The structural history of the Roman military concerns the major transformations in the organization and constitution of ancient Rome's armed forces, "the most effective and long-lived military institution known to history." At the highest level of structure, the forces were split into the Roman army and the Roman navy, although these two branches were less distinct than in many modern national defense forces. Within the top levels of both army and navy, structural changes occurred as a result of both positive military reform and organic structural evolution. These changes can be divided into four distinct phases.

Phase I The army was derived from obligatory annual military service levied on the citizenry, as part of their duty to the state. During this period, the Roman army would wage seasonal campaigns against largely local adversaries.

Phase II As the extent of the territories falling under Roman control expanded and the size of the forces increased, the soldiery gradually became salaried professionals. As a consequence, military service at the lower (non-salaried) levels became progressively longer-term. Roman military units of the period were largely homogeneous and highly regulated. The army consisted of units of citizen infantry known as legions (Latin: legiones) as well as non-legionary allied troops known as auxilia. The latter were most commonly called upon to provide light infantry, logistical, or cavalry support.

Phase III At the height of the Roman Empire's power, forces were tasked with manning and securing the borders of the vast provinces which had been brought under Roman control. Serious strategic threats were less common in this period and emphasis was placed on preserving gained territory. The army underwent changes in response to these new needs and became more dependent on fixed garrisons than on march-camps and continuous field operations.

Phase IV As Rome began to struggle to keep control over its sprawling territories, military service continued to be salaried and professional for Rome's regular troops. However, the trend of employing allied or mercenary elements was expanded to such an extent that these troops came to represent a substantial proportion of the armed forces. At the same time, the uniformity of structure found in Rome's earlier military disappeared. Soldiery of the era ranged from lightly armed mounted archers to heavy infantry, in regiments of varying size and quality. This was accompanied by a trend in the late empire of an increasing predominance of cavalry rather than infantry troops, as well as a requirement for more mobile operations. In this period there was more focus (on all frontiers but the east) on smaller units of independently-operating troops, engaging less in set-piece battles and more in low-intensity, guerilla actions.

Early Roman army

Tribal forces (c. 752 BC – c. 578 BC)
According to the historians Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, writing at a far later date, the earliest Roman army existed in the 8th century BC. During this period Rome itself was probably little more than a fortified hilltop settlement and its army a relatively small force, whose activities were limited "mainly [to] raiding and cattle rustling with the occasional skirmish-like battle". Historian Theodor Mommsen referred to it as Rome's curiate army, named for its presumed subdivision along the boundaries of Rome's three founding tribes (Latin: curiae), the Ramnians, Tities and Luceres.  This army's exact structure is not known, but it is probable that it loosely resembled a warrior band or group of bodyguards led by a chieftain or king. Mommsen believes that Roman military organization of this period was regimented by the "Laws of [the apocryphal] King [V]Italus" but these laws, though referred to by Aristotle, have been lost.

The army (Latin: legio) consisted, according to Livy, of exactly 3,000 infantry and 300 horsemen, one third from each of Rome's three founding tribes.  Warriors served under six "leaders of division" (Latin: tribuni) who in turn served under a general, usually in the person of the reigning King. Mommsen uses philological arguments and references from Livy and others to suggest that the greater mass of foot-soldiers probably consisted of pilumni (javelin-throwers), with a smaller number possibly serving as arquites (archers). The cavalry was far smaller in number and probably consisted solely of the town's richest citizens. The army may also have contained the earliest form of chariots, hinted at by references to the flexuntes ("the wheelers").

By the beginning of the 7th century BC, the Iron-Age Etruscan civilization (Latin: Etrusci) was dominant in the region. Like most of the other peoples in the region, the Romans warred against the Etruscans. By the close of the century, the Romans had lost their struggle for independence, and the Etruscans had conquered Rome, establishing a military dictatorship, or kingdom, in the city.

Etruscan-model hoplites (578 BC – c. 315 BC)

Although several Roman sources including Livy and Polybius talk extensively about the Roman army of the Roman Kingdom period that followed the Etruscan capture of the city, no contemporary accounts survive. Polybius, for example, wrote some 300 years after the events in question, and Livy some 500 years later. Additionally, what records were kept by the Romans at this time were later destroyed when the city was sacked. The sources for this period cannot therefore be seen as reliable, as they can be for later military history, e.g. from the First Punic War onwards.

According to our surviving narratives, the three kings of Rome during the Etruscan occupation were Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus. During this period the army underwent a reformation into a centurial army based on socio-economic class. This reformation is traditionally attributed to Servius Tullius, the second of the Etruscan kings. Tullius had earlier carried out the first Roman census of all citizens. Livy tells us that Tullius reformed the army by transplanting onto it the structure derived originally for civil life as a result of this census. At all levels, military service was, at this time, considered to be a civic responsibility and a way of advancing one's status within society.

However, Rome's social classes were qualified rather than created by the census. It is perhaps more accurate to say therefore that the army's structure was slightly refined during this period rather than radically reformed. Prior to these reforms, the infantry was divided into the classis of rich citizens and the infra classem of poorer citizens. The latter were excluded from the regular line of battle on the basis that their equipment was of poor quality. During the reforms, this crude division of poorer and richer citizens was further stratified. The army thereafter consisted of a number of troop types based upon the social class of propertied citizens, collectively known as adsidui. From the poorest in the "fifth class" to the richest in the "first class" and the equestrians above them, military service was compulsory for all. However, Roman citizens at this time generally viewed military service as a proper undertaking of duty to the state, in contrast to later views of military service as an unwelcome and unpleasant burden. Whereas there are accounts of Romans in the late empire mutilating their own bodies in order to exempt themselves from military service, there seems to have been no such reluctance to serve in the military of early Rome. This may in part be due to the generally lower intensity of conflict in this era; to the fact that men were fighting close to and often in protection of their own homes, or due to—as posited by later Roman writers—a greater martial spirit in antiquity.

The equestrians, the highest social class of all, served in mounted units known as equites. The first class of the richest citizens served as heavy infantry with swords and long spears (resembling hoplites), and provided the first line of the battle formation. The second class were armed similarly to the first class, but without a breastplate for protection, and with an oblong rather than a round shield. The second class stood immediately behind the first class when the army was drawn up in battle formation. The third and fourth classes were more lightly armed and carried a thrusting-spear and javelins. The third class stood behind the second class in battle formation, normally providing javelin support. The poorest of the propertied men of the city comprised the fifth class. They were generally too poor to afford much equipment at all and were armed as skirmishers with slings and stones. They were deployed in a screen in front of the main army, covering its approach and masking its manoeuvres.

Men without property, who were thereby excluded from the qualifying social classes of the adsidui, were exempted from military service on the grounds that they were too poor to provide themselves with any arms whatsoever. However, in the most pressing circumstances, even these proletarii were pressed into service, though their military worth was probably questionable. Troops in all of these classes would fight together on the battlefield, with the exception of the most senior troops, who were expected to guard the city.

The army is said to have increased from 3,000 to 4,000 men in the 5th century BC, and then again from 4,000 to 6,000 men sometime before 400 BC. This later army of 6,000 men were then divided into 60 centuries of 100 men each.

Professionalisation during the Republican period

Manipular legion (315–107 BC)

The army of the early Republic continued to evolve, and although there was a tendency among Romans to attribute such changes to great reformers, it is more likely that changes were the product of slow evolution rather than singular and deliberate policy of reform. The manipular formation was probably copied from Rome's Samnite enemies to the south, perhaps as a result of Roman defeats in the Second Samnite War.

During this period, a military formation of around 5,000 men was known as a legion (Latin: legio). However, in contrast to later legionary formations of exclusively heavy infantry, the legions of the early and middle Republic consisted of both light and heavy infantry. The term manipular legion, a legion based on units called maniples, is therefore used to contrast the later cohortal legion of the Empire that was based around a system of cohort units. The manipular legion was based partially upon social class and partially upon age and military experience. It therefore represents a theoretical compromise between the earlier class-based army and the class-free armies of later years. In practice, even slaves were at one time pressed into the army of the Republic out of necessity. Normally a single legion was raised each year, but in 366 BC two legions were raised in a single year for the first time.

Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. The maniples were small enough to permit tactical movement of individual infantry units on the battlefield within the framework of the greater army. The maniples were typically deployed into three discrete lines (Latin: triplex acies) based on the three heavy infantry types of hastati, principes and triarii. The first type, the hastati, typically formed the first rank in battle formation.  They typically wore a brass chest plate (though some could afford mail), a helmet called a galea, and occasionally, greaves (shin guards). They carried an iron bossed wooden shield, 120 cm (4 ft) tall and rectangular in shape with a curved front to partially protect the sides. Traditionally they were armed with a sword known as a gladius and two throwing spears known as pila: one the heavy pilum of popular imagination and one a slender javelin. However the exact introduction of the gladius and the replacement of the spear with the sword as the primary weapon of the Roman legions is uncertain, and it's possible that the early manipular legions still fought with the hastati and principes wielding the hasta or spear.

The second type, the principes, typically formed the second rank of soldiers back from the front of a battle line. They were heavy infantry soldiers armed and armoured as per the hastati.  The triarii, who typically formed the third rank when the army was arrayed for battle, were the last remnant of hoplite-style troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured as per the principes, with the exception that they carried a pike rather than two pila. A triarii maniple was divided into two formations each six men across by 10 men deep. A manipular legion typically contained between 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes and 600 triarii. The three classes of unit may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve as hastati, older men with some military experience as principes, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience as triarii.

