of Surbiton. Finally, there is Kingston Bridge House which is situated on the edge of Bushy Park at the Hampton Wick end of Kingston Bridge, London.

International partners
The university holds a number of links with institutions from around the world to share teaching and research and facilitate staff and student exchanges. Kingston has a number of international 'Study Abroad' or 'Exchange' partner institutions.

Controversies

BMus external examiner
In 2008, the BBC obtained e-mails circulated within Kingston's School of Music, relating to the opinions of an external examiner moderating the BMus course. The messages showed that her final report caused considerable concern within the department. The examiner was persuaded to moderate her criticism following contact from a member of the university's staff. The e-mails also detailed a plan to replace her (at the end of her term) with a more experienced and broad-based external examiner, a process which Kingston stressed breaks no rules relating to the appointment of such examiners. In October 2008, Peter Williams, Chief Executive of the UK Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), presented the agency's findings to a Parliamentary Select Committee charged with investigating standards in British higher education. Following an investigation of the allegations by a former University staff member that undue pressure was applied to the School of Music's External Examiner, QAA upheld all charges of wrongdoing, as alleged.

Controversial speakers
In 2015, Prime Minister David Cameron named and shamed four British universities which gave platforms to allegedly 'extremist' speakers.

Kingston's Vice Chancellor Julius Weinberg defended his decision to allow controversial speakers in the name of free speech.

National Student Survey exaggeration
In 2008, an audio recording obtained by student media included two psychology lecturers asking students to inflate their graded opinions given as part of the National Student Survey. One member of staff was recorded as encouraging students to boost specific satisfaction scores, because "if Kingston comes down the bottom [of the league tables], then the bottom line is that nobody is going to want to employ you because they are going to think your degree is shit". In response, Vice-Chancellor Peter Scott confirmed that the recording was genuine but added that he believed that the incident was an isolated one. In July 2008, the Higher Education Funding Council of England removed the university's Department of Psychology of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences from the League Tables for the year as its sanction for having fraudulently manipulated the National Student Survey results.

Notable alumni

Notable faculty and staff

See also
 Armorial of UK universities
 List of universities in the United Kingdom
 Post-1992 universities

References

External links

Educational institutions established in 1992
1992 establishments in England
University Alliance
Universities in London
Universities UK
Education in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames

Kingston University


Ölziitiin Badrakh (; 1895 – July 30, 1941) was a Mongolian politician who served as secretary of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party from 1928 to 1932.  Blamed for the excesses of the "Leftist Deviation", he was expelled from the MPRP Central Committee in 1932.  He was arrested in 1937, accused of conspiring to create a separatist Dörvöd region.  He was tried and executed in Moscow on July 30, 1941.

Biography
Badrakh was born in present-day Davst district, Uvs Province in 1895. He served as Minister of Finance from 1924 to 1925. Known as one of the "rurals", he was one of several younger, more radicalized party members from rural areas (others included Jambyn Lkhümbe, Tsengeltiin Jigjidjav, Zolbingiin Shijee, Bat-Ochiryn Eldev-Ochir, and Peljidiin Genden) recruited by the Soviets in the late 1920s to challenge the MRPR "old guard" of Balingiin Tserendorj, Tseren-Ochiryn Dambadorj, and Anandyn Amar.

He was elected member of the MPRP Presidium (Politburo) from 1925 to 1932. At the Seventh MPRP Congress in October 1928, Badrakh was elected one of three secretaries of the MPRP Central Committee (a position he held until June 30, 1932) after the rightists under Tseren-Ochiryn Dambadorj were defeated.  He served briefly as First Secretary from December 11, 1928 until January 30, 1929.

He was expelled from Central Committee in 1932 for his role in the "Leftist Deviation" in which certain party leaders were blamed for overzealously and prematurely attempting to implement socialist policies of forced collectivization and property confiscation and was named minister of health from 1932 to 1934.  In 1937 he was arrested on charges of counterrevolution, accused of heading the "Badrakh Group" along with Zolbingiin Shijee that sought to create a breakaway autonomous Dörvöd region in present-day Uvs Province. He was sent to Moscow, sentenced to death by the Soviet Military Collegium of the USSR Supreme Court on July 7, 1941, and executed on July 30, 1941.

