Georges-Claude Guilbert (born May 18, 1959) is a French literary critic and academic who teaches American literature, gender studies, and popular culture. He is Professor in American Studies at the University of Havre, France.

He was one of the editors of Arobase and Cercles  from 1996 to 2006.

He is one of the editors of GRAAT On-Line .

In 2012 he was Distinguished Senior Scholar in Residence at the Department of Gender Studies at Indiana University Bloomington. He did part of his research at the Kinsey Institute.

Bibliography

Carson McCullers : amours décalées, Paris: Belin, 1999.
Madonna as Postmodern Myth, Jefferson: McFarland, 2002. Translated into Korean, Catalan and French.
C'est pour un garçon ou pour une fille ? La Dictature du genre, Paris: 2004.
Le Mythe Madonna, Paris: Nouveau Monde, 2004.
El mite Madonna, Barcelone: Eumo, 2004.
Literary Readings of Billy Wilder, Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007.
Après Hanoï : Les mémoires brouillés d'une princesse vietnamienne, Paris: Publibook, 2011.
Gay Icons: The (Mostly) Female Entertainers Gay Men Love, Jefferson: McFarland, 2018.

Work quoted in books and articles

Myth: A Handbook. William G. Doty. Greenwood Press, 2004.
Sex Sells! The Media's Journey from Repression to Obsession. Basic Books, 2004.
The Empire of Mind: Digital Piracy and the Anti-Capitalist Movement. Michael Strangelove. University of Toronto Press, 2005.
E Pluribus Multitudinum: The New World of Journal Publishing in American Studies, Giles, Paul & Ellis, R. J. American Quarterly, Volume 57, Number 4, December 2005, pp. 1033-1078 (Article)
The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Literary History. Ellen Rooney, ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
American Culture in the 1980s. Graham Thompson. Edinburgh University Press, 2007.
Kate Bush and Hounds of Love. Ron Moy. Ashgate, 2007.
Maiden USA: Girl Icons Come of Age. Kathleen Sweeney. Peter Lang, 2008.
Doing Gender in Media, Art and Culture. Rosemarie Buikema & Iris van der Tuin. Routledge, 2009.
Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Voices, and Viewpoints. Roger Chapman, ed. M.E. Sharpe, 2009.

References

External links

 Author's own website
 Department of Gender Studies, Indiana University Bloomington

1959 births
Living people

Georges-Claude Guilbert


Lackeen Castle, a tower house within a bawn built in the 12th century as a Kennedy stronghold (rebuilt in the 16th century). The castle is a national monument in state ownership and is located in the townland of Abbeville near to Lorrha in County Tipperary, Ireland. It is occasionally open to the public. Close by, stands Lackeen House dating from around 1730.

Lorrha Missal

It was at Lackeen Castle that the Lorrha Missal, which is strictly speaking a sacramentary rather than a missal, was found. An Irish illuminated manuscript written mainly in Latin with some Gaelic in the late eighth or early ninth century, probably after 792. In the mid-11th century it was annotated and some pages rewritten at Lorrha Monastery. It is also known as the "Stowe" Missal as it once belonged to the Stowe manuscripts collection formed by George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 1st Marquess of Buckingham at Stowe House.  When the collection was bought by the nation in 1883, it and the other Irish manuscripts were handed over to the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin, where it remains, catalogued as MS D II 3. The cumdach or reliquary case which up to this point had survived together with the book was later transferred, with the rest of the Academy's collection of antiquities, to the National Museum of Ireland (museum number 1883, 614a). The old story was that the manuscript and shrine left Ireland after about 1375, as they were collected on the Continent in the 18th century, but this appears to be incorrect, as they were found here at Lackeen Castle in the 18th century.

References

Castles in County Tipperary
Ruins in the Republic of Ireland
Lorrha

Lackeen Castle


In Greek mythology, Moros /ˈmɔːrɒs/ or Morus /ˈmɔːrəs/ (Ancient Greek: Μόρος means 'doom, fate') is the 'hateful' personified spirit of impending doom, who drives mortals to their deadly fate. It was also said that Moros gave people the ability to foresee their death. His Roman equivalent was Fatum.

Family
Moros is the offspring of Nyx, the primordial goddess of the night. It is suggested by Roman authors that Moros was sired by Erebus, primordial god of darkness. However, in Hesiod's Theogony it is suggested that Nyx bore him by herself, along with several of her other children.

Regardless of the presence or absence of Moros' father, this would make him the brother of the Moirai, or the Fates. Among his other siblings are Thanatos and the Keres, death spirits who represented the physical aspects of death—Keres being the bringers of violent death and terminal sickness, while Thanatos represents a more peaceful passing.

Hesiod's account

And Nyx (Night) bore hateful Moros (Doom) and black Ker (Violent Death) and Thanatos (Death), and she bore Hypnos (Sleep) and the tribe of Oneiroi (Dreams). And again the goddess murky Night, though she lay with none, bare Momos (Blame) and painful Oizys (Misery) and the Hesperides who guard the rich, golden apples and the trees bearing fruit beyond glorious Ocean. Also she bore the Moirai (Destinies) and ruthless avenging Keres (Death Fates), Clotho and Lachesis and Atropos, who give men at their birth both evil and good to have, and they pursue the transgressions of men and of gods: and these goddesses never cease from their dread anger until they punish the sinner with a sore penalty. Also deadly Night bore Nemesis (Indignation) to afflict mortal men, and after her, Apate (Deceit) and Philotes (Friendship) and hateful Geras (Old age) and hard-hearted Eris (Strife).

Hyginus's account

From Nox/ Nyx (Night) and Erebus [were born]: Fatum/ Moros (Fate), Senectus/ Geras (Old Age), Mors/ Thanatos (Death), Letum (Dissolution), Continentia/ Sophrosyne (Moderation), Somnus/ Hypnos (Sleep), Somnia/ Oneiroi (Dreams), Amor (Love)--that is Lysimeles, Epiphron (Prudence), Porphyrion, Epaphus, Discordia/ Eris (Discord), Miseria/ Oizys (Misery), Petulantia/ Hybris (Wantonness), Nemesis (Envy), Euphrosyne (Good Cheer), Amicitia/ Philotes (Friendship), Misericordia/ Eleos (Compassion), Styx (Hatred); the three Parcae/ Moirai (Fates), namely Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos; the Hesperides.

Cicero's account

Their [Aether and Hemera's] brothers and sisters, whom the ancient genealogists name Amor/ Eros (Love), Dolus (Guile), Metus/ Deimos (Fear), Labor/ Ponus (Toil), Invidentia/ Nemesis (Envy), Fatum/ Moros (Fate), Senectus/ Geras (Old Age), Mors/ Thanatos (Death), Tenebrae/ Keres (Darkness), Miseria/ Oizys (Misery), Querella/ Momus (Complaint), Gratia/ Philotes (Favour), Fraus/ Apate (Fraud), Pertinacia (Obstinacy), the Parcae/ Moirai (Fates), the Hesperides, the Somnia/ Oneiroi (Dreams): all of these are fabled to be the children of Erebus (Darkness) and Nox/ Nyx (Night).

Mythology
In Prometheus Bound, the titular Titan suggests that he gave humanity the spirit Elpis, meaning hope, in order to help them ignore the inevitability of Moros. He is also referred to as "the all-destroying god, who, even in the realm of Death, does not set his victim free," further supporting his image as representative of the inevitability of death and suffering.

Aeschylus' account
Aeschylus, Fragment 199 (from Plutarch, Life and Poety of Homer 157) (trans. Weir Smyth):

"A man dies not for the many wounds that pierce his breast, unless it be that life's end keep pace with death, nor by sitting on his hearth at home doth he the more escape his appointed doom (peprômenon moros)."

The word moros is not personified here but the passage provides a clear picture of the concept.

Notes

References

 Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
 Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
 Marcus Tullius Cicero, Nature of the Gods from the Treatises of M.T. Cicero translated by Charles Duke Yonge (1812-1891), Bohn edition of 1878. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
 Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Natura Deorum. O. Plasberg. Leipzig. Teubner. 1917.  Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.

Greek gods
Time and fate gods
Greek primordial deities
Personifications in Greek mythology
Children of Nyx
Personifications

Moros


Shalva Toreli-Akhaltsikheli () (died 1227) was a Georgian military commander and courtier, of the noble house of Toreli-Akhaltsikheli.

Shalva was one of the most notable military commanders during a series of expansionist wars waged by the Kingdom of Georgia under Queen Tamar (r. 1184–1213). He consecutively held top posts of mechurchletukhutsesi (Lord High Treasurer) and mandaturtukhutsesi (Lord High Mandator) at Tamar's court. Together with his brother Ivane, Shalva was in command of vanguard traditionally composed of the Meschian troops from south Georgia. In the battle of Shamkor against the Ildenizid atabeg of Azerbaijan in 1195, he captured a war banner sent by the Caliph to the Muslim army which was then donated to the revered icon of Our Lady of Khakhuli. In 1206/1207, Shalva, together with Sargis Tmogveli, took hold of the city of Kars from the Seljuqs and was appointed as the governor of the Kars county.