The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry (Latin: velites) and cavalry (Latin: equites) troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion. The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians, but additional cavalry and light infantry were drawn at times from the socii and Latini of the Italian mainland. The equites were still drawn from the wealthier classes in Roman society. There was an additional class of troops (Latin: accensi, also adscripticii and later supernumerarii) who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the triarii. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples, but they also seem to have acted occasionally as orderlies to the officers.

The light infantry of 1,200 velites consisted of unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and shield (90 cm (3 ft) diameter), as well as several light javelins, each with a 90 cm (3 ft) wooden shaft the diameter of a finger, with a c. 25 cm (10 in) narrow metal point. Their numbers were swollen by the addition of allied light infantry and irregular rorarii.

The Roman levy of 403 BC was the first to be requested to campaign for longer than a single season, and from this point on such a practice became gradually more common, if still not typical.

A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after the Second Samnite War, but it was massively upgraded during this period, expanding from a few primarily river- and coastal-based patrol craft to a full maritime unit. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size. This was partially because a pacified Roman Mediterranean called for little naval policing, and partially because the Romans chose to rely during this period on ships provided by Greek cities, whose peoples had greater maritime experience.

Proletarianisation of the infantry (217–107 BC)
The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term. In 217 BC, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners when slaves were pressed into naval service; around 213 BC, the property requirement was reduced from 11,000 to 4,000 asses. Since the Romans are unlikely to have preferred to employ slaves over poor citizens in their armies, it must be assumed that, at this point, the proletarii of the poorest citizens must also have been pressed into service despite their lack of legal qualification. By 123 BC, the financial requirement for military service was slashed again from 4,000 asses to just 1,500 asses. By this time, therefore, it is clear that many of the property-less former proletarii had been nominally admitted into the adsidui.

During the 2nd century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population, partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes into lower classes of the census and the proletarii. As a result, both the Roman society and its military became increasingly proletarianised. The Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, since many of the soldiers who made up its lower classes were now impoverished proletarii in all but name, and were too poor to afford their own equipment.

The distinction between the heavy infantry types of hastati, principes and triarii began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment to all but the first class of troops, who alone were able to afford their own equipment. By the time of Polybius, the triarii or their successors still represented a distinct heavy infantry type armed with a unique style of cuirass, but the hastati and principes had become indistinguishable.

In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon its allies (socii) for the provision of allied troops. Where accepted allies could not provide the required force types, the Romans were not averse during this period to hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.

Marian legion (107–27 BC)

Modern historiography has regularly cast Marius as abolishing the propertied militia and replacing it with landless soldiers motivated largely by pay. This belief emerges from the ancient literary sources, but rests on a relatively weak basis.

Despite enrolling some three to five thousand volunteers during the Jugurthine War, Gaius Marius assumed command of consular legions recruited via hitherto normal procedure in the following Cimbric War. Conscription continued after Marius's time, especially during the Social War, and the wealth and social background of the men who joined before and after the opening of recruitment changed little. There is little evidence that later Roman armies during the 1st century BC were made up of volunteers; almost all ancient references to army recruitment, outside private armies, involve conscription.

For much of the 20th century, historians held that the property qualification separating the five classes and the  was reduced over the course of the second century to a nugatory level due to a shortage of manpower. The basis for that belief, however, was merely three undated Roman figures for the amount of property required to serve which would serve as evidence for reductions only if forced into a descending order. Many scholars have also now abandoned the notion that Italy suffered in the second century BC any deficit of manpower which would have driven such putative reductions.

Modern historians have also sometimes credited to Marius the abolition of Roman cavalry and light infantry and their replacement with auxilia. There is no direct evidence for this contention, which is driven largely by literary sources' silence on those branches after the 2nd century; continued inscriptional evidence attests both citizen cavalry and light infantry into the end of the republic. The decline of Roman light infantry has been connected not to reform but cost. Because the logistical cost of supporting light infantry and heavy infantry was relatively similar, the Romans chose to deploy heavy infantry in extended and distant campaigns due to their greater combat effectiveness, especially when local levies could substitute for light infantry brought from Rome and Italy.

The changes to the Roman army during the 1st century BC are now more attributed to the Social War and the civil wars from 49 to 31 BC. The large-scale downsizing of Roman cavalry detachments likely emerged from the extension of citizenship to all of Italy. Because Italy's enfranchisement meant that Rome was now directly liable for the cavalry's upkeep rather than their local communities, Rome instead levied  from allies who, by treaty, were responsible for their contingents' upkeep.

Pay remained extremely low – only five asses per day – and irregular. Moreover, although the surviving sources frequently characterise soldiers as "poor", these sources largely reflect the perspectives of the elite, by whom the vast majority of the population were considered "poor" and for whom poverty needed  not entail actual landlessness. Many of the soldiers of the 1st century BC possessed modest lands. Nor did the legions meaningfully professionalise: as, in general, both soldiers and commanders served only for short periods intending, respectively, to secure plunder or political advancement from military victory.

After the Social War, the state also started to keep men under arms for longer periods to maintain available experienced manpower, and coupled this with longer terms for commanders, particularly Caesar and Pompey. Client armies emerged but not in the 100s BC but rather in the decades before Caesar's civil war, which broke out in 49BC.

The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion's main sub-unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen. The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub-unit, and was divided into six centuriae of 80 men each. Each centuria was separated further into 10 "tent groups" (Latin: contubernia) of 8 men each. Legions additionally consisted of a small body, typically 120 men, of Roman legionary cavalry (Latin: equites legionis). The equites were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry. Legions also contained a dedicated artillery crew of perhaps 60 men, who would operate devices such as ballistae.

Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) auxiliae troops. The addition of allied troops to the Roman army was a formalisation of the earlier arrangement of using light troops from the Socii and Latini, who had received Roman citizenship after the Social War. Auxiliary troops could be formed from either auxiliary light cavalry known as alae, auxiliary light infantry known as cohors auxiliae, or a flexible mixture of the two known as cohors equitata. Cavalry types included mounted archers (Latin: sagittarii) and heavy shock cavalry (Latin: cataphracti or clibanarii). Infantry could be armed with bows, slings, throwing spears, long swords, or thrusting spears. Auxiliary units were originally led by their own chiefs, and, in this period, their internal organisation was left to their commanders.

However, "the most obvious deficiency" of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry; even auxiliary troops were predominantly infantry. Luttwak argues that auxiliary forces largely consisted of Cretan archers, Balearic slingers and Numidian infantry, all of whom fought on foot. As Rome's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry-based to largely cavalry-based troops, the infantry-based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage, particularly in the East.

After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under Caesar, an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britain; under Pompey, a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.

Non-citizen recruitment (49–27 BC)
By the time of Julius Caesar in 54 BC, regular legionary units were supplemented by exploratores, a body of scouts, and speculatores, spies who infiltrated enemy camps. Due to the demands of the civil war, the extraordinary measure of recruiting legions from non-citizens was taken by Caesar in Transalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Transalpina), by Brutus in Macedonia, and by Pompey in Pharsalus. This irregular and extraordinary recruitment was not, however, typical of recruitment during this period, and Roman law still officially required that legions were recruited from Roman citizens only.

The army at the height of the Empire

Imperial legions and reformation of the auxilia (27 BC – 117 AD)

By the turn of the millennium, Emperor Augustus' primary military concern was to prevent Roman generals from further usurping the imperial throne. The experience of Caesar and, earlier, Marius and Sulla, had demonstrated the willingness of "emergency" (re-activated previously decommissioned) legions containing troops keen for plunder to follow their generals against the state. Augustus therefore removed the need for such emergency armies by increasing the size of the standing armies to a size sufficient to provide territorial defence on their own. Perhaps due to similar concerns, the legions and auxiliaries of the army were supplemented under the Emperor Augustus by an elite formation of guards dedicated to the protection of the Emperor. The first such unit was based in Rome and were known as the Praetorian Guard, and a second similar formation were known as the Cohortes urbanae.

The legions, which had been a mix of life professionals and civilian campaigners, was altered into a standing army of professionals only. The actual structure of the cohort army remained much the same as in the late Republic, although around the 1st century AD the first cohort of each legion was increased in size to a total of 800 soldiers. However, while the structure of the legions remained much the same, their make-up gradually changed. Whereas early Republican legions had been raised by a draft from eligible Roman citizens, imperial legions were recruited solely on a voluntary basis and from a much wider base of manpower. Likewise, whereas Republican legions had been recruited almost exclusively in Italy, early Imperial legions drew most of their recruits from Roman colonies in the provinces from 68 AD onwards. One estimate places the proportion of Italian troops at 65% under Augustus in c. 1 AD, falling to around 49% by the end of Nero's reign.

Since the legions were officially open only to Roman citizens, Max Cary and Howard Hayes Scullard argue that at least in some provinces at this time "many provincials must have been recruited who lacked any genuine claim to Roman citizenship but received it unofficially on enlistment," a practice that was to increase in the 2nd century. This is most likely in those provinces where the pool of Roman citizens was not large enough to fulfill the provincial army's recruitment needs. One possible example is Britain, where one estimate puts the citizen pool in the 1st century at only 50,000 out of a total provincial population of around two million.

At the same time as the legions underwent these transformations, the auxilia were reorganized and a number of allied troops were formalised into standing units similar to legions. Rather than being raised re-actively when required, the process of raising auxiliary troops was carried out in advance of conflicts according to annual targets. Whereas the internal organisation of the auxilia had previously been left up to their commanders, in the early empire they were organised into standardised units known as turmae (for cavalry alae) and centuriae (for infantry cohortes). Although never becoming as standardised in their equipment as the legions, and often retaining some national flavour, the size of the units at least was standardised to some degree. Cavalry were formed into either an ala quingenaria of 512 horsemen, or an ala millaria of 1,000 horsemen. Likewise, infantry auxilia could be formed into a cohors quingenaria of 500 men or a cohors millaria of 1,000 men. Mixed cavalry/infantry auxiliaries were typically formed with a larger proportion of foot than horse troops: the cohors equitata quingenaria consisted of 380 foot and 120 horsemen, and the cohors equitata millaria consisted of 760 foot and 240 horsemen.