He was rehabilitated in 1963.

Notes

Finance ministers of Mongolia
Mongolian communists
Mongolian People's Party politicians
Communism in Mongolia
Great Purge victims from Mongolia
Mongolian people executed abroad
1895 births
1941 deaths
People from Uvs Province
Government ministers of Mongolia
Executed communists

Ölziitiin Badrakh


The Dunlap coke ovens are the remnants of a coke production facility near Dunlap, in the U.S. state of Tennessee.  Built in the early 1900s, the facility consists of five batteries of 268 beehive ovens, which operated under various companies until the early 1920s.  The ovens are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and are maintained by the Sequatchie Valley Historical Society as part of Dunlap Coke Ovens Park.

The rise of the steel industry during the Industrial Revolution brought about an exponential increase in the demand for coke, a fuel derived from the carbonization of coal that was used primarily in the production of pig iron.  The Dunlap coke facility, which converted coal mined atop Fredonia Mountain into coke for use in blast furnaces in nearby Chattanooga, brought drastic change and modernization to Dunlap and the central Sequatchie Valley, the economy of which had long been based on subsistence agriculture.  While the ovens themselves are all that remain from Dunlap's coke production operations, the Sequatchie Valley Historical Society has redeveloped the coke ovens area into a substantial public park and museum.

Location

The Sequatchie Valley is a long, narrow anticline valley carved into the southern section of the Cumberland Plateau.  Dunlap, the county seat of Sequatchie County, is located near the center of the valley.  The relatively steep walls of the Plateau rise roughly  above the valley floor, which is traversed by the Sequatchie River.  Fredonia Mountain, a section of the western valley wall, rises steeply a few miles west of Dunlap.  The Dunlap Coke Ovens are situated at the base of Fredonia Mountain, along a stream known as Coops Creek.  The ovens and surrounding park are located on Mountain View Road, just under a mile west of downtown Dunlap.

The Dunlap ovens and the coking process

The Dunlap coke ovens facility consists of five batteries— four "double" batteries of ovens built back-to-back in staggered formation, and one "single" battery of ovens resting against an embankment.  The batteries are all approximately  tall and  wide, and range in length from  to .  The largest battery contains 100 ovens built back-to-back, and the smallest battery contains 24 built back-to-back.  The lone "single" battery contains 38 ovens, and measures .  Each battery rests on a foundation of clay.

The ovens themselves are  in diameter, with sandstone exteriors and firebrick interiors.  Each oven has an opening at the top and a "window" on the side.  In the early 1900s, railroad tracks ran across the top of each battery.  An incline railway connected the ovens to a coal mine further up the mountain slope, and railroad cars would carry coal from the mine to the tops of the batteries and dump the coal into the ovens' top openings.

During the coking process, a laborer would level the deposited coal through the side window using a scaper.  Once the coal was ready, the side window would be sealed with clay, leaving a  opening to allow the entry of air.  The process, which essentially involves heating bituminous coal in a closed chamber to remove its volatile material, took about 72 hours.  At the end of the process, the clay seal was broken, and the coke was removed and placed on a train for shipment to an iron furnace in Chattanooga.  Two tons of coal typically produced one ton of coke.

History

The arrival of the railroad in the 1880s brought major coal mining operations to the southern Cumberland Plateau.  Coal was first mined on Fredonia Mountain in 1899, although it was considered too soft for domestic purposes.  The following year, the Douglas Coal and Coke Company purchased a  tract of land around the base of Fredonia Mountain for the mining of coal and production of coke. By 1902, Douglas had constructed the first 50 coke ovens, developed several coal mines, built the incline railway, and had established a company town with a commissary and clubhouse.  The company suffered from labor problems, however, and never quite developed a method of separating the dirt from the coal.  In 1904, Douglas halted operations.

The Chattanooga Iron and Coal Company purchased the Douglas operation in 1905, and the following year built a steam-powered coal washer and constructed additional coke ovens.  Chattanooga Iron and Coal owned quarries in Georgia and a blast furnace in the Tannery Flats section of Chattanooga.  At its blast furnace, the company used coke from its Dunlap operation to convert iron ore mined at its Georgia quarries into pig iron.  The operation proved profitable until 1916, when a boiler explosion destroyed its coal washer.  The company built a new washer and added more coke ovens that year, but the cost and poor performance of the new washer drained the company financially.  In 1919, the company sold its entire iron and coke operation to the Southern States Iron and Coal Company.