When the Khwarazmid shah Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu surged into the Caucasus in 1225, Shalva and his brother Ivane were again placed in charge of the vanguard of the Georgian army commanded by atabeg Ivane Mkhargrdzeli. There was some enmity between Ivane and the two Akhaltsikheli brothers. This was possibly the reason why Mkhargrdzeli did not allow his army to fight in the battle of Garni. The two brothers did battle and were routed. Shalva was wounded and captured and his brother Ivane was killed while retreating to the mountains. Having spent some time in honorary captivity, Shalva was put to death for not apostatizing to Islam at Jalal ad-Din's order. Subsequently, he was canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church which commemorates him on June 17/June 30 (O.S.).

Shalva is traditionally believed to be praised in a patriotic Georgian folk ballad Shavlego, which was particularly popular during the national mobilization against the Soviet Union in the late 1980s.

References

Military personnel from Georgia (country)
Saints of Georgia (country)
Nobility of Georgia (country)
1227 deaths
13th-century Christian saints
12th-century people from Georgia (country)
13th-century people from Georgia (country)
Year of birth unknown
People from Akhaltsikhe

Shalva Akhaltsikheli


Mirror Lake is a lake in the high Uinta Mountains in Utah. It is a popular fishing and recreation spot. The lake contains three species of trout: rainbow, brook, and tiger.  The lake has a Forest Service campground, picnic facilities, and a boat ramp for non-motorized watercraft. Access to the lake is by the Mirror Lake Highway, which is only open during the summer (other than by snowmobile).

The lake's name comes from the near-perfect reflection of the surrounding mountains and trees seen from a roadside overlook or from the shore. The shoreline is owned by the Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest.

Mirror Lake includes the adjacent Mirror Lake Campground, with latrines, day-use areas and 94 campsites. The water that enters the lake is overflow from Pass Lake located just above Mirror Lake. The outflow is the headwaters of the Duchesne River.

References

External links
 Wasatch-Cache National Forest.gov: Mirror Lake
 Scenicutah.com: Images of Mirror Lake in Utah
 Utahfishinginfo.com: Fishing at Mirror Lake

Lakes of Utah
Features of the Uinta Mountains
Lakes of Duchesne County, Utah
Wasatch-Cache National Forest

Mirror Lake (Uinta Mountains)


The brown gerygone (Gerygone mouki), previously known as the brown warbler, is a small passerine bird native to eastern coastal Australia. The upper parts of the brown gerygone are a deep olive-grey or olive-brown, while its face and underparts are a much paler grey, cream, or washed-out brown. The tail feathers are dark and may be white-tipped. It is approximately 10 cm in length.

The brown gerygone has a relatively large range. Although total population trends have not been quantified, it is considered of "least concern" by the IUCN.

It may be sighted in coastal rainforest, singly or in small groups of two to four. It feeds on insects. The brown gerygone call is a soft what-is-it.

It is not closely related to either true Old World Warblers or the New World Warblers, but belongs rather to the Corvida parvorder comprising many tropical and Australian passerines, as well as crows.

The brown gerygone is similar to both the large-billed (G. magnirostris) and mangrove (G. levigaster) gerygones. It differs from the former by having a distinctive white eyebrow and a grey-tinged face. The mangrove gerygone, while having a white eyebrow, lacks the grey face, has more white on the flanks and has a redder eye.

References

brown gerygone
Birds of Queensland
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Victoria (state)
Endemic birds of Australia
brown gerygone

Brown gerygone


The 1999 East Timorese crisis  was a conflict. Militia who did not like the independence in East Timor started the conflict when they attacked civilians. These attacks led to more violence all over the country. Most of the violence occurred in the capital Dili.

The violence started after the result of an election was independence from Indonesia. About 1400 people are thought to have died. An UN force (InterFET) made up mainly of people from the Australian Defence Force was sent to East Timor to establish and maintain peace.

Details

Background: referendum
In 1999, there was a lot of pressure on Indonesia. Therefore, the Indonesian government decided to hold a vote. In this referendum it asked the people of East Timor, whether they wanted to stay with Indonesia or become independent. Portugal had done some lobbying. The referendum was held on August 30. In it, a clear majority (78.5%) of people voting said they would prefer to become independent. The alternative proposal would have been to stay with Indonesia, but to have many freedoms as an autonomous province, called Special Autonomous Region of East Timor (SARET).

Violence
Directly after the referendum, violence broke out. The violence came from Indonesian soldiers and from a special East Timorese pro-integration militia which was supported by Indonesia. These troops became violent and terrorised the population. They did not like how the people had voted. About 1400 Timorese people were killed. 300.000 had to flee to West Timor to live as refugees. Most of the infrastructure of the country, including houses, watering systems, and the electricity was destroyed. Noam Chomsky said: "In one month, this massive military operation murdered some 2,000 people, raped hundreds of women and girls, displaced three-quarters of the population, and demolished 75 percent of the country's infrastructure."

InterFET
On 20 September 1999 the Australian-led peacekeeping troops of the International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) came to the country. This ended the violence. Activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere pressured their governments to take action. US President Bill Clinton eventually threatened Indonesia, that the IMF loans would be stopped. Indonesia was in deep economic troubles already. The Indonesian government agreed to withdraw its troops and allowed a multinational force into Timor to stabilize the area. It was clear that the UN did not have sufficient resources to fight the paramilitary forces directly. Instead, the UN authorised the creation of a multinational military force known as INTERFET (International Force for East Timor), with Security Council Resolution 1264. 23 nations sent troops, about 11,000 people in total. The force was led by Major-General Peter Cosgrove. Troops landed in East Timor on 20 September 1999.

References

1999 in Asia
East Timor
Civil wars involving Asia
Conflicts in 1999

1999 East Timorese crisis


Darlington College is a further education college in Darlington, County Durham, England. The college campus is located at Central Park, Haughton Road. With support from Darlington Borough Council and Tees Valley Regeneration the college building was constructed by Shepherd Construction, starting in 2004.
Founded in 1897, it assumed its present form in September 2006 and was officially opened by the then-Prime Minister, Tony Blair, on 22 December 2006.

Teaching

The college offers a wide range of vocational courses from Hair and Beauty to Construction Services.
The University Centre unites the further and higher education of Darlington College with that of Queen Elizabeth Sixth Form College and the University of Teesside.

College facilities

Darlington College offers a learning and training environment which includes: a university centre; 'business first' - bespoke training for employers; a well equipped computing and networking suite; sports facilities; media design centre; restaurant and food court; hair and Beauty salons. The restaurant and hair and beauty salons are open to the public.

History as Technical College

The college was originally named "Darlington Technical College", which was constructed in 1897 designed by George Gordon Hoskins. It opened in October 1897.
It was built by the Borough of Darlington next to North Lodge Park "to help continue the efficiency of manufacturing and commerce".

By the 1950s the college used 28 buildings around Darlington and in 1955 took over the Girls High School building in Cleveland Avenue. New blocks were opened in 1957, and between 1963 and 1972 further development concentrated education on a single site. Darlington College of Education was also part of the institution's offerings, but closed in 1978. However, later associations with institutions of higher learning now provide for teacher training.

Darlington College of Technology re-branded in 2006 when it moved to its new site situated on Haughton Road. It became known as Darlington College, the name it still uses today.

Notable alumni
Luke Armstrong, professional footballer who qualified as a personal trainer at the college
Alex Cunningham, Member of Parliament for Stockton North (2010 -)
Carol Malia, BBC Look North presenter
Pauline Murray, lead singer of the band Penetration
Christopher Mark Pattinson, Great Britain and England International Swimmer
John Sergeant, journalist and former Chief Political Correspondent for the BBC

References

External links

Further education colleges in County Durham
College
Darlington

Darlington College


The Bharatiya Janata Party (abbreviated BJP) is one of the two major political parties in India. (The second being the Indian National Congress). Since the Indian elections in 2014, the BJP has 303 of the 542 seats in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India and 78 of the 238 seats in Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India. Amit Shah is the national president of BJP since 2014.

Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Deputy Prime Minister L. K. Advani founded the party in April 1980.

"Bharatiya" means "Indian" and "Janata" means "People". The BJP's political beliefs are similar to the beliefs of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).

History

Bharatiya Jana Sangh

The history of the Bharatiya Janata Party starts with the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (abbreviated BJS).  The BJS was a political party created by Syama Prasad Mookerjee in 1951.  At that time, the Indian National Congress was the political party that ruled India.  The BJS's goal was to stop the Indian National Congress's policies.

Many people thought the BJS was part of the RSS because they had the same ideologies on leading the Government of India.

Campaign for Kashmir

The party's first election campaign was about Kashmir.  Kashmir was an area divided between India and Pakistan(2393squareKm).  The BJS wanted to make Kashmir a part of India. The party's founder, Mookerjee, was arrested for protesting in Kashmir, when he was ordered not to do so. He died in prison, so Deendayal Upadhyay became the party's leader.

Even though there was slight public support for the party because of the campaign about Kashmir, the BJS only managed to win three seats in the Lok Sabha in the 1952 elections.

Later elections

In the 1967 Indian elections, many political parties, including the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, joined up together to win a majority of the seats of many Indian states, including Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh. This was the first time the BJS had held any political office. In 1977, after the end of a State of Emergency declared by the Congress Government, BJS joined with several other parties to form BJP.

In 1996 BJP became the largest party in Parliament. It did poorly in the 2004 elections and became the major opposition party. The 2014 elections gave BJP enough seats to form a government.

References

Political parties in India
1951 establishments in Asia
1950s establishments in India

Bharatiya Janata Party


Nariman bey Hashim oglu Narimanbeyov (; 1889–1937), also known as Nariman bey Narimanbeyli (), was an Azerbaijani lawyer and statesman who served as State Controller in the fourth cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and was member of Parliament of Azerbaijan.