The vitality of the empire at this point was such that the use of native auxilia in the Roman army did not apparently barbarise the military as some scholars claim was to happen in the late empire. On the contrary, those serving in the auxilia  during this period frequently strove to Romanise themselves. They were granted Roman citizenship on retirement, granting them several social advantages, and their sons became eligible for service in the legions.

As with the army, many non-Italians were recruited into the Roman Navy, partly because  the Romans had never readily taken to the sea. It appears that the navy was considered to be slightly less prestigious than the auxilia but, like the auxilia, troops could gain citizenship on discharge upon retirement. In terms of structure, each ship was staffed by a group of men approximately equivalent to a century, with ten ships forming a naval squadron.

Introduction of vexillationes (76–117 AD)

Through the final years of the 1st century AD, the legions remained the backbone of the Roman army, although the auxilia in fact outnumbered them by up to half as much again. Within the legions, the proportion of troops recruited from within Italy fell gradually after 70 AD. By the close of the 1st century, this proportion had fallen to as low as 22 percent, with the remainder drawn from conquered provinces. Since technically only citizens were allowed to enlist in the legions, where recruits did not possess citizenship then, at least in some instances, citizenship "was simply given [to] them on enlistment". During this time, the borders of the Empire had remained relatively fixed to the extent originally reached under the Emperor Trajan. Because of this, the army was increasingly responsible for protecting existing frontiers rather than expanding into foreign territory, the latter of which had characterised the army's earlier existence. As a result, legions became stationed in largely fixed locations. Although entire legions were occasionally transferred into theatres of war, they remained largely rooted in one or more legionary bases in a province, detaching into smaller bodies of troops (Latin: vexillationes) on demand. This policy eventually led to a split of the military's land-based forces into mobile and fixed troops in the later Empire. In general, the best troops were dispatched as vexillationes, and the remainder left to guard border defenses were of lower quality, perhaps those with injuries or near retirement.

The army during the decline of the Empire

Barbarisation of the army (117–253 AD)

By the time of the emperor Hadrian the proportion of Italians in the legions had fallen to just ten percent and provincial citizens now dominated. This low figure is probably a direct result of the changing needs of military staffing: a system of fixed border defences (Latin: limes) were established around the Empire's periphery under Hadrian, consolidating Trajan's territorial gains. These called for troops to be stationed permanently in the provinces, a prospect more attractive to locally raised rather than Italian troops. The higher prestige and pay to be found in the Italian dominated Praetorian Guard must also have played a role. The majority of the troops in the legions at the start of the 3rd century AD were from the more Romanised (though non-Italian) provinces, especially Illyria. As the century progressed, more and more barbarians (Latin: barbari) were permitted to settle inside of, and tasked with aiding in the defence of, Rome's borders. As a result, greater numbers of barbarous and semi-barbarous peoples were gradually admitted to the army.

However, whether this regionalisation of the legions was partnered by a drop in the professionalism of the troops is contested. Antonio Santosuosso argues that the strict discipline and high motivation of the days of Marius had lapsed, but Andrew Alfoldi states that the Illyrian troops were both valiant and warlike, and Tacitus described German recruits as being natural mercenaries (Latin: vivi ad arma nati). It seems that discipline in the legions did slacken, with soldiers granted permission to live with wives outside of military lodgings and permitted to adopt a more lavish and comfortable lifestyle, in contrast to the strict military regimen of earlier years. However, it is by no means certain that this led to any reduction in the effectiveness of the legions, due to the greater ferocity and stature of the barbari recruits.  The flavour of the Roman military, however, was now dictated by the increasing number of regional recruits, leading to a partial barbarisation of Rome's military forces beginning in this period. The barbarisation of the lower ranks was paralleled by a concurrent barbarisation of its command structure, with the Roman senators who had traditionally provided its commanders becoming entirely excluded from the army. By 235 AD the Emperor himself, the figurehead of the entire military, was a man born outside of Italy to non-Italian parents.

The gradual inclusion of greater numbers of non-citizen troops into the military was taken a further step by the creation under Hadrian of a new type of force in addition to the legions and auxilia, known as numeri. Formed in bodies of around 300 irregular troops, the numeri were drawn from subjugate provinces and peoples of client-states or even from beyond the borders of the empire. They were both less regimented and less Romanised than auxiliary troops, with a "pronounced national character," including native dress and native war cries. The introduction of the numeri was a response to the need for cheap troops, who were nevertheless fierce and provided a force balance of light infantry and cavalry. They were therefore largely less well armed and less well trained than auxilia or legions, although more prestigious elite irregular native troops were also utilised. However, the legions still made up around one half of the Roman army at this point.

Successive crises (238–359 AD)

By the late Empire, enemy forces in both the East and West were "sufficiently mobile and sufficiently strong to pierce [the Roman] defensive perimeter on any selected axis of penetration"; from the 3rd century onwards, both Germanic tribes and Persian armies pierced the frontiers of the Roman Empire. In response, the Roman army underwent a series of changes, more organic and evolutionary than the deliberate military reforms of the Republic and early Empire. A stronger emphasis was placed upon ranged combat ability of all types, such as field artillery, hand-held ballistae, archery and darts. Roman forces also gradually became more mobile, with one cavalryman for every three infantrymen, compared to one in forty in the early Empire. Additionally, the Emperor Gallienus took the revolutionary step of forming an entirely cavalry field army, which was kept as a mobile reserve at the city of Milan in northern Italy. It is believed that Gallienus facilitated this concentration of cavalry by stripping the legions of their integral mounted element. A diverse range of cavalry regiments existed, including catafractarii or clibanarii, scutarii, and legionary cavalry known as promoti. Collectively, these regiments were known as equites. Around 275 AD, the proportion of catafractarii was also increased. There is some disagreement over exactly when the relative proportion of cavalry increased, whether Gallienus' reforms occurred contemporaneously with an increased reliance on cavalry, or whether these are two distinct events. Alfoldi appears to believe that Gallienus' reforms were contemporaneous with an increase in cavalry numbers. He argues that, by 258, Gallienus had made cavalry the predominant troop type in the Roman army in place of heavy infantry, which dominated earlier armies. According to Warren Treadgold, however, the proportion of cavalry did not change between the early 3rd and early 4th centuries.

Larger groups of barbari began to settle in Rome's territories around this time, and the troops they were contracted to provide to the Roman army were no longer organised as numeri but rather were the forerunners of the later rented native armies known as federated troops (Latin: foederati). Though they served under Roman officers, the troops of these units were far more barbarised than the numeri, lacked Romanisation of either military structure or personal ideology, and were ineligible for Roman citizenship upon discharge. These native troops were not permitted to fight in native war bands under their own leaders, unlike the later foederati; instead, these troops were split into small groups attached to other Roman units. They existed therefore as a halfway house between numeri, who were encouraged to be Romanised, and the foederati, who raised officers from their own ranks and were almost entirely self-dependent.

Comitatenses and limitanei (284–395 AD)

A distinction between frontier guard troops and more mobile reserve forces had emerged with the use of certain troops to permanently man frontiers such as Hadrian's Wall in Britannia in the 2nd century AD. The competing demands of manned frontiers and strategic reserve forces had led to the division of the military into four types of troops by the early 4th century:
 The limitanei or riparienses patrolled the border and defended the border fortifications. According to some older theories, the limitanei were "settled and hereditary" militia that were "tied to their posts." But according to most recent research, the limitanei were originally regular soldiers, including infantry, cavalry, and river flotillas, although they eventually became settled militia. According to Luttwak, by the time of Constantine I, the cunei of cavalry, and auxilia of infantry, both usually around 500 men strong, were local provincial units under sector commanders. According to Pat Southern and Karen Dixon, the legiones, auxilia, and cunei of the border armies were part of the limitanei, but higher-status than the older cohortes and alae which they had replaced.
 The comitatenses and the palatini were central field armies, usually stationed in the interior or rear areas of the empire as a strategic reserve. The permanent field armies of the palatini and comitatenses were expansions of the field escort of the emperors, which were larger than bodyguard units, becoming temporary field armies known as the sacer comitatus. The palatini were "praesental" armies, central field armies under the direct command of the emperors, while the comitatenses, were usually the regional field armies, although units could be moved between the two forces. The initial expansion of the emperor's escort units, although substantial, still did not form a large enough force to campaign independently until further expanded by Diocletian and Constantine I.
 The emperor Constantine I created the scholae to replace the old praetorian guard. The scholae were his personal guard, and were mainly equipped as cavalry. Vogt suggests that the scholae formed two small central reserves (Latin: scholae) held to the strategic rear even of the comitatenses, one each in the presence of the emperors of West and East respectively.

Of the four troop types, the limitanei (border guards) were once considered to have been of the lowest quality, consisting largely of peasant-soldiers that were both "grossly inferior" to the earlier legions and inferior also to their counterparts in the mobile field armies. However, more recent work establishes that the limitanei were regular soldiers.

While the limitanei were supposed to deal with policing actions and low-intensity incursions, the duty of responding to more serious incidents fell upon the regional or provincial troops of the reduced field reserves of the comitatenses. The countering of the very largest scale incursions on a strategic scale was the task of the mobile field troops, the palatini and comitatenses diverted to strengthen the field armies, and possibly accompanied by the emperor's scholae. Both border and field armies consisted of a mix of infantry and cavalry units although the weight of cavalry was, according to some authorities, greater in the mobile field armies. Overall, approximately one quarter of the army consisted of cavalry troops but their importance is uncertain. Older works such as the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) state that the Roman military of the late Empire was "marked by that predominance of the horseman which characterised the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages," but many more recent authors believe that the infantry remained predominant.