By 1920, Dunlap effectively consisted of two towns, just under a mile apart.  Dunlap proper (the town's courthouse square and downtown area) had a population of 765, whereas the company town operated by Southern States Iron and Coal (at the present coke ovens park site) had a population of 700.  The company's 350-man Dunlap workforce included a sizeable African-American population that was segregated.  The coke ovens required a crew of 85 to remain in full operation.  Southern States Iron and Coal produced coke at Dunlap until 1922, when it shut down its Dunlap operations.  In 1928, brothers E.P. and E.K. Rosamund purchased Southern States' Dunlap properties with plans to revive the coke operation, but with the onset of the Great Depression and plummeting coal prices, their plans never materialized.

Dunlap Coke Ovens Park

After the 1920s, the Dunlap Coke Ovens lay dormant for over a half century.  By the 1980s, all that remained of the Dunlap operations were the ovens, a slate pile and coal washer ruins, two company houses (drastically modified), and the clubhouse.  Some of the ovens retained only their sandstone frame, some retained only their brick interiors, and some had collapsed entirely.

In 1985, the ovens were added to the National Register of Historic Places.  The property, which had come under the ownership of the Bowater Corporation, was donated to the Sequatchie Valley Historical Association later that same year.  With the help of hundreds of volunteers, the association cleared tons of trash from the area, and the Dunlap Coke Ovens Park opened in 1987.  To raise funds for park staffing and maintenance, the Sequatchie Valley Historical Association built an amphitheater adjacent to one of the oven batteries, and held its first annual Coke Ovens Bluegrass Festival.  In 1989, the park received $71,000 (~$ in ) from the estate of Rhea County historian David Henry Gray, which it used to reconstruct the commissary on its original foundation.  The reconstructed building now houses the Coke Ovens Museum.

Along with the museum, ovens, and amphitheater, Dunlap Coke Ovens Park includes a coal mine replica with mining machinery on display, the ruins of the 1906 coal washer, a replica of the Dunlap depot, a caboose, and various park shelters.  A hiking trail now follows the incline railway grade to the former mining areas atop Fredonia Mountain.

Annual bluegrass festival

The park's signature event is the annual bluegrass festival, which takes place the first weekend in June. The event attracts bands and fans from around the region, including the strong bluegrass community in Chattanooga. The festival continues the long friendship between bluegrass musicians and the historical association. Local pickers played an integral role in the development of the park from the beginning, providing effort, connections, and entertainment to help with clean-up, construction, and fundraising. The event is promoted as family-friendly.

Documentary

In 2008, filmmaker Charli Wyatt produced a half-hour program about the park and bluegrass festival. "Coke Ovens Slaves" tells the story of the volunteers and musicians who work to preserve local history and culture through the Coke Ovens park and festival. The program aired several times on Chattanooga's PBS station, WTCI. A DVD was also released locally. The title of the film refers to a song written by Ed Brown, the festival's music director and an original member of the historical society.

Bluegrass monument

In 2008, a group of local bluegrass fans erected and dedicated a monument to those bluegrass musicians who have performed at the park or in the Sequatchie Valley. Musicians' names are inscribed on stone slabs on each side of the monument.

References

External links

Dunlap Coke Ovens Museum — official site
Tennessee History for Kids article about the park

Buildings and structures in Sequatchie County, Tennessee
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee
Coal in the United States
Museums in Sequatchie County, Tennessee
Mining museums in Tennessee
Industry museums in Tennessee
Protected areas of Sequatchie County, Tennessee
Parks in Tennessee
Coke ovens
National Register of Historic Places in Sequatchie County, Tennessee

Dunlap coke ovens


Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms which culminated in the Decree of Tanzimat ("reorganization") that was carried out by his successors. His disbandment of the conservative Janissary corps removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. Mahmud's reign was also marked by further Ottoman military defeat and loss of territory as a result of nationalist uprisings and European intervention.