Early years
Narimanbeyov was born in 1889 in Shusha, Azerbaijan. After completing his secondary education at an Erivan gymnasium where his father taught, he attended universities in Russian and Ukraine, graduating from Department of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow State University and Law Department of Kharkov State University. While abroad, he was an active member of Azerbaijani students revolutionary movement. In 1915, he returned to Azerbaijan and worked as an attorney. Narimanbeyov was also the chairman of Muslim Charity Society in Baku.

Political career
In 1917, Narimanbeyov joined Musavat Party and was elected a member of the Muslim fraction of Transcaucasian Sejm. He was a member of the Azerbaijani National Council on the eve of declaration of independence who voted in favor of establishing an independent republic. After establishment of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic on May 28, 1918, Narimanbeyov was elected to the National Assembly of Azerbaijan. When the fourth government under Nasib Yusifbeyli was formed on April 14, 1919, he was appointed State Controller of ADR.

After Bolshevik take over of Azerbaijan, Narimanbeyov worked as a legal council but was soon arrested and became another victim of the Great Purge repressions. He was sent to Solovki prison camp on Solovetsky Islands where he died in 1937.

See also
Azerbaijani National Council
Cabinets of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1918-1920)
Current Cabinet of Azerbaijan Republic

References

1889 births
1937 deaths
Azerbaijani Muslims
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic politicians
Government ministers of Azerbaijan
20th-century Azerbaijani lawyers
Politicians from Shusha
Great Purge victims from Azerbaijan
Moscow State University alumni
National University of Kharkiv alumni
Members of the National Assembly of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
Narimanbekov family

Nariman bey Narimanbeyov


The Topsham Fairgrounds Grandstand is a historic event venue at the Topsham Fairgrounds in Topsham, Maine.  Built in the 1860s or 1870s, it is one of the state's only surviving 19th-century fairground grandstands.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992.

Description and history
The Topsham Fairgrounds Grandstand stands near the southeastern portion of the racing oval on the grounds of the Topsham Fair.  It is a long, rectangular structure, with a gabled roof.  The side facing the oval is open, with tiered seating divided into 18 bays by posts.  The outer sides, below the seating tiers, and the rear wall are finished in vertical board-and-batten siding.  An announcer's booth is suspended from the ceiling near the center of the building.  Below the seating at the rear is a corridor running the length of the building.

The grandstand was built sometime between 1863 and 1877, and was likely enlarged several times.  The fair was founded in 1855 by the Sagadahoc Agricultural and Horticultural Society, and was held on these grounds.  Its racing oval was reconfigured sometime between 1863, when the need for its improvement was expressed in society documents, and 1877, when a depiction of the grounds shows a new oval and an apparently roofless grandstand.  By 1914, a postcard shows the grandstand in its present configuration.  Maine's only other 19th-century fairground grandstands, in Fryeburg and Oxford, date to the 1880s.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Sagadahoc County, Maine

References

Event venues on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Sagadahoc County, Maine
Buildings and structures completed in 1863
Buildings and structures in Topsham, Maine
1863 establishments in Maine

Topsham Fairgrounds Grandstand


The Marshall Court refers to the Supreme Court of the United States from 1801 to 1835, when John Marshall served as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States. Marshall served as Chief Justice until his death, at which point Roger Taney took office. The Marshall Court played a major role in increasing the power of the judicial branch, as well as the power of the national government.

Membership

The Marshall Court began in 1801, when President John Adams appointed Secretary of State John Marshall to replace the retiring Oliver Ellsworth. Marshall was nominated after former Chief Justice John Jay refused the position; many in Adams's party advocated the elevation of Associate Justice William Paterson, but Adams refused to nominate someone close to his intra-party rival, Alexander Hamilton.

The Marshall Court began with Marshall and five Associate Justices from the Ellsworth Court: William Cushing, William Paterson, Samuel Chase, Bushrod Washington, and Alfred Moore. President Thomas Jefferson appointed William Johnson to replace Moore after Moore resigned in 1804. In 1807, Jefferson appointed two more justices, as Paterson died and Congress added a new seat for an Associate Justice. Jefferson successfully nominated Henry Brockholst Livingston and Thomas Todd. President James Madison appointed Gabriel Duvall and Joseph Story in 1811 and 1812, replacing Cushing and Chase. Madison had nominated Alexander Wolcott to replace Cushing, but the Senate voted him down. President James Monroe appointed Smith Thompson to succeed Livingston in 1823. President John Quincy Adams successfully nominated Robert Trimble to replace Todd in 1826. Trimble died in 1828, and Adams's nomination of John J. Crittenden was blocked by the Senate. Instead, Trimble was succeeded by John McLean, who was appointed by Andrew Jackson. In 1830, Jackson appointed Henry Baldwin to replace Washington, and in 1834, Jackson appointed James Moore Wayne to replace Johnson. In 1835, Jackson nominated Roger Taney to succeed the retiring Duvall, but the nomination was denied by the Senate. Marshall died in 1835, and Taney was instead nominated to replace Marshall as Chief Justice. Taney was confirmed in 1836, beginning the Taney Court.

Timeline

Other branches
Presidents during this court included John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, and Andrew Jackson. Congresses during this court included 6th through the 24th United States Congresses.

Political role
Marshall took office during the final months of John Adams's presidency, and his appointment entrenched Federalist power within the judiciary. The Judiciary Act of 1801 also established several new court positions that were filled by President Adams, but the act was largely repealed after the Democratic-Republicans took control of the government in the 1800 elections. Regardless, Marshall was the last justice appointed by a president of the Federalist Party, and the last justice appointed by a president who was not a member of the Democratic-Republicans or Democratic Party until the 1840s. Although Democratic-Republicans had appointed a majority of the justices after 1811, Marshall's philosophy of a relatively strong national government continued to guide the decisions of the Supreme Court until his death. The Democratic-Republicans attempted to impeach Justice Chase for overtly campaigning for John Adams's re-election, possibly impeding the independence of the Supreme Court, but the attempt failed after defections from within the party. Marshall's philosophy differed dramatically from that of some of his contemporaries outside the court, including Spencer Roane, who wrote a series of essays arguing that state courts should have the final say in most matters. Marshall's domination of the courts ensured that the federal government would retain relatively strong powers, despite the political domination of Jeffersonians after 1800. Marshall's opinions also helped to reinforce the independent power of the Supreme Court as a check on Congress, and laid some of the philosophical foundations of the Whig Party, which arose in the 1830s. Due to the Marshall Court's many accomplishments, President Adams referred to his appointment of Marshall as the "proudest act of his life."

Rulings of the Court

The Marshall Court issued several major rulings during its tenure, including:

Marbury v. Madison (1803): In a unanimous opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, the court struck down Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789, since it extended the court's original jurisdiction beyond what was established in Article III of the United States Constitution. In so doing, the court held that a law written by Congress was unconstitutional, firmly establishing the Supreme Court's power of judicial review. Although judicial review had a long history in American and British thought, Marbury was nonetheless extremely important for establishing the Supreme Court's independence and ability to strike down laws of Congress that it deemed unconstitutional.
Fletcher v. Peck (1810): In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, the court held that the state of Georgia had violated the Contract Clause by voiding land grants in the Yazoo lands that had been influenced by bribery. The case marked the first time that the court struck down a state law as unconstitutional.
Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1817): In an opinion written by Justice Story, the court held that it had held appellate power over state courts in regards to the United States Constitution and federal laws and treaties. The Supreme Court would again uphold this principle in Cohens v. Virginia (1821).
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): In a unanimous opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, the court held that the state of Maryland had no power to tax a federal bank (the Second Bank of the United States) operating in Maryland. In so doing, the court upheld Congress's ability to establish the bank, taking a relatively broad view of the Necessary and Proper Clause.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819): In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall (with several concurring opinions), the court invalidated New Hampshire's attempts to alter Dartmouth College's charter. The court held that the Contract Clause protects corporations from having contracts interfered with by the states.
Johnson v. McIntosh (1823): In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, the court held that private parties could not validly purchase land from Native Americans.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, the court struck down a New York law that had granted a monopoly on steamship operation in the state of New York. In its decision, the court upheld Congress's ability to regulate commerce under the Commerce Clause.
Worcester v. Georgia (1832): In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, the court voided the state of Georgia's conviction of Samuel Worcester and held that states have no authority to deal with Native American tribes. However, President Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the court's prohibition against Georgia's interference in Cherokee affairs.
Barron v. Baltimore (1833): In a unanimous opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, the court held that the Bill of Rights does not apply to the actions of state governments. The decision would later be largely overruled by the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and subsequent Supreme Court decisions.

For a full list of decisions by the Marshall Court, see lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume, volumes 5 through 34.

See also
Aboriginal title in the Marshall Court
Criminal law in the Marshall Court

References

Further reading

Works centered on the Marshall Court

Works centered on Marshall Court justices

Other relevant works

1810s in the United States
1820s in the United States
United States Supreme Court history by court
Supreme Court of the United States

Marshall Court


Edmund Michael Burke (August 6, 1916 – February 5, 1987) was a U.S. Navy Officer, Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) agent, Central Intelligence Agency (C.I.A.) agent, general manager of Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, CBS executive, and President of the New York Yankees, the New York Knicks, and Madison Square Garden.

