Washington Street is a street originating in downtown Boston, Massachusetts, which extends southwestward to the Massachusetts–Rhode Island state line. The majority of its length outside of the city was built as the Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike in the early 19th century. It is the longest street in Boston and remains one of the longest streets in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Due to various municipal annexations with the city of Boston, the name Washington Street now exists 6 or more times within the jurisdiction(s) of the City of Boston.

The street's great age in the city of Boston has given rise to a phenomenon whereby intersecting streets have different names on either side of Washington Street.

History

Until 1803 and the commencement of large-scale infilling of Boston Harbor and Back Bay, the town lay at the end of a peninsula less than a hundred feet wide at its narrowest point. This was the waist of the strip of land known as Boston Neck. Originally a single street traversed the Neck, joining peninsular Boston to the mainland. This was termed Orange or South-End Street. The route served as the first leg of the Boston Post Road to New York City. Starting in 1631 the narrowest waist of that isthmus was cut to make the town more defensible. To this end fortifications south of Boston were built to control the Post Road, both on the mainland and just beyond the man-made canal cutting through Boston Neck at what is now Back Bay (see map at right). These fortifications were gradually improved over the years, and considerably expanded by the British as the movement for colonial independence moved from widespread discontent to frank military revolution.

In 1789 the name "Washington Street" was given to the section of this road running from the border with Roxbury (then a separate town) to the fortification near the present-day East Berkeley Street MBTA station. This was done in honor of George Washington, who rode the Post Road into Boston during his tour of New England in October of that year.

The name "Washington Street" was extended on July 6, 1824 to include the roads leading north to Dock Square. This consolidated and replaced other names that had been in use along this path since 1706:
 Orange Street, from the fortification to Essex Street/Boylston Street
 Newbury Street, from Essex Street/Boylston Street to Summer Street/Winter Street
 Marlborough Street, from Summer Street/Winter Street to School Street
 Cornhill, from School Street to Dock Square

Nine months later the name "Washington Street" was extended again. On May 9, 1825 the roads connecting Boston's town line to present-day Roxbury Street in Dudley Square were consolidated into Washington Street. This includes some of the oldest streets in Roxbury, some having been laid out in 1662.

For a period of time afterwards, Washington Street extended westward from Dudley Square to the border with Brookline. Part of this extension (from present-day Columbus Avenue to the Brookline border) was renamed Tremont Street on July 2, 1860. Then the remaining part from Dudley Square was renamed Roxbury Street on June 16, 1874—and at the same time, Washington Street was extended southwestward from Dudley Square along the Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike to Rhode Island. The only location where Washington Street deviated from the path of the turnpike was south of downtown Dedham, bypassing what is now School Street and Court Street.

In Boston, Washington Street was extended northward along a new road to Haymarket Square on November 6, 1872. (This extension would later be overtaken by the redevelopment of Haymarket Square and Scollay Square, which became Government Center.)

Charlestown Street, which began in Haymarket Square (where Washington Street ended) and continued northward to the Charlestown Bridge, was renamed North Washington Street on March 1, 1901. The name of the bridge itself was changed to North Washington Street on February 10, 1910.

The first state highway in Boston was the part of Washington Street from Dedham to West Roxbury Parkway (at Lagrange Street). It was taken over by the Massachusetts Department of Public Works in 1908. The short piece in West Roxbury Parkway, to just north of the road through the parkway, was taken over in 1921; the next state highway in Boston was the Southern Artery in 1926.

Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike
In 1802, Fisher Ames and a group of others requested that the Great and General Court lay out a new turnpike between the Norfolk County Courthouse and Pawtucket. They agreed (over the no vote of Dedham's representative, Ebenezer Fisher) and the road was charted on March 8, 1802. It was finished in 1806 at a cost of $225,000, or $6,440 a mile. It was the best and fastest highway in America at the time, allowing for mail to be delivered between Boston and Providence in under three hours.

It served as a straighter alternative to two roads between Boston and Providence: the Lower Boston Post Road (via Norwood and Foxborough), and the road via Walpole and Wrentham. The turnpike ran from Dudley Square to the border of Rhode Island and beyond to downtown Pawtucket. The turnpike was constructed as an entirely new road, except for a part through North Attleborough (which is the only part bypassed today by US 1). The southern half of the turnpike, which had some steep grades and bypassed towns where travelers wanted to stop, saw little use and remained a dirt road until the construction of US 1. The part of the turnpike within the Roxbury limits was laid out as a public road in June 1857 and named Shawmut Avenue, as an extension of the existing Shawmut Avenue from Boston. The adjacent part of the turnpike within West Roxbury was named Shawmut Avenue as well on February 3, 1858.

Extent and description

Washington Street begins at State and Court Streets as a one-way thoroughfare (for northbound traffic only). Through Downtown Crossing, from Milk Street south to Temple Place, Washington Street is closed to most vehicular traffic (and continues to be one-way northbound for authorized traffic only). South of Temple Place, Washington is, once again, one-way northbound, becoming two-way at Stuart Street and Kneeland Street. From Marginal Road, south to Herald Street, the bridge over the Massachusetts Turnpike and the adjacent Amtrak/Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority (MBTA) commuter rail tracks, the road is also one-way northbound, with a southbound contra-flowing bus lane for the Silver-Line bus.

At Dudley Square in Roxbury, Washington Street is southbound-only for several blocks, between Warren Street and Dudley Street. Northbound traffic bypasses this section to the east using those two streets. Just after passing under the Arborway in Jamaica Plain, Washington Street becomes Hyde Park Avenue, and traffic staying on Washington Street must turn west on Ukraine Way to cross over the Amtrak/MBTA Commuter Rail tracks, and then south at South Street, which becomes Washington Street again.

Southbound traffic must use short sections of South Street and Poplar Street at Roslindale Square.  South of there, near the border between Roslindale and West Roxbury, Washington Street crosses West Roxbury Parkway and acquires a median strip.  This median lasts until just before the Dedham city line, where the road continues as an undivided road.

Washington Street continues southwestward, through the center of Dedham, the outskirts of Westwood, the centers of Norwood, and East Walpole and South Walpole. At the Walpole–Foxborough line, it no longer crosses the railroad tracks (the old Mansfield and Framingham Railroad), and traffic must detour via Water Street and North Street. North Street connects to the Boston-Providence Turnpike, which carries US Route 1 (and was never actually a turnpike, a toll road). This road merges into the old path of Washington Street south of the railroad. From there to Rhode Island, except through North Attleborough center (which it bypasses using East Washington Street as opposed to North and South Washington Streets), US Route 1 stays with Washington, as it passes through the outskirts of Foxborough (past Gillette Stadium), Wrentham and Plainville, and then through South Attleboro.

Numbered routes
Washington Street currently has the following route numbers:
 Route 1A from Elm Street in Dedham south to the split with Walpole Street in Norwood (except in northern Norwood, where 1A uses Upland Road)
 US Route 1 from northern Foxborough near Gillette Stadium to Rhode Island, except through North Attleborough center, where US 1 uses East Washington Street

When the first numbered highways in Massachusetts, the New England Interstate Highways, were assigned in 1922, NE 1 used Washington Street through North Attleborough center and from Norwood center to Arborway in Boston. By 1927, US 1 (as the road was now known) split in Dedham center onto Court Street, using Ames Street and Bridge Street into Boston, where it used Spring Street and Centre Street to reach Arborway.

Soon after 1933, the new road (Boston-Providence Turnpike and Brook Farm Parkway) from Roslindale to Foxborough was finished, and it was around this time that the rest of the current alignment to Rhode Island was finished — using Washington Street from Foxborough to the state line, except through North Attleborough center. The old road became Route 1A north from North Attleborough center and through South Attleboro, ending at the rotary just north of Dedham center. For several years in between, the new road was only built south of Dedham, and US 1 once again used Washington Street from Dedham into West Roxbury, where it cut north to Centre Street via West Roxbury Parkway.

Between 1949 and 1961, 1A was truncated to end at US 1 via Elm Street south of Dedham center, probably to keep traffic out of Dedham center. US 1 was removed from that alignment in 1989, but 1A still ends at the old route.

Public transportation
As a main road, Washington Street has had its share of streetcar and later bus routes. It also had the Washington Street Elevated from south of downtown to  and later . An  shows horsecar tracks from Boylston Street south to Dudley Street. An 1874 map extends them south from Dudley to just north of Forest Hills, and north to Dock Square. By 1888, tracks also used Washington north to Haymarket Square, and by 1897 all the way to and over the Charlestown Bridge.

As the West End Street Railway electrified its lines in the late 19th century, Tremont Street was the first north-south arterial in downtown Boston to run electric streetcars. As the lines on Warren Street (December 28, 1889), Blue Hill Avenue (January 18, 1890), and Hampden Street (May 10, 1890) were electrified, they initially used Shawmut Avenue to reach Tremont Street. On September 2, 1890, the line on Washington Street to  began electric operation, again using Shawmut Avenue north of Dudley Square. On November 28, 1891, the downtown Washington Street tracks were electrified, with the five Warren Street, Hampden Street, and Blue Hill Avenue routes rerouted to Washington Street. This relieved congestion on the Tremont Street tracks and allowed increases in service.

A later, , shows that tracks owned by the West Roxbury and Roslindale Street Railway continued southwest from Forest Hills via Dedham to Norwood. The Norfolk Southern Street Railway left Norfolk on the road to Walpole center, but used Washington Street from Common Street in Walpole to South Walpole. Except for the older section through North Attleborough center, used by the Interstate Consolidated Street Railway, none of the rest had streetcar tracks, due to its avoidance of populated areas. In  still shows streetcar tracks on Washington Street within Boston, ending downtown at Essex Street. By 1953 they were only in use from Forest Hills to Egleston (by the 40 route, bus substituted December 18, 1955) and from Dudley to Northampton Street (by the 47 route, bustituted September 13, 1953, and the 10 route, bus substituted December 5, 1953).

The Washington Street Elevated, later part of the Orange Line, opened from south of downtown Boston to Dudley on June 10, 1901, and south to Forest Hills November 22, 1909. The Washington Street Tunnel downtown opened November 30, 1908. The Elevated closed on April 30, 1987, with the opening of the Southwest Corridor several days later.