Mahmud ascended the throne following a 1808 coup which deposed his half-brother Mustafa IV. Early in his reign, the Ottoman Empire ceded Bessarabia to Russia at the end of the 1806–1812 Russo-Turkish War. Greece waged a successful war of independence that started in 1821 with British, French and Russian support, and Mahmud was forced to recognize the independent Greek state in 1832. The Ottomans lost more territory to Russia after the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, and Ottoman Algeria was conquered by France beginning in 1830.

The Empire's continued decline convinced Mahmud to resume the reforms that were halted before he came to power. His reign was characterized by a major interest in Westernization; institutions, palace order, daily life, clothing, music and many other areas saw radical reform as the Ottoman Empire opened up to the modernization. In 1826, he orchestrated the Auspicious Incident, in which the Janissary corps were forceably abolished and many of its members executed, paving the way for the establishment of a modern Ottoman Army and further military reforms. Mahmud also made sweeping changes to the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase administrative efficiency, and oversaw a reorganisation of the Ottoman foreign office. In 1839, Mahmud introduced a Council of Ministers. He died of tuberculosis later that year and was succeeded by his son Abdulmejid I, who would continue to implement his modernization efforts.

Early life
Mahmud II was born on 20 July 1785, in the month of Ramazan. He was the son of Abdul Hamid I and his Seventh consort Nakşidil Kadin. He was the youngest son of his father, and the second child of his mother, he had an elder brother, Şehzade Seyfullah Murad, two years older than him, and a younger sister, Saliha Sultan, one year younger than him. According to tradition, he was confined in the Kafes after the death of his father.

Accession
His mother was Nakşidil Valide sultan. In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor, and half-brother, Mustafa IV ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III, in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, later became Mahmud II's vizier.

There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian Ahmed Cevdet Pasha gives the following account: one of his slaves, a Georgian girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as padishah. The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed haznedar usta, the chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the Altınyol (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her.

Reign overview
The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful.

Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12

After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor Napoleon I of France declared war on Russia in 1811, Russian repression on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his invasion of Russia. He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of Moldavia to Russia (which renamed the territory as Bessarabia), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In Transcaucasia, the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: Poti, Anapa and Akhalkalali. Russia retained Sukhum-Kale on the Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the Kingdom of Imereti, in 1810. The treaty was approved by Emperor Alexander I of Russia on June 11, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to get many of their soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas of the empire before the expected attack of Napoleon.

War against the Saudi state

During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully waged the Ottoman-Saudi War and reconquered the holy cities of Medina (1812) and Mecca (1813) from the First Saudi State.

Abdullah bin Saud and the First Saudi State had barred Muslims from the Ottoman Empire from entering the holy shrines of Mecca and Medina; his followers also desecrated the tombs of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Hassan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were publicly beheaded for their crimes against holy cities and mosques.

Greek War of Independence

His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece declaring independence following a rebellion that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch Gregory V executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising. During the Battle of Erzurum (1821), part of the Ottoman-Persian War (1821-1823), Mahmud II's superior force was routed by Abbas Mirza, resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the Treaties of Erzurum. Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Navarino; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the French conquest of Algeria, an Ottoman province (see Ottoman Algeria) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements.

The Auspicious Incident

One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the Janissary corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops and burned the Belgrade forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants. This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers of Rumelia and Asia Minor. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned Ali Pasha of Tepelena. He sent his Grand Vizier to execute the Bosniak military commander Husein Gradaščević and dissolve the Bosnia Eyalet.

Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29
Another Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was fought without janissaries. Marshal von Diebitsch was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before Adrianople. Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the banner of the prophet and declared his intention of taking command of the army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. The Divan, British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace.

Tanzimat reforms

In 1839, just prior to his death, he began preparations for the Tanzimat reform era which included introducing a Council of Ministers or the Meclis-i Vukela. The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in the Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform.

He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of Turkish bows, from which comes most of what is now known of Turkish archery.

Mahmud II died of tuberculosis, in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son Abdulmejid I succeeded him and would continue to implement Tanzimat reform efforts.

Reforms

Legal reforms
Among his reforms are the edicts (or firmans), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the Pashas.

Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile delators.

The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the Paşas, the Ağas, and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadı, and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could lodge an appeal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further.

About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of abstaining from attendance.  The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I, and was considered one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.

Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the vakıfs, by placing their revenues under state administration.  However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on alcoholic beverages in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers. By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire.

The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and certain social classes had long been under the oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs. A firma dated February 22, 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."

The haraç, or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the Kadı, the Muslim governors, and the Ayans, or municipal chiefs of Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished.  Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.

Military reforms

Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the "Tımar"s, and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose.  By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the Dere Beys, the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire.

The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not affected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by Dere Beys.

One of his most notable achievement was the abolition (through use of military force, execution and exile, and banning of the Bektashi order) of the Janissary Corps, event known as The Auspicious Incident, in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman Army, named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (meaning 'Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad' in Ottoman Turkish).

Following the loss of Greece after the Battle of Navarino against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years, the 201 x 56 kadem (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or   ship of the line Mahmudiye, which had 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Naval Arsenal (Tersâne-i Âmire) on the Golden Horn in Constantinople (kadem, which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot, hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.)

Other reforms

During his reign, Mahmud II also made sweeping reforms of the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase the administrative efficiency of his government. This was accomplished by abolishing old offices, introducing new lines of responsibility, and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery. In 1838 he founded two institutions aimed towards training government officials. In 1831, Mahmud II also established an official gazette, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events). This was the first newspaper to be published in the Ottoman-Turkish language and was required reading for all civil servants.

Clothing was also an essential aspect of Mahmud II's reforms. He began by officially adopting the fez for the military after the Janissary eradication in 1826, which signified a break from the old style of military dress. On top of this, he ordered civilian officials to also adopt a similar, but plain, fez to distinguish them from the military. He planned for the population to adopt this as well, as he desired a homogeneous look for Ottoman society with an 1829 regulatory law. Unlike past Sultanic clothing decrees and those of other societies, Mahmud II wanted all levels of government and civilians to look the same. He faced significant resistance to these measures specifically from religious groups, laborers, and military members because of traditional, religious, and practical reasons. Mahmud II's portraits also give a valuable insight into his clothing mentality, as he switched to a more European-style and fez after 1826.

On top of these reforms, Mahmud II was also critical in the establishment and flourishing of an Ottoman foreign affairs office. While he built upon Selim III's foundational elements of international diplomacy, Mahmud II was the first to create the title of Foreign Minister and Undersecretary in 1836. He placed enormous importance on this position and equated salary and rank with the highest military and civilian positions. Mahmud II also expanded the Language Office and Translation Office, and by 1833 it began to grow in both size and importance. After the reorganization of these offices, he also resumed Selim's efforts to create a system of permanent diplomatic representation in Europe. In 1834, permanent European embassies were established with the first being in Paris. Despite the difficulties that came along with these actions, the expansion of diplomacy increased the transmission of ideas that would have a revolutionary effect on the development of bureaucracy and Ottoman society as a whole.