Early life
Burke was born in Enfield, Connecticut, and attended Kingswood-Oxford School in West Hartford, Connecticut.  He was awarded an athletic scholarship to the University of Pennsylvania playing halfback on the football team. He graduated in 1939 and was given a tryout by the Philadelphia Eagles in 1941.

World War II
After working as a cargo inspector in the New York waterfront,<ref>p.148 Grose, Peter Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain 2000 Houghton Miffin</ref> Burke was commissioned an Ensign in the US Navy. A chance meeting with the head of the O.S.S., General William J. Donovan, led to the transfer to his command. Donovan told him "Anybody who can run back punts the way you can ought to be able to wiggle behind enemy lines".

Ensign Burke was sent to Algiers in 1942, then Sicily in 1943, later landing in Salerno in the same year.

Burke was one of the members of the "MacGregor Mission" led by Lt. John M. Shaheen consisting of Burke, Henry Ringling North (brother of circus president John Ringling North) and Marcello Girosi, a former New York businessman who had a brother Massimo who was an Italian admiral. The "MacGregor Mission" was responsible for discovering information on Axis weapons.

One of the missions was to smuggle Italian Vice Admiral Eugenio Minisini out of Italy in 1943. Admiral Minisini was in the Engineering section of the Italian Navy and was directing the use of a magnetic firing device for torpedoes. As the American Navy was having problems with their detonators setting off torpedoes, this was a crucial piece of technology. The four men landed by PT boat in Capri and brought back Admiral Minisini. Admiral Minisini was actually captured on the small island of San Martino by the British 30 Commando unit, created by James Bond author Ian Fleming, on the night of 17/18 September 1943 along with his wife and 13 pieces of luggage. He was handed over to the O.S.S. on Capri the following day.

Burke and North were both awarded the Silver Star for their work.

Following the Italian campaign, Burke was parachuted into the Vosges region of France to arm and organize the French Resistance. During World War II, Michael Burke was awarded the Navy Cross, Silver Star, and the French Médaille de la Résistance.

Cloak and Dagger
After the war Burke was recruited by Warner Brothers to be a technical advisor for Fritz Lang's O.S.S. film Cloak and Dagger. Burke had a bit part in the film but it was cut during editing. During the filming he met Henry Ringling North's sister whom he later married. During the filming Burke and a fellow O.S.S. agent Andreas Diamond met at Lang's home to discuss various methods of killing someone with your bare hands, and were seen rolling around the floor to design a fight scene with O.S.S. methods for the film.  A Warner Bros memo records the fact that the fight scene was the only scene Gary Cooper, who had problems with the scientific dialogue his character had to say, did well during the film.

C.I.A.
When Burke's screenwriting career didn't pan out he was recruited into the C.I.A. after lunch in the Algonquin Hotel, serving in Rome and other parts of Europe for five years. Burke was allowed to use the cover of working for Warner Brothers whilst he was doing various scouting and liaison missions in Europe. Using his experience with French Resistance groups in the War, Burke was given the mission to "Recruit a limited number of refugees, train them as agents and place them clandestinely back on their native soil.  There they would seek out any incipient resistance elements that might exist" behind the Iron Curtain.

In 1949 he replaced Robert Low as the American officer in charge of setting up paramilitary and political operations in Albania.Michael Burke diaries/datebooks 1949-1954  Following Albania, Burke worked on Polish anti Soviet resistance operations and tested Soviet radar capabilities by using Polish pilots.

Burke served as an intelligence and special operations adviser to John J. McCloy, the United States High Commissioner in Germany, from 1951 to 1954.

Post CIA
Following his CIA career, Burke's brother-in-law and comrade in arms John Ringling North hired him for the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus as an executive director. Though new to the circus world Burke found himself battling cheating ushers  and Jimmy Hoffa's Teamster Union.

CBS
When his friend North hired a manager Burke didn't like, Burke left the big top and met Frank Stanton of CBS.  Burke's European knowledge led him to be sent back to Europe to develop television programs, eventually becoming the president of CBS Europe.  Burke was summoned back to America as vice president in charge of diversification. One of Burke's accomplishments was recommending CBS purchase the rights to the play My Fair Lady.New York Yankees
CBS acquired the New York Yankees on August 13, 1964 in order to diversify their interests in the entertainment industry. On September 20, 1966; Burke became president and CEO of the Yankees after Dan Topping sold the remainder of his stock to CBS.  He retained these posts for the remainder of CBS' ownership. In 1968, he was a candidate to become Commissioner of Baseball (although Bowie Kuhn would get the appointment).

In 1972, CBS head William S. Paley told Burke to either sell the Yankees or buy them himself which he did with George Steinbrenner in January 1973.  Burke and Steinbrenner had a parting of the ways with Burke resigning in April 1973. Burke had been led to believe that he would remain operating head of the Yankees once Steinbrenner took over, but was broadsided when longtime baseball executive Gabe Paul was announced as one of Steinbrenner's minority partners.

Burke's most famous achievement occurred when he successfully negotiated with Mayor John V. Lindsay to keep the Yankees in New York by having the city agree to renovate Yankee Stadium.

Madison Square Garden
Burke became President of Madison Square Garden in 1973 on a five-year contract that also made him president of the  New York Knicks. In 1981, Burke sold his five percent stake in the New York Yankees for $500,000.

Retirement in Ireland
As a child, Burke had lived with his grandparents in Ireland.  In 1960 he purchased a  farm in Aughrim near Galway.  Burke retired there in 1981. On a visit to the United States a woman once asked him if he were a gentleman farmer.  He laughed and said "Well, I'm a gentleman".

QuotesMy five years in England taught me that manners are more important than laws and that civility is the very stuff of a decent society.

Notes

References
Burke, Michael Outrageous Good Fortune'' 1984 Little, Brown

1916 births
1987 deaths
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Resistance Medal
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy officers
People of the Central Intelligence Agency
People of the Office of Strategic Services
Major League Baseball team presidents
Major League Baseball executives
New York Yankees executives
Circus owners
American television executives
American entertainment industry businesspeople
20th-century American businesspeople
People from Enfield, Connecticut
Madison Square Garden executives

E. Michael Burke


Alice Stokes Paul (January 11, 1885 – July 9, 1977) was an American Quaker, suffragist, feminist, and women's rights activist, and one of the foremost leaders and strategists of the campaign for the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits sex discrimination in the right to vote. Paul initiated, and along with Lucy Burns and others, strategized events such as the Woman Suffrage Procession and the Silent Sentinels, which were part of the successful campaign that resulted in the amendment's passage in August 1920.

Paul often suffered police brutality and other physical abuse for her activism, always responding with nonviolence and courage. She was jailed under terrible conditions in 1917 for participating in a Silent Sentinels protest in front of the White House, as she had been several times during earlier efforts to secure the vote for women in England.

After 1920, Paul spent a half-century as leader of the National Woman's Party, which fought for the Equal Rights Amendment, written by Paul and Crystal Eastman, to secure constitutional equality for women. She won a major permanent success with the inclusion of women as a group protected against discrimination by the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Early life and education

Alice Stokes Paul was born on January 11, 1885, to William Mickle Paul I (1850–1902) and Tacie Parry Paul (1859–1930) at Paulsdale in  Mount Laurel Township, New Jersey. She was a namesake for Alice Stokes (1821–1889), her maternal grandmother and the wife of William Parry (1817–1888). Her siblings were Willam Mickle Paul II (1886–1958), Helen Paul Shearer (1889–1971), and Parry Haines Paul (1895–1956). She was a descendant of William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania. Her ancestors included participants in the New Jersey Committee of Correspondence in the Revolutionary era and a state legislative leader in the 19th century. She grew up in the Quaker tradition of public service. Alice Paul first learned about women's suffrage from her mother, a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), and would sometimes join her mother in attending suffragist meetings.

Paul attended Moorestown Friends School, where she graduated at the top of her class. In 1901, she entered Swarthmore College, which had been co-founded in 1864 by her grandfather and other Hicksite Friends. While at Swarthmore, Paul served on the Executive Board of Student Government, an experience which may have sparked her excitement for political activism. She graduated from Swarthmore with a bachelor's degree in biology in 1905.

After graduation, partly to avoid going into teaching, Paul pursued a fellowship year in New York City, living on the Lower East Side at the Rivington Street Settlement House. Working in the settlement movement reinforced her determination to right perceived injustices in America, but Paul soon realized that social work was not the way she was to achieve this goal: "I knew in a very short time I was never going to be a social worker, because I could see that social workers were not doing much good in the world... you couldn't change the situation by social work."

In 1907, after completing coursework in political science, sociology, and economics, Paul earned a Master of Arts degree from the University of Pennsylvania. She continued her studies at the Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre in Birmingham, England. Paul also took economics classes from the University of Birmingham while continuing to earn money doing social work. It was at Birmingham that she first heard Christabel Pankhurst speak. When Paul later moved to London to study sociology and economics at the London School of Economics, she joined the militant suffrage group the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) led by Christabel and her mother, Emmeline Pankhurst. Paul was arrested repeatedly in London during suffrage demonstrations and served three jail terms. After returning from England in 1910, she attended the University of Pennsylvania, earning a Ph.D. in sociology. Her dissertation was entitled "The Legal Position of Women in Pennsylvania"; it addressed the history of the women's movement in Pennsylvania and the rest of the U.S. and urged woman suffrage as the key issue of the day.