Other Washington Streets in Boston
There are two significant and two minor streets in Boston with the same name. Addresses at these streets need to be distinguished by neighborhood names or ZIP codes.
 In the western part of Boston, Washington Street begins in Brookline Village, and crosses Brookline, Allston, Brighton, Newton, and Wellesley, ending at Wellesley's boundary with Natick, a total of almost . It is the main east-west street in Brighton (ZIP Codes: 02135 in Brighton, 02458, 02460, 02462, 02465 and 02466 in Newton, 02445–02446 in Brookline, 02481–02482 in Wellesley) See Route 16.
 In the Dorchester neighborhood, Washington Street extends approximately  from Blue Hill Avenue near Geneva Avenue to Dorchester Avenue at the southern boundary of the city (ZIP Codes: 02121 and 02124)
 In Hyde Park neighborhood, Washington Street extends approximately seven blocks in the small portion of Hyde Park on the east side of the Neponset River (ZIP Code: 02136).
 In Charlestown neighborhood, Washington Street begins at a dead end near the intersection of Austin Street and New Rutherford Avenue and extends three blocks to Harvard Street (ZIP Code: 02129)
 North Washington extends from the Haymarket neighborhood and proceeds northward where it crosses the Charles River and terminates in Charlestown at the junction with Chelsea Street.

Image gallery

See also

 Boston-area streetcar lines
 Downtown Crossing
 Modern Theatre
 Old Corner Bookstore
 Old South Meeting House
 Pie Alley
 SoWa

Former tenants

 Amory Hall, 19th century
 Arcadia Hotel, burned in 1913 killing 28 people
 Beethoven Hall, 1870s
 Bijou Theatre
 Black, J. W. photography studio (c. 1860s+)
 Boston Female Asylum
 Boylston Market
 T.R. Burnham, photographer, 19th century
 Chinese Museum, 19th century
 Columbia Theatre (1891 – c. 1957)
 Fetridge & Co., periodical depot, 19th century
 Globe Theatre (1871)
 Globe Theatre (1903)
 Gordon's Olympia Theatre, 20th century
 Grand Opera House
 A.N. Hardy, photographer, 19th century
 Haytian Bureau of Emigration
 Keith-Albee Boston Theatre (1920s)
 Keith's Theatre (1894–1928)
 S.S. Kilburn, engraver, 19th century
 Lafayette Place Mall
 Liberty Tree
 Melodeon, 19th century
 Park Theatre
 RKO-Boston movie theater (1930s–1950s)
 RKO-Keith's Memorial movie theater (1928–1960s)
 Selwyn's Theatre, 19th century
 South Congregational Church
 Theatre Comique
 White, Smith & Company, music publishers, 19th century
 Whipple's photo studio, 19th century
 White Horse Tavern

References

Notes

Sources

 The Boston Atlas (Java)
 Washington Street, The Longest In Boston
 Washington Street: The Mystery is Solved(?)
 Changes to Transit Service in the MBTA district (PDF)

Further reading

External links

Streets in Boston
Pre-freeway turnpikes in the United States
U.S. Route 1

Washington Street (Boston)


The Return of the King is the third and final volume of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, following The Fellowship of the Ring and The Two Towers. It was published in 1955. The story begins in the kingdom of Gondor, which is soon to be attacked by the Dark Lord Sauron.

The volume was praised by literary figures including W. H. Auden, Anthony Price, and Michael Straight, but attacked by Edwin Muir who had praised The Fellowship of the Ring.

The chapter "The Scouring of the Shire", and a chapter-length narrative in the appendices, "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", have attracted discussion by scholars and critics. "The Scouring of the Shire" has been called the most important chapter in the whole novel, providing in its internal quest to restore the Shire a counterbalance to the main quest to destroy the Ring. Commentators have read into it a variety of contemporary political allusions including a satire of socialism and a strand of environmentalism. Tolkien described "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" as essential to the plot of the novel. It covers events both before and after the main narrative, and differs from it in not being from the hobbits' point of view. Scholars have discussed the tale's themes including love and death, Tolkien's balance between open Christianity and treating the characters as pagan; and the fact that having the tale as an appendix deprives the main story of much of its love-interest.

Title and publication

Tolkien conceived of The Lord of the Rings as a single work comprising six "books" plus extensive appendices. In 1953, he proposed titles for the six books to his publisher, Rayner Unwin; Book Five was to be The War of the Ring, while Book Six was to be The End of the Third Age. These titles were eventually used in the (2000) Millennium edition. Unwin however split the work into three volumes, publishing the fifth and sixth books with the appendices into the final volume with the title The Return of the King. Tolkien felt the chosen title revealed too much of the story, and indicated that he preferred The War of the Ring as a title for the volume.

The Return of the King was in the end published as the third and final volume of The Lord of the Rings, on 20 October 1955 in the UK.

Contents

Some editions of the volume contain a synopsis for readers who have not read the earlier volumes. The body of the volume consists of books five and six. Book six has variously been titled The Return of the King (clashing with the title of the third volume) and The End of the Third Age, though in many editions the Books are untitled. The volume ends with a set of appendices and an index, varying in different editions. Book V: The War of the Ring

Sauron sends a great army against Gondor. Gandalf arrives at Minas Tirith to warn Denethor of the attack, while Théoden musters the Rohirrim to ride to Gondor's aid. Minas Tirith is besieged; the Lord of the Nazgûl uses a spell-wound battering ram to destroy the city's gates. Denethor, deceived by Sauron, falls into despair. He burns himself alive on a pyre; Pippin and Gandalf rescue his son Faramir from the same fate.

Aragorn, accompanied by Legolas, Gimli, and the Rangers of the North, takes the Paths of the Dead to recruit the Dead Men of Dunharrow, oathbreakers who are bound by an ancient curse which denies them rest until they fulfil their oath to fight for the King of Gondor. Aragorn unleashes the Army of the Dead on the Corsairs of Umbar invading southern Gondor. With that threat eliminated, Aragorn uses the Corsairs' ships to transport the men of southern Gondor up the Anduin, reaching Minas Tirith just in time to turn the tide of battle. Théoden's niece Éowyn, who joined the army in disguise, kills the Lord of the Nazgûl with help from Merry; both are wounded. Together, Gondor and Rohan defeat Sauron's army in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, though at great cost; Théoden is among the dead.

Aragorn enters Minas Tirith and heals Faramir, Éowyn, and Merry. He leads an army of men from Gondor and Rohan, marching through Ithilien to the Black Gate to distract Sauron from his true danger. At the Battle of the Morannon, his army is vastly outnumbered.

 Book VI: The End of the Third Age

Meanwhile, Sam rescues Frodo from the tower of Cirith Ungol. They set out across Mordor. When they reach the edge of the Cracks of Doom, Frodo cannot resist the Ring any longer. He claims it for himself and puts it on. Gollum suddenly reappears. He struggles with Frodo and bites off Frodo's finger with the Ring still on it. Celebrating wildly, Gollum loses his footing and falls into the Fire, taking the Ring with him. When the Ring is destroyed, Sauron loses his power forever. All he created collapses, the Nazgûl perish, and his armies are thrown into such disarray that Aragorn's forces emerge victorious.

Aragorn is crowned King of Arnor and Gondor, and weds Arwen, daughter of Elrond. Théoden is buried and Éomer is crowned King of Rohan. His sister Éowyn is engaged to marry Faramir, now Steward of Gondor and Prince of Ithilien. Galadriel, Celeborn, and Gandalf meet and say farewell to Treebeard, and to Aragorn.

The four hobbits make their way back to the Shire, only to find that it has been taken over by men directed by "Sharkey" (whom they later discover to be Saruman). The hobbits, led by Merry, raise a rebellion and scour the Shire of Sharkey's evil. Gríma Wormtongue turns on Saruman and kills him in front of Bag End, Frodo's home. He is killed in turn by hobbit archers. Merry and Pippin are celebrated as heroes. Sam marries Rosie Cotton and uses his gifts from Galadriel to help heal the Shire. But Frodo is still wounded in body and spirit, having borne the Ring for so long. A few years later, in the company of Bilbo and Gandalf, Frodo sails from the Grey Havens west over the Sea to the Undying Lands to find peace.

 Appendices

The appendices outline more details of the history, cultures, genealogies, and languages that Tolkien imagined for the peoples of Middle-earth. They provide background details for the narrative, with much detail for Tolkien fans who want to know more about the stories.

Appendix A: "Annals of the Kings and Rulers" Provides extensive background to the larger world of Middle-earth, with brief overviews of the events of the first two Ages of the world, and then more detailed histories of the nations of Men in Gondor and Rohan, as well as a history of the royal Dwarvish line of Durin during the Third Age.The embedded "Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" tells how it happened that an immortal elf came to marry a man, as told in the main story, which Arwen's ancestor Lúthien had done in the First Age, giving up her immortality.
Appendix B: "The Tale of Years" (Chronology of the Westlands) It is a timeline of events throughout the series, and ancient events affecting the narrative, and in lesser detail, it gives the stories' context in the fictional chronology of the larger mythology.It also tells that Sam gives his daughter Elanor the fictional Red Book of Westmarch – which contains the autobiographical stories of Bilbo's adventures at the opening of the war, and Frodo's role in the full-on War of the Ring, and serves as Tolkien's source for The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings (with Tolkien representing himself as a translator, rather than an epic novelist). It says that there was "a tradition" that after handing over the book, Sam crossed west over the sea himself, the last of the ring-bearers; and that some years later, after the deaths of Aragorn and Arwen, Legolas and Gimli also sailed together "over Sea".
Appendix C: "Family Trees" (Hobbits) Gives hobbit genealogies – not only for Bilbo and Frodo's Baggins family, but also their relations the Tooks and Brandybucks, which connect them to Pippin and Merry.
Appendix D: "Calendars" Describes some of the calendars used by the characters in the story, and explains that the Roman month names in the text are "translations" of the names in the hobbits' calendar. (Tolkien was a linguist, and provided Germanic-sounding names for the hobbit calendar by extrapolating names of German and Old English months forward to what he thought they might have become if all were still used in modern English, as Yule and Easter are.)
Appendix E: "Writing and Spelling" Describes dwarves' runes and the elvish runes use by the other peoples of Middle-earth; the names of the runes and letters incidentally give a bit of information about dwarvish and elvish languages.
Appendix F: "Languages and Peoples of the Third Age" and "On Translation" Presented as two sections. In addition to outlines of the various languages in current use during the narrative, and mentioned or seen in the story, it discusses hobbits' names at length. It sorts out names which Tolkien affected to have translated into English, and names which said he had left in original form (since they had no meaning in hobbits' everyday language).