There is some dispute about whether this new military structure was put into place under the Emperor Diocletian or Constantine since both reorganised the Roman Army in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries to some degree. Both Diocletian and even his predecessor of thirty years Gallienus may already have controlled mobile strategic reserves to assist the empire's border forces; either Diocletian or Constantine expanded this nascent force into permanent field armies.

Recruitment from amongst Roman citizens had become greatly curtailed as a consequence of a declining population, "cripplingly numerous" categories of those exempted from military service and the spread of Christianity with its pacifist message. Together, these factors culminated in "the withdrawal of the urban class from all forms of military activity." In their place, much of Rome's military were now recruited from non-Italian peoples living within the empire's borders. Many of these people were barbarians or semi-barbarians recently settled from lands beyond the empire, including several colonies of Carpi, Bastarnae and Sarmatians.

Although units described as legiones existed as late as the 5th century in both the border and field armies, the legionary system was very different from that of the principate and early empire. Since the term legion continued to be used, it is unclear exactly when the structure and role of the legions changed. In the 3rd or 4th century, however, the legions' role as elite heavy infantry was substantially reduced and may have evaporated entirely. Instead, those "legions" that remained were no longer drawn exclusively (and perhaps hardly at all) from Roman citizens. Either Diocletian or Constantine reorganised the legions into smaller infantry units who, according to some sources, were more lightly armoured than their forebears. Their lighter armament may have been either because they "would not consent to wear the same weight of body armour as the legionaries of old" or, as in at least one documented instance, because they were prohibited from wearing heavy armour by their general in order to increase their mobility. 4th-century legions were at times only one sixth the size of early imperial legions, and they were armed with some combination of spears, bows, slings, darts and swords, reflecting a greater contemporary emphasis on ranged fighting. The auxilia and numeri had also largely disappeared. Constantine further increased the proportion of German troops in the regular army; their cultural impact was so great that even legionaries began wearing German dress. At the start of Diocletian's reign, the Roman army numbered about 390,000 men, but by the end of his reign he successfully increased the number to 581,000 men.

Adoption of barbarian allies (358–395 AD)

By the late 4th century, the Empire had become chronically deficient in raising sufficient troops from amongst its own population. As an alternative, taxation raised internally was increasingly used to subsidise growing numbers of barbarian recruits. The Romans had, for some time, recruited individual non-Roman soldiers into regular military units. In 358 AD, this practice was accelerated by the wholescale adoption of the entire Salian Franks people into the Empire, providing a ready pool of such recruits. In return for being allowed to settle as foederatii in northern Gallia on the near side of the Rhine, the Franks were expected to defend the Empire's borders in their territory and provide troops to serve in Roman units.

In 376, a large band of Goths asked Emperor Valens for permission to settle on the southern bank of the Danube River on terms similar to the Franks. The Goths were also accepted into the empire as foederati; however, they rebelled later that year and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople. The heavy losses that the Roman military suffered during this defeat ironically forced the Roman Empire to rely still further on such foederati troops to supplement its forces. In 382, the practice was radically extended when federated troops were signed up en masse as allied contingents of laeti and foederatii troops separate from existing Roman units. Near-constant civil wars during the period 408 and 433 between various Roman usurpers, emperors and their supposed deputies such as Constantine III, Constantius III, Aetius and Bonifacius resulted in further losses, necessitating the handing over of more taxable land to foederati.

The size and composition of these allied forces remains in dispute. Santosuosso argues that foederati regiments consisted mostly of cavalry that were raised both as a temporary levy for a specific campaign need and, in some cases, as a permanent addition to the army. Hugh Elton believes that the importance of foederati has been overstated in traditional accounts by historians such as A.H.M. Jones. Elton argues that the majority of soldiers were probably non-Italian Roman citizens,  while Santosuosso believes that the majority of troops were almost certainly non-citizen barbari.

Collapse in the West and survival in the East (395–476 AD)

The non-federated mobile field army, known as the comitatenses, was eventually split into a number of smaller field armies: a central field army under the emperor's direct control, known as the comitatensis palatina or praesentalis, and several regional field armies. Historians Santosuosso and Vogt agree that the latter gradually degraded into low-quality garrison units similar to the limitanei that they either supplemented or replaced. By the 5th century, a significant portion of Western Rome's main military strength lay in rented barbarian mercenaries known as foederati.

As the 5th century progressed, many of the Empire's original borders had been either wholly or partially denuded of troops to support the central field army. In 395, the Western Roman Empire had several regional field armies in Italy, Illyricum, Gallia, Britannia and Africa, and about twelve border armies. By about 430, two more field armies were established in Hispania and Tingitania but the central government had lost control of Britannia as well as much of Gaul, Hispania, and Africa. In the same period, the Eastern Roman Empire had two palatine field armies (at Constantinople), three regional field armies (in the East, in Thrace, and in Illyricum) and fifteen frontier armies.

As Roman troops were spread increasingly thin over its long border, the Empire's territory continued to dwindle in size as the population of the empire declined. Barbarian war bands increasingly began to penetrate the Empire's vulnerable borders, both as settlers and invaders. In 451, the Romans defeated Attila the Hun, but only with assistance from a confederation of foederatii troops, which included Visigoths, Franks and Alans. As barbarian incursions continued, some advancing as far as the heart of Italy, Rome's borders began to collapse, with frontier forces swiftly finding themselves cut off deep in the enemy's rear.

Simultaneously, barbarian troops in Rome's pay came to be "in a condition of almost perpetual turbulence and revolt" from 409 onwards. In 476 these troops finally unseated the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman forces continued to defend the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until its fall in 1453.

The former Oxford University historian Adrian Goldsworthy has argued that the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West should not be blamed on barbarization of the late Roman Army, but on its recurrent civil wars, which led to its inability to repel or defeat invasions from outside its frontiers. The East Roman or Byzantine empire on the other hand had fewer civil wars to contend with in the late fourth and early fifth centuries, or in the years from 383–432 A.D.

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Primary sources

 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae a Fine Corneli Taciti on The Latin Library.
 Notitia Dignitatum
 Polybius: The Rise of the Roman Empire at LacusCurtius print: Harvard University Press, 1927. (Translation by W. R. Paton).
 Tacitus: The Annals.

Secondary and tertiary sources

 Boak, Arthur, A History of Rome to 565 A.D., The MacMillan Company, 1957, ISBN unknown
 Campbell, Brian, The Army, in The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337, in The Cambridge Ancient History, Second Edition, Vol. XII, .
 Cary, Max; Scullard, Howard, A History of Rome, The MacMillan Press Ltd, 1979, .
 Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425, Oxford University Press, 1996, .
 Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War. Barnsley, S. Yorkshire: Frontline Books, 2012. . First published in Great Britain by Macdonald Phoebus Ltd., 1981. Reprinted by Greenhill Books, 1998. Updated and reprinted by Greenhill Books, 2006.
 Gabba, Emilio, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, University of California Press, 1976, .
 Gibbon, Edward: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (print: Penguin Books, 1985, ).
 Goldsworthy, Adrian, In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003, .
 Goldsworthy, Adrian. The Complete Roman Army. New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc., 2011. . Originally published in hardcover in 2003.
 Grant, Michael, The History of Rome, Faber and Faber, 1993, .

 Heather, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History, Macmillan Publishers, 2005, .
 Jones, Arnold, The Later Roman Empire, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964, .
 Keppie, Lawrence, The Making of the Roman Army, Barnes & Noble Books, 1984, .

 Mattingly, David, An Imperial Possession-Britain in the Roman Empire, Allen Lane, 2006, .
 Matyszak, Philip, The Enemies of Rome, Thames and Hudson, 2004, .
 Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, Indypublish.com, 2008,
 Pallottino, Massimo, The Etruscans. Penguin Books. 1975, .

 Santosusso, Antonio, Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire, Westview Press, 2001, .
 Smith, Richard, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, Manchester University Press, 1958, .
 Southern, Pat; Dixon, Karen, The Late Roman Army, 1996, .
 Treadgold, Warren, Byzantium and its Army, Stanford University Press, 1995, .

Further reading

Structural history of the Roman military


The Mahabbat Khel  or Muhabbat Khel or Mohabbat khel or Muhabbat kheyl are Pashtun of Allai. They belonged originally to the Yousufzai tribe, but in Mansehra and Allai the Khel is known as a Swati tribe, because of their invaded from Swat and Afghanistan wardak-kabol.

The Mahabat Khel's forefather's name was Sher Afzal Khan, and he had four sons. Sher Afzal Khan was born between 1500 and 1600 in Swat. The four sons' names were Haleem Shah, Zaman Shah, Bhai Khan and Sida Khan, respectively. Mahabat Khel have a close relationship with the Musa Khel tribe in Allai.

Mahabbat Khel are now living in Karachi, Mansehra, Fatehmang Dharyal Chattar Plain and Allai.