After the ratification of the 19th Amendment, Paul enrolled at two law schools, taking day and evening classes to finish more quickly. In 1922, Paul received her law degree (LL.B) from the Washington College of Law at American University. In 1927, she earned a master of laws degree, and in 1928, a doctorate in civil law from American University.

Career

Britain

Early work in British woman suffrage

In 1907, after completing her master's degree at the University of Pennsylvania, Paul moved to England, where she eventually became deeply involved with the British women's suffrage movement, regularly participating in demonstrations and marches of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). After a "conversion experience" seeing Christabel Pankhurst speak at the University of Birmingham, Paul became enamored of the movement. She first became involved by selling a Suffragist magazine on street corners. Considering the animosity towards the Suffragists, this was an arduous task and opened her eyes to the abuse women involved in the movement faced. These experiences, combined with the teachings of Professor Beatrice Webb, convinced Paul that social work and charity could not bring about the needed social changes in society: this could only be accomplished through equal legal status for women.

While in London, Paul also met Lucy Burns, a fellow American activist, while arrested in a British police station, who would become an essential ally for the duration of the suffrage fight, first in England, then in the United States. The two women quickly gained the trust of prominent WSPU members and began organizing events and campaign offices. When Emmeline Pankhurst attempted to spread the movement to Scotland, Paul and Burns accompanied her as assistants.

Paul quickly gained the trust of fellow WSPU members through her talent with visual rhetoric and her willingness to put herself in physical danger to increase the visibility of the suffrage movement. While at the WSPU's headquarters in Edinburgh, Paul and local suffragists made plans to protest a speech by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sir Edward Grey. For a week prior, they spoke with people on the streets to promote knowledge about why they were protesting against the Cabinet member. After Grey discussed proposed legislation he claimed would lead to prosperity at the meeting, Paul stood up and exclaimed: "Well, these are very wonderful ideals, but couldn't you extend them to women?" Police responded by dragging her out of the meeting and through the streets to the police station, where she was arrested. As planned, this act was viewed by many as a public silencing of legitimate protest and increased press coverage and public sympathy.

Later events involved even more risk of bodily harm. Before a political meeting at St. Andrew's Hall in Glasgow in August 1909, Paul camped out on the hall's roof so that she could address the crowd below. When police forced her to descend, crowds cheered her effort. Later, when Paul, Burns, and fellow suffragettes attempted to enter the event, they were beaten by police as sympathetic bystanders attempted to protect them. After Paul and her fellow protesters were taken into custody, crowds gathered outside the police station demanding the women's release.

On November 9, 1909, in honor of Lord Mayor's Day, the Lord Mayor of London hosted a banquet for cabinet ministers in the city's Guild Hall. Paul planned the WSPU's response; she and Amelia Brown disguised themselves as cleaning women and entered the building with the normal staff at 9:00 am. Once in the building, the women hid until the event started that evening. Then they came out of hiding and "took their stand". When Prime Minister H. H. Asquith stood to speak, Brown threw her shoe through a pane of stained glass, and both women yelled, "Votes for women!" Following this event, both women were arrested and sentenced to one-month hard labor after refusing to pay fines and damages for the window damage. She was imprisoned at Holloway Prison in London.

Civil disobedience and hunger strikes
While associated with the Women's Social and Political Union, Paul was arrested a total of seven times and imprisoned three times. It was during her time in prison that she learned the tactics of civil disobedience from Emmeline Pankhurst. Chief among these tactics was demanding to be treated as a political prisoner upon arrest. This not only sent a message about the legitimacy of the suffragists to the public but also had the potential to provide tangible benefits. In many European countries, including England, political prisoners were given a special status: "[T]hey were not searched upon arrest, not housed with the rest of the prisoner population, not required to wear prison garb, and not force-fed if they engaged in hunger strikes." Though arrested suffragettes often were not afforded the status of political prisoners, this form of civil disobedience provided much press for the WSPU. For example, during a London arrest (after being denied political prisoner status), Paul refused to put on prisoner's clothing. After the prison matrons could not undress her forcibly, they requested assistance from male guards. This act, considered shockingly improper by Victorian era standards, provided extensive press coverage for the suffrage movement.

Another popular civil disobedience tactic used by the Suffragettes was hunger striking. The first WSPU-related hunger strike was conducted by sculptor Marion Wallace Dunlop in June 1909. By that fall, it was being widely used by WSPU members because of its effectiveness in publicizing their mistreatment and gaining quick release from prison wardens. Refusing food worked in securing an early release for Paul during her first two arrests. However, during her third prison stint, the warden ordered twice daily force-feeding to keep Paul strong enough to finish her month-long sentence.

Though the prisons staunchly maintained that the force-feeding of prisoners was for their own benefit, Paul and other women described the process as torturous. Paul had developed severe gastritis at the end of her month in prison. She was carried out of prison and immediately tended to by a doctor. However, after this event, her health was permanently scarred; she often developed colds and flu, which would sometimes require hospitalization.

Paul had been given a Hunger Strike Medal 'for Valour' by WSPU.

United States
After the ordeal of her final London imprisonment, Paul returned to the United States in January 1910 to continue her recovery and to develop a plan for suffrage work back home. Paul's experiences in England were well-publicized, and the American news media quickly began following her actions upon her return home. She drew upon the teachings of Woodbrooke and her religion and quickly decided that she wanted to embrace a single goal as a testimony. The single goal she chose was the recognition of women as equal citizens.

Paul reenrolled at the University of Pennsylvania, pursuing her Ph.D. while speaking about her experiences in the British suffrage movement to Quaker audiences and starting to work towards United States suffrage on the local level. After completing her dissertation, a comprehensive overview of the history of the legal status of United States women, she began participating in National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) rallies, and in April 1910, was asked to speak at NAWSA's annual convention. After this significant opportunity, Paul and Burns proposed to NAWSA leadership a campaign to gain a federal amendment guaranteeing the vote for women. This was wholly contrary to NAWSA's state-by-state strategy. Paul and Burns were laughed at by NAWSA leadership; the only exception was Jane Addams, who suggested that the women tone down their plan. As a response, Paul asked to be placed on the organization's Congressional Committee.

1913 Woman Suffrage Procession

One of Paul's first big projects was initiating and organizing the 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession in Washington, D.C., the day before President Wilson's inauguration. Paul was determined to pressure Wilson because the office of the President would be able to influence Congress the most. She assigned volunteers to contact suffragists nationwide and recruit supporters to march in the parade. In a matter of weeks, Paul succeeded in gathering roughly eight thousand marchers representing most of the country. However, she had much more trouble gaining institutional support for the protest parade. Paul insisted the parade route go through Pennsylvania Avenue where President Wilson would be. Her goal was to send the message that the push for women's suffrage existed before Wilson and would outlast him if need be. Washington, D.C. officials originally resisted this route, and according to biographer Christine Lunardini, Paul was the only one who truly believed the parade would take place on that route. Eventually, the city ceded the route to NAWSA. However, the city supervisor claimed that the women would not be safe marching along the Pennsylvania Avenue route and strongly suggested the group move the parade. Paul responded by demanding the city supervisor provide more police, which was not done. On March 3, 1913, the parade gained legitimacy with Congress passing a special resolution ordering the city supervisor to prohibit all ordinary traffic along the parade route and prevent any interference with the suffrage marchers.

On the event day, the procession proceeded along Paul's desired route. The event, which was led by notable labor lawyer Inez Milholland dressed in white and riding a horse, was described by the New York Times as "one of the most impressively beautiful spectacles ever staged in this country". Multiple bands, banners, squadrons, chariots, and floats were also displayed in the parade representing all women's lives. One of the most notable sights was the lead banner in the parade which declared, "We Demand an Amendment to the United States Constitution Enfranchising the Women of the Country." Some participating groups and leaders, however, wanted black and white women's organizations and state delegations to be segregated; after much discussion, NAWSA decided black women could march where they wished. Still, Ida B. Wells was asked not to march with the Illinois delegation; ultimately, she joined the Chicago group and continued the march with the state delegation.

Over half a million people came to view the parade. With insufficient police protection, the situation soon devolved into a near-riot, with onlookers pressing so close to the women that they could not proceed. Police largely did nothing to protect the women from rioters. A senator who participated in the march later testified that he personally took the badge numbers of 22 officers who had stood idle, including 2 sergeants. Eventually, the Massachusetts and Pennsylvania national guards stepped in, and students from the Maryland Agricultural College provided a human barrier to help the women pass. Some accounts even describe Boy Scouts as stepping in and providing first aid to the injured. The incident mobilized public dialogue about the police response to the women's demonstration, producing greater awareness and sympathy for NAWSA.

After the parade, the NAWSA's next focus was lobbying for a constitutional amendment to secure the right to vote for women. Such an amendment had been initially sought by suffragists Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton who, as leaders of the NWSA, fought for a federal amendment to the constitution securing women's suffrage until the 1890 formation of NAWSA, which campaigned for the vote on a state-by-state basis.

National Woman's Party

Paul's militant methods started to create tension between her and the leaders of NAWSA, who thought she was moving too aggressively in Washington. Eventually, disagreements about strategy and tactics led to a break with NAWSA. Paul formed the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage and, later, the National Woman's Party (NWP) in 1916.