Reception

Of the volume

In a review for The New York Times, the poet W. H. Auden praised The Return of the King and found The Lord of the Rings a "masterpiece of the genre".
The science fiction author and critic Anthony Boucher, in a review for The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, praised the volume as "a masterly narration of tremendous and terrible climactic events", but wrote that Tolkien's prose "seems sometimes to be protracted for its own sake".
The author Anthony Price, reviewing the novel for The Oxford Mail, called it "more than immense; it is complete", praising Tolkien's Middle-earth as "an absolutely real and unendingly exciting world". He admired the characterisation of Tom Bombadil, the Ents, and Gollum. In his view, the One Ring was destroyed "with terrifying logic", though he did not demand that the text end there, noting that the hobbits' return to the Shire put the larger events in perspective.

The novelist and publisher Michael Straight, reviewing the whole of The Lord of the Rings in The New Republic, wrote that the devastated landscapes in the work recalled Tolkien's First World War experiences, just as the snowstorm in the Misty Mountains recalled his climbing trip in Switzerland, and the Shire reflected England. He concluded by calling the novel a work of genius.

The Scottish poet and critic Edwin Muir, who had praised The Fellowship of the Ring in 1954, attacked the completed book in 1955 in The Sunday Observer as "a boy's adventure story". He compared it to the works of Rider Haggard, and stated that "except for a few old wizards", all the characters "are boys masquerading as adult[s]".

Of "The Scouring of the Shire"

Critics have considered the volume's penultimate chapter, "The Scouring of the Shire", the most important chapter in the whole of The Lord of the Rings. Although Tolkien denied that the chapter was an allegory for Britain in the aftermath of World War II, commentators have argued that it can be applied to that period, with clear contemporary political references that include a satire of socialism, echoes of Nazism, allusions to the shortages in postwar Britain, and a strand of environmentalism.  According to Tolkien, the idea of such a chapter was planned from the outset as part of the overall formal structure of The Lord of the Rings, though its details were not worked out until much later. The chapter was intended to counterbalance the larger plot, concerning the physical journey to destroy the One Ring, with a moral quest upon the return home, to purify the Shire and to take personal responsibility. Tolkien considered other identities for the wicked Sharkey before settling on Saruman late in his composition process. The chapter has been called one of the most famous anticlimaxes in literature.

Of "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen"

Tolkien called "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", in the appendices at the end of the volume, "really essential to the story". In contrast to the non-narrative appendices it extends the main story of the book to cover events both before and after it, one reason it would not fit in the main text. Tolkien gave another reason for its exclusion, namely that the main text is told from the hobbits' point of view. The tale to some extent mirrors the "Tale of Beren and Lúthien", set in an earlier age of Middle-earth. This creates a feeling of historical depth, in what scholars note is an approach similar to that of Dante in his Inferno. Aspects of the tale discussed by scholars include the nature of love and death; the balance Tolkien strikes between open Christianity and his treatment of his characters as pagan; and the resulting paradox that although Tolkien was a Roman Catholic and considered the book fundamentally Catholic, Middle-earth societies lack religions of their own. It has been noted also that the tale's relegation to an appendix deprives the main story of much of its love-interest, shifting the book's emphasis towards action.

See also

 The History of The Lord of the Rings

Notes

References

Sources

External links

1955 British novels
1955 fantasy novels
Allen & Unwin books
British novels adapted into films
Middle-earth books
Sequel novels
The Lord of the Rings

The Return of the King


Jeffrey Doucette (born November 25, 1947) is an American comedian and character actor. Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, he was the second of eight children born to Elizabeth "Betty" (née Andres) and William "Bill" Doucette.

Doucette graduated from Marquette University High School in the mid-1960's. After high school, he attended Lewis University in Romeoville, Illinois, where he became the first Theater Major at the university. After his undergraduate studies, Doucette enrolled in the graduate school at Northern Illinois University, seeking an additional theater degree.

In 1974, Doucette moved to Chicago, joining The Second City improv theater. During his time at Second City, Doucette met his future comedy partner, Ernst Emling, and formed the comedy duo Jeff and Ernst. Under the guidance of improv teacher Del Close, the pair were quickly signed by the William Morris Agency and began to tour the U.S. with folk singer Bob Gibson, eventually opening in larger venues for acts including Barry Manilow and The Spinners.

In 1976, Doucette and Emling moved to Los Angeles, joining the ranks of a burgeoning group of young comics, including: Freddie Prinze, Jay Leno, David Letterman, Richard Lewis, Robin Williams, Michael Keaton, Jim Varney, and Andy Kaufman. After many appearances on variety and talk shows, the pair made their first appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in 1977.

To date, Doucette has appeared in over 92 films and television series, including Splash, All The Way, The Dentist 2, Desperate Housewives, Weird Science, Newhart, Alien Nation, Townies, Dog With A Blog, 3rd Rock from the Sun, ER, That '70s Show and Beverly Hills 90210. He has been a voice artist in many television commercials and cartoons.

Doucette was the main antagonist in the Bollywood film Hisss and appeared in the Disney World attraction Cranium Command.

In television commercials, Doucette has portrayed Benjamin Franklin in ads for Chevrolet Volt: Quicken Loans; Ballpark's Finest Hot Dogs; and El Monterrey breakfast foods. He also made a special appearance as Franklin on Mike & Molly.

Doucette is also a writer and director, having written two plays: Big Head Women, a science-fiction comedy; and Without Annette, an improvisational comedy written with actress and writer Hope Juber and published by Playscripts, Inc. in 2015.

In 1991, Doucette received the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Lead Performance for "Rage, or I'll Be Home For Christmas" at the Alliance Theater in Burbank. In 2014, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the International Student Film Festival Hollywood (ISFFH).

Doucette and his wife, Saba, are licensed spiritual practitioners in the United Centers for Spiritual Living; they are active as teachers, counselors and teen and 'tween group leaders. His Life Play seminars and workshops focus on improvisation as a path for spiritual and self-discovery.

Filmography

Live action roles

Film

Television

Voice roles

Film

Television

References

External links

1947 births
Living people
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Male actors from Milwaukee

Jeff Doucette


David Turner (born February 19, 1967 in Washington, D.C.) is a former gridiron player in the Canadian Football League. He was a defensive back primarily used as a kick return specialist with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and Ottawa Rough Riders.  Turner was undrafted out of East Texas State University where he excelled in Track and Field, skipping his senior season of football, but entering the C.F.L. as a free-agent with the Blue Bombers in 1989 and dealt to the Rough Riders in 1990.

References

Living people
Canadian football defensive linemen
1967 births

David Turner (Canadian football)


The Miami-Dade Police Department (MDPD), formerly known as the Metro-Dade Police Department (1981–1997), Dade County Public Safety Department (1957–1981), and the Dade County Sheriff's Office (1836–1957), is a county police department serving Miami-Dade County. The MDPD has approximately 4,700 employees, making it the largest police department in the southeastern United States and the eighth largest in the country. The department is still often referred by its former name, the Metro-Dade Police or simply Metro.

The MDPD operates out of eight district stations throughout Miami-Dade County and several specialized bureaus. The MDPD is internationally accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, as well as at the state level by the Florida Commission for Law Enforcement Accreditation. The current director of the department is Alfredo Ramirez III, who succeeded Juan J. Perez. The department's headquarters are located in Doral, Florida.

Miami-Dade Police officers wear taupe/brown uniforms. Their vehicles are green and white.

History

The Dade County Sheriff's Office was created in 1836 to serve the newly created County of Dade, which originally consisted of the area comprising the present-day counties of Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Martin. In the early years, the entire area was policed by as few as three deputies on horseback, and Dade's sheriffs were appointed by the governor. In 1899, the office of the sheriff became an elected position. By 1915, the jurisdiction area had been reduced to its present size of approximately 2,139 square miles.

In 1957, the metropolitan form of government was established, and the Dade County Sheriff's Office was subsequently renamed the Public Safety Department. The Public Safety Department's organizational structure, as determined by the metropolitan charter, included responsibility for police and fire protection, the jail and stockade, civil defense, animal control, and motor vehicle inspection. In 1960, the Public Safety Department also assumed responsibility for police operations at the Port of Miami and Miami International Airport. By 1966, the Public Safety Department had approximately 850 sworn officers in its ranks. That year a long-standing controversy over the selection/election procedure for choosing a county sheriff was resolved by voter mandate. Subsequently, non-elected sheriffs were appointed by the county manager as "Director of the Public Safety Department and Sheriff of Metropolitan Dade County."

In August 1968, roughly coincident with the Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, rioting broke out in Liberty City. Unable to control the situation, the Florida Highway Patrol and National Guard were brought in. Claiming they were being attacked by snipers, the police killed three people. No one was injured by sniper fire, and no weapons were found.

In 1973, the responsibility for running the county's jails was transferred to the newly created Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation. By that year, the Public Safety Department had also been divested of all other non-police responsibilities in order to concentrate entirely on law enforcement services. In July 1981, the Public Safety Department was renamed the Metro-Dade Police Department.

In September 1997, voters decided to change the county's name to Miami-Dade County. As such, the department was renamed the Miami-Dade Police Department the following December.

On September 13, 2007, four Miami-Dade Police Department officers were shot by a suspect with an AK-47, resulting in the death of one officer, Jose Somohano. Another officer suffered a serious leg injury. The suspect, Shawn Sherwin Labeet, fled the scene but was found in an apartment complex later that day. He was cornered in a poolhouse bathroom by members of Miami-Dade Police Special Response Team (equivalent to SWAT), and was shot and killed when he refused to drop a pistol he was holding.

On the morning of Thursday, January 20, 2011, two Miami-Dade Police officers were shot and killed by a homicide suspect, Johnny Sims. According to Miami-Dade Police Director James Loftus, the MDPD fugitive warrant team were assisting the U.S. Marshals Service in the city of Miami in apprehending the suspect, for whom a murder warrant had been issued. Police arrived at the suspect's mother's house and made contact with a member of the family, when the suspect surprised police by opening fire. Detective Roger Castillo, a 21-year veteran, was shot in the head and died at the scene, and Detective Amanda Haworth, a 23-year veteran, was shot several times and taken to Jackson Memorial Hospital's Ryder Trauma Center in grave condition. She underwent emergency surgery there, but died shortly thereafter. The suspect, Sims, was shot and killed by another detective at the scene.