Muhabbat Khel is situated in the area of Pakistan. Lies in the northern part of country. Some of the major tourist attractions in the surroundings of the town of Muhabbat Khel are Going patianrowo Nganjuk (Pakistan) about 70 km, Omah, e_yono Palek JAN (Pakistan) about 70 km, JALLOZAI (Pakistan), about 110 km, Taxila (Pakistan) about 155 km, Rohtas Fort (Pakistan) about 201 km, Islāmābād (Pakistan), about 173 km, Buddhist Ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol (Pakistan) about 153 km, Question about Chak Sixty Four (Pakistan) about 176 km, Godwar1 (Afghanistan), about 294 km, SAROUNDINGS (Pakistan) about 224 km, Gulmarg Ski (India) about 299 km, Tajbeg Palace (Afghanistan), about 269 km, Bala Hissar (Afghanistan) about 267 km, Kabul (Afghanistan) about 270 km, . If you want to get more information about the surroundings, you will find them on the left below the link Places around. The nearest international airport (DEL) Delhi Indira Gandhi Intl Airport is situated about 732 km from the town of Muhabbat Khel.

Below is the family tree of Mahabat Khel.
The Mahabbat Khel belong to Mandarh Yousufzai - Usman - Amazai- Dolatzai-Mahabat Khel.
http://ro.getamap.net/harti/afghanistan/vardak/_mohabbatkheyl/

Muhabat Khel, Afghanistan Page
Afghanistan:Wilayat-e Wardak

Mohabbatkhel, Mukhabbatkheyl', Moḩabbat Kheyl, محبت خېل, Muḩabat Khēl, Moḩabbatkhēl, Mukhabbatkheyl', Mohabbat Kheyl

External links
www.khyber.org - The tribe tree of Mandarh
Map of Mahabat Khel

Yusufzai Pashtun tribes

Mahabatkhel


BTS (Korean: 방탄소년단; RR: Bangtan Sonyeondan; lit. Bulletproof Boy Scouts), also known as the Bangtan Boys, is a South Korean boy band formed in 2010. The band consists of Jin, Suga, J-Hope, RM, Jimin, V, and Jungkook, who co-write and co-produce the majority of their material. Originally a hip hop group, their musical style has evolved to incorporate a wide range of genres, while their lyricism has focused on subjects including mental health, the troubles of school-age youth and coming of age, loss, the journey towards self-love, individualism, and the consequences of fame and recognition. Their discography and adjacent work has also referenced literature, philosophy and psychological concepts, and includes an alternate universe storyline.

BTS debuted in 2013 under Big Hit Entertainment with the single album 2 Cool 4 Skool. BTS released their first Korean and Japanese-language studio albums, Dark & Wild and Wake Up respectively, in 2014. The group's second Korean studio album, Wings (2016), was their first to sell one million copies in South Korea. By 2017, BTS had crossed into the global music market and led the Korean wave into the United States, becoming the first Korean ensemble to receive a Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for their single "Mic Drop", as well as the first act from South Korea to top the Billboard 200 with their studio album Love Yourself: Tear (2018). In 2020, BTS became one of the few groups since the Beatles (in 1966–1968) to chart four US number-one albums in less than two years, with Love Yourself: Answer (2018) becoming the first Korean album certified Platinum by the RIAA; in the same year, they also became the first all-South Korean act to reach number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 and Billboard Global 200 with their Grammy-nominated single "Dynamite". Follow-up releases "Savage Love", "Life Goes On", "Butter", and "Permission to Dance" made them the fastest act to earn four US number-one singles since Justin Timberlake in 2006.

As of 2022, BTS is the best-selling artist in South Korean history according to the Circle Chart, having sold in excess of 30 million albums. Their studio album Map of the Soul: 7 (2020) is the best-selling album of all time in South Korea, as well as the first in the country to surpass both four and five million registered sales. They are the first non-English-speaking and Asian act to sell out concerts at Wembley Stadium and the Rose Bowl (Love Yourself World Tour, 2019), and were named the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry's (IFPI) Global Recording Artist of the Year for both 2020 and 2021. The group's accolades include multiple American Music Awards, Billboard Music Awards, Golden Disc Awards, and nominations for five Grammy Awards. Outside of music, they have addressed three sessions of the United Nations General Assembly and partnered with UNICEF in 2017 to establish the Love Myself anti-violence campaign. Featured on Time's international cover as "Next Generation Leaders" and dubbed the "Princes of Pop", BTS has also appeared on Time's lists of the 25 most influential people on the internet (2017–2019) and the 100 most influential people in the world (2019), and in 2018 became the youngest recipients of the South Korean Order of Cultural Merit for their contributions in spreading the Korean culture and language.

BTS


Calvary Baptist Church is a historic Baptist church building at 601 North Water Street in Wichita, Kansas.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.

History
Calvary Baptist Church was organized 1878 to serve the growing African-American population of the city.  By the 1880s, there were two-dozen black families on Main Street in the shadow of the Sedgwick County Courthouse.  Most had moved to Wichita from southern states after the Civil War.  The city continued to attract black residents and by the 1920 census, the black population of Wichita was 3,545 with a total population of 72,200.  Membership at Calvary Baptist Church stood at 500 and 15 other congregations thrived in the city.  The historic black community grew to encompass a 15-block area by the 1950s when urban renewal attempts displaced many of the area's residents.

The congregation relocated to a new structure approximately  north in 1972 and Sedgwick County acquired the historic structure in 1975.  The building currently houses The Kansas African American Museum.

Architecture
The structure was built between c.1917 and 1920 and replaced an earlier church on the site constructed in 1911 and soon deemed unsafe by the state fire marshall.  It is designed in the classical revival style and constructed of red brick with limestone accents.

The church building is located on the west side of Water Street, north of Elm Street.  The Sedgwick County Jail, constructed between 1990 and 2001 wraps around three sides of the church. The structure measures  with a  one-story addition at the rear.  The two main floors sit on a raised basement.

The east façade is dominated by the entrance which consists of a triangular pediment resting on four two-story limestone columns.  A flight of stairs leads from the street level to a small portico containing entrance doors.  A Dentiled cornice extends from the pediment around the building just above the second floor.

The interior is dominated by the Akron-plan worship space which occupies the center of the building.  The main sanctuary is on the main level with a three-level balcony that wraps three sides and allows for increased capacity.  The chancel occupies one corner of the space with the organ pipes in the wall above. Portions of the main floor can be closed to accommodate Sunday school classes or other activities.  The sanctuary contains several stained glass windows and an octagonal stained glass skylight.  Many of the windows were donated by members of the congregation and contain dedications.

The congregation purchased the organ from the M. P. Moller Company for $3,900.  It contains 21 stops with three manuals.  The lower level contains additional meeting space, offices and restrooms.

The Negro Star reported in its September 24, 1920 edition that the total construction cost for the facility was $60,000.

References

Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Kansas
Baptist churches in Kansas
Churches in Wichita, Kansas
National Register of Historic Places in Wichita, Kansas

Calvary Baptist Church (Wichita, Kansas)


Claus Adolf Moser, Baron Moser,  (24 November 1922 – 4 September 2015) was a British statistician who made major contributions in both academia and the Civil Service. He prided himself rather on being a non-mathematical statistician, and said that the thing that frightened him most in his life was when Maurice Kendall asked him to teach a course on analysis of variance at the LSE.

Life
Claus Adolf Moser was born in Berlin in 1922. His father was Dr Ernst (Ernest) Moser (1885–1957), owner of the private bank Ernst Moser & Co. in Berlin (est. 1902, liquidated in 1938). His mother was Lotte (née Goldberg, 1897–1976), a talented amateur musician. In 1936 he moved to England with his parents and his brother Heinz Peter August. He went to Frensham Heights School and the London School of Economics (LSE). Despite being Jewish, in 1940, he was interned as an enemy alien in Huyton Camp.

After four months, he was released and served in the Royal Air Force, 1943–1946. He then returned to LSE as Assistant Lecturer, then Lecturer, in Statistics, 1946–1955; Reader in Social Statistics, 1955–1961; Professor of Social Statistics, 1961–1970; Visiting Professor of Social Statistics, 1970–1975.

In 1965 he was elected a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.
He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1965 New Year Honours, and in 1965, he applied for a job at the Central Statistical Office but was rejected, as a former enemy alien. However, this did not seem to be a problem when in 1967 Harold Wilson appointed him Director of the Central Statistical Office. He was made a Knight Commander of the Bath (KCB) in the 1973 New Year Honours. He resigned as Director of the Central Statistical Office in 1978.

He held a very wide variety of posts. These included:

 Member, Governing Body, Royal Academy of Music, 1967–1979
 Director, Central Statistical Office, 1968–1978
 BBC Music Advisory Committee, 1971–1983
 Visiting Fellow, Nuffield College, Oxford, 1972–1980
 Chairman, Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, 1974–1987
 Director, N M Rothschild & Sons, 1978–1990 (Vice-chairman, 1978–1984)
 President, Royal Statistical Society, 1978–1980
 Chairman, Economist Intelligence Unit, 1979–1983
 Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, 1984–1993
 Chancellor, Keele University, 1986–2002
 Trustee, London Philharmonic Orchestra, 1988–2000
 President, British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1989–1990
 Pro-Vice-Chancellor, University of Oxford, 1991–1993
 Chairman, British Museum Development Trust, 1993–2003, later Chairman Emeritus
 Chancellor, Open University of Israel, 1994–2004

He was made a life peer with the title Baron Moser, of Regent's Park in the London Borough of Camden on 23 June 2001. Other honours included the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1996, Commandeur de l'Ordre National du Mérite (France), 1976; Commander's Cross, Order of Merit (Germany), 1985.

Moser also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1995.

While on holidays Moser died in Chur (Switzerland) on 4 September 2015, following a stroke.

The Claus Moser Research Centre
Moser was honorary Chancellor at Keele University at a time of rapid change after funding cuts in the early 80s, and appointment of a full-time vice-chancellor to reduce staff / student ratios further after that first emergency. Keele's funding per student was reduced by a third and Oxford's by a thirtieth from similar amounts per head in the 70s.