The NWP began introducing some of the methods used by the suffrage movement in Britain and focused entirely on achieving a constitutional amendment for woman suffrage. Alva Belmont, a multi-millionaire socialite at the time, was the largest donor to Paul's efforts. The NWP was accompanied by press coverage and the publication of the weekly newspaper, The Suffragist.

Silent Sentinels

In the U.S. presidential election of 1916, Paul and the National Woman's Party (NWP) campaigned in western states where women could already vote against the continuing refusal of President Woodrow Wilson and other incumbent Democrats to actively support the Suffrage Amendment. Paul went to Mabel Vernon to help her organize a picketing campaign. In January 1917, the NWP staged the first political protest and picketing at the White House. Picketing had been legalized by the 1914 Clayton Antitrust Act, so the women were not doing anything illegal. The pickets, participating in a nonviolent civil disobedience campaign known as the "Silent Sentinels", dressed in white, silent and with 2,000 taking part over two years, maintained a presence six days a week, holding banners demanding the right to vote. Paul knew the only way they could accomplish their goal was by displaying the President's attitude toward suffrage, so picketing would achieve this in the best manner. Each day Paul would issue "General Orders", selecting women to be in charge and who would speak for the day. She was the "Commandant", and Mabel Vernon was the "Officer of the Day". Paul created state days to get volunteers for the pickets, such as Pennsylvania Day, Maryland Day, and Virginia Day. She also made special days for professional women, such as doctors, nurses, and lawyers.

After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, many people viewed the picketing Silent Sentinels as disloyal. Paul made sure the picketing would continue. In June 1917, picketers were arrested for "obstructing traffic". Over the next six months, many, including Paul, were convicted and incarcerated at the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia (which later became the Lorton Correctional Complex) and the District of Columbia Jail.

When the public heard the news of the first arrests, some were surprised that leading suffragists and very well-connected women were going to prison for peacefully protesting. President Wilson received bad publicity from this event and was livid with the position he was forced into. He quickly pardoned the first women arrested on July 19, two days after they had been sentenced, but reporting on the arrests and abuses continued. For example, the Boston Journal stated, "The little band representing the NWP has been abused and bruised by government clerks, soldiers, and sailors until its efforts to attract the President's attention has sunk into the conscience of the whole nation."

Suffragists continued picketing outside the White House after the Wilson pardon and throughout World War I. Their banners contained such slogans as "Mr. President, How Long Must Women Wait For Liberty?" and "We Shall Fight for the Things Which We Have Always Held Nearest Our Hearts—For Democracy, For The Right of Those Who Submit To Authority To Have A Voice in Their Own Governments." The capitalization of each word emphasized the gravity of the situation. With the hope of embarrassing Wilson, some of the banners quoted Wilson's own words against him. Wilson ignored these women, but his daughter Margaret waved in acknowledgment, a major victory for the protesters. Although the suffragists protested peacefully, their protests were sometimes violently opposed. While protesting, young men would harass and beat the women, with the police never intervening on behalf of the protesters. Police would even arrest other men who tried to help the women who were getting beaten. Even though they protested during wartime, they maintained public support by agitating peacefully. More protesters were arrested and sent to Occoquan or the District Jail throughout this time. Pardons were no longer given.

Prison, hunger strikes, and passage of 19th Amendment

In solidarity with other activists in her organization, Paul purposefully strove to receive the seven-month jail sentence that started on October 20, 1917. She began serving her time in the District Jail.

Whether sent to Occoquan or the District Jail, the women were given no special treatment as political prisoners. They had to live in harsh conditions with poor sanitation, infested food, no chocolate, and dreadful facilities. In protest of the conditions at the District Jail, Paul began a hunger strike. This led to her being moved to the prison's psychiatric ward and being force-fed raw eggs through a feeding tube. "Seems almost unthinkable now, doesn't it?" Paul told an interviewer from American Heritage when asked about forced feeding, "It was shocking that a government of men could look with such extreme contempt on a movement that was asking nothing except such a simple little thing as the right to vote."

On November 14, 1917, the suffragists who were imprisoned at Occoquan endured brutality allegedly endorsed by prison authorities which became known as the "Night of Terror". The National Woman's Party (NWP) went to court to protest the treatment of the women such as Lucy Burns, Dora Lewis, and Alice Cosu, her cellmate in Occoquan Prison, who suffered a heart attack at seeing Dora's condition. The women were later moved to the District Jail where Paul languished. Despite the brutality that she experienced and witnessed, Paul remained undaunted. On November 27 and 28, all the suffragists were released from prison. Within two months, Wilson announced a bill on women's right to vote.

Post-Suffrage
After Suffrage, the National Women's Party (NWP) continued to lobby in Congress and abroad, advocating for legal equality for women. Alice Paul and NWP members successfully lobbied to include equality provisions into the United Nation's charter, such as the phrase "the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small."  NWP is credited with drafting over 300 pieces of legislation that became law.  Paul remained in leadership positions, officially and unofficially, until she moved to Connecticut in 1974.

Equal Rights Amendment

Once suffrage was achieved in 1920, Paul and some members of the National Woman's Party shifted attention to constitutional guarantees of equality through the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which was written by Paul and Crystal Eastman. Drafted and delivered to Congress in 1923, the original text of the Equal Rights Amendment—which Paul and the National Woman's Party dubbed the "Lucretia Mott Amendment" in honor of this antislavery and suffrage activist of an earlier generation—read, "Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction." In 1943, the amendment was renamed the "Alice Paul Amendment," and contained wording was changed to the version that still exists today: "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." For Paul, the ERA had the same appeal as suffrage in that it was a constitutional amendment and a single-issue campaign that she believed could and should unite women around a common core goal. Paul understood the value of single-issue politics for building coalitions and securing success.

Not everyone agreed about next steps or the ERA; from the start, the amendment had its critics. While Paul's activism in the years after suffrage centered on securing legal protections for women's equality in the U.S. and abroad, other activists and some members of the NWP focused on a wide range of issues from birth control and air conditioning to educating newly enfranchised women voters. Some of Paul's earlier allies in suffrage found the ERA troubling, especially since they believed it would erode protective legislation—laws about working conditions or maximum hours that protected women in the workplace. If the ERA guaranteed equality, opponents argued, protective legislation for women would be null and void. The rival League of Women Voters (LWV), which championed workplace legislation for women, opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. Paul and her cohorts, including a small group from the NWP, thought that sex-based workplace legislation restricted women's ability to compete for jobs with men and earn good wages. In fact, Paul believed that protective legislation hurt women wage earners because some employers simply fired them rather than implement protections on working conditions that safeguarded women. Women were paid less than men, lost jobs requiring them to work late nights—often a prohibition under protective legislation—and had long been blocked from joining labor unions on par with men. She also believed that women should be treated under the law like men were and not as a class that required protection. To Paul, such protections were merely a form of entrenched "legalized inequality," a position shared by suffragist Harriot Stanton Blatch. To Paul, the ERA was the most efficient way to ensure legal equality. Paul expected women workers to rally behind the ERA; some did, many did not. While early on, there was hope among NWP members that they could craft a bill that would promote equality while also guaranteeing labor protection for women, to Paul, that was a contradiction. What's more, she was surprised when Florence Kelley, Ethel Smith, Jane Addams, and other suffragists parted with her and aligned with protective legislation.

While Paul continued to work with the NWP and even served as president again in the 1940s, she remained steadfastly committed to women's equality as her singular mission. Along with the ERA, Paul worked on behalf of similar efforts in state legislation and international contexts. She helped ensure that the United Nations proclamations include equality for women. She hoped that this would encourage the United States to follow suit. Paul worked to change laws that had altered the status of a woman's citizenship based on that of her husband's. In the U.S., women who married men from foreign countries lost their U.S. citizenship and were considered by the U.S. to be citizens of whatever country their husbands were from. To Paul, this was a violation of equal rights. As such, she successfully worked on behalf of the international Equal Nationality Treaty in 1933 and in the U.S. for the successful passage of the Equal Nationality Act in 1934, which let women retain their citizenship upon marriage. Just after the founding of the United Nations in 1945, Paul wanted to ensure that women's equality was a part of the organization's charter and that its Commission on Human Rights included a focus on women's equality in its Universal Declaration of Human Rights. She prevailed: the final version of the Declaration in 1948 opened with a reference to "equal rights of men and women".

The ERA was introduced in Congress in 1923 and had various peaks and valleys of support in the following years as Paul continued to push for its passage. There were favorable committee reports in Congress in the late 1930s, and with more women working in men's jobs during the war, public support for the ERA also increased. In 1946, the ERA passed by three votes in the Senate, not the majority needed for it to advance. Four years later, it would garner the Senate votes but fail in the House, thereby halting it from moving forward.

Paul was encouraged when women's movement activism gained steam in the 1960s and 1970s, which she hoped would spell victory for the ERA. When the bill finally passed Congress in 1972, Paul was unhappy about the changes in the wording of the ERA that now included time limits for securing its passage. Advocates argued that this compromise—the newly added seven-year deadline for ratification in the states—enabled the ERA's passage in Congress, but Paul accurately predicted that the inclusion of a time limit would ensure its defeat. In addition, this version put enforcement power in the hands of the federal government only; Paul's original and 1943 reworded versions required both states and the federal government to oversee its provisions. Paul's version was politically insightful and strategic: politicians who believed in states' rights, including many Southern states, were more likely to support an ERA that gave states some discretion of enforcement authority than a version that did not. Paul was proved correct: while the ERA did receive a three-year extension from Congress, it remained three states short of those needed for ratification.