In December 2019, the Miami-Dade Police Department came under scrutiny after a shootout in Miramar. MDPD officers, as well as police from other agencies, responded to fleeing robbers who carjacked a United Parcel Service van and took the UPS driver hostage. After a car chase, the MDPD killed the two suspects, the UPS driver, and an innocent bystander. The department received criticism for its officers' behavior, which included firing into open traffic and using civilian vehicles for cover. A total of 19 officers fired guns during the shootout, including 15 MDPD officers, 3 Miramar Police Department officers, and 1 Pembroke Pines Police Department officer.

Organization
MDPD police stations include:

 Northwest District Station (Miami Lakes)
 Northside District Station (West Little River)
 Midwest District Station (Doral)
 South District Station (Cutler Ridge)
 Kendall District Station (Kendall)
 Intracoastal District Station (North Miami Beach)
 Airport District Station (Miami International Airport, Florida)
 West District Station (The Hammocks)

Contracted municipalities

 Town of Miami Lakes (1)
 Village of Palmetto Bay (4)
 Town of Cutler Bay (4)

Demographics
Breakdown of the makeup of the rank and file of MDPD:

 Male: 75.58%
 Female: 24.42%
 White: 20.02%
 Hispanic: 58.11%
 African-American/Black: 20.58%
 Other: 1.29%

Ranks and insignia

All rank insignia are worn on the collars of the shirt, except for sergeant, which is worn on each sleeve, below the department patch.

Specialized units

 Arson Unit
 Auto Theft Unit
 Aviation Unit
 Bomb Squad
 K9 Unit
 Citizens Volunteer Program
 Communications Bureau
 Forensic Services Bureau
 Crime Stoppers – (305) 471-TIPS
 Court Services Bureau
 Drug Abuse Resistance Education
 Economic Crimes Bureau
 Warrants Bureau (assists US Marshal Service)
 General Investigations Unit (G.I.U.)
 Homeland Security Bureau
 Homicide Bureau
 Information Technology Services Bureau (ITSB)
 Professional Compliance Bureau
 Marine Patrol
 Motors Traffic Unit
 Public Information and Education Bureau
 Narcotics Bureau
 Neighborhood Resource Unit (N.R.U.)
 Organized Crime Section
 Personnel Management Bureau
 Police Legal Bureau
 Property and Evidence Section
 Public Corruption and Criminal Conspiracy Unit
 Robbery Bureau
 Robbery Intervention Detail (RID)
 Cargo Theft Task Force
 Street Terror Offender Program (S.T.O.P.)
 Special Patrol Bureau (Motorcycle, D.U.I. Certified)
 Special Response Team (S.R.T.)
 Special Victims Bureau (Sexual Battery & Domestic Crimes)
 Strategic Policing Operations Response Team (SPORT)
 Miami-Dade Public Safety Training Institute
 Underwater Recovery Unit
 Southeast Regional Domestic Security Task Force

Popular culture
The department has been depicted in a number of television shows, films, and video games:
CSI Miami
Miami Vice
Bad Boys as Miami Metro Police
Dexter as Miami Metro Police
Burn Notice
Grand Theft Auto: Vice City and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories. Video games series, parodied as the Vice City Police Department.
Ace Ventura: Pet Detective as South Dade Police
Cocaine Cowboys
Miami SWAT
Casino Royale
Driv3r
Pain & Gain
Kung Fury
Jane the Virgin
Super Fuzz
Newton's Cradle ("لعبة نيوتن")
The Crew
Call of Duty Black Ops Cold War
Ace Combat Assault Horizon

Fla. Legislature passes bill letting new Miami-Dade sheriff take over county police in 2025

Florida voters — including 58% of Miami-Dade voters — approved a constitutional amendment in 2018 requiring every county in the state to elect a handful of "constitutional officers," including a sheriff.  Following this, the Florida legislature passed House Bill 1595, which allows for a gradual shift in what the public will see from county law enforcement once the new sheriff takes office in January 2025. The bill allows a three-year transition to shift MDPD squad cars to the sheriff motif, including deputy badges with stars and a color scheme dominated by dark green.

See also

List of U.S. state and local law enforcement agencies
Sheriff (Florida)
Florida Highway Patrol
United States Border Patrol
Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Department

References

External links

County police departments of Florida
Government of Miami-Dade County, Florida
Doral, Florida
Police aviation units of the United States

Miami-Dade Police Department


Felix Mendelssohn began composing his Piano Quartet No. 3 in B minor, Op. 3, for piano, violin, viola and cello in late 1824 and completed it on 18 January 1825, just before his sixteenth birthday. The quartet was published later that year and was dedicated to Goethe whom Mendelssohn had met a few years earlier. Mendelssohn's three numbered piano quartets were the first works of his to be published, hence their opus numbers.

Structure

The work has four movements:

 Allegro molto (B minor, sonata form)
 Andante (E major, sonata form)
 Allegro molto (F-sharp minor, ternary form, trio in B major)
 Allegro vivace (B minor, sonata form)

A typical performance lasts just over half an hour.

Early reception

In March 1825, Mendelssohn's father agreed to allow Felix to pursue a career in music, but only if his potential was recognized by professional musicians. Felix brought his Piano Quartet in B minor to the Paris Conservatory, where it was played by director Luigi Cherubini, and by the concertmaster of the Paris Opera, Pierre Baillot. According to Mendelssohn, the musicians were at first careless, but became enthusiastic early in the first movement and, at a terrific speed, played the entire quartet to its conclusion. Baillot approached the young composer after the performance and, without uttering a word, simply embraced him.

References

External links

Chamber music by Felix Mendelssohn
Mendelssohn 3
1825 compositions
Compositions in B minor

Piano Quartet No. 3 (Mendelssohn)


Robert Lowry Turner (1923–1990) was a British scientist known for his pioneering work in cancer research and chemotherapy. Turner came to Bradford from Belfast before being made Consultant Pathologist at Bradford Royal Infirmary in 1956.

He led a team in Bradford developing key parts of chemotherapy treatment, now a routine step for millions of people diagnosed with cancer.

Chemotherapy was made known to the rest of the medical world in 1959 after Turner, along with surgeon George Whyte-Watson, brought it into Bradford Royal Infirmary. Turner's work began on a project which looked at the effect mustard gas had on childhood Leukaemia, and developed with the help of other experts and through money raised in the city. At the time, the drugs were highly toxic, and he recognised the need for scientific input to optimise drug treatment and develop new strategies. To develop these ideas it was necessary to establish a local research base which was provided by the University of Bradford. This provided Turner with laboratory space, an office and two members of staff to help run it.

Robert Lowry Turner died in 1990. He is commemorated along with surgeon George Whyte-Watson with a plaque which can be found in Bradford Cathedral.

References

External links
  The Institute of Cancer Therapeutics –

1923 births
1990 deaths
British pathologists
20th-century British medical doctors

Robert Lowry Turner


was a railway station on the Sekisho Line in Abira, Hokkaido, Japan, operated by Hokkaido Railway Company (JR Hokkaido). Opened in 1965, it closed in March 2016.

Lines
Higashi-Oiwake Station was served by the Sekisho Line, and was situated 21.6 km from the starting point of the line at Minami-Chitose Station. The station was numbered "K16".

Station layout
The station had two side platforms serving two tracks.

Adjacent stations

History
The station opened on 1 March 1965. With the privatization of Japanese National Railways (JNR) on 1 April 1987, the station came under the control of JR Hokkaido.

February 2012 freight train derailment
At around 20:50 on 16 February 2012, a freight train derailed at the station after passing a signal at red and colliding with the wall of a snow shelter close to the station.

The up container freight train from Kushiro Freight Terminal to Sapporo Freight Terminal was normally scheduled to pass the station non-stop, but on this occasion faced a red signal to allow it to pass the delayed down Super Ōzora 13 service in the opposite direction. The driver reportedly applied the brakes, but the train failed to stop and was derailed by the catch points protecting the single-track line, hitting the wall of a snow shelter protecting the junction. The JR Freight Class DF200 diesel locomotive and four of the container wagons in the train were derailed, but the lone 25-year-old driver was uninjured. Six train services were cancelled as a result.

Closure
In September 2015, it was announced that JR Hokkaido planned to close this station in March 2016. The station closed following the last day of services on 25 March 2016.

See also
 List of railway stations in Japan

References

Railway stations in Hokkaido Prefecture
Stations of Hokkaido Railway Company
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1965
Railway stations closed in 2016
2016 disestablishments in Japan

Higashi-Oiwake Station


Arthur Warren Samuels (19 May 1852 – 11 May 1925) was an Irish Unionist Alliance Member of Parliament (MP) in the United Kingdom Parliament and subsequently a judge. The Irish Unionists were the Irish wing of the Conservative Party.

Biography
He was born in Dún Laoghaire, County Dublin, second son of Arthur Samuels, a solicitor, and Katherine Daly, daughter of Owen Daly of Mornington, County Meath. He attended Trinity College Dublin, before being called to the Irish Bar in 1877. He became a Queen's Counsel (QC) in 1894 and was called to the English bar in 1896.

Samuels was Solicitor-General for Ireland 1917–1918 and Attorney-General for Ireland in 1918–1919. He was also made a member of the Privy Council of Ireland in 1918.

He was MP for Dublin University from 1917 to 1919, having previously been defeated in a 1903 by-election for the same constituency.

Samuels left the House of Commons when he was appointed to the office of Justice of the King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice in Ireland in 1919, an office which he held until the court's abolition under the Courts of Justice Act 1924. In common with most of the judges of the old regime, he was not appointed to the High Court established under the 1924 Act. He died a year later.

Maurice Healy in The Old Munster Circuit praised his personal qualities, his erudition and his valuable book on the financial aspects of Home Rule; but as a Law Officer and judge dismissed him as "undistinguished".

Family
He married in 1881 Emma Margaret Irwin, daughter of the Reverend James Irwin of Howth, by whom he was the father of the barrister and writer Arthur P. I. Samuels (1886–1916) and Dorothy Samuels (1892–1942).

The younger Arthur was an authority on Edmund Burke and edited a collection of his correspondence and writings, which he had almost completed when his work was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I. He became a captain in the Royal Irish Rifles, and was killed on the Western Front  in September 1916. His father completed his book on Burke, which was published in 1923. Young Arthur had married Dorothy Young of Milltown, County Antrim, in 1913.