In 1997 Moser participated in a ceremony to mark the start of construction of the Claus Moser Research Centre, a dedicated research facility for the Humanities and Social Sciences. He returned to the university in June 2008 to participate in the official opening of the £3.5m building.

See also
List of British Jewish scientists

References

External links

Portraits of Statisticians

1922 births
2015 deaths
People from Berlin
People educated at Frensham Heights School
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Chancellors of Keele University
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Directors of the Central Statistical Office (United Kingdom)
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
Fellows of Nuffield College, Oxford
Wardens of Wadham College, Oxford
Pro-Vice-Chancellors of the University of Oxford
Fellows of the British Academy
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
People associated with the Royal Academy of Music
People's peers
Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
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Life peers created by Elizabeth II

Claus Moser, Baron Moser


Hønefoss is a small city in the municipality of Ringerike. It is located in Buskerud, in Viken county, Norway. It has a small city center with the shopping mall named Kuben.

The small city is a connecting point between several cities, with the local train station going to other cities like Bergen, Drammen, Oslo and Gjøvik.

The city is also known for its waterfalls, with the Oppgangssaga in the middle of the falls.

Industry and history
Hønefoss used to be a industry town, transferring wood with the river. The trees were sent down the river.

Follum Factory was also one of the biggest industries in Hønefoss, being a paper producing factory. Many of the Follum buildings have now been torn down, or are used for other purposes. One of the buildings is currently holding the studio of local artist Mads Veslelia.

Notable people

Mads Veslelia

Mads Veslelia (born May 10th, 1991) is a local rapper from Hønefoss. He debuted with his album The Dark Light in 2011.  "People think this Norwegian rapper sounds just like Eminem" was said on MTV in 2015 about Veslelia

Since his debut album in 2011, he has since published many different albums and singles such as Paranormal (album in 2013), My Bedroom (album in 2016), Legend in the Making (single in 2018), Hønefoss (single in 2020) and Wannabe (single in 2015), which is the song he is most known for.

Sports

Hønefoss has several sports teams.

Football
One of the most known sports teams is HBK, Hønefoss Ballklubb, which is the football team. HBK has been in the first division many times, but has also dropped down several times.

Hockey
Another sports team is Ringerike Panthers, the hockey team. Panthers was in the GET league for a short period of time, before they dropped out of the leauge and down to the first division.

Basketball
HBBK, Hønefoss Basketballklubb was founded by Svein Roger Eriksen and Ola Gravem Knutsen in November 1986. The team has been hosting a school cup every year since 2014, collaborating with Hønefoss Sparebank, one of the major banks in the city. The women's team have been in the elite series for four seasons.

Their biggest win (by points) was when they won against Drammen, 216 to 3.

References

Cities in Norway
Viken (county)

Hønefoss


John Wesley Stone (July 18, 1838 – March 24, 1922) was a politician and judge from the U.S. state of Michigan.

Stone was born in Wadsworth, Ohio and attended the public schools and Spencer Academy in Spencer, Ohio.  He moved to Allegan County, Michigan in 1856 and was elected county clerk in 1860.  He studied law and was admitted to the bar in January 1862 and was reelected county clerk the same year.  He served as prosecuting attorney from 1864 to 1870 and village president of Allegan in 1872.  He also served as circuit judge of the twentieth judicial circuit of Michigan from April 1873 until his resignation on November 1, 1874.  He then moved to Grand Rapids where he practiced law.

Stone was elected as a Republican from Michigan's 5th congressional district to the 45th and 46th Congresses, serving from March 4, 1877 to March 3, 1881.  He was not a candidate for re-nomination in 1880.

Stone was appointed by U.S. President Chester A. Arthur as United States Attorney of the District Court for the Western District of Michigan in 1882, serving until 1886.  He moved to Houghton, Michigan in 1887 and resumed the practice of law.  He was elected circuit judge of the twenty-fifth Michigan circuit in April 1890 and served until December 31, 1909.  He was elected justice of the Michigan Supreme Court in April 1909 for the term ending December 31, 1917. He was reelected in 1916 and served until his death in Lansing, Michigan on in March 1922.  Stone is interred in Park Cemetery, Marquette, Michigan.

References

The Political Graveyard

External links
John W. Stone information at United States Attorney's Office for the Western District of Michigan

1838 births
1922 deaths
People from Wadsworth, Ohio
Mayors of places in Michigan
Michigan state court judges
Chief Justices of the Michigan Supreme Court
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
United States Attorneys for the Western District of Michigan
Justices of the Michigan Supreme Court

John W. Stone


Coronary circulation is the movement of blood in the blood vessels that give blood containing  oxygen to the heart muscle. Cardiac veins then take the blood after the heart muscle has used up the oxygen. The rest of the body relies on the heart pumping out blood rich with oxygen, so it is vital the heart is given a lot of oxygen to keep up with the demand from the body.

Structure
Coronary arteries give blood to the cardiac muscle. The left coronary artery distributes blood to the left side of the heart, the left atrium and ventricle, and the interventricular septum. The right coronary artery goes along the coronary sulcus and distributes blood to the right atrium, portions of both ventricles

Blood

Coronary circulation


Lemuel Abbott (c. 1730 – April 1776) was an English priest and poet. Little is known of his background, but he worked as a priest in Ansty, Leicestershire and Thornton. He is known mostly for his collection of poems called Poems on Various Subjects, whereto is Prefixed a Short Essay on the Structure of English Verse, published in 1765. Abbott and his wife Mary were probably the parents of the artist Lemuel Francis Abbott.

1730 births
1776 deaths
Abbott, Lemuel

Lemuel Abbott


Raymond Daniels (22 July 1979 – 26 January 2008) was a Gaelic footballer from County Wicklow. He was goalkeeper for Wicklow's senior football team for several seasons during eight years.

Playing career
Daniels won a Leinster title with the Wicklow Vocational Schools team. He played under-21 football for Wicklow. He was named player of the year in Dunlavin in 1997 and in Blessington in 2003. He made his senior football championship debut against Carlow in May 2006. A groin injury sustained in a National Football League game against Sligo in April 2007 kept Daniels away from football, but he had planned to resume training.

Illness and death
In October 2007, Daniels was admitted to hospital with an infection that caused one of his kidneys to fail. On Tuesday 22 January 2008, Daniels had gotten the all-clear from doctors. He socialised with friends on the following Saturday. He had a suspected heart attack. He was brought to hospital, where he was pronounced dead. He was 28. A minute's silence was observed before Wicklow's GAA games on Sunday 27 January. Former GAA President Jack Boothman, the current President of Blessington GAA, described Daniels as a "gifted footballer and goalkeeper". Former Wicklow manager Hugh Kenny also praised Daniels.

References

1979 births
2008 deaths
Blessington Gaelic footballers
Gaelic football goalkeepers
Wicklow inter-county Gaelic footballers

Raymond Daniels (Gaelic footballer)


The Siren is a musical in three acts, adapted from the operetta Die Sirene, with music by Leo Fall and text by Leo Stein and A. M. Willner. This was first performed in Vienna on January 5, 1911.

The Siren was adapted into English by Harry B. Smith. In addition to Fall's score, it featuring songs by Jerome Kern and others, with additional lyrics Adrian Ross and others. It was first produced on Broadway by Charles Frohman at the Knickerbocker Theatre from August 28, 1911 to December 16 of the same year, playing for 116 performances. It was directed by Thomas Reynolds.

Synopsis
Setting: Vienna

The police believe that a handsome marquis is writing satiric letters about the government. They hire a beautiful young woman to prove the case.

Roles and original cast
Armand, Marquis de Ravaillac – Donald Brian
Lolotte – Julia Sanderson
Baron Siegfried Bazilos – Frank Moulan
Robertine – Veronique Banner
Pepi – Sara Carr
Grion – Gilbert Childs
Alberta – Gene Cole
Freda – Ethel Davis
Magda – Louise Donovan
Clarisse – Elizabeth Firth
Mimi – Jane Hall
Toni – Ethel Kelly
Ladislas – Victor Le Roy
Franzi – Helen May
Frau Eisenbehr – Florence Morrison
Malipote – F. Pope Stamper
Hannibal Beckmesser – Will West
Yvonne – Pauline Delorme
Ninon – Beatrice D'Essling
Justine – Clementine Dundas
Suzanne – Moya Mannering

References

Sources
 Bordman, Gerald. American Musical Theatre: A Chronicle (1978), Oxford University Press

External links
 The Siren at the Internet Broadway Database

Musicals by Jerome Kern
Compositions by Leo Fall
1911 musicals
Broadway musicals
Musicals based on operas
Musicals set in Vienna

The Siren (musical)


Frederick George Moore (July 19, 1950 – August 25, 2022) was an American musician best known for his 1980 song "It's Not a Rumour", which he co-wrote with his ex-wife Demi Moore, and recorded with his band The Nu-Kats. The song was not a chart hit, but the video did receive airplay on MTV in the early 1980s. Moore's career spanned decades and included teaching himself to play guitar, writing the lyrics to 1,000 original songs, forming multiple bands, and even starring in a few film roles. Moore's bands performed at legendary Los Angeles clubs, including Whisky a Go Go, The Troubadour, and Starwood, and headlined alongside The Police, The Knack, and The Motels. His memoir, It's Not a Rumour, published in 2021, chronicles his unorthodox story of making it big in music and life without ever making any money.

Early life, career beginnings
Moore was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and aside from his family's brief move to San Francisco, California, in 1966/67, grew up in the Twin Cities area. "I didn't have any friends and really didn't want any. I just sat in my room and played Beatles songs and wrote my own," he claims. At this point, he was known as Rick Moore.