States continued to attempt to ratify the ERA long after the deadline passed, including Nevada in 2017 and Illinois in 2018. In 2017 and again in 2019, the Senate and House introduced resolutions to remove the deadline from the ERA. These or similar measures, if passed, according to some experts, would make the amendment viable again, although other experts disagree.

1964 Civil Rights Act

Paul played a significant role in adding protection for women in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, despite the opposition of liberals who feared it would end protective labor laws for women. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee. Smith's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. For twenty years, Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment in the House because he believed in equal rights for women, even though he opposed equal rights for blacks. For decades, he had been close to the National Woman's Party, especially to Paul. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945, trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category.

Personal life and death

Paul had an active social life until she moved to Washington, D.C. in late 1912. She enjoyed close relationships with women and befriended and occasionally dated men. Paul did not preserve private correspondence for the most part, so few details about her personal life are available. Once Paul devoted herself to winning the vote for women, she placed the suffrage effort first in her life. Nevertheless, Elsie Hill and Dora Kelly Lewis, two women whom she met early in her work for NAWSA, remained close to her all their lives. She knew William Parker, a scholar she met at the University of Pennsylvania, for several years; he may have tendered a marriage proposal in 1917.

Paul became a vegetarian around the time of the suffrage campaign.

In 1974, Paul suffered a stroke and was placed in a nursing home under the guardianship of her nephew, who depleted her estate. News of her penniless state reached friends, and a fund for indigent Quakers quickly aided Paul. Paul died at the age of 92 on July 9, 1977, at the Greenleaf Extension Home a Quaker facility in Moorestown, New Jersey, less than a mile from her birthplace and childhood home]. She is buried at Westfield Friends Burial Ground in Cinnaminson, New Jersey. Visitors fequently leave notes at her tombstone to thank her for her lifelong work on behalf of women's rights.

Legacy

Paul was posthumously inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1979, and into the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2010.

Her alma mater, Swarthmore College, named a dormitory Alice Paul Residence Hall in her honor. Montclair State University in New Jersey has also named a dormitory (Alice Paul Hall) in her honor. On April 12, 2016, President Barack Obama designated Sewall-Belmont House as the Belmont–Paul Women's Equality National Monument, named for Alice Paul and Alva Belmont. The University of Pennsylvania, her doctoral alma mater, maintains the Alice Paul Center for Research on Gender, Sexuality, and Women.

Two countries have honored her by issuing a postage stamp: Great Britain in 1981 and the United States in 1995. The U.S. stamp was the $0.78 Great Americans series.

Paul appeared on a United States half-ounce $10 gold coin in 2012 as part of the First Spouse Gold Coin Series. A provision in the Presidential $1 Coin Program directs that Presidential spouses be honored. As President Chester A. Arthur was a widower, Paul is shown representing "Arthur's era". The U.S. Treasury Department announced in 2016 that an image of Paul will appear on the back of a newly designed $10 bill along with Lucretia Mott, Sojourner Truth, Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and the 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession that Paul initiated and organized. Designs for the new $5, $10, and $20 bills will be unveiled in 2020 in conjunction with the 100th anniversary of American women winning the right to vote via the 19th Amendment.

In 1987, a group of New Jersey women raised the money to purchase Paul's papers when they came up for auction so that an archive could be established. Her papers and memorabilia are now held by the Schlesinger Library at Harvard University, and the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. In 1990, the same group, now the Alice Paul Institute, purchased the brick farmhouse, Paulsdale, in Mount Laurel, New Jersey, where Paul was born. Paulsdale is a National Historic Landmark and is on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. The Alice Paul Institute keeps her legacy alive with educational exhibits about her life, accomplishments, and advocacy for gender equality.

Hilary Swank played Paul in the 2004 film Iron Jawed Angels, which portrayed the 1910s women's suffrage movement for passage of the 19th Amendment. In 2018, Alice Paul was a central character in an episode of Timeless (Season 2, Episode 7) which alludes to Paul giving an impassioned speech to President Woodrow Wilson during a march that ends in police violence upon the suffragist marchers. According to history, Paul was at the event and was arrested, but there is no evidence that she spoke to Wilson on that day.  In 2022, Suffs, a musical written by Shaina Taub, premiered at the Public Theater with Alice Paul as a main character.

On January 11, 2016, Google Doodle commemorated her 131st birthday.

See also
 Iron Jawed Angels, 2004 film about Alice Paul and Lucy Burns and their movement, which resulted in the passage of the 19th Amendment.
 List of civil rights leaders
 List of suffragists and suffragettes
 List of women's rights activists
 Timeline of women's suffrage
 Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States
 Women's suffrage organizations

References

Further reading
 Baker, Jean H. Sisters: The Lives of American Suffragists. New York: Hill and Wang, 2005.
 _. Votes for Women: The Struggle for Suffrage Revisited. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
 Butler, Amy E. Two Paths to Equality: Alice Paul and Ethel M. Smith in the ERA Debate, 1921–1929. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.
 Cahill, Bernadette. Alice Paul, the National Woman's Party and the Vote: The First Civil Rights Struggle of the 20th Century. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2005.
 Cassidy, Tina. Mr. President, How Long Must We Wait?: Alice Paul, Woodrow Wilson, and the Fight for the Right to Vote (2019).

 Cullen-Dupont, Kathryn. American Women Activists' Writings: An Anthology, 1637–2002. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2002.
 Dodd, Lynda G. "Parades, Pickets, and Prison: Alice Paul and the Virtues of Unruly Constitutional Citizenship." Journal of Law and Politics 24 (2008): 339–433. online
 Evans, Sara M. Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America. New York: The Free Press, 1989.

 Hartmann, Susan M. "Paul, Alice"; American National Biography Online Feb. 2000 Access June 5, 2014

 Hill, Jeff. Defining Moments: Women's Suffrage. Detroit: Omnigraphics, Inc., 2006.
 Irwin, Inez Haynes. The Story of Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party. Fairfax: Denlinger's Publishers, LTD, 1964.
 Leleux, Robert. "Suffragettes March on Washington." The American Prospect 24 (2013): 81.
 Lunardini, Christine. Alice Paul: Equality for Women. Boulder: Westview Press, 2013.
 ___. From Equal Suffrage to Equal Rights: Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party, 1910–1928. New York: New York University Press, 1986.

 Olson, Tod. "One Person, One Vote." Scholastic Update 127 (1994): 15
  Piott, Steven L.  American Reformers, 1870–1920: Progressives in Word and Deed (2006); chapter 12 is on Paul.
 Stevens, Doris. Jailed for Freedom. New York: Liverwright Publishing Corporation, 1920.
 Stillion Southard, Belinda Ann. "The National Woman's Party's Militant Campaign for Woman Suffrage: Asserting Citizenship Rights through Political Mimesis." (2008). PhD thesis, U of Maryland online

 Willis, Jean L. "Alice Paul: The Quintessential Feminist," in Feminist Theorists, ed. Dale Spender (1983).

External links

 The Alice Paul Institute
 Alice Paul at Lakewood Public Library:  Women In History
 The Sewall-Belmont House & Museum – Home of the historic National Woman's Party
 Biographical sketch at the University of Pennsylvania
 Manuscript version of Paul's PhD dissertation, "The Legal Position of Women in Pennsylvania" at the University of Pennsylvania
 Papers, 1785–1985. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
 "I Was Arrested, Of Course…", American Heritage, February 1974, Volume 25, Issue 2. Interview of Alice Paul by Robert S. Gallagher.
 Conversations with Alice Paul: Woman Suffrage and the Equal Rights Amendment, An Interview Conducted by Amelia R. Fry, 1979, The Bancroft Library
 Michals, Debra. "Alice Paul". National Women's History Museum. 2015.

1885 births
1977 deaths
Alumni of Woodbrooke College
American political party founders
American Quakers
American socialist feminists
American suffragists
American women's rights activists
Burials in New Jersey
Civil disobedience
Equality rights
Equal Rights Amendment
Equal Rights Amendment activists
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
History of women's rights in the United States
History of women's rights
Hunger Strike Medal recipients
Hunger strikers
Moorestown Friends School alumni
National Woman's Party
National Woman's Party activists
People from Moorestown, New Jersey
People from Mount Laurel, New Jersey
People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
Political prisoners in the United States
Progressive Era in the United States
Protest marches
Quaker feminists
Settlement houses in the United States
Suffragettes
Swarthmore College alumni
The Suffragist people
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Women's Social and Political Union
Suffragists from Connecticut

Alice Paul


The Duke University School of Nursing is located in Durham, NC and is affiliated with Duke University and Duke University Health System. The school offers an accelerated Bachelor of Science in Nursing, a Master of Science in Nursing, Doctorate in Nursing Practice (DNP), and a Ph.D. Program. The 2022 U.S. News & World Report ranked the school as the third best graduate nursing school in the nation.

On January 2, 1931, the school opened its doors to its first class of 24 undergraduate students under the direction of Dean Bessie Baker and instructor Ann Henshaw Gardiner. The three-year nursing diploma program offered the first nurse anesthesia program in the state.

The school has offered many different degrees over the years. The first students, high school graduates, received a diploma after a three-year program that cost just $100 per year. In 1938, the school began offering baccalaureate degrees to students who had completed two years of college along with the nursing curricula. In 1944, the school began a Bachelor of Science in Nursing Education degree program. In 1953, it added a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) degree program. Five years later, under the leadership of Thelma Ingles, The Duke School of Nursing was one of the first schools in the nation to offer a graduate nursing program.