Samuels' daughter, Dorothy Helen Daly (1892–1942), served during World War II as an ambulance driver with the American Ambulance Great Britain. She was killed by a German air raid during the Exeter Blitz on 4 May 1942. She had married Herbert James Daly but was widowed at the time of her death.

References

Sources
 Who's Who of British Members of Parliament, Vol. III 1919–1945, edited by M. Stenton & S. Lees (The Harvester Press 1979)

External links

 Samuels' book on Home Rule Finance, 1912; online pdf.
Healy, Maurice  The Old Munster Circuit Michael Joseph Ltd. London 1939.

1852 births
1925 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Dublin University
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Solicitors-General for Ireland
Attorneys-General for Ireland
Irish Conservative Party MPs
Irish Unionist Party MPs
UK MPs 1918–1922
Judges of the High Court of Justice in Ireland
People from Dún Laoghaire
19th-century King's Counsel
Irish Queen's Counsel
Teachtaí Dála for Dublin University
Members of the 1st Dáil

Arthur Samuels


Albrecht Böttcher (born 29 December 1954 in Oberwiesenthal, Saxony, Germany) is a German mathematician. His field of research is functional analysis.

Between 1971 and 1973, Böttcher was in an elite class for mathematics at the Chemnitz University of Technology. In 1973, he won a silver medal at the International Math Olympiad in Moscow. He studied mathematics from 1975 to 1979 in Chemnitz. In 1980, he went to Rostov on Don to study and earned a PhD there in 1984. The topic of his dissertation was The finite section method for the Wiener-Hopf integral operator. After this he worked as scientist assistance at the university of Chemnitz. Since 1992, he is professor for harmonic analysis and Operator theory at the Chemnitz University of Technology.

As of 2012, he is the author of nine books and about 180 papers.

References

Other websites
 Böttcher's Homepage

1954 births
Living people
German mathematicians

Albrecht Böttcher


Guajolota (), also known as a torta de tamal, is a form of street food commonly found in Mexico City and within the State of Mexico. It is essentially a sandwich composed of a tamal placed inside a bolillo or a telera, which is a rounder version of a bolillo.

Vendors are commonly found selling tortas de tamal throughout the day near offices, markets, schools, and especially near churches on Sunday mornings.
Most vendors sell a variety of tamales stuffed with different ingredients, such as red mole with chicken, salsa verde with pork, cheese and chile poblano "rajas con queso," or a "tamal de dulce," which is a sweet flavored tamal, to accompany the bolillo.

Guajolotas are frequently bought with a hot drink known as atole, which comes in a variety of flavors. The order of a guajolota and atole are also known in Mexico City as a "guajolocombo."

The term guajolota is the feminized version of the word guajolote, which originates from the Nahuatl word huexolotl or uexolotl, for turkey.

There are different types of tamales that can be used to fill a guajolota:
 Green tamale
 Oaxacan tamale
 Sweet tamale
 Tamal de rajas
 Fried tamale
 Mole tamale

Origin
There are several theories about the origin of the name "guajolota". Some attribute it to the barley and rounded shape similar to the breast of a guajolote (a variety of turkey consumed in Mexico).6 Also, since it is a highly caloric snack (between 800 and 1000 calories4), those who eat it are told that it will "fatten them up like a guajolote".6 Other sources affirm that its name comes from a type of low-quality bread that was used to prepare it, also called "guajolote".

In his book La cultura del antojito. De tacos, tamales y tortas (2013), Mexican historian José N. Iturriaga explains that guajolota was born in the city of Puebla at least two centuries ago,8 and that this original recipe differs slightly from the current guajolota, since it used spleen bread and was filled with a red enchilada (dried red chiles) and shredded pork meat. Over time, the recipe was transferred to the Mexican capital and the ingredients were substituted, while in Puebla the original was kept and eventually lost.

See also
 List of sandwiches
 Tamale
 Mexico

References

Mexican cuisine
Sandwiches

Guajolota


Roland Émile Mousnier (; Paris, September 7, 1907– February 8, 1993, Paris) was a French historian of the early modern period in France and of the comparative studies of different civilizations.

Life

Mousnier was born in Paris and received his education at the École pratique des hautes études. Between 1932 and 1947, he worked as a school teacher in Rouen and Paris. During the Second World War, Mousnier was a member of the French Resistance. In 1947, he was appointed as a professor at Strasbourg University, before moving to the Sorbonne in 1955, where he remained until 1977. Keenly interested in social history, Mousnier went to the United States to learn sociology and anthropology. In 1934, Mousnier married Jeanne Lecacheur.

Views

Mousnier was one of the few post-war French historians who was neither a member of the Annales School, or a subscriber to Marxist views of history. A right-wing Roman Catholic, Mousnier had a famous feud with the Soviet Marxist historian Boris Porchnev over whether peasant revolts in 17th-century France were a function of class struggle; he argued since the concept of class was largely unknown in that period, Porchnev was wrong to identify it as a driver. In Mousnier's view, social classes did not emerge as an important factor in French society until the 18th century, with the coming of a more market-oriented economy.

Mousnier's most notable claim to fame was his argument that early modern France was a "society of orders". In Mousnier's view, people in the period from the 15th century to the 18th century regarded honor, status and social prestige as far more important than wealth. As such, society was split vertically via social ranks rather than being split horizontally via class. Mousnier made it his life work to study how the relationships between different orders operated through networks of patronage. Mousnier referred to these relationships as maître-fidèle relations between those in the socially superior and those in the socially inferior orders. In general, Mousnier focused on elites in French society.

In his view, differences within the same order were more important than those between classes. Within the nobility, there were rigid divisions between the noblesse de robe, or Nobles of the robe, whose rank derived from holding judicial or administrative posts and were often hard-working professionals, unlike the aristocratic Noblesse d'épée or Nobles of the Sword.

One of his best known books, L'Assassinat d'Henri IV, or 'The Assassination of Henry IV' examined the climate of opinion and social context in 1610 France, in which a Catholic fanatic named François Ravaillac assassinated King Henry IV. Mousnier's conclusion was that there were numerous "potential Ravaillacs" in France who were looking for a chance to kill the King.

In 1964, he published the private papers of Pierre Séguier, who was Chancellor of France from 1635 to 1672. In 1969, he published Les Hiérarchies sociales , or Social Hierarchies, a study of the evolution of different civilizations such as Tibet, China, Germany, Russia and France; this was very critical of communist societies and those based on "technocratic orders".

Work
La vénalité des offices sous Henri IV et Louis XIII, 1945 (2nd revised edition, 1971).
Les règlements du Conseil du Roi sous Louis XIII, 1949.
Le XVIIIe siècle: l'époque des "Lumières" (1715-1815) (with Ernest Labrousse and Marc Bouloiseau), 1953 (2nd revised edition, 1955), .
Les XVIe et XVIIe siècles: la grande mutation intellectuelle de l'humanité: l'avènement de la science moderne et l'expansion de l'Europe, 1953 (1993).
Les XVIe et XVIIe siècles: les progrès de la civilisation européenne et le déclin de l'orient (1492-1715), 1954.
Progrès scientifique et technique au XVIIIe siècle, 1958.
L'assassinat d'Henri IV: 14 mai 1610, 1964.
Lettres et mémoires adressées au chancelier Séguier (1633–1649), 1964.
Problèmes de stratification sociales : deux cahiers de la noblesse pour les États géneraux de 1649-1651 (with J.-P. Labatut and Y. Durandà), 1965.
La participation des gouvernés à l'activité des gouvernants dans la France du XVIIe et du XVIIIe siècles, 1966. Social hierarchies: 1450 to the present
Fureurs paysannes: les paysans dans les révoltes du XVIIe siècle (France, Russie, Chine), 1967.
Les hiérarchies sociales de 1450 à nos jours, 1969 (translated as: Social hierarchies: 1450 to the present, 1973).
"French Institutions and Society, 1610-1661" from The New Cambridge Modern History, Volume 4: The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Year's War edited by J.P. Cooper, 1970.
La plume, la faucille et le marteau: institutions et société en France du Moyen âge à la Révolution, 1970.
Les institutions de la France sous la monarchie absolue, 1598-1789, 2 volumes, 1974–1980.
La famille, l'enfant et l'éducation en France et en Grande-Bretagne du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle, 1975.
Recherches sur la stratification sociale à Paris aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, 1976.
Paris, capitale au temps de Richelieu et de Mazarin, 1978.
La monarchie absolue en Europe: du Ve siècle à nos jours, 1982.
"Les fidélités et les clientèles en France aux XVIe, XVIIe, et XVIIIe siècles", pages 35–46 from Histoire sociale, Volume 15, 1982.
L'homme rouge, ou la vie du cardinal de Richelieu, 1582–1642, 1992.

References

Sources
Hommage à Roland Mousnier: clientèles et fidélités en Europe à l'époque moderne, edited by Yves Durand, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1981.

Hayden, J. Michael "Models, Mousnier, and Qualité: The Social Structure of Early Modern France", pages 375-398 from French History, Volume 10, 1996.

External links
Obituary of Roland Mousnier

1907 births
1993 deaths
French anti-communists
Academic staff of the University of Strasbourg
Academic staff of the University of Paris
20th-century French historians
French male non-fiction writers
20th-century French male writers
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy

Roland Mousnier


Tinikling is a traditional Philippine dance which originated during the Spanish colonial era. The dance involves two people beating, tapping, and sliding bamboo poles on the ground and against each other in coordination with one or more dancers who step over and in between the poles in a dance.The name "tinikling" is a reference to birds close known as tikling

The dance is made/originated  in Leyte, an island in the Visayas in the central Philippines. It follows the movement of the tikling birds as they walk between grass stems, run over tree branches, or dodge bamboo traps set by rice farmers. Dancers follow the tikling bird's legendary grace and speed by skillfully between large bamboo poles.[3]

Legend has it that tinikling originated during the Spanish rule of the Philippines, when natives worked on large plantations under the control of the King of Spain.

Dances
Filipino culture

Tinikling


Thomas Day (1801–1861) was an American furniture craftsman and cabinetmaker in Milton, Caswell County, North Carolina. Born into a free Black family in Dinwiddie County, Virginia, Day moved to Milton in 1817 and became a highly successful businessman, boasting the largest and most productive workshop in the state during the 1850s. Day catered to upper-class white clientele and was respected among his peers for his craftsmanship and work ethic. Day came from a relatively well-off family and was privately educated. Today, Day's pieces are highly sought after and sell for high prices; his work has been heavily studied and displayed in museums such as the North Carolina Museum of History. Day is celebrated as a highly skilled craftsman and savvy businessman, specifically in regards to the challenges his race posed to his success in the Antebellum South.