Family

Consorts
Mahmud II had at least eighteen consorts:
 Fatma Kadın (? – February 1809). BaşKadin (First Consort) for one year before her death.
 Alicenab Kadın (? – before 1839). BaşKadin after Fatma's death. Mother of at least one son.
 Hacıye Pertevpiyale Nevfidan Kadın (4 January 1793 – 27 December 1855). Mahmud's concubine already when he was a prince (conceived their first daughter, Fatma Sultan, born six months after her father's accession to the throne, in this period, thus violating the rules of the harem that forbade the princes to have children until the eventual ascent al tronk), became BaşKadin after Alicenab's death. She was the mother of at least one son and four daughters, and she also raised Adile Sultan when she was orphaned on 1830. Abdülmecid I of her allowed her to go on pilgrimage to Mecca, which earned her the name "Haciye".
 Dilseza Kadın (? – 1816). Second Kadın. Mother of at least two sons. Buried in the mausoleum of the Dolmabahçe Palace.
 Mislinayab Kadın (? – before 1825). Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
 Kameri Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Kamerfer Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
 Ebrirefar Kadın (? – before 1825). Also called Ebrureftar Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
 Bezmialem Kadın (1807 – 2 May 1853). Called also Bazimialam Kadın. Georgian, she was educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's sister, and, first to be a consort, she work in the hamam (freshroom) of her palace. Third Kadın and then Second Kadin from 1832. Mother and Valide Sultan of Abdülmecid I.
 Aşubcan Kadin (1793 – 10 June 1870). Mother of at least three daughters. Quinta Kadın in 1811 and then Second.
 Vuslat Kadın (? – May 1831). Third Kadın.
 Zernigar Kadın (? – 1830). Of Armenian descent, her real name was Maryam. Educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's half-sister. Mother of a daughter. Fourth Ikbal in 1826, then Seventh Kadın and finally Third Kadın.
 Nurtab Kadın (1810 – 2 January 1886). Fourth Kadın. She was the adoptive mother of Şevkefza Sultan, mother of Murad V. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
 Hacıye Hoşyar Kadın (? – 1859, Mecca). Mother of two daughters. Third Kadın and then Second. Tall and blonde, she had been educated by Beyhan Sultan, daughter of Mustafa III.
 Pervizfekek Kadın (? – 21 September 1863). Mother of at least three daughters. She was Sixth Kadın in 1824. She was buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.
 Pertevniyal Kadın (1812 – 5 February 1883). Mother of two sons, including Abdülaziz I. Second Ikbal and later Fifth Kadın.
 Hüsnimelek Hanim (1807/1812 – October 1867). Also called Hüsnümelek Hanim. BaşIkbal (First Ikbal). She was educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's sister. He saw her play at a banquet hosted by her sister and asked for it for himself. She was of great musical talent, and she composed a song for the sultan, entitled Hüsnümelek bir peridir/Cümlesinin dilberidir. She did not live in the harem but in a separate wing of the palace. After Mahmud's death she became a dance teacher in the harem of his heir and son Abdülmecid I. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.
 Tiryal Hanim (1810–1883). Third Ikbal. Perhaps the mother of a child, she loved Abdülaziz I as if he were her own son, and he too considered her a second mother, so much so that during his reign, he guaranteed her the same treatment as his own mother, making her live in the Beylerbeyi Palace and granting her wealth and prestige, and everyone considered Tiryal the second Valide Sultan. Tiriyal donated her villa in Çamlıca to Şehzade Yusuf Izzedin, Abdülaziz's eldest son, whom she considered her grandson. He built a glass pavilion and fountain in Çamlıca and a second fountain in Üsküdar. She took care of the education of Dilpesend Kadın, who became the consort of Abdülhamid II, grandson of Mahmud II through his son Abdülmecid I. She was buried in the Yeni Cami, in front of the fountain built in her name.
 Lebrizfelek Hanim (1810 – 9 February 1865). Fourth Ikbal. She died in the Dolmabahçe Palace and was buried in the courtyard of the Yeni Cami.

Sons

Mahmud had at least eighteen sons, of which only two lived to adulthood:
 Şehzade Murad (25 December 1811 – 14 July 1812). Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
 Şehzade Bayezid (23 March 1812 – 25 June 1812) – with Dilseza Kadin. Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.
 Şehzade Abdülhamid (6 March 1813 – 20 April 1825) – with Alicenab Kadın. Buried in the mausoleum Nakşidil Sultan.
 Şehzade Osman (12 June 1813 – 10 April 1814) – with Nevfidan Kadin. Twin of Emine Sultan. Buried in the Nurosmaniye Mosque.
 Şehzade Ahmed (25 July 1814 – 16 July 1815). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Mehmed (26 August 1814 – November 1814) – with Dilseza Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Mehmed (4 August 1816 – August 1816). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Süleyman (29 August 1817 – 14 December 1819). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Ahmed (13 October 1819 – December 1819). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Ahmed (25 December 1819 – January 1820). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Abdüllah (1820 – 1820). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Mehmed (12 February 1822 – 23 October 1822). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Şehzade Ahmed (6 July 1822 – 9 April 1823). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Abdülmecid I (25 April 1823 – 25 June 1861) – with Bezmialem Kadın. 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was the last sultan to born on Topkapi Palace, after the imperial palace became the Beşiktaş Palace.
 Şehzade Ahmed (5 December 1823 – 1824).
 Şehzade Abdülhamid (18 February 1827 – 1829). Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
 Abdulaziz (18 February 1830 – 4 June 1876) – with Pertevniyal Kadin. 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
 Şehzade Nizameddin (29 December 1833 – March 1838) – with Pertevniyal Kadin or Tiriyal Hanim.