His family moved back to Richfield, Minnesota at the start of Freddy's Junior year in high school, his third high school in as many years. Right before the family's move, Freddy and his cousin, Danny Wick, had started a band called The Royal Cumquats. Moore  graduated from Richfield, Minnesota High School in 1968. Fearful that he would be drafted to serve in the Vietnam War, he enrolled at the University of Minnesota to study Music Theory and Composition under composer Dominick Argento.

After performances with his band An English Sky, Moore started performing as Skogie, .

The name Skogie took hold in PE class his senior year when Moore purchased a used official school PE t-shirt that had the name "Skogie" written on it. Being new to the school, Moore's classmates took to calling him by the name on his shirt. It stuck and became part of the inspiration for Moore's third and most successful Minneapolis band, Skogie and the Flaming Pachucos. Later, the band name reverted to Skogie. Moore wore his Skogie PE shirt to every gig and soon, he was referred to as Skogie. The name "Flaming Pachucos" was a nod to Moore's favorite composer, Frank Zappa, and his deep appreciation of the Pachuco culture of East Los Angeles.

Around this time, Moore was married from 1971 to 1980 to his first wife Lucy.

Skogie released a single in June 1972 with the help of producer/manager David Zimmerman (Bob Dylan's brother), and self-released a follow-up album in 1974. Creem magazine later named Skogie one of the first power pop bands.

Move to Los Angeles

In 1976, after national touring and recording experience at three Minneapolis studios, Moore decided to head to Los Angeles along with his wife and the rest of the band. While undergoing some personnel changes, the band changed their name to The Kats, and Moore invented a new on-stage persona for the act—a cat named Freddy.

That persona was formed from Moore's desire to write a rock opera about "a guy who was always on the wrong side of where he wanted to be. A domestic cat who longed to be an alley cat but was too scared. Not an underdog, but an undercut. An underKat." That's how Skogie became Freddy Moore and his band became The Kats, just like the "cool cats" of the 1950s. Moore took his on-stage persona very seriously and often pantomimed being a cat.

The Kats signed a recording contract with Infinity Records in 1979, and recorded an album with Tom Petty's production team. However, just as final mixes were being completed Infinity Records was dissolved by its parent company MCA Records. The album was never released, and the master tapes remain locked in the Shelter Studios vault.

Also in 1979, Moore (then 29) met 16-year-old Demi Guynes at a nightclub. Almost immediately, despite Moore's existing marriage, the two became a couple. The two moved in together while Guynes was still 16, and married a few months later in February, after Moore's divorce from Lucy was finalized and Guynes was 17. Demi Guynes thus took his name to become Demi Moore, a name she continues to use to this day.

Meanwhile, Freddy's music career continued. Shortly after Infinity Records went under, lead guitarist Pete McRae departed The Kats, and the four remaining band members renamed themselves The Nu-Kats. They also promptly fired their management, and signed with Rhino Records. In 1980, the Nu-Kats recorded the EP Plastic Facts, featuring the track "It's Not A Rumour", which was written by Demi and Freddy Moore. Demi Moore—not yet a star—also had a prominent role in the song's video. "It's Not A Rumour" never charted, but the video would receive occasional play on MTV, especially once Demi Moore became a well-known figure after her appearances on General Hospital starting in 1982.

The Nu Kats dissolved in 1981. Moore briefly moved to the Upper West Side of Manhattan and joined local NYC band The Dates, who never recorded. After an illness in the family brought him back to Los Angeles, Moore remained in LA and formed a new pop-influenced band called Boy. Boy released an EP on Radioactive Records and Moore received a Screen Actors Guild/AFTRA card while portraying the small role of 'Arn' in the 1982 film Parasite, a 3-D movie which starred his wife Demi. The music of Boy can be heard on the soundtrack.

Boy disbanded in 1983. Moore and his brother Bobby continued writing, arranging and recording new material for approximately another year. They played a few industry showcases under the name BFM (Bobbyzio and Freddy Moore).

Though receiving multiple recording contracts, Moore refused them all, not wanting to relinquish the rights to his work. Instead, he recorded under his label, General Records.

Demi Moore filed for divorce from Freddy in September 1984; the divorce became final in 1985. Freddy Moore quit the music business at around this time, although after a long layoff from performing, in 1997 he and several ex-bandmates began recording and self-releasing CDs of new material under the name The Kat Club.

Moore met his future wife, Renee, in 1981. Renee was thirteen and a budding musician. She took guitar lessons from Moore and was at every Kats/Nu Kats gig, frequently functioning as a part of the crew. They two formed a friendship that shifted to romance a decade later.

Moore and Renee, his third wife, were married in 2005.

Alzheimer's diagnosis and memoir
His wife Renee noticed Moore's failing memory long before receiving his diagnosis in late 2014.

'"Music flows in his bloodstream, and every song he wrote was one of his children. He knew them like no one else did. I sensed something was wrong when he'd forget lyrics or wasn't able to play a song all the way through," Renee explained of her suspicion of Moore's declining heath.

Content writer Shannon Guyton interviewed Freddy for over a year, compiling the stories of his life as a singer/songwriter and musician in the 1970s and 1980s.

Recalling his life and sharing his stories with Guyton significantly slowed the hold Alzheimer's had on his memory, but a brain bleed in 2016 resulted in an abrupt decline in Moore's health that halted their collaboration. Guyton finished the book by interviewing band members, friends, family, and Renee. After keeping Moore's diagnosis a secret for years, It's Not a Rumour: A Rock and Roll Journey Through Life and Alzheimer's offers complete transparency of his journey through life and with his battle against Alzheimer's.

Written by Frederick Moore and Shannon Guyton, It's Not a Rumour was published by Rare Bird Books and released September 19, 2021, seven years after Moore's official diagnosis at age 64.

Moore lived in a care facility in Los Angeles until his death on August 25, 2022, at age 72.

Discography

Singles
 Skogie and the Flaming Pachucos: Call Me Crazy - North Country Music – 1972
 Skogie: The Butler Did It - Mill City Records – 1973

Albums and EPs
 Skogie: There's A String Attached... - General Records  – 1974
 The Nu Kats: Plastic Facts EP - Rhino Records – 1980
 Boy: Next Door EP - Radioactive Records – 1983
 The Kat Club: House Combinations - General Records – 1997
 The Kat Club: Source Mississippi - General Records – 2001
 The Kat Club: los Angelenos - General Records – 2007
 The Kats: Get Modern - General Records – 2012

Compilation and soundtrack appearances
 Various: L.A. In - Rhino Records featuring The Kats – 1979
 Various: Yes Nukes - (compilation) Rhino Records with The Nu Kats – 1981
 Film soundtrack: Parasite - featuring Boy – 1982
 Film soundtrack: Scarred - featuring Boy, The Nu Kats – 1984
 Film soundtrack: Spring Fever - featuring The Nu Kats – 1985
 Film soundtrack: Loose Screws - featuring The Nu Kats – 1985

Filmography
I'm A Kat (1979), United Artists Pictures – Using an experimental 70mm 3D filming technique.
 It's Not A Rumor (1981), Director: Philip Brewin Cheney, Cinematographer: Jan de Bont
 Parasite (1982), Director: Charles Band, Cinematographer: Mac Ahlberg

Videography
 "Lost My TV Guide" on Hollywood Heartbeat, the syndicated music video television series

References

External links
Freddy Moore at Demophonic Music Publishing BMI

 "It's Not a Rumour, A Rock and Roll Journey Through Life and Alzheimer's" at Amazon

1950 births
2022 deaths
American male singers
American rock singers
Musicians from Minneapolis
Songwriters from Minnesota
University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts alumni
Singers from Minnesota
American male songwriters

Freddy Moore


Beverley Square East and Beverley Square West, also spelled Beverly Square, are a pair of neighborhoods in the Flatbush section of the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Located southwest of Prospect Park within what is now called Victorian Flatbush, one of the largest concentrations of Victorian houses in the United States, they were developed in the 1900s primarily by Thomas Benton Ackerson, whose former home is in Beverley Square West.

Context and construction
The two neighborhoods extend from Beverley Road in the north (south of Prospect Park South) to Cortelyou Road in the south. The cut for the BMT Brighton Line of the New York City Subway between Marlborough Road (East 15th Street) and East 16th Street forms the boundary between them: Beverley Square East extends east from there to East 19th Street, and Beverley Square West west from there to Stratford or Argyle Road. Four of the five north-south streets in the development were renamed for a British high tone. The Beverley Squares, like most of Victorian Flatbush, were built on rural land. Ackerson organized his development company in order to develop Beverley Square East, beginning work in 1898 with a line of large houses along East 19th Street. Beverley Square West was built on Catherine Lott's farm, which Ackerson acquired in 1901.

Ackerson arranged for there to be subway stations on the new Brooklyn Rapid Transit line at both the north and the south ends of the two neighborhoods, only a block apart, the two closest open stations in the New York City Subway system: Beverley Road and Cortelyou Road on the BMT Brighton Line (now the local ). The line was also placed in the cut in response to developer pressure; it was originally at grade level.

Originally Ackerson offered his houses in Beverley Square East for sale at $10,000 and up, and those in Beverley Square West at $6,500 and up; when sales of the first houses in Beverley Square East were disappointing, he had the rest of that neighborhood developed with somewhat simpler houses by Lewis H. Pounds and Delbert H. Decker (it was completed in 1901), and modified his plan for Beverley Square West, building somewhat smaller and less distinctive houses. The Beverley Squares were "Ackerson's major project"; his own home was in Beverley Square West, at 304 Marlborough Street (built in 1903), and Pounds, who later served as Brooklyn Borough President, had his home at 317 East 17th Street in Beverley Square East. Beverley Square West also includes the "honeymoon cottage" built as a wedding present for a daughter of the Guggenheim family, at 305 Rugby Road.