Education and personal life
In 1801, Day was born into a free Black family in Dinwiddie County, Virginia. According to John Day Jr., Thomas Day's older brother, Day's father was the grandson of a white plantation mistress from South Carolina. Day's maternal grandparents, the Stewarts, were also free Blacks of wealth and status in Virginia; they owned a slave-worked plantation and Day's grandfather was a doctor. Day's father John Day Sr. was a cabinetmaker of relatively high status as well – he could vote, and was possibly Quaker educated in a time when private education was difficult to attain as a free Black person. Day's proclivity for cabinetmaking and crafting stemmed from his father's career as a cabinetmaker. Day and his older brother were privately educated. They were sent to board with white families to whom their father was connected through his cabinet and farming businesses, and went to school with the white children; thus Day received a caliber of education similar to that of his white contemporaries.

Although he was a fairly successful cabinetmaker, John Day Sr. often found himself in debt due to alcoholism and gambling, and he moved the family around often to find business in order to earn an income. This problem brought the Day family to North Carolina in 1817, where John went to work for Thomas Reynolds, a furniture craftsman, to pay off his debts, including that from the migration bond imposed on incoming free Blacks by the state of North Carolina. It is around this time that John Day Jr. and Thomas Day begin their own cabinet shop in order to earn their own income, moving to Milton to establish their furniture business. After some time working in North Carolina, John Day Jr. left the furniture business to pursue ministry, moving back to Virginia with his own family, where he owned a home and a few slaves. After a schism with the Baptist church there, he migrated to Liberia where he helped found the colony itself, set up its government, and was a missionary. Thomas Day remained in Milton as a craftsman and achieved success and respect for his skill, and in 1829 he married Aquilla Wilson of Halifax County, Virginia; she, too, was a free Black. However, due to the increasingly strict migration laws imposed by the state of North Carolina, Wilson was barred from entering North Carolina. Upon hearing of this, the townspeople of Milton beseeched the state General Assembly on Day's behalf to allow Wilson to enter the state and live with her husband, stating that a man of Day's status and skill deserved such respect. Even the state Attorney General and lawmaker Romulus Saunders, having been acquainted with Day's craft skill and strong work ethic, testified on his behalf. It was Day's social status and his crafting skill that gained him the support of the white Milton community and eventually led to Wilson being granted a waiver to enter the state. Day and his wife had three children, Mary Ann, Devereux, and Thomas Jr, who were educated in the North. The Day family were also prominent members in the Milton Presbyterian Church, and Aquilla was Day's business partner. In the church, Day and his family were highly respected and they worshipped in the white section of the sanctuary; referred to as Mr. Day by church leadership, Day had the rare privilege to host church sessions in his own home as well as to craft the church pews.

White patronage and Day's education and business prowess allowed him to overcome his race-impacted circumstances and experience capital success as a businessman. In fact, North Carolina laws were fairly loose in regards to free Black rights in comparison to other southern states; the social structure was tolerant of free Blacks and although racism, under law and through social mores, was of course prevalent throughout this time, free Blacks could gain respect and affluence if they were perceived by white society to be hard workers who earned success through their work ethic and personal values.  A very small number of free blacks owned slaves, and this helped put a damper on racial tensions because it allowed whites and blacks to connect on a capital and social level and equalized them. Whites believed that free Blacks who owned slaves were less likely than non-slave-owning free Blacks to encourage slave rebellion, and thus were less threatening to society. Many free Blacks in North Carolina owned slaves and experienced capital success as Day did; it was the combination of Day's landowning status, his mixed race, his education and business prowess, and his free black status that led to his success, while his exquisite craftsmanship set him apart from other cabinetmakers.Day owned a total of 14 slaves according to the 1850 United States Census

As Day's life went on, social tensions between whites and free Blacks increased, especially in times of economic bust; combined with the ever-more restrictive laws on free Black rights, this social situation contributed to the decrease in capital success that Day's furniture business experienced in the late 1850s, specifically following the economic panic of 1857. Overall, Day was highly respected in the Milton community, as demonstrated by his status in the church and his affluent, white clientele.

Furniture business
After moving to North Carolina with his family in 1817, it appears as though Day had been running his own furniture business before moving to Milton to work with his brother John. Although they were not the only cabinetmakers and craftsmen in the area, the Day Milton shop experienced early success, gaining local recognition and popularity by 1823. After his brother returned to Virginia and then moved to Liberia to pursue missionary work, Thomas Day took over the furniture and craft business in Milton.

In 1827, Day bought property for a workshop on Milton's main street for $550 and proceeded to take out newspaper ads to publicize his business. Over the next decade, Day bought surrounding pieces of property and extended the building structure to expand his workshop, costing another $525. In 1848, Day bought the Union Tavern property in which he ran his workshop until his death in 1861, for $1050. Day ran his Milton workshop for 40 years, constantly keeping a line of furniture for sale in his storefront while also working on outside contracts for high-profile clients.

The Union Tavern building consisted of Day's family home on the second level, Day's workshop in the back, and his showroom on the ground floor. In his shop, Day utilized various forms of labor and crafting techniques. Day employed white apprentices as well as free black and mulatto laborers and his own slaves; his employees numbered anywhere from twelve to fourteen during his career. Day also owned a tobacco farm which earned him profit and on which he also worked his slaves. Scholars estimate that Day employed five white and at least seven black workers in his workshop. Although some scholars have attributed certain lower-quality pieces of furniture to Day himself, it is more likely, according to other researchers, that some of the pieces sold by Day's workshop were produced by his less-skilled, apprenticed craftsmen. To craft his veneered cabinets and other furniture pieces, including beds and bookshelves, Day worked with hand tools in his earlier years, but in the 1840s he introduced steam power into his workshop. This steam power quickened Day's crafting process and increased production levels, because Day could easily replace structural pieces made from standardized design templates using steam power, and could have ready-made elements for when orders were placed. Notably, scholars today can often pinpoint which pieces of furniture were created around this time because they are partially hand-crafted and partially machine-fabricated, indicating that the steam power was new and still being integrated into the crafting process.

Day's workshop created various types of furniture and cabinetry, such as armoires and chairs, as well as architectural work on homes in the northern North Carolina/Southern Virginia area. Day specialized in veneered furniture and relied heavily on mahogany as a work material, which he imported from places in Africa and Central America. It is Day's use of veneers that helps scholars today attribute pieces of furniture to his workshop. In fact, Day stated himself in one of his publicity advertisements that he imported his mahogany from Santo Domingo, and that he kept mahogany furniture on stock for sale. While his work with mahogany came to be known as his trademark, Day also utilized other materials for his furniture such as walnut, seen in the pews he constructed for the Presbyterian church he attended in Milton. Day was strong and confident in his stylistic taste, debating with his clients to ensure that the best quality materials and designs were used.

The exquisitely crafted furniture created by Day did not go unrecognized. Day's Union Tavern furniture business served high-status organizations and patrons, many of them white, including the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina Governor David Reid. In 1847, Day won a contract with UNC to create pieces for the Philanthropic and Dialectic Societies. Day worked on this project for two years; as it became more expensive and took longer than expected, his patrons at UNC expressed total faith in his crafting skill and in the worth of his work, although Day's salary had to be kept quiet so as not to enrage other white craftsman in the area over his race and high payment. In 1855, at the height of his capital success, Day was commissioned by Governor Reid to furnish his home; for this project, Day created forty-five pieces of complexly crafted furniture. Following this, in 1856 Day won an award for a crafted furniture piece; he received an "award premium" at the NC State Fair for a wardrobe made of mahogany.

High status clientele such as this not only boosted Day's notoriety and business, it also helped him gain influence in Milton and in the state General Assembly, especially when Day had to fight to get his wife into the state; this trend was also reflected in the way Day was held in high esteem by his segregated church and by all of his clients, whom he treated with the utmost respect, and by how even today Day's furniture is passed down through families and incredibly treasured.

Day's technically savvy production methods as well as his excellent customer service and skilled craftsmanship and designs, scholars like Patricia Phillips Marshall argue, made Day's cabinet workshop in Milton the premier and most capitally successful furniture business in the state of North Carolina. Day was a major contributor to the state economy; scholarly estimates show that he held 20–25% of state capital investment in furniture production within his business, and that his workshop put out 10% of the state's total furniture production. By 1840, that Day held incredible economic influence on the Milton region and that his business held $1500 worth of capital resources and products; in 1850, the Union Tavern business boasted a net worth of $5800 and held around $8000 worth of crafted pieces, tools, and machinery. Day maintained a high personal credit rating and net worth, estimated to be about $40,000 in 1855. Day often made sales on credit but could not always collect payments; this combined with the economic panic of 1857 caused Day's business to decline in worth and production in the late 1850s; Day declared bankruptcy and his shop was placed in trust with a business partner. After Day's death, his son Thomas Day Jr. bought the workshop back and kept it running for another decade; the Union Tavern workshop closed for good in 1871.

Technique and artistry
Much of Day's capital success and high social status is attributed to his skill in crafting beautiful furniture that his customers sought after; owning a Day piece, with its artful mastery, would confer a symbol of status on a family by demonstrating they had wealth to purchase a luxury good from a skilled artisan workshop. Day tended to employ popular urban styles for the basic design of his pieces, and then add to these designs by improvising his own motifs and style. He most often worked with imported mahogany, and sometimes placed mahogany veneers over structures made from woods of less quality or expense, such as yellow pine or walnut. Thomas Day and his workshop produced various types of furniture and practical pieces, such as wardrobes, bureaus, coffins, commodes, and lounges, as well as created architectural woodwork for wealthy homes in the Milton region. All of Day's work was custom-made, since he altered the basic design of each piece he created to make unique crafts for each customer. It is difficult for modern researchers and scholars to attribute furniture pieces to Day, especially his earlier ones. It is likely that even some pieces attributed to him were in fact fabricated by his apprentices, based on levels of quality; in general, certain pieces are more easily attributed to Day, since he tended to utilize shipping crates with his name on them as materials for interior elements on his furniture.