Daughters
Mahmud II had at least nineteen daughters, but only six survived infancy and only four reached the age of marriage:
 Fatma Sultan (4 February 1809 – 5 August 1809) – with Nevfidan Kadin. Her birth, the first in the imperial dynasty after 19 years and just six months after her father's accession to the throne, caused scandal, as it meant she must have been conceived when Mahmud was still Şehzade and confined to Kafes, which was forbidden at the time. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Nurosmaniye Mosque.
 Ayşe Sultan (5 July 1809 – February 1810) – with Aşubcan Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Fatma Sultan (30 April 1810 – 7 May 1825) – with Nevfidan Kadin. She died of smallpox and was buried in the mausoleum Nakşidil Sultan.
 Saliha Sultan (16 June 1811 – 5 February 1843) – with Aşubcan Kadin. She married once and had two sons and a daughter.
 Şah Sultan (22 May 1812 – September 1814) – with Aşubcan Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Mihrimah Sultan (10 June 1812 – 3 July 1838) – with Hoşyar Kadın. She married once and had a son.
 Emine Sultan (12 June 1813 – July 1814) – with Nevfidan Kadin. Twin sister of Şehzade Osman. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Atiye Sultan (2 January 1824 – 11 August 1850) – with Pervizfelek Kadın. She married once and had two daughters.
 Şah Sultan (14 October 1814 – 13 April 1817) – her mother was the Fourth Kadın. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Emine Sultan (7 January 1815 – 24 September 1816) – with Nevfidan Kadin. She died in Beylerbeyi Palace in a fire. She was buried in the Yahya Efendi mausoleum.
 Zeynep Sultan (18 April 1815 – February 1816) – with Hoşyar Kadın. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Hamide Sultan (14 July 1817 – July 1817).
 Cemile Sultan (1818 – 1818).
 Hamide Sultan (4 July 1818 – 15 February 1818). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque.
 Münire Sultan (16 October 1824 – 23 May 1825). She died of smallpox and was buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
 Hatice Sultan (6 September 1825 – 19 December 1842) – Pervizfelek Kadın. She died in the Beşiktaş Palace.
 Adile Sultan (23 May 1826 – 12 February 1899) – with Zernigar Kadın. After being orphaned on 1830, she was raised by Navfidan Kadın. She married once and had a son and three daughters.
 Fatma Sultan (20 July 1828 – 2 February 1839) – with Pervizfelek Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.
 Hayriye Sultan (22 March 1831 – 15 February 1833). She was buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.

In fiction
The 2006 historical detective novel The Janissary Tree, by Jason Goodwin, is set in 1836 Constantinople, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes.

The 1989 film Intimate Power, also known as The Favorite, is adapted from a historical fiction novel by Prince Michael of Greece. It portrays a legend about Aimée du Buc de Rivéry as a young captured French girl who, after spending years in an Ottoman harem, outlives two Sultans and protects Mahmud as his surrogate mother. Mahmud is a minor role in the film but is portrayed as both an adult and a child. The film concludes with a variation of his dramatic succession.

See also
 Atçalı Kel Mehmet Efe
 Sened-i İttifak

References

 Incorporates text from Edward Shepherd Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks; From the beginning of their empire to the present time (1878).

Bibliography

Further reading
 Levy, Avigdor. "The Officer Corps in Sultan Mahmud II's New Ottoman Army, 1826–39." International Journal of Middle East Studies (1971) 2#1 pp: 21–39. online
 Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Ulema and the military reforms of Sultan Mahmud II." Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 13–39.
 Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Corps in Sultan Mahmud II New Ottoman Army." International Journal of Middle East Studies 1 (1971): pp 39+
 Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1992) ch 6

External links

1785 births
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Royalty from Istanbul
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Ottoman people of the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)
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Mahmud II


Long Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago of southeastern Alaska, United States. It lies across the Kaigani Strait from the southern portion of Dall Island and west of the southern part of Prince of Wales Island. Directly to its north is Sukkwan Island.  Long Island forms part of the western boundary of Cordova Bay, and has a land area of 116.136 km2 (44.84 sq mi) and was unpopulated at the 2000 census.