Gentrification
Like the rest of Victorian Flatbush, the Beverley Squares have been revitalized since the 1970s by an influx of new residents who value the relatively cheap houses in a variety of architectural styles with details such as fluted columns, stained glass, large porches, and turrets. Beverley Square West has an active residents' association that celebrated the centenary of the neighborhood in 2002 and is trying to achieve designation by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, but without success . Together with Ditmas Park West, the Beverley Squares are now often thought of as part of Ditmas Park.

Education
Public School 139, the Alexine Fenty School, occupies the blockfront of Cortelyou Road between Rugby and Argyle Roads in Beverley Square West; several of the original houses were demolished to build an extension to the school. The "mini-school" annex opened in 1989.

References

Neighborhoods in Brooklyn
Flatbush, Brooklyn

Beverley Squares


Royal Oak Mines Incorporated was a gold mining company, founded in 1990 by Margaret "Peggy" Witte (now known as Margaret Kent) in Kirkland, Washington.

The company held numerous gold and base metal properties in Canada, including the Giant Mine in the Northwest Territories, Pamour Mine in Ontario, Hope Brook Mine in Newfoundland, Colomac Mine in the Northwest Territories, and the Kemess Mine in British Columbia. The company also had significant interests in minerals in China through Asia Materials (44% share) and Highwood Resources (39% share).  The company reported nearly US$600 million in assets, and loss of $4.4 million on revenues of US$187 million for fiscal 1996.  Its Hopebrook and Colomac mines were closed in 1997.  Low gold prices of 1997-1998 caused Royal Oak to go bankrupt in April 1999, and its mining assets were liquidated.

Labour dispute
Royal Oak Mines' operations at the Giant Mine in Yellowknife became infamous in Canada during the 1990s as the site of a protracted and violent industrial relations dispute that lasted eighteen months. The declining price of gold led to Witte demanding pay cuts, which the Canadian Association of Smelter and Allied Workers union (CASAW) Local 4 refused, arguing that the company was also lax on safety.

The company locked out the union and flew in strikebreakers .

On September 18, 1992, at the height of the labour dispute, an explosion in a drift of the mine, 750 ft (230 m) underground, killed nine strikebreakers/replacement workers riding in a man-car.

For 13 months after the blast, the RCMP interrogated hundreds of strikers, their families, and supporters, wiretapping their telephones and searching their houses. Owner Margaret Witte said that there would be no negotiations with the union unless an arrest was made.

Criminal charges
Union member and dismissed miner Roger Warren later confessed to and was convicted by a jury of nine counts of second degree murder, being sentenced to life imprisonment.  In 2004, he blamed Royal Oak Mines, the security company, and his union. He argued that a simple screen and padlock over a broken window would have dissuaded him, and that he was only capable of the bombing because replacement workers had been "dehumanized" by his union.

CAW members Al Shearing and Tim Bettger were sentenced to two and a half and three years in prison, respectively. Both were convicted of painting anti-strikebreaker graffiti and setting an explosion in a ventilation shaft on June 29, 1992. Bettger was sentenced to six more months in prison for blowing a hole in a television satellite dish Sept. 1 of that year.

Civil suit (Fullowka v. Royal Oak Ventures Inc.)
The workers' compensation board, on behalf of the surviving family members of the killed replacement workers, launched a $10 million lawsuit against several parties involved in the strike, including Royal Oak Ventures, Pinkerton's of Canada (the security firm hired by Royal Oak), the union (Canadian Association of Smelter and Allied Workers union (CASAW) Local 4), and the Government of the Northwest Territories. The compensation board had already paid out a similar amount of funds to the deceased miners' families.

At trial, the Supreme Court of the Northwest Territories found the defendants liable. Pinkerton security was held responsible for 15% of damages, for failing to adequately secure the mine. The Canadian Auto Workers (CAW) was found to have breached its duty of care by doing nothing to stop illegal acts during the strike, paying fines and legal fees for striking miners, providing a person to assist the striking union who prolonged the strike, and failing to bargain in good faith. The court ruled that the cumulative effect of these breaches of the duty of care were found to have materially contributed to Roger Warren's bombing of the mine. (The unionized miners were part of Local 4 at the time of the strike, and merged into the CAW in May 1994.) The company was found to be 23% responsible for the damages assessed, as they maintained mine operations during the strike, refused to bargain in good faith, and for failing to ensure the safety of the replacement workers.

On appeal to the Court of Appeal for the Northwest Territories, the trial decision was overturned and the defendants were found to not owe the plaintiffs a duty of care.

A further appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada was heard in May 2009. In February 2010 the appeal was dismissed. The Court found that although the security firm and the government owed a duty of care to the replacement workers, that duty was not breached.

Royal Oak Mines v. Canada (Labour Relations Board)

The employer's steadfast refusal to discuss grievance arbitration for these and other dismissed employees constituted the single largest sticking-point in the negotiations.  The Canada Labour Relations Board intervened several times during the bargaining process and eventually forced Royal Oak Mines to return to the negotiation table with a previously withdrawn proposal.  Royal Oak Mines sought judicial review of this order, with the dispute winding its way through the court system during the first half of the 1990s.  This set the stage for significant changes in Canadian labour law as evident in the Supreme Court's 1996 decision in Royal Oak Mines v. Canada (Labour Relations Board), [1996] 1 S.C.R. 369.  In his majority decision Mister Justice Peter Cory formulated a distinction between the subjective and objective aspects of the duty to bargain. A 'good faith' requirement forms the subjective aspect of this duty, while a requirement to 'make every reasonable effort' to conclude a collective agreement injects an objective standard into the analysis.  In this decision Royal Oak Mines was compelled to return to the bargaining table on the basis that its refusal to discuss grievance arbitration with the Canadian Association of Smelter and Allied Workers, Local No. 4, constituted an unreasonable limitation on the bargaining process and thereby represented a lack of good faith.  In coming to this conclusion the Court observed that grievance arbitration for dismissed employees was a nearly universal characteristic of collective agreements in Canada.

References

Defunct mining companies of the United States
Canadian Auto Workers
Mining in Canada
Defunct mining companies of Canada
1900 establishments in Washington (state)
Mass murder in Canada
Mass murder in 1992
1992 murders in Canada
Massacres in Canada

Royal Oak Mines


John Edwards (1742 – 31 August 1815) was an English botanist, painter, designer and illustrator, noted for his serial publication, The British Herbal.

After living in London until about 1778, he moved to Surrey, and exhibited with the Royal Academy and the Society of Artists, of which he was a member. Edward also produced textile designs, especially for calico. He published The British Herbal Containing One Hundred Plates of The most beautiful and scarce Flowers and Useful Medicinal Plants in monthly parts between 1769 and 1770, covering exotic and British flowers, using text gathered from various sources, and his own hand-coloured engraved plates.

A Collection of Flowers Drawn after Nature & Disposed in an Ornamental & Picturesque Manner, was his next publishing venture. The imprint dates of the plates show that he had started the project in 1783, completing 79 plates through the 1780s and 1790s. Edwards designed, etched and coloured all the plates himself, thus having complete control of the operation.

Edwards died in Hampstead.

References

English botanists
18th-century English painters
English male painters
19th-century English painters
English designers
1742 births
1815 deaths
19th-century English male artists
18th-century English male artists

John Edwards (painter)


Nadja Yvonne Hirsch (born 13 July 1978) is a German politician who served as a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for the Free Democratic Party of Germany, part of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, from 2009 until 2014 and from 2017 until 2019.

Education and career
Hirsch was born in Munich. In 1998 she obtained her university entry level qualification (Abitur) from Edith-Stein-Gymnasium in Munich. From 2001 to 2003, she was a Scholar of the Friedrich Naumann Foundation. In 2005 she graduated in psychology from Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich and went on to study economics at FernUniversität Hagen. She then worked as a freelance psychologist and mediator and in 2007 entered the International Visitor Leadership Program of the United States Department of State.

Political career
Hirsch became a member of the Free Democratic Party of Germany and of the Young Liberals in 1999.
She was a member of the city council of Munich from 2002 to 2009. From 2008 to 2009 she also chaired the parliamentary group of the Free Democratic Party of Germany in the city council.

In 2009 Hirsch was elected to the European Parliament as the leading candidate of the Free Democratic Party in Bavaria and number 9 on the Federal list of candidates. A member of the parliamentary group Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, she served as vice-chairperson of the European Parliament Committee on Employment and Social Affairs and as substitute in the Committee on Culture and Education. In addition to her committee assignments, Hirsch was a member of the Delegation for relations with the US, the Delegation for relations with the Arab Peninsula and the Delegation for relations with the countries of South Asia.

Having missed re-election in 2014, Hirsch returned to the private sector and took on a position as deputy managing director at Handelsblatt Global Edition. She later worked as Head of Communications at Raisin, a European fintech company. In 2017 she set up her own startup, Coachoo, in Munich.

In November 2017, Hirsch again became a Member of the European Parliament, after her party colleague Alexander Graf Lambsdorff had been elected to the Bundestag in the German elections. She served on the Committee on International Trade. In addition, she was a member of the Parliament's delegation to the Turkey-EU Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC). In January 2019 she did not win a nomination for the elections in May of the same year.

References

1978 births
Living people
Free Democratic Party (Germany) MEPs
MEPs for Germany 2009–2014
MEPs for Germany 2014–2019
21st-century women MEPs for Germany
Politicians from Munich
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
German women psychologists
University of Hagen alumni

Nadja Hirsch