In 1984, as a part of Duke University's retrenchment plan, the last class of BSN students graduated. The graduate programs also ended in 1984, re-opening in 1985 with a new curriculum and focus on research. In response to the increasing nursing shortage, the school once again began offering a BSN degree in 2002– this time as an accelerated, 16-month degree offered to students already holding an undergraduate degree. In 2006, the school accepted the first students into the new PhD program. In 2008, the school launched the first Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) degree program in North Carolina to prepare nurses for leadership positions in clinical care.

In 2021, Duke's School of Nursing received $8.5 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health. October 2022, Dr. Vincent Guilamo-Ramos was named dean of the university.

References

External links

Nursing, School of
Universities and colleges established in 1931
Nursing schools in North Carolina
Duke University campus
1931 establishments in North Carolina

Duke University School of Nursing


Marymount Academy is a middle and high school in Greater Sudbury, Ontario, which offers Catholic education for girls in Grades 7 through 12. The school serves between 400 and 600 students.

The school originally opened in 1956 as Marymount College, a girls' high school founded by the Sisters of St. Joseph, equivalent to the boys-only St. Charles College. Following St. Charles' conversion to a co-educational school in 1993, enrolment at Marymount began to decline, a process that accelerated following the opening of St. Benedict Catholic Secondary School in 1996. The school thus added Grade 7 and 8 education, and developed a special focus on enriched academic education for young women, changing its name to the current Marymount Academy.

Marymount Academy's motto is 'Disce ut Vivas', which is the Latin version of 'Learn That You May Live'. The school's official colours are navy blue and burgundy. Students wear uniforms, generally a kilt and a top in school colours.

The school is located at 165 D'Youville Avenue near the city's downtown core, a facility shared with the head office of the Sudbury Catholic District School Board. Marymount is heavily involved in fundraising for the Sudbury community, and participates and initiates events such as canned food drives, pep rallies, and charity benefits. Several times each year, students and faculty attend mass at Christ The King Church, their parish.

Marymount offers a wide variety of extracurricular activities. These include councils (Student Administrative Council, Girls Athletic Association, Marymount Catholic Charities Council), athletics (volleyball, soccer, basketball, flag football, track and field) and clubs (choir, band, Italian Club, Big Sister Little Sister, Ontario Students Against Impaired Driving, French Club, Chess Club, and Creative Writing Club). Marymount Academy is a dominant force in Sudbury's school athletics community. Since 1991, Marymount has earned 19 Northern Ontario Secondary School Athletics Championship titles in volleyball.

In 2009, The Fraser Institute, an independent research and education organization, ranked Marymount as the fourth best elementary/highschool in the province. Marymount ranked a 9.8 out of 10, based on standardized test results and other factors.

See also
List of high schools in Ontario

External links
 Marymount Academy

Catholic secondary schools in Ontario
High schools in Greater Sudbury
1956 establishments in Ontario
Educational institutions established in 1956
Girls' schools in Canada

Marymount Academy (Sudbury)


Count James Daniel Bruce (, tr. ; 11 May 1669 – 30 April 1735) was a Russian general, statesman, diplomat and scientist of Scottish descent (Clan Bruce), one of the chief associates of Peter the Great. According to his own record, his ancestors had lived in Russia since 1647. He was the younger brother of Robert Bruce, the first High Commandant of Saint Petersburg.

He participated in the Crimean (1687, 1689) and Azov campaigns (1695–1696) of Peter the Great against the Ottoman Empire during the Russo-Turkish War. During the Great Northern War Bruce was appointed major-general of artillery. He was involved in the revival of Russian artillery, which had been lost to the Swedish forces along with its commander, Prince Alexander of Imereti at Narva in 1700.  He was commander of artillery in the Battle of Poltava (1709), for which he was made a knight of the Order of St Andrew.   In 1721, he became one of the first Russian counts.

Bruce was one of the best educated people in Russia at the time, a naturalist and astronomer. In 1701 he founded the first Russian observatory; it was located in Moscow in the upper story of the Sukharev Tower. Bruce's scientific library of more than 1,500 volumes became a substantial part of the Russian Academy of Sciences library.

Among Muscovites, Bruce gained fame as an alchemist and magician, due in part to the innovative design of the Sukharev Tower, which was very unusual in 18th century Moscow. It was rumored that the greatest Black Magic grimoires of his collection had been bricked up into the walls of the Sukharev Tower.

Honours
 : Order of the White Eagle

References

External links
Photograph of a page of the Calendar of Bruce, 1710 (etching) from the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg
About the Jacob Bruce book collection at the Russian Academy of Sciences Library, St. Petersburg

1669 births
1735 deaths
Field marshals of the Russian Empire
Astronomers from the Russian Empire
Counts of the Russian Empire
People from the Russian Empire of Scottish descent
17th-century alchemists
18th-century alchemists
Jacob Bruce
Russian military personnel of the Great Northern War
Battle of Poltava
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Russian scientists

Jacob Bruce


A Sambalpuri sari is a traditional handwoven bandha (ikat) sari (locally called "sambalpuri bandha" sadhi or saree) wherein the warp and the weft are tie-dyed before weaving. It is produced in the Sambalpur, Balangir, Bargarh, Boudh and Sonepur districts of Odisha, India. The sari is a traditional female garment in the Indian subcontinent consisting of a strip of unstitched cloth ranging from four to nine metres in length that is draped over the body in various styles.

Sambalpuri saris are known for their incorporation of traditional motifs like shankha (Conch), chakra (wheel), phula (flower), all of which have deep symbolism with the native Odia culture. The colours red, black and white represents Lord Kaalia (Jagannatha)'s face colour. The salient feature of these saris is the traditional craftsmanship of the 'Bandhakala'- the Tie-dye art reflected in their intricate weaves, also known as Sambalpuri "Ikkat".  In this technique, the threads are first tie-dyed and later woven into a fabric, with the entire process taking many weeks. These saris first became popular outside the state when the late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi started wearing them. In the 1980s and 1990s they became popular across India. To provide protection to the weavers practicing this art, the handloom silk saris manufactured in Sambalpur and Berhampur (Berhampur Patta) in Odisha were included in the Government of India's Geographical Indications (GI) registry.

The Sambalpuri sari

The Sambalpuri sari is made from fabric woven on a hand-loom.  Varieties of the Sambalpuri sari include Sonepuri, Pasapali, Bomkai, Barpali, and Bapta saris, which are in high demand. Most of them have been named after their places of origin and are popularly known as Pata. Paintings on Tussar saris depicting Mathura Vijay, Raslila and Ayodhya Vijay owe their origin to 'Raghurajpur patta paintings'.

Fabric and design

Baandha fabric is created using a tie-dye technique. The yarns are tied according to the desired patterns to prevent absorption of dyes, and then dyed. The yarns or set of yarns so produced is called 'Baandha'. The unique feature of this form of designing is that the designs are reflected almost identically on both sides of the fabric. Once the fabric is dyed it can never be bleached into another colour.

This versatile technique enables a craftsman to weave colourful designs, patterns and images into a fabric capable of inspiring a thought or conveying a message. Traditionally, craftsmen created Baandhas with images of flora or fauna or with geometrical patterns. More recently, new types of Baandha depicting portrait, landscape and flower pods are being designed.

It is believed that this art migrated to Western Odisha along with the Bhulia community who fled Northern India in the year 1192 AD after the fall of the Chouhan empire at the hands of the Mughals. Since then and up to the year 1925 it flourished in Western Odisha in a limited number of designs and in vegetable colours and consisted mostly of saris used by the womenfolk of the Odisha.

Development

Today the Baandha fabric is popularly known by its geographical and cultural name Sambalpuri owing to the pioneering efforts of Sri Radhashyam Meher, who brought about a radical improvement in the skills of the craftsmen and the quality of the products. Other master craftsmen who contributed to the development of Sambalpuri textiles were Padmashree Kailash Chandra Meher, Padmashree Kunja Bihari Meher, Padmashree Chatrubhuja Meher and Padmashree Krutharth Acharya, Handloom Technologist Mr. Ramkrishna Meher. Sambalpuri textiles today include furnishing materials, dress materials and saris in silk, cotton and mercerised cotton in a variety of colours and many different designs.  Baandha craftsmen are also masters of the 'extra warp' and 'extra weft' style of designing which can be seen in almost all forms of Baandha textiles.

In 1926, Radhashyam designed the first handloom to weave textiles of ninety inches width. His dexterity in the Baandha art and his ability to motivate the weaving community in the region to improve their skills by providing the necessary training and incentives enabled the creation of new designs that received international fame and recognition.

Radhashyam Meher established his proprietary concern, named 'Utkal Parda Agency', at Sambalpur for the research, production and marketing of Sambalpuri textiles.

Important handloom clusters of Odisha

Further reading
 The Orissan art of weaving, by Kesabachandra Mehera, Publisher: Keshab Chandra Meher, 1995.
 Indian ikat textiles, V & A Museum Indian Art Series. by Rosemary Crill, Victoria and Albert Museum. V & A Publications, 1998. .

References

External links

Geographical indications in Odisha
Odia culture
Figured fabrics
Handloom sarees
Bargarh district
Subarnapur district
Tourist attractions in Sambalpur

Sambalpuri sari