Furniture craftsmanship
In his furniture workshop, Day tended to employ his own design style for all of his pieces; this style evolved with popular stylistic trends throughout his few decades as a successful and skilled craftsman. Day's work is characterized by improvisational subscription to popular urban styles of the time and his designs were methodical and symmetrical. Scholars of African and African-American art and design widely agree that this facet of Day's style could reflect his racial heritage, since African and African-American art was highly creative and improvised, with visible rhythms in the designs. However, American design scholars warn against attributing Day's entire design style to his African heritage, because American rural furniture designers of all races often creatively and spontaneously elaborated on popular stylistic themes as well. Essentially, Day took basic structures and ideas from urban trends on furniture designs and elaborated on them utilizing his personal creative taste. This habit of utilizing popular designs, combined with the cost-efficient production methods in his workshop through steam power, made Day's designs not only symbols of status for customers through their style, but also competitively priced. Based on stylistic analysis, it appears that Day pleaded many of his basic design structures for his various furniture pieces from a craftsman pattern book by John Hall, the Cabinet Makers' Assistant, especially his use of s-shape curves.

Day enjoyed employing both horizontal and vertical curvature ornamentations that balanced each other out. Scholars argue that his craftsmanship focused on creating a balance of motion in his pieces, where curvilinear designs as well as scroll motifs suggested motion to the eye, while the interplay between the horizontal and vertical directions, as well as the negative space between such curves, created a sense of balance in the piece. On many of his tables, Day carved animalistic paws, even adding carved fur, onto the clawed foot style that was fashionable at the time, as well as adding carved foliage resembling tobacco leaves. These stylistic choices further illustrate Day's tendency to take popular designs and add his own regional twist, with the tobacco leaves referencing his own tobacco farm as well as the tobacco-growing tradition in North Carolina.

Day's earlier works tended to follow the fashionable Grecian Style, which combined German, French, and English versions of the Greek Revival style to create a design trend wholly American in the way that it took popular styles and combined and elaborated on them. Day's Grecian Style pieces involved intricate moldings and often took pieces common to other types of furniture, such as placing wardrobe-style cornices on a bookshelf. Also demonstrated in Day's pieces under this style are his unique craft methods to create pieces of quality efficiently. For example, to create the illusion of multiple single glass panes in the doors on his bookshelves, Day would place one long, horizontal pane of glass behind singular frames. Day also employed dovetail and mortise-and-tenon joint techniques in his crafting.

Day often used mahogany veneers on his furniture, a technique he came to be known for. Common motifs found in Day's furniture include s-scroll and s-curve shapes as well as thumb shapes in both positive and negative space. The scroll and curve shapes were often used as support pieces for his furniture, such as armrests and legs on chairs and tables, and were employed as a distraction from the large size and heaviness of some of his pieces, especially those that followed the early Gothic trends of large arched designs topping wardrobes and bookshelves. Furthermore, Day's scroll shapes emphasized his personal craft style of creating a balance of motion to draw the eye and create a sense of rhythm in his work. The scroll motif also had a practical usage: Day used scrolled armrests on some of his chair designs to enable military personnel to sit down without having to remove their swords. Playing on this idea of balance, too, Day would often create pieces with sharp, squared edges and designs on top, contrasted by curvilinear motifs on the bottom. Day also tended to emphasize classical elements in his work, such as columns and framed cabinet panels. Day often employed popular design motifs such as ogee curves, serpentine curvatures, and spur motifs; the latter two are commonly seen on Day's chairs. With each of his personal stylistic motifs, Day worked to create balance within motion, and method and symmetry within improvisational spontaneity in his furniture. Another common design tool employed by Day is the interplay between positive and negative space, where positive space is created by actual wood, and negative space is created by the empty spaces between wooden elements on his pieces. By bordering the positive spaces on his furniture with curvatures, Day formed eye-catching negative spaces as well that were meant to again create a sense of balance within the piece.

While many of Day's furniture pieces were simply his personal variations on popular designs of the time, there is one piece of furniture that is considered unique to Day's shop. Regionally known as a Day Bed, the Day style lounge is the furniture piece most associated with Day today. To create his lounge design, Day utilized the basic lounge structure popular at the time, which consisted of a half-back rest and two end rest pieces, one shorter than the other. However, in his altered design, in which he again took inspiration from Hall's pattern book, Day created a wholly unique piece by utilizing the interplay between positive and negative space to create a sense of balance, as well as integrating scroll and s-curves into the lounge rests and legs to suggest motion. The design presented a light lounge with pillar supports that flourished into scroll curves, and the back rest was characterized by curvilinear motifs that created interesting and eye-catching negative space between the wood frame and the couch cushion itself. Twelve of these lounges are known to exist today, and are believed to have been crafted between 1845 and 1860; they are more or less detailed and stylized depending on customer price range, but all have the pillar and scroll designs as well as some form of curvature. Day's use of the scroll motif found inspiration from scrolled volutes on column capitals in classical style.

As his work as a craftsmen developed through the years, so did his style. Moving from early Gothic and Grecian styles towards the Rococo style popular in American furniture markets in the 1850s, Day developed his own stylistic method that scholars today have termed his Exuberant Style. In the Exuberant Style, Day took basic Rococo designs and added his favorite motifs to create unique pieces. This style is often characterized by Day's employment of the relationship between positive and negative space by utilizing contrasting s-curves and c-curves to draw the eye but also strike a symmetrical balance in his pieces; Day's emphasis on symmetry was a divergence from the traditional Rococo style, which often employed asymmetry to create interesting visual effects. Exuberant Style also included scalloped edge designs to create a cloud-like image, and thumb motifs in both the positive and negative spaces to reflect the idea of balance and symmetry. This style was used in almost all of his furniture in the 1850s. Day's usage of curvilinear designs, as well as his expert employment of positive and negative space, can be viewed as a predecessor to the Art Nouveau Style.

Architectural craftsmanship
With his furniture designs so popular and highly sought-after, Day began to provide architectural work to homes in his region as well. In this architectural work, Day employed many of the same design motifs as in his furniture, playing again off his own interpretation of the Grecian/Greek Revival Style. For large plantation homes in the North Carolina and Virginia areas, Day provided mantle pieces, stair brackets and newel posts, and door frames among other architectural work. His work focused on symmetry, and he often incorporated similar or complementary designs in the newel posts and stair brackets to create a balance of design and to emphasize his furniture designs, since many homes he did architectural work for also boasted multiple furniture works by Day. As with his furniture designs, it appears that Day's initial architectural designs stemmed from popular architectural pattern books; to these, Day would again add his personal design motifs to create unique products.

In his work on door frames, scholars agree that Day created both sidelights and transoms for interior doors in many homes he worked on. These architectural elements are characterized by the repetitive use of rectangular patterns. Day also often created newel posts for staircases, which he commonly designed utilizing s-curves and elongated scroll shapes, which represented Day's interpretation of the traditional newel post; Day's posts were both larger and longer than the classic Greek Revival Style posts, and are emphasized by the simplistic stair banisters that accompany them. As with his furniture, Day took the popular design of the newel post and added his own stylistic flair through his scroll curves. In crafting these newel posts, Day employed four different types of newels: s-shaped, traditional, a fusion of the two, or completely unique designs; today, twenty-five s-shaped newel posts have been attributed to Day. Day crafted stair brackets to match and complement these newel posts, again employing curvatures and wave motifs that, combined with the newel posts, suggested a tranquil fluidity. The choice to match newel posts and stair brackets appears to be unique to Day's architectural work. Day's mantle designs are often characterized by ionic columns topped with serpentine friezes, but some mantle pieces also employed horizontal and vertical linear designs to create a sharpness in his pieces.

Overall, Day's architectural work, much like his furniture craftsmanship, focuses on creating a balance of motion through complementary curvatures. Unlike his furniture, however, Day sometimes added carved faces to his architectural work, especially on mantle pieces, as seen on a mantle in the Long House. Although some scholars have argued that Day's use of these faces represents his connections to his African heritage, since the use of carved faces was popular in African cultural images and craft designs, most scholars today agree that Day's carved faces have a more Euro-American design heritage. Expert John Kouwenhoven has classified Day's artistic style as being a combination of accepted design traditions with more rural or folk artistic practices reflecting the Southern culture surrounding him; thus, it is more likely, according to scholarly research, that Day was simply employing his own regional creativity to popular urban styles as was his tendency, rather than utilizing a distant cultural heritage that Day, as a free mulatto integrated into high-status white society, likely had little personal connection to. Kouwenhoven has described Day's style as inherently American in the way that it combines both popular and folk design traditions, but these carved faces of angular design do somewhat reflect African design traditions and could represent a cultural link in Day's craftsmanship to his heritage, however tenuous.  Today, seven houses on the National Register of Historic Places contain interior or exterior woodwork attributed to Thomas Day: Brandon Plantation, William Henry and Sarah Holderness House, Longwood, James Malone House, Woodside, Oak Ridge (Danville, Virginia), and Burleigh Plantation. Fittings in the Presbyterian Church and Baptist Meeting House (Milton Church) located in the Milton Historic District are also attributed to him.

Legacy
Today, Thomas Day is remembered as a skilled craftsman who instilled his own sense of style into popular designs to create highly unique furniture and architecture. Since his death, especially following the Civil War and throughout the 20th century, Day was recognized for his perseverance, talent, and ambition in spite of his race and social situation. Recalled as an exceptional craftsman with strong middle-class value system and work ethic, Day's mulatto race was outweighed by his skill and success and was thus remembered and his work treasured as racial tensions rose in American society.

Day's Union Tavern workshop was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975, but unfortunately burned down in 1989. Since the fire, there have been successful efforts to restore the workshop and turn it into a functional and educational museum on Day and his craftsmanship: the Historic Preservation Foundation of North Carolina, Inc. bought the burned structure and created the Thomas Day House/Union Tavern Restoration organization. Since the 1990s, the group has been dedicated to rebuilding Union Tavern and restoring the legacy of Thomas Day. Today, Union Tavern is restored and is a hands-on museum to Day's life and work, featuring actual pieces of Day's furniture that visitors can touch and examine.

Although public remembrance and appreciation of Day was very present, especially in the Milton and black communities, throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, scholarly research on Day's life and work was lacking until recently. Several research initiatives into Day's furniture and architectural craftsmanship were undertaken in the 1980s and 1990s; these helped to identify Day's crafted pieces as well as his building and design techniques. Since then, historians and architectural experts have been continually taking stock of Day's existing work, both furniture and architecture, in homes in the northern North Carolina/southern Virginia areas.

Day's work has often been featured in museum exhibits, first notably at the North Carolina Museum of History. This exhibit, which debuted in 1975, was curated by Rodney Barfield was titled "Thomas Day, Cabinetmaker" and was made possible by a donation of $7,000 to the museum by the African-American sorority Delta Sigma Theta, which enabled the museum to purchase the furniture Day created for Governor Reid in 1855 and 1858. Following this exhibit, the museum acquired the largest collection in the world of Day's furniture work. In 1994, a touring DuSable exhibit on African-American craftsmanship featured eleven works attributed to Day, as well as one piece attributed to his son Devereux. Just one year later, an initiative titled the Thomas Day Education Project was founded; it aims to educate the public on Day and the history of black entrepreneurship by working with the NC Museum of History to train teachers and provide educational materials. The group also produced a documentary on Day for public television. in 1996, the NC Museum of History featured another exhibit on Day, titled "With All Necessary Care and Attention: The Artistry of Thomas Day" which put over twenty examples of his work on display. Following a few quiet years, a North Carolina furniture mall featured crafted pieces by Day in its atrium to celebrate Black History Month in 2000. In 2001, a festival was held in Day's honor in North Carolina, hosted by the Minority Entrepreneur Training Institute of North Carolina. At the festival, important figures including a state Supreme Court justice spoke, and black dance groups performed, and pieces of Day's furniture were displayed as well; the festival aimed to encouraged black and other minority entrepreneurship in the state. Later, in 2009, an event titled "Uncovering the Hidden History of Thomas Day" was held by the Apprend Foundation to encourage public education about Day. In 2010, a new exhibit on Day titled "Behind the Veneer: Thomas Day, Master Cabinetmaker" and curated by Patricia Phillips Marshall, premiered at the NC Museum of History. The collection featured in this exhibit, made up of 78 pieces, was built from private holdings, contributions from the Thomas Day House/Union Tavern Restoration organization, and the museum permanent collection. Most recently, the Renwick Gallery at the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, D.C., featured an exhibit on Day titled "Thomas Day: Master Craftsman and Free Man of Color," based on Phillips Marshall's 2010 book on Day of the same name that represents a decade of research on Day.

The recent academic research as well as public education and outreach efforts through both museum exhibits and organized events have served to put Thomas Day in the mainstream of public thought and to encourage and amplify his legacy as a skilled craftsman. The furniture company Craftique sells a line of reproductions of Day's work; past profits from this line were donated to the restoration fund for the Union Tavern workshop. Day's furniture is still treasured by owners and scholars alike, demonstrating its lasting craftsmanship, and pieces thought to be crafted by Day sell for high prices, including an $8,000 wardrobe from Day's workshop. Day's legacy in North Carolina and in the historical community today is strong and lasting as the public grows more interested in Day's life and work, and exhibits and events in his honor prosper. A successful life and a strong work ethic earned Day a reputation of skill and service that has lasted long past his life; he is permanently memorialized in statue form outside of the NC Museum of History, alongside statues of a Native American Sauratown Woman and the museum's founder, placing him irrevocably in mainstream history both in North Carolina, in the field of historical craftsmanship, and in the public memory.

Notes

References
1.  Thomas Day; at the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources
2.  Prown, Jonathan; The Furniture of Thomas Day: A Reevaluation, Winterthur Portfolio; 1998
3. Wasser, Fred. "Thomas Day: A Master Craftsman, With Complications." NPR. NPR, July 29, 2010. https://www.npr.org/2010/07/29/128849634/thomas-day-a-master-craftsman-with-complications

External links
 Correspondence between Thomas Day and UNC President Swain regarding a successful bid for work
 EDSITEment's lesson plan Man in the Middle: Thomas Day and the Free Black Experience

1801 births
1861 deaths
People from Dinwiddie County, Virginia
American furniture designers
African-American artisans
American cabinetmakers
People from Caswell County, North Carolina
Free Negroes
Black slave owners in the United States
American slave owners

Thomas Day (cabinetmaker)


Machairasaurus is a genus of oviraptorid dinosaur which was found in the Bayan Mandahu Formation, China, dating to the late Cretaceous period.

Discovery
During the Sino-Canadian expeditions of 1988 and 1990 some skeletons of unknown oviraptorosaurians were discovered by Philip J. Currie in Inner Mongolia. Based on two of these a new genus was named and described by Nicholas R. Longrich, Currie and Dong Zhiming in 2010 with as type species Machairasaurus leptonychus. The generic name is derived from Greek  (), "short scimitar". The specific name is derived from Greek  (), "slender", and  (), "claw". The species name as a whole refers to the sabre-like claws of the hand.

The holotype, IVPP V15979, was found in layers of the Bayan Mandahu dating from the late Campanian. It mainly consists of a left frontlimb, including the lower end of the lower arm, two carpal bones and a complete hand. Also some fragmentary foot elements were present. The other find is the paratype, IVPP V15980, consisting of a very fragmentary skeleton including tail vertebrae, chevrons, ribs, phalanges of the hands, fragments of the second and fourth metatarsals and pedal phalanges.

Five oviraptorid specimens associated with a nest, the female having been found brooding near the eggs, may belong to Machairasaurus.

Description

Machairasaurus was a small bipedal theropod, measuring  long. The describers established a single autapomorphy, unique derived trait: the hand claws are very elongated and blade-like in side view, with a length four times that of the joint height. The long claws would be proof that basal oviraptorids used their hands to pull down branches; the more curved claws of more derived forms would have served to dig up roots.

Machairasaurus was in 2010 assigned to the Oviraptoridae, more precisely to the Ingeniinae. It formed a smaller clade with "Ingenia" yanshini, Heyuannia huangi, Conchoraptor gracilis, and Nemegtomaia barsboldi.

See also

 Timeline of oviraptorosaur research

References

Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Oviraptorids
Fossil taxa described in 2010
Taxa named by Philip J. Currie

Machairasaurus


USS Bowie (APA-137) was a  in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946. She was scrapped in 1973.

History
Bowie (APA-137) was laid down on 28 August 1944 at Wilmington, California, by the California Shipbuilding Corp. under a Maritime Commission contract (MCV hull 53); launched on 31 October 1944; sponsored by Mrs. J. Shaw; delivered to the Navy on 21 December 1944: and commissioned on 23 December 1944 at Terminal Island, California.

Outfitting, shakedown, and amphibious training occupied Bowie until the second week in February 1945. After post-shakedown availability at Terminal Island, she loaded cargo at the Naval Supply Depot, Oakland, California, and set sail on 20 February for the Mariana Islands. She made a refueling stop at Eniwetok in the Marshalls before arriving at Guam on 10 March. The attack transport completed cargo operations there on 16 March and then moved to Saipan on the 17th to embark casualties. She put to sea for Hawaii that same day and entered Pearl Harbor on 27 March. The ship conducted local operations in Hawaiian waters and engaged in upkeep in Pearl Harbor until mid-April. At that time, she began combat loading elements of the 10th Army bound for duty in the Okinawa campaign.

Bowie stood out of Pearl Harbor on 17 April in a convoy. She arrived off the Hagushi beaches on Okinawa on 10 May. The troops went ashore immediately, and the attack transport began unloading cargo and taking on casualties. During her stay in the Ryūkyūs, Bowie witnessed a number of air raids but did not come under attack herself. On 15 May, the attack transport left Okinawa in a Hawaii-bound convoy. She made two stops, one at Ulithi and the other at Guam, before arriving back in Pearl Harbor on 3 June. She remained there overnight and, on the 4th, headed for the west coast. Bowie reached San Francisco, California, on 10 June and disembarked the casualties and other passengers. Later in the month, she loaded cargo and took on troops. The ship loosed her moorings on 17 June and stood out of San Francisco Bay. On her way across the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines, Bowie stopped at Eniwetok and Ulithi for fuel. She arrived at Tacloban, on Leyte, on 9 July and began discharging cargo and troops. Five days later, the attack transport headed back to Hawaii.

Bowie spent almost two months in the Hawaiian Islands. When not in port at either Pearl Harbor or Honolulu, she conducted rehearsal landings at various locations in the islands. On 1 September, she left Pearl Harbor in a convoy bound ultimately for Japan. She stopped at Saipan to take on fuel and provisions from 13 to 16 September and arrived at Sasebo, Japan, on the 22d. Her troops went ashore on the 24th, and Bowie cleared Sasebo the next day. She took on boats at Subic Bay on 30 September and then moved to Manila. The attack transport moved to Lingayen Gulf on 2 and 3 October and began embarking troops destined for occupation service in Japan. She departed Lingayen Gulf in convoy on 9 October and arrived in Sasebo on the 14th. She did not, however, disembark her passengers until 18 October. On the 22d, Bowie departed Sasebo and proceeded to Guam where she stopped on the 27th. Continuing her voyage that same day, the ship reached San Diego, California, on 12 November.

The attack transport made a round-trip voyage from the west coast to Guam and back between 27 November and 27 December bringing veterans of the Pacific theater home to the United States. On 16 January 1946, Bowie departed San Pedro on her way to the U.S. East Coast. Steaming via San Diego and the Panama Canal, she arrived in Norfolk, Virginia, on 4 February. There, the ship began preparations for inactivation.

Decommissioning and fate
On 8 March 1946, Bowie was placed out of commission at Norfolk. She was returned to the Maritime Commission on 14 March 1946, and her name was struck from the Navy list on 28 March 1946. She was berthed with the National Defense Reserve Fleet at James River, Virginia, and remained there until 9 April 1973 at which time she was sold to the Union Minerals and Alloys Corporation, New York City, for scrapping.

Awards
Bowie received one battle star for World War II service at Okinawa.

References

External links
 NavSource Online: Amphibious Photo Archive - APA-137 Bowie

Victory ships
Ships built in Los Angeles
Haskell-class attack transports
Bowie County, Texas
World War II amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Troop ships
1944 ships

USS Bowie


A propeller makes an aircraft, ship, or submarine in water or air go by making a big wind or a strong stream. It does this by turning two or more wings very quick.  The blades of a propeller act as rotating wings, and produce force through application of both Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law, generating a difference in pressure between the forward and rear surfaces of the airfoil-shaped blades.

Other websites

Aircraft-Info.net - Propeller Aircraft
Titanic's Propellers

Tools
Aerospace engineering

Propeller