Long Island was the site of the Kaigani Haida village of Howkan, once one of the largest Haida villages, which may originally have been a winter residence. During the 19th century it was cited variously as having 300-500 residents. The Haida village of Koianglas (Kweundlas) was also located on Long Island. Additionally there was an old Haida site near Kaigani Point at the southern end of the island.

In the early 19th century maritime fur traders frequented Kaigani Strait on the west side of Long Island, especially American Bay, Datzkoo Harbor, and the Kaigani Harbors on Dall Island facing Long Island, collectively known as "Kaigani", trading with the Kaigani Haida of Long Island, Dall Island, and the greater vicinity.

It was home to a logging camp in the 1980s, including a three-room school house.

Demographics

Long Island appeared once on the 1990 U.S. Census as a census-designated place. It was dissolved effective 2000 with the closure of the logging camp. This is not to be confused with the former city of Long Island, which is now within Big Lake.

References

Islands of the Alexander Archipelago
Islands of Prince of Wales–Hyder Census Area, Alaska
Islands of Alaska
Islands of Unorganized Borough, Alaska

Long Island (Alaska)


Janet (Jan) Thomas is an Australian mathematician and educator. Together with Tony Guttman and Garth Gaudry she established the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute (AMSI). She served as its executive officer until 2011. She is currently a senior fellow of AMSI.

Thomas was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia in the 2013 Australia Day Honours for service to the mathematical sciences.

Thomas began her career lecturing in the  School of
Education, Victoria University, Australia.  Throughout her career Thomas has held various leadership positions within the mathematical sciences in Australia.  She was the Executive Officer of the Australian Mathematical Society from 1996 to 2003.
She established the Australian Council of Heads of Mathematical Sciences, this group is now administered by AMSI.

From 1997 to 2001 Thomas was Vice-President of Federation  of  Australian  Scientific  and  Technological  Societies  (FASTS), (now Science & Technology Australia).  In 2000 Thomas authored the report Mathematical Science in Australia: Looking for a Future   published by the FASTS.  This report made a significant impact, and was quoted in parliamentary speeches.

References

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Australian women mathematicians
20th-century Australian mathematicians
21st-century Australian  mathematicians
20th-century women mathematicians
21st-century women mathematicians

Janet Thomas


Joshua Thomas Bell (13 March 1863 – 10 March 1911) was an Australian barrister and politician.

Bell was the son of Sir Joshua Peter Bell, and his wife Margaret Miller, née Dorsey and was born in Ipswich, Queensland. Bell was educated at Brisbane Grammar School and University of Cambridge, where he became president of the union.

Bell was admitted to the English bar and was a marshal on the Northern Assizes circuit in 1888. In 1889 Bell returned to Australia and a year later became private secretary to Sir Samuel Griffith. In 1893 Bell was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Queensland for the electoral district of Dalby in which his family home, Jimbour Homestead, was located. He was to hold this seat for the rest of his life. Bell was elected chairman of committees in 1902 and in September 1903 joined the Arthur Morgan ministry as minister for lands. William Kidston succeeded Morgan in January 1906 but Bell held his old position in the new cabinet until November 1907, and was also minister for railways from February to July of that year. Bell was minister for lands in the second Kidston ministry from February to October 1908, and then home secretary until 29 June 1909, when he was elected speaker.

In 1901, Bell unsuccessfully contested the federal seat of Darling Downs in Australia's first federal by-election, but he was defeated by Littleton Ernest Groom, the son of the original member.

Bell died at Rakeevan, his Graceville residence on 10 March 1911 after a long illness. He had married in 1903 a daughter of John Ferguson, who survived him with a son and a daughter. Bell was accorded a state funeral which proceeded from St John's Anglican Cathedral to the Toowong Cemetery where he was buried next to his father.

References

Bibliography

 D. B. Waterson, 'Bell, Joshua Thomas (1863 - 1911)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 7, Melbourne University Press, 1979, p. 258. Retrieved 6 July 2009
 Bell, Joshua Thomas  — Brisbane City Council Grave Location Search

External links
 Joshua Thomas Bell entry on Jimbour History. Jimbour Homestead was the Bell family home for many years.

1863 births
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Members of the Queensland Legislative Assembly
Burials at Toowong Cemetery
Speakers of the Queensland Legislative Assembly
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Joshua Thomas